1
Iată oamenii din ţară, cari s-au întors din robie, şi anume aceia pe cari îi luase Nebucadneţar, împăratul Babilonului, robi la Babilon, şi cari s-au întors la Ierusalim şi în Iuda, fiecare în cetatea lui.
2
Au plecat cu Zorobabel, Iosua, Neemia, Seraia, Reelaia, Mardoheu, Bilşan, Mispar, Bigvai, Rehum, Baana. Numărul bărbaţilor din poporul lui Israel:
3
fiii lui Pareoş, două mii o sută şaptezeci şi doi;
4
fiii lui Şefatia, trei sute şaptezeci şi doi;
5
fiii lui Arah, şapte sute şaptezeci şi cinci;
6
fiii lui Pahat-Moab, din fiii lui Iosua şi lui Ioab, două mii opt sute doisprezece;
7
fiii lui Elam, o mie două sute cincizeci şi patru;
8
fiii lui Zatu, nouă sute patruzeci şi cinci;
9
fiii lui Zacai, şapte sute şase zeci;
10
fiii lui Bani, şase sute patruzeci şi doi;
11
fiii lui Bebai, şase sute două zeci şi trei;
12
fiii lui Azgad, o mie două sute douăzeci şi doi;
13
fiii lui Adonicam, şase sute şase zeci şi şase;
14
fiii lui Bigvai, două mii cincizeci şi şase;
15
fiii lui Adin, patru sute cincizeci şi patru;
16
fiii lui Ater, din familia lui Ezechia, nouăzeci şi opt;
17
fiii lui Beţai; trei sute douăzeci şi trei;
18
fiii lui Iora, o sută doisprezece;
19
fiii lui Haşum, două sute douăzeci şi trei;
20
fiii lui Ghibar, nouăzeci şi cinci;
21
fiii lui Betleem, o sută douăzeci şi trei;
22
oamenii din Netofa, cincizeci şi şase;
23
oamenii din Anatot, o sută douăzeci şi opt;
24
fiii lui Azmavet, patruzeci şi doi;
25
fiii lui Chiriat-Arim, Chefirei şi Beerotului, şapte sute patruzeci şi trei;
26
fiii Ramei şi ai Ghebei, şase sute douăzeci şi unu;
27
oamenii din Micmas, o sută douăzeci şi doi;
28
oamenii din Betel şi Ai, două sute douăzeci şi trei;
29
fiii lui Nebo, cincizeci şi doi;
30
fiii lui Magbiş, o sută cincizeci şi şase;
31
fiii celuilalt Elam, o mie două sute cincizeci şi patru;
32
fiii lui Harim, treisute douăzeci;
33
fiii lui Lod, lui Hadid şi lui Ono, şapte sute douăzeci şi cinci;
34
fiii Ierihonului, trei sute patru zeci şi cinci;
35
fiii lui Senaa, trei mii şase sute treizeci.
36
Preoţi: fiii lui Iedaeia, din casa lui Iosua, nouăsute şaptezeci şi trei;
37
fiii lui Imer, o mie cincizeci şi doi;
38
fiii lui Paşhur, o mie două sute patruzeci şi şapte;
39
fiii lui Harim, o mie şaptesprezece.
40
Leviţi: fiii lui Iosua şi Cadmiel, din fiii lui Hodavia, şaptezeci şi patru.
41
Cântăreţi: fiii lui Asaf, o sută douăzeci şi opt.
42
Fiii uşierilor: fiii lui Şalum, fiii lui Ater, fiii lui Talmon, fiii lui Acub, fiii lui Hatita, fiii lui Şobai, de toţi o sută treizeci şi nouă.
43
Slujitorii Templului: fiii lui Ţiha, fiii lui Hasufa, fiii lui Tabaot,
44
fiii lui Cheros, fiii lui Siaha, fiii lui Padon
45
fiii lui Lebana, fiii lui Hagaba, fiii lui Acub,
46
fiii lui Hagab, fiii lui Şamlai, fiii lui Hanan,
47
fiii lui Ghidel, fiii lui Gahar, fiii lui Reaia.
48
fiii lui Reţin, fiii lui Necoda, fiii lui Gazam.
49
fiii lui Uza, fiii lui Paseah, fiii lui Besai,
50
fiii lui Asna, fiii lui Mehunim, fiii lui Nefusim,
51
fiii lui Bacbuc, fiii lui Hacufa, fiii lui Harhur,
52
fiii lui Baţlut, fiii lui Mehida, fiii lui Harşa,
53
fiii lui Barcos, fiii lui Sisera, fiii lui Tamah,
54
fiii lui Neţiah, fiii lui Hatifa.
55
Fiii robilor lui Solomon: fiii lui Sotai, fiii lui Soferet, fiii lui Peruda,
56
fiii lui Iaala, fiii lui Darcon, fiii lui Ghidel.
57
fiii lui Şefatia, fiii lui Hatil, fiii lui Pocheret-Haţebaim, fiii lui Ami.
58
Toţi slujitorii Templului şi fiii robilor lui Solomon erau trei sute nouăzeci şi doi.
59
Iată ceice au plecat din Tel-Melah, din Tel-Harşa, din Cherub-Adan, din Imer şi cari n-au putut să-şi arate casa lor părintească şi neamul, ca să facă dovada că erau din Israel.
60
Fiii lui Delaia, fiii lui Tobia, fiii lui Necoda, şase sute cincizeci şi doi.
61
Şi dintre fiii preoţilor: fiii lui Habaia, fiii lui Hacoţ, fiii lui Barzilai, care luase de nevastă pe una din fetele lui Barzilai, Galaaditul, şi a fost numit cu numele lor.
62
Şi-au căutat însemnarea în cărţile spiţelor de neam, dar n-au găsit-o. De aceea, au fost îndepărtaţi dela preoţie,
63
şi dregătorul le-a spus să nu mănânce lucruri prea sfinte, până când un preot va întreba pe Urim şi Tumim.
64
Toată adunarea era de patruzeci şi două de mii trei sute şasezeci de inşi,
65
afară de robii şi roabele lor, în număr de şapte mii trei sute treizeci şi şapte. Între ei se aflau două sute de cântăreţi şi cântăreţe.
66
Aveau şapte sute treizeci şi şase de cai, două sute patruzeci şi cinci de catâri,
67
patru sute treizeci şi cinci de cămile, şi şase mii şapte sute douăzeci de măgari.
68
Unii capi de familie, la venirea lor la Casa Domnului în Ierusalim, au adus daruri de bună voie pentru Casa lui Dumnezeu, ca s-o aşeze din nou pe locul unde fusese.
69
Au dat la vistieria lucrării, după mijloacele lor, şasezeci şi una de mii de darici de aur, cinci mii de mine de argint, şi o sută de haine preoţeşti.
70
Preoţii şi Leviţii, oamenii din popor, cântăreţii, uşierii şi slujitorii Templului s-au aşezat în cetăţile lor. Tot Israelul a locuit în cetăţile lui.
{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":42026,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Zerubbabel","title_en":"Zerubbabel","content_ro":"<h3>Zerubbabel<\/h3>\n<p>Zerubbabel, a Babylonian-born Jew, relocated to Judea in 538 <span>BC<\/span> as governor of Jerusalem under Persian rule. Cyrus, the king of Persia, had declared that Jews captured and exiled from Judah might return to their homeland; Zerubbabel led one of the first groups of returning exiles.<\/p>\n<p>Zerubbabel came to Judea with the mission of rebuilding the Temple, and he began by constructing the altar. Sacrifice could begin again once the Holy Place was restored. However, the community of Judea soon ran into opposition from the people in the land, who effectively shut down construction. The Judeans were distracted from the project until the preaching of Haggai and Zechariah encouraged them to begin working again. Zerubbabel was instrumental in leading and organizing the Temple rebuilding effort, which took about six years (520–515 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Exuberant hope surrounded Zerubbabel, who was a direct descendant of King David (1 Chr 3:1-19). Zechariah and Haggai both describe Zerubbabel in messianic terms as the one chosen by God to bring restoration to Israel (Hag 2:21-23; Zech 4:6-7). But Zerubbabel soon disappears from the biblical narrative without explanation. This early governor of Judea was not the Messiah. Rather, Jesus Christ, one of Zerubbabel’s descendants (Matt 1:12), would assume that glorious position.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 2:1–6:22; Neh 7:7; Hag 1:12–2:23; Zech 4:1-14; Matt 1:12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zerubbabel<\/h3>\n<p>Zerubbabel, a Babylonian-born Jew, relocated to Judea in 538 <span>BC<\/span> as governor of Jerusalem under Persian rule. Cyrus, the king of Persia, had declared that Jews captured and exiled from Judah might return to their homeland; Zerubbabel led one of the first groups of returning exiles.<\/p>\n<p>Zerubbabel came to Judea with the mission of rebuilding the Temple, and he began by constructing the altar. Sacrifice could begin again once the Holy Place was restored. However, the community of Judea soon ran into opposition from the people in the land, who effectively shut down construction. The Judeans were distracted from the project until the preaching of Haggai and Zechariah encouraged them to begin working again. Zerubbabel was instrumental in leading and organizing the Temple rebuilding effort, which took about six years (520–515 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Exuberant hope surrounded Zerubbabel, who was a direct descendant of King David (1 Chr 3:1-19). Zechariah and Haggai both describe Zerubbabel in messianic terms as the one chosen by God to bring restoration to Israel (Hag 2:21-23; Zech 4:6-7). But Zerubbabel soon disappears from the biblical narrative without explanation. This early governor of Judea was not the Messiah. Rather, Jesus Christ, one of Zerubbabel’s descendants (Matt 1:12), would assume that glorious position.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 2:1–6:22; Neh 7:7; Hag 1:12–2:23; Zech 4:1-14; Matt 1:12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zerubbabel Zerubbabel, a Babylonian-born Jew, relocated to Judea in 538 BC as governor of Jerusalem under Persian rule. Cyrus, the king of Persia, had declared that Jews captured and exiled from Judah might return to their homeland; Zerubbabel led one of the first groups of returning exiles. Zerubbabel came to Judea with the mission of rebuilding the Temple, and he began by constructing the altar. Sacrifice could begin again once the Holy Place was restored. However, the community of Judea so...","summary_en":"Zerubbabel Zerubbabel, a Babylonian-born Jew, relocated to Judea in 538 BC as governor of Jerusalem under Persian rule. Cyrus, the king of Persia, had declared that Jews captured and exiled from Judah might return to their homeland; Zerubbabel led one of the first groups of returning exiles. Zerubbabel came to Judea with the mission of rebuilding the Temple, and he began by constructing the altar. Sacrifice could begin again once the Holy Place was restored. However, the community of Judea so...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":69652,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Zerubbabel","title_en":"Zerubbabel","content_ro":"<h3>Zerubbabel<\/h3>\n<p>Zerubbabel, a Babylonian-born Jew, relocated to Judea in 538 <span>BC<\/span> as governor of Jerusalem under Persian rule. Cyrus, the king of Persia, had declared that Jews captured and exiled from Judah might return to their homeland; Zerubbabel led one of the first groups of returning exiles.<\/p>\n<p>Zerubbabel came to Judea with the mission of rebuilding the Temple, and he began by constructing the altar. Sacrifice could begin again once the Holy Place was restored. However, the community of Judea soon ran into opposition from the people in the land, who effectively shut down construction. The Judeans were distracted from the project until the preaching of Haggai and Zechariah encouraged them to begin working again. Zerubbabel was instrumental in leading and organizing the Temple rebuilding effort, which took about six years (520–515 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Exuberant hope surrounded Zerubbabel, who was a direct descendant of King David (1 Chr 3:1-19). Zechariah and Haggai both describe Zerubbabel in messianic terms as the one chosen by God to bring restoration to Israel (Hag 2:21-23; Zech 4:6-7). But Zerubbabel soon disappears from the biblical narrative without explanation. This early governor of Judea was not the Messiah. Rather, Jesus Christ, one of Zerubbabel’s descendants (Matt 1:12), would assume that glorious position.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 2:1–6:22; Neh 7:7; Hag 1:12–2:23; Zech 4:1-14; Matt 1:12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zerubbabel<\/h3>\n<p>Zerubbabel, a Babylonian-born Jew, relocated to Judea in 538 <span>BC<\/span> as governor of Jerusalem under Persian rule. Cyrus, the king of Persia, had declared that Jews captured and exiled from Judah might return to their homeland; Zerubbabel led one of the first groups of returning exiles.<\/p>\n<p>Zerubbabel came to Judea with the mission of rebuilding the Temple, and he began by constructing the altar. Sacrifice could begin again once the Holy Place was restored. However, the community of Judea soon ran into opposition from the people in the land, who effectively shut down construction. The Judeans were distracted from the project until the preaching of Haggai and Zechariah encouraged them to begin working again. Zerubbabel was instrumental in leading and organizing the Temple rebuilding effort, which took about six years (520–515 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Exuberant hope surrounded Zerubbabel, who was a direct descendant of King David (1 Chr 3:1-19). Zechariah and Haggai both describe Zerubbabel in messianic terms as the one chosen by God to bring restoration to Israel (Hag 2:21-23; Zech 4:6-7). But Zerubbabel soon disappears from the biblical narrative without explanation. This early governor of Judea was not the Messiah. Rather, Jesus Christ, one of Zerubbabel’s descendants (Matt 1:12), would assume that glorious position.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 2:1–6:22; Neh 7:7; Hag 1:12–2:23; Zech 4:1-14; Matt 1:12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zerubbabel Zerubbabel, a Babylonian-born Jew, relocated to Judea in 538 BC as governor of Jerusalem under Persian rule. Cyrus, the king of Persia, had declared that Jews captured and exiled from Judah might return to their homeland; Zerubbabel led one of the first groups of returning exiles. Zerubbabel came to Judea with the mission of rebuilding the Temple, and he began by constructing the altar. Sacrifice could begin again once the Holy Place was restored. However, the community of Judea so...","summary_en":"Zerubbabel Zerubbabel, a Babylonian-born Jew, relocated to Judea in 538 BC as governor of Jerusalem under Persian rule. Cyrus, the king of Persia, had declared that Jews captured and exiled from Judah might return to their homeland; Zerubbabel led one of the first groups of returning exiles. Zerubbabel came to Judea with the mission of rebuilding the Temple, and he began by constructing the altar. Sacrifice could begin again once the Holy Place was restored. However, the community of Judea so...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97278,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Zerubbabel","title_en":"Zerubbabel","content_ro":"<h3>Zerubbabel<\/h3>\n<p>Zerubbabel, a Babylonian-born Jew, relocated to Judea in 538 <span>BC<\/span> as governor of Jerusalem under Persian rule. Cyrus, the king of Persia, had declared that Jews captured and exiled from Judah might return to their homeland; Zerubbabel led one of the first groups of returning exiles.<\/p>\n<p>Zerubbabel came to Judea with the mission of rebuilding the Temple, and he began by constructing the altar. Sacrifice could begin again once the Holy Place was restored. However, the community of Judea soon ran into opposition from the people in the land, who effectively shut down construction. The Judeans were distracted from the project until the preaching of Haggai and Zechariah encouraged them to begin working again. Zerubbabel was instrumental in leading and organizing the Temple rebuilding effort, which took about six years (520–515 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Exuberant hope surrounded Zerubbabel, who was a direct descendant of King David (1 Chr 3:1-19). Zechariah and Haggai both describe Zerubbabel in messianic terms as the one chosen by God to bring restoration to Israel (Hag 2:21-23; Zech 4:6-7). But Zerubbabel soon disappears from the biblical narrative without explanation. This early governor of Judea was not the Messiah. Rather, Jesus Christ, one of Zerubbabel’s descendants (Matt 1:12), would assume that glorious position.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 2:1–6:22; Neh 7:7; Hag 1:12–2:23; Zech 4:1-14; Matt 1:12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zerubbabel<\/h3>\n<p>Zerubbabel, a Babylonian-born Jew, relocated to Judea in 538 <span>BC<\/span> as governor of Jerusalem under Persian rule. Cyrus, the king of Persia, had declared that Jews captured and exiled from Judah might return to their homeland; Zerubbabel led one of the first groups of returning exiles.<\/p>\n<p>Zerubbabel came to Judea with the mission of rebuilding the Temple, and he began by constructing the altar. Sacrifice could begin again once the Holy Place was restored. However, the community of Judea soon ran into opposition from the people in the land, who effectively shut down construction. The Judeans were distracted from the project until the preaching of Haggai and Zechariah encouraged them to begin working again. Zerubbabel was instrumental in leading and organizing the Temple rebuilding effort, which took about six years (520–515 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Exuberant hope surrounded Zerubbabel, who was a direct descendant of King David (1 Chr 3:1-19). Zechariah and Haggai both describe Zerubbabel in messianic terms as the one chosen by God to bring restoration to Israel (Hag 2:21-23; Zech 4:6-7). But Zerubbabel soon disappears from the biblical narrative without explanation. This early governor of Judea was not the Messiah. Rather, Jesus Christ, one of Zerubbabel’s descendants (Matt 1:12), would assume that glorious position.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 2:1–6:22; Neh 7:7; Hag 1:12–2:23; Zech 4:1-14; Matt 1:12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zerubbabel Zerubbabel, a Babylonian-born Jew, relocated to Judea in 538 BC as governor of Jerusalem under Persian rule. Cyrus, the king of Persia, had declared that Jews captured and exiled from Judah might return to their homeland; Zerubbabel led one of the first groups of returning exiles. Zerubbabel came to Judea with the mission of rebuilding the Temple, and he began by constructing the altar. Sacrifice could begin again once the Holy Place was restored. However, the community of Judea so...","summary_en":"Zerubbabel Zerubbabel, a Babylonian-born Jew, relocated to Judea in 538 BC as governor of Jerusalem under Persian rule. Cyrus, the king of Persia, had declared that Jews captured and exiled from Judah might return to their homeland; Zerubbabel led one of the first groups of returning exiles. Zerubbabel came to Judea with the mission of rebuilding the Temple, and he began by constructing the altar. Sacrifice could begin again once the Holy Place was restored. However, the community of Judea so...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124904,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Zerubbabel","title_en":"Zerubbabel","content_ro":"<h3>Zerubbabel<\/h3>\n<p>Zerubbabel, a Babylonian-born Jew, relocated to Judea in 538 <span>BC<\/span> as governor of Jerusalem under Persian rule. Cyrus, the king of Persia, had declared that Jews captured and exiled from Judah might return to their homeland; Zerubbabel led one of the first groups of returning exiles.<\/p>\n<p>Zerubbabel came to Judea with the mission of rebuilding the Temple, and he began by constructing the altar. Sacrifice could begin again once the Holy Place was restored. However, the community of Judea soon ran into opposition from the people in the land, who effectively shut down construction. The Judeans were distracted from the project until the preaching of Haggai and Zechariah encouraged them to begin working again. Zerubbabel was instrumental in leading and organizing the Temple rebuilding effort, which took about six years (520–515 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Exuberant hope surrounded Zerubbabel, who was a direct descendant of King David (1 Chr 3:1-19). Zechariah and Haggai both describe Zerubbabel in messianic terms as the one chosen by God to bring restoration to Israel (Hag 2:21-23; Zech 4:6-7). But Zerubbabel soon disappears from the biblical narrative without explanation. This early governor of Judea was not the Messiah. Rather, Jesus Christ, one of Zerubbabel’s descendants (Matt 1:12), would assume that glorious position.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 2:1–6:22; Neh 7:7; Hag 1:12–2:23; Zech 4:1-14; Matt 1:12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zerubbabel<\/h3>\n<p>Zerubbabel, a Babylonian-born Jew, relocated to Judea in 538 <span>BC<\/span> as governor of Jerusalem under Persian rule. Cyrus, the king of Persia, had declared that Jews captured and exiled from Judah might return to their homeland; Zerubbabel led one of the first groups of returning exiles.<\/p>\n<p>Zerubbabel came to Judea with the mission of rebuilding the Temple, and he began by constructing the altar. Sacrifice could begin again once the Holy Place was restored. However, the community of Judea soon ran into opposition from the people in the land, who effectively shut down construction. The Judeans were distracted from the project until the preaching of Haggai and Zechariah encouraged them to begin working again. Zerubbabel was instrumental in leading and organizing the Temple rebuilding effort, which took about six years (520–515 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Exuberant hope surrounded Zerubbabel, who was a direct descendant of King David (1 Chr 3:1-19). Zechariah and Haggai both describe Zerubbabel in messianic terms as the one chosen by God to bring restoration to Israel (Hag 2:21-23; Zech 4:6-7). But Zerubbabel soon disappears from the biblical narrative without explanation. This early governor of Judea was not the Messiah. Rather, Jesus Christ, one of Zerubbabel’s descendants (Matt 1:12), would assume that glorious position.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 2:1–6:22; Neh 7:7; Hag 1:12–2:23; Zech 4:1-14; Matt 1:12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zerubbabel Zerubbabel, a Babylonian-born Jew, relocated to Judea in 538 BC as governor of Jerusalem under Persian rule. Cyrus, the king of Persia, had declared that Jews captured and exiled from Judah might return to their homeland; Zerubbabel led one of the first groups of returning exiles. Zerubbabel came to Judea with the mission of rebuilding the Temple, and he began by constructing the altar. Sacrifice could begin again once the Holy Place was restored. However, the community of Judea so...","summary_en":"Zerubbabel Zerubbabel, a Babylonian-born Jew, relocated to Judea in 538 BC as governor of Jerusalem under Persian rule. Cyrus, the king of Persia, had declared that Jews captured and exiled from Judah might return to their homeland; Zerubbabel led one of the first groups of returning exiles. Zerubbabel came to Judea with the mission of rebuilding the Temple, and he began by constructing the altar. Sacrifice could begin again once the Holy Place was restored. However, the community of Judea so...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":6159,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Census","title_en":"Census","content_ro":"<h3>CENSUS<\/h3>\n<p>Registration and enumeration of a people, usually for purposes of war or taxation. A few censuses are mentioned in the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>The first census was held at Mt Sinai two years after the exodus. In order to assess Israel’s military potential, all Israelite males over 20 years old were counted—603,550 in all (Nm 1:1-3, 46). A special census was taken of the Levites, who were expected to serve in the tabernacle in place of military obligations. Every male Levite at least a month old was counted—22,000 in all, although of that number only 8,580 actually qualified for priestly service (3:15, 39; 4:46-48).<\/p>\n<p>A second census, conducted at the close of Israel’s 40 years of wandering in the wilderness, is recorded in Numbers 26. It, too, was primarily a military census, part of the strategic calculations made at Shittim in Moab just before the Israelite invasion of the Promised Land. The number of men able to bear arms was 601,730 (Nm 26:51), again excluding the Levites. The 23,000 Levites were counted separately because they were not going to receive an allotment of land (26:62). The rules for registration of the Israelites (given in Ex 30:11-16) included payment of one-half shekel each, about one-fifth ounce (6 grams) of silver.<\/p>\n<p>A third census occurred near the end of King David’s reign (2 Sm 24:1-17). The two censuses under Moses had been conducted at God’s command; David’s census came at a time when God was angry at Israel. The record says that the Lord “incited David against them,” without specifying David’s own motivations for the census (cf. the later interpretation of 1 Chr 21:1). It may have been for the purpose of conscription or taxation or simply to measure the extent of the king’s power by the number of his subjects. At any rate, Joab, David’s chief military commander, sensed that something was wrong about taking a census at that time and attempted to dissuade David. After the registration was conducted—there is some ambiguity as to whether it was ever completed (cf. 1 Chr 21:6; 27:23-24)—David realized his mistake and repented. Nevertheless, the census angered God, and as a punishment he gave David the choice of three years of famine, three months of flight before an enemy, or three days of pestilence. David chose the pestilence, in which 70,000 men died. The census identified 800,000 able-bodied men in Israel and 500,000 in Judah (2 Sm 24:9). An alternate account reported a potential militia of 1,100,000 in Israel and 470,000 in Judah (1 Chr 21:5), plus a separate count of 38,000 Levites qualified to serve in the temple (23:3).<\/p>\n<p>Scholars have puzzled over the fact that figures for the third census (despite their variation in the two different records) approximately double the figures for the first two. Many attempts have been made to explain those variations in the strength of the military and in the size of the total population they imply. So far, no explanation is fully satisfying.<\/p>\n<p>A fourth census, recorded in Ezra 2, was taken on the return of the exiles to Jerusalem. The final total included 42,360 males of Israelite descent, 7,337 slaves (male and female), and 200 singers (male and female).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT a census played a role in the circumstances of Jesus’ birth: “At that time the Roman emperor, Augustus, decreed that a census should be taken throughout the Roman Empire. (This was the first census taken when Quirinius was governor of Syria.) All returned to their own towns to register for this census” (Lk 2:1-3, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Josephus, a first-century <span>AD<\/span> Jewish historian, records that Quirinius completed a census under the emperor’s direction soon after his tenure as governor of Syria began in <span>AD<\/span> 6. Matthew 2, however, places the birth of Jesus during the reign of Herod the Great, who died in 4 <span>BC<\/span>. There were probably two enrollments or censuses taken during this time. Luke’s reference to the “first enrollment” (Lk 2:2) may have been made to distinguish it from the more famous enrollment of <span>AD<\/span> 6–7. Luke was obviously aware of the later census, which he mentions in a passing reference in Acts 5:37. A series of censuses known to have been made in Egypt about the same time lend credence to the theory of a similar series in Palestine. Thus, the most plausible solution suggests that an earlier census took place during the influential leadership of Quirinius before his full governorship.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s reference to the census under Quirinius serves two purposes in his Gospel. First, it provides a date for the birth of Jesus. Second, it explains why Joseph and Mary were in Bethlehem at that time. The census under Quirinius was probably for purposes of taxation, since the Romans exempted the Jews from military service. The requirement to return to one’s hometown, reflecting the patriarchal element in Hebrew religion, probably also reflects the general willingness of Caesar Augustus to let the Jews follow their own customs.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CENSUS<\/h3>\n<p>Registration and enumeration of a people, usually for purposes of war or taxation. A few censuses are mentioned in the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>The first census was held at Mt Sinai two years after the exodus. In order to assess Israel’s military potential, all Israelite males over 20 years old were counted—603,550 in all (Nm 1:1-3, 46). A special census was taken of the Levites, who were expected to serve in the tabernacle in place of military obligations. Every male Levite at least a month old was counted—22,000 in all, although of that number only 8,580 actually qualified for priestly service (3:15, 39; 4:46-48).<\/p>\n<p>A second census, conducted at the close of Israel’s 40 years of wandering in the wilderness, is recorded in Numbers 26. It, too, was primarily a military census, part of the strategic calculations made at Shittim in Moab just before the Israelite invasion of the Promised Land. The number of men able to bear arms was 601,730 (Nm 26:51), again excluding the Levites. The 23,000 Levites were counted separately because they were not going to receive an allotment of land (26:62). The rules for registration of the Israelites (given in Ex 30:11-16) included payment of one-half shekel each, about one-fifth ounce (6 grams) of silver.<\/p>\n<p>A third census occurred near the end of King David’s reign (2 Sm 24:1-17). The two censuses under Moses had been conducted at God’s command; David’s census came at a time when God was angry at Israel. The record says that the Lord “incited David against them,” without specifying David’s own motivations for the census (cf. the later interpretation of 1 Chr 21:1). It may have been for the purpose of conscription or taxation or simply to measure the extent of the king’s power by the number of his subjects. At any rate, Joab, David’s chief military commander, sensed that something was wrong about taking a census at that time and attempted to dissuade David. After the registration was conducted—there is some ambiguity as to whether it was ever completed (cf. 1 Chr 21:6; 27:23-24)—David realized his mistake and repented. Nevertheless, the census angered God, and as a punishment he gave David the choice of three years of famine, three months of flight before an enemy, or three days of pestilence. David chose the pestilence, in which 70,000 men died. The census identified 800,000 able-bodied men in Israel and 500,000 in Judah (2 Sm 24:9). An alternate account reported a potential militia of 1,100,000 in Israel and 470,000 in Judah (1 Chr 21:5), plus a separate count of 38,000 Levites qualified to serve in the temple (23:3).<\/p>\n<p>Scholars have puzzled over the fact that figures for the third census (despite their variation in the two different records) approximately double the figures for the first two. Many attempts have been made to explain those variations in the strength of the military and in the size of the total population they imply. So far, no explanation is fully satisfying.<\/p>\n<p>A fourth census, recorded in Ezra 2, was taken on the return of the exiles to Jerusalem. The final total included 42,360 males of Israelite descent, 7,337 slaves (male and female), and 200 singers (male and female).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT a census played a role in the circumstances of Jesus’ birth: “At that time the Roman emperor, Augustus, decreed that a census should be taken throughout the Roman Empire. (This was the first census taken when Quirinius was governor of Syria.) All returned to their own towns to register for this census” (Lk 2:1-3, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Josephus, a first-century <span>AD<\/span> Jewish historian, records that Quirinius completed a census under the emperor’s direction soon after his tenure as governor of Syria began in <span>AD<\/span> 6. Matthew 2, however, places the birth of Jesus during the reign of Herod the Great, who died in 4 <span>BC<\/span>. There were probably two enrollments or censuses taken during this time. Luke’s reference to the “first enrollment” (Lk 2:2) may have been made to distinguish it from the more famous enrollment of <span>AD<\/span> 6–7. Luke was obviously aware of the later census, which he mentions in a passing reference in Acts 5:37. A series of censuses known to have been made in Egypt about the same time lend credence to the theory of a similar series in Palestine. Thus, the most plausible solution suggests that an earlier census took place during the influential leadership of Quirinius before his full governorship.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s reference to the census under Quirinius serves two purposes in his Gospel. First, it provides a date for the birth of Jesus. Second, it explains why Joseph and Mary were in Bethlehem at that time. The census under Quirinius was probably for purposes of taxation, since the Romans exempted the Jews from military service. The requirement to return to one’s hometown, reflecting the patriarchal element in Hebrew religion, probably also reflects the general willingness of Caesar Augustus to let the Jews follow their own customs.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CENSUS Registration and enumeration of a people, usually for purposes of war or taxation. A few censuses are mentioned in the Bible. The first census was held at Mt Sinai two years after the exodus. In order to assess Israel’s military potential, all Israelite males over 20 years old were counted—603,550 in all (Nm 1:1-3, 46). A special census was taken of the Levites, who were expected to serve in the tabernacle in place of military obligations. Every male Levite at least a month old was cou...","summary_en":"CENSUS Registration and enumeration of a people, usually for purposes of war or taxation. A few censuses are mentioned in the Bible. The first census was held at Mt Sinai two years after the exodus. In order to assess Israel’s military potential, all Israelite males over 20 years old were counted—603,550 in all (Nm 1:1-3, 46). A special census was taken of the Levites, who were expected to serve in the tabernacle in place of military obligations. Every male Levite at least a month old was cou...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11071,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"First Book of Esdras","title_en":"First Book of Esdras","content_ro":"<h3>ESDRAS, First Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Book that is largely a compilation of material from 2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>The author or compiler of 1 Esdras is unknown, and scholars disagree about its origin. Three theories seem to summarize the critical debate. Some think that 1 Esdras might be the original Septuagint (ancient Greek Old Testament) version, and that canonical Ezra and Nehemiah reflect the translation and editing of Theodotion, a second-century <span>AD<\/span> reviser of the Septuagint. Others speculate that 1 Esdras goes back to a now-lost Hebrew text outside the Masoretic Hebrew Text tradition. Most scholars, however, think that 1 Esdras is probably an edited compilation taken from the Septuagint translation of 2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah.<\/p>\n<p>Esdras (or Ezra, the spelling most familiar to American Protestants) was a descendant of Aaron’s priestly line and one of those (like Nehemiah and Zerubbabel) who led parties of exiled Jews back to Judea from Babylon. His ministry of leadership, and preservation and promulgation of the law, probably can be dated to the latter part of Persian king Artaxerxes I Longimanus’s reign (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>It is certain that 1 Esdras was written before <span>AD<\/span> 90 because first-century Jewish historian Josephus quoted from it. The best date for 1 Esdras is probably around 150–100 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>There are four books about Ezra and the history of the postexilic restoration of the Jews in Judea. Two of those books, titled Ezra and Nehemiah in Protestant versions of the Bible, are accepted as canonical by Jews, Roman Catholics, and Protestants alike. The other two books, 1 Esdras and 2 Esdras, were not included in the Hebrew canon of the OT by Jews or by Protestants, who followed Hebrew tradition in identifying the books of the OT. The two Esdras books were included in the Latin Vulgate Bible (a translation from the Hebrew by biblical scholar Jerome completed in <span>AD<\/span> 404), and when the Roman Catholic Council of Trent (1545–1663) defined the apocryphal books that would be recognized by Catholics as part of the OT Scriptures, 1 and 2 Esdras were included. In the Vulgate, 1 Esdras is called 3 Esdras; Ezra and Nehemiah there are named 1 Esdras and 2 Esdras, respectively.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>First Esdras is a history of the Jews from the reign of King Josiah in Jerusalem (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>) through the postexilic ministry of Ezra, accentuating the career of Ezra and deletes all mention of Nehemiah. Originally written in idiomatic Greek, 1 Esdras retells the material found in 2 Chronicles 35:1–36:23, Ezra 1:1–10:44 (excluding 4:6 and placing 4:7-24 before 2:1), and Nehemiah 7:73–8:12. Esdras contains two sections of material, one minor (1:23-24) and the other major, not found in the canonical records. The major addition (3:1–4:63) is a story about three youths who are bodyguards or pages of Darius I of Persia (522–486 <span>BC<\/span>). They engage in a contest to determine whether wine, royal power, or women are the strongest. The third youth, Zerubbabel, argues for women but adds “truth” as part of his argument, and thereby wins the verbal contest. For his reward he requests permission to rebuild the temple in Jerusalem, which Darius grants. The story concludes with the preparations for Zerubbabel’s temple-building expedition. Thus, 1 Esdras differs from canonical Ezra and Nehemiah by placing Zerubbabel’s return under Darius I rather than under Cyrus (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ESDRAS, First Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Book that is largely a compilation of material from 2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>The author or compiler of 1 Esdras is unknown, and scholars disagree about its origin. Three theories seem to summarize the critical debate. Some think that 1 Esdras might be the original Septuagint (ancient Greek Old Testament) version, and that canonical Ezra and Nehemiah reflect the translation and editing of Theodotion, a second-century <span>AD<\/span> reviser of the Septuagint. Others speculate that 1 Esdras goes back to a now-lost Hebrew text outside the Masoretic Hebrew Text tradition. Most scholars, however, think that 1 Esdras is probably an edited compilation taken from the Septuagint translation of 2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah.<\/p>\n<p>Esdras (or Ezra, the spelling most familiar to American Protestants) was a descendant of Aaron’s priestly line and one of those (like Nehemiah and Zerubbabel) who led parties of exiled Jews back to Judea from Babylon. His ministry of leadership, and preservation and promulgation of the law, probably can be dated to the latter part of Persian king Artaxerxes I Longimanus’s reign (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>It is certain that 1 Esdras was written before <span>AD<\/span> 90 because first-century Jewish historian Josephus quoted from it. The best date for 1 Esdras is probably around 150–100 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>There are four books about Ezra and the history of the postexilic restoration of the Jews in Judea. Two of those books, titled Ezra and Nehemiah in Protestant versions of the Bible, are accepted as canonical by Jews, Roman Catholics, and Protestants alike. The other two books, 1 Esdras and 2 Esdras, were not included in the Hebrew canon of the OT by Jews or by Protestants, who followed Hebrew tradition in identifying the books of the OT. The two Esdras books were included in the Latin Vulgate Bible (a translation from the Hebrew by biblical scholar Jerome completed in <span>AD<\/span> 404), and when the Roman Catholic Council of Trent (1545–1663) defined the apocryphal books that would be recognized by Catholics as part of the OT Scriptures, 1 and 2 Esdras were included. In the Vulgate, 1 Esdras is called 3 Esdras; Ezra and Nehemiah there are named 1 Esdras and 2 Esdras, respectively.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>First Esdras is a history of the Jews from the reign of King Josiah in Jerusalem (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>) through the postexilic ministry of Ezra, accentuating the career of Ezra and deletes all mention of Nehemiah. Originally written in idiomatic Greek, 1 Esdras retells the material found in 2 Chronicles 35:1–36:23, Ezra 1:1–10:44 (excluding 4:6 and placing 4:7-24 before 2:1), and Nehemiah 7:73–8:12. Esdras contains two sections of material, one minor (1:23-24) and the other major, not found in the canonical records. The major addition (3:1–4:63) is a story about three youths who are bodyguards or pages of Darius I of Persia (522–486 <span>BC<\/span>). They engage in a contest to determine whether wine, royal power, or women are the strongest. The third youth, Zerubbabel, argues for women but adds “truth” as part of his argument, and thereby wins the verbal contest. For his reward he requests permission to rebuild the temple in Jerusalem, which Darius grants. The story concludes with the preparations for Zerubbabel’s temple-building expedition. Thus, 1 Esdras differs from canonical Ezra and Nehemiah by placing Zerubbabel’s return under Darius I rather than under Cyrus (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ESDRAS, First Book of Book that is largely a compilation of material from 2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. Preview • Author and Date • Background • Content Author and Date The author or compiler of 1 Esdras is unknown, and scholars disagree about its origin. Three theories seem to summarize the critical debate. Some think that 1 Esdras might be the original Septuagint (ancient Greek Old Testament) version, and that canonical Ezra and Nehemiah reflect the translation and editing of Theodotion...","summary_en":"ESDRAS, First Book of Book that is largely a compilation of material from 2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. Preview • Author and Date • Background • Content Author and Date The author or compiler of 1 Esdras is unknown, and scholars disagree about its origin. Three theories seem to summarize the critical debate. Some think that 1 Esdras might be the original Septuagint (ancient Greek Old Testament) version, and that canonical Ezra and Nehemiah reflect the translation and editing of Theodotion...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11800,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Ezra","title_en":"Book of Ezra","content_ro":"<h3>EZRA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the historical books of the OT, associated with 2 Chronicles and Nehemiah.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Sources<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Languages, Texts, and Versions<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>In the Talmud tractate <em>Baba Bathra<\/em> 15a, the rabbis and scribes regarded Ezra and Nehemiah as one book. Josephus (<em>Apion<\/em> 1.8) also considered the two books to be one when the number of OT books was given as 22. Some church fathers, such as Melito of Sardis and Jerome, thought of them as one book. The Septuagint (Greek translation of the OT) also grouped the two books as one, referring to them as 2 Ezra to distinguish them from an apocryphal book known as 1 Ezra. The Latin Vulgate, however, called Ezra “1 Ezra” and Nehemiah “2 Ezra.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The Jewish people came under the rule of the Persian Empire when Cyrus conquered Babylon in 539 <span>BC<\/span>. From then until Ezra’s time, the Persian kings were Cyrus (539–530 <span>BC<\/span>), who allowed the Jewish people and other captives to return to their homeland (Ezr 1); Cambyses (529–522 <span>BC<\/span>); Gaumata, a usurper of the throne (522 <span>BC<\/span>); Darius I (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 5:6); Xerxes I (OT Ahasuerus, 486–465 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 4:6); and Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 4:7-23; 7:1–10:44). Both Ezra’s and Nehemiah’s work fall within the period between Cyrus and Artaxerxes I. Some scholars, however, place Ezra during the reign of Artaxerxes II (404–359 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sources\">Sources<\/p>\n<p>By tradition, the Jewish leader Ezra researched and put together the material that forms his book. Chapters 7–10 are written in the first person singular, and Ezra may have used the autobiographical passages as the core of this book, adding information from other sources. That the book contains portions written in Aramaic has been used as justification for assigning a date later than Ezra’s time. But the Aramaic of Ezra bears a remarkable similarity to fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> Aramaic papyri from the Jewish community at Elephantine in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>The book is largely a compilation, using autobiography, official documents, edicts, and other material. The present book of Ezra contains four identifiable strata of source material.<\/p>\n<h5>Memoirs of Ezra<\/h5>\n<p>Certain sections appear in the first person singular (7:27–9:15), located between third-person narratives (7:1-26; 10). The memoirs were probably part of Ezra’s own official reports.<\/p>\n<h5>Aramaic Documents<\/h5>\n<p>Aramaic was the diplomatic language of the Persian Empire, and a number of documents appear in the book of Ezra. A letter of complaint was written to Artaxerxes I about the rebuilding of the city walls, for example, and Ezra also included the official reply (Ezr 4:8-23). There is also a letter of Darius I and the king’s reply (5:1–6:18). An official authorization by the Persian court of Artaxerxes permitted Ezra to return, and this included a description of material entrusted into his keeping (7:12-26). Since all of those sections were official correspondence, the record naturally is written in Aramaic.<\/p>\n<h5>Hebrew Lists<\/h5>\n<p>Ezra included Hebrew documents listing people’s names for a number of purposes. One such document indicated the Persian government’s permission for Jewish immigrants to return to the land of Israel (Ezr 1:2-4). It was a Jewish version of Cyrus’s general edict expressing concern for all his subjects. The edict in Aramaic is repeated by Ezra in 6:3-5, and that version is probably taken from an original memorandum of a royal decision. Ezra included lists of the immigrants who returned to begin the second commonwealth of Israel (ch 2, repeated in Neh 7). The book also contains a list of immigrants who returned with Ezra by permission of Artaxerxes I (Ezr 8:1-14). Lists of those who had married pagan wives are provided as well (10:18-43).<\/p>\n<h5>Narrative<\/h5>\n<p>The rest of the book comprises narrative by Ezra himself. For the period of the first return prior to his own time, he probably drew upon existing sources, either oral or documentary. Material in the book that was contemporary with the scribe would be his personal account about his own work.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Traditionally, the Artaxerxes in Ezra 7:1 has been identified with Artaxerxes I Longimanus. Ezra’s arrival in Jerusalem would thus have been in 458 <span>BC<\/span> (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg for 7:8). Therefore, Ezra’s work at Jerusalem started before that of Nehemiah, who came in 445 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>But the traditional dates are questioned from a number of sources. One alternative is to place Nehemiah during the reign of Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>) and Ezra at a later date, in the reign of Artaxerxes II Mnemon (404–359 <span>BC<\/span>). Such a suggestion creates a difficulty with Nehemiah 8:2, because there Ezra is named as Nehemiah’s contemporary and coworker.<\/p>\n<p>In addition, the Elephantine papyri (407–400 <span>BC<\/span>) mention the high priest Johanan in Jerusalem, and Sanballat as governor of Samaria. Johanan is considered a grandson of Eliashib, but Nehemiah was a contemporary of Eliashib (Neh 3:1, 20). The biblical material that speaks of Nehemiah going to Jerusalem in the 20th year of Artaxerxes (Neh 2:1, 445 <span>BC<\/span>) and again during the 32nd year (Neh 13:6, 433 <span>BC<\/span>) refers to Eliashib’s contemporary high priesthood with Ezra. The traditional position thus furnishes a reasonable date for the book of Ezra. If the scribe were placed during the reign of Artaxerxes II (c. 397 <span>BC<\/span>), his ministry would be too late for the high priesthood of Johanan.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LanguagesTextsandVersions\">Languages, Texts, and Versions<\/p>\n<p>The primary language of the book of Ezra is Hebrew; the exceptions are 4:7, 6:18, and 7:12-26, which are written in Aramaic. The Hebrew portion appears to resemble the language of Daniel, Haggai, and 2 Chronicles much more than later Hebrew, such as that of Ecclesiasticus. As indicated, the Aramaic portions resemble the Elephantine papyri, dated about 407–400 <span>BC<\/span>. In addition, Persian personal and family names and Persian words and expressions occur in the book, such as Bigvai, Mithredath, and Elam. All of these evidences serve to place the book in about the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew Masoretic Text of Ezra seems well preserved. The Septuagint version is a bit shorter than the Masoretic Text. Only parts of Ezra 4 and 5 have been found among the Dead Sea Scrolls.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandContent\">Purpose and Content<\/p>\n<p>The book of Ezra is a straightforward account of one of the most important events in Jewish history. From a priestly point of view, it is an account of the restoration of Jewish people to their homeland following the Babylonian dispersion. The record tells of two distinct returns, one under the leadership of Zerubbabel (chs 1–6; 538 <span>BC<\/span>), and 80 years later, the second return led by Ezra (chs 7–10; 458 <span>BC<\/span>). The book emphasizes Ezra’s leadership and the reestablishment of the people on their land, both of which were to have important future consequences.<\/p>\n<p>Little is known about the political activity of Ezra in the Persian court. He appears to have been a man of considerable influence, however, and could well be described as an official who held a position corresponding to that of “Secretary of State for Jewish Affairs.” To what extent that function applied to the Persian Empire as a whole is uncertain, since Ezra’s recorded activities took place only in the area known to the Persians as the province “Beyond the River,” that is, the territory lying to the west of the Euphrates. The importance of Ezra’s position in the Persian Empire is indicated by the fact that King Artaxerxes gave him full authority to do whatever he thought necessary for the welfare of his people and the empire (7:21-26). Ezra’s genealogy is given in 7:1-5, and he is consistently spoken of as a scribe learned in the Mosaic law. As a descendant of Zadok the priest, he would have the authority to instruct others in the Torah.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 4 speaks of the opposition to rebuilding the temple and the walls. We should recognize that Ezra’s approach in this chapter is topical rather than chronological where, in the middle of describing the earlier opposition to building the temple (5:1-5), he complained that the same kind of opposition was being repeated in his day concerning the attempt to rebuild the city walls and repair the fortifications of Jerusalem (5:7-23). Internal evidence suggests that a long historical interval ensued during the reign of Ahasuerus, or Xerxes, and the early part of Artaxerxes’ regime. During this period, complaints were made to the Persian authorities that the returned Judeans were rebuilding the city wall of Jerusalem, and as a result the work was halted for some time. It readily can be seen that Ezra was dealing with the evil intentions of Judah’s enemies and that the opposition of Rehum and Shimshai did not appear in the 520s (when the temple was being built) because they lived in the 460s, early in the reign of Artaxerxes I.<\/p>\n<p>But the initial passage is actually a history of opposition to rebuilding the ruined temple. It narrates the frustrations experienced by the Judean community from the time of return to their homeland during Cyrus’s rule (4:1-5) up to the time of King Darius (v 24). The prophet Haggai (520 <span>BC<\/span>) aroused the people with his message and persuaded them to lay the foundations of the new temple.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra resumes the theme of the book in chapter 5. He points out the problems, frustrations, and hindrances the Jewish people had with the construction of the temple. It was not until a diligent search had been made in the archives by the Persian authorities that the original edict granting permission to build the temple was found (5:7–6:5).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Ezra (Person) #1; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EZRA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the historical books of the OT, associated with 2 Chronicles and Nehemiah.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Sources<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Languages, Texts, and Versions<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>In the Talmud tractate <em>Baba Bathra<\/em> 15a, the rabbis and scribes regarded Ezra and Nehemiah as one book. Josephus (<em>Apion<\/em> 1.8) also considered the two books to be one when the number of OT books was given as 22. Some church fathers, such as Melito of Sardis and Jerome, thought of them as one book. The Septuagint (Greek translation of the OT) also grouped the two books as one, referring to them as 2 Ezra to distinguish them from an apocryphal book known as 1 Ezra. The Latin Vulgate, however, called Ezra “1 Ezra” and Nehemiah “2 Ezra.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The Jewish people came under the rule of the Persian Empire when Cyrus conquered Babylon in 539 <span>BC<\/span>. From then until Ezra’s time, the Persian kings were Cyrus (539–530 <span>BC<\/span>), who allowed the Jewish people and other captives to return to their homeland (Ezr 1); Cambyses (529–522 <span>BC<\/span>); Gaumata, a usurper of the throne (522 <span>BC<\/span>); Darius I (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 5:6); Xerxes I (OT Ahasuerus, 486–465 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 4:6); and Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 4:7-23; 7:1–10:44). Both Ezra’s and Nehemiah’s work fall within the period between Cyrus and Artaxerxes I. Some scholars, however, place Ezra during the reign of Artaxerxes II (404–359 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sources\">Sources<\/p>\n<p>By tradition, the Jewish leader Ezra researched and put together the material that forms his book. Chapters 7–10 are written in the first person singular, and Ezra may have used the autobiographical passages as the core of this book, adding information from other sources. That the book contains portions written in Aramaic has been used as justification for assigning a date later than Ezra’s time. But the Aramaic of Ezra bears a remarkable similarity to fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> Aramaic papyri from the Jewish community at Elephantine in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>The book is largely a compilation, using autobiography, official documents, edicts, and other material. The present book of Ezra contains four identifiable strata of source material.<\/p>\n<h5>Memoirs of Ezra<\/h5>\n<p>Certain sections appear in the first person singular (7:27–9:15), located between third-person narratives (7:1-26; 10). The memoirs were probably part of Ezra’s own official reports.<\/p>\n<h5>Aramaic Documents<\/h5>\n<p>Aramaic was the diplomatic language of the Persian Empire, and a number of documents appear in the book of Ezra. A letter of complaint was written to Artaxerxes I about the rebuilding of the city walls, for example, and Ezra also included the official reply (Ezr 4:8-23). There is also a letter of Darius I and the king’s reply (5:1–6:18). An official authorization by the Persian court of Artaxerxes permitted Ezra to return, and this included a description of material entrusted into his keeping (7:12-26). Since all of those sections were official correspondence, the record naturally is written in Aramaic.<\/p>\n<h5>Hebrew Lists<\/h5>\n<p>Ezra included Hebrew documents listing people’s names for a number of purposes. One such document indicated the Persian government’s permission for Jewish immigrants to return to the land of Israel (Ezr 1:2-4). It was a Jewish version of Cyrus’s general edict expressing concern for all his subjects. The edict in Aramaic is repeated by Ezra in 6:3-5, and that version is probably taken from an original memorandum of a royal decision. Ezra included lists of the immigrants who returned to begin the second commonwealth of Israel (ch 2, repeated in Neh 7). The book also contains a list of immigrants who returned with Ezra by permission of Artaxerxes I (Ezr 8:1-14). Lists of those who had married pagan wives are provided as well (10:18-43).<\/p>\n<h5>Narrative<\/h5>\n<p>The rest of the book comprises narrative by Ezra himself. For the period of the first return prior to his own time, he probably drew upon existing sources, either oral or documentary. Material in the book that was contemporary with the scribe would be his personal account about his own work.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Traditionally, the Artaxerxes in Ezra 7:1 has been identified with Artaxerxes I Longimanus. Ezra’s arrival in Jerusalem would thus have been in 458 <span>BC<\/span> (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg for 7:8). Therefore, Ezra’s work at Jerusalem started before that of Nehemiah, who came in 445 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>But the traditional dates are questioned from a number of sources. One alternative is to place Nehemiah during the reign of Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>) and Ezra at a later date, in the reign of Artaxerxes II Mnemon (404–359 <span>BC<\/span>). Such a suggestion creates a difficulty with Nehemiah 8:2, because there Ezra is named as Nehemiah’s contemporary and coworker.<\/p>\n<p>In addition, the Elephantine papyri (407–400 <span>BC<\/span>) mention the high priest Johanan in Jerusalem, and Sanballat as governor of Samaria. Johanan is considered a grandson of Eliashib, but Nehemiah was a contemporary of Eliashib (Neh 3:1, 20). The biblical material that speaks of Nehemiah going to Jerusalem in the 20th year of Artaxerxes (Neh 2:1, 445 <span>BC<\/span>) and again during the 32nd year (Neh 13:6, 433 <span>BC<\/span>) refers to Eliashib’s contemporary high priesthood with Ezra. The traditional position thus furnishes a reasonable date for the book of Ezra. If the scribe were placed during the reign of Artaxerxes II (c. 397 <span>BC<\/span>), his ministry would be too late for the high priesthood of Johanan.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LanguagesTextsandVersions\">Languages, Texts, and Versions<\/p>\n<p>The primary language of the book of Ezra is Hebrew; the exceptions are 4:7, 6:18, and 7:12-26, which are written in Aramaic. The Hebrew portion appears to resemble the language of Daniel, Haggai, and 2 Chronicles much more than later Hebrew, such as that of Ecclesiasticus. As indicated, the Aramaic portions resemble the Elephantine papyri, dated about 407–400 <span>BC<\/span>. In addition, Persian personal and family names and Persian words and expressions occur in the book, such as Bigvai, Mithredath, and Elam. All of these evidences serve to place the book in about the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew Masoretic Text of Ezra seems well preserved. The Septuagint version is a bit shorter than the Masoretic Text. Only parts of Ezra 4 and 5 have been found among the Dead Sea Scrolls.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandContent\">Purpose and Content<\/p>\n<p>The book of Ezra is a straightforward account of one of the most important events in Jewish history. From a priestly point of view, it is an account of the restoration of Jewish people to their homeland following the Babylonian dispersion. The record tells of two distinct returns, one under the leadership of Zerubbabel (chs 1–6; 538 <span>BC<\/span>), and 80 years later, the second return led by Ezra (chs 7–10; 458 <span>BC<\/span>). The book emphasizes Ezra’s leadership and the reestablishment of the people on their land, both of which were to have important future consequences.<\/p>\n<p>Little is known about the political activity of Ezra in the Persian court. He appears to have been a man of considerable influence, however, and could well be described as an official who held a position corresponding to that of “Secretary of State for Jewish Affairs.” To what extent that function applied to the Persian Empire as a whole is uncertain, since Ezra’s recorded activities took place only in the area known to the Persians as the province “Beyond the River,” that is, the territory lying to the west of the Euphrates. The importance of Ezra’s position in the Persian Empire is indicated by the fact that King Artaxerxes gave him full authority to do whatever he thought necessary for the welfare of his people and the empire (7:21-26). Ezra’s genealogy is given in 7:1-5, and he is consistently spoken of as a scribe learned in the Mosaic law. As a descendant of Zadok the priest, he would have the authority to instruct others in the Torah.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 4 speaks of the opposition to rebuilding the temple and the walls. We should recognize that Ezra’s approach in this chapter is topical rather than chronological where, in the middle of describing the earlier opposition to building the temple (5:1-5), he complained that the same kind of opposition was being repeated in his day concerning the attempt to rebuild the city walls and repair the fortifications of Jerusalem (5:7-23). Internal evidence suggests that a long historical interval ensued during the reign of Ahasuerus, or Xerxes, and the early part of Artaxerxes’ regime. During this period, complaints were made to the Persian authorities that the returned Judeans were rebuilding the city wall of Jerusalem, and as a result the work was halted for some time. It readily can be seen that Ezra was dealing with the evil intentions of Judah’s enemies and that the opposition of Rehum and Shimshai did not appear in the 520s (when the temple was being built) because they lived in the 460s, early in the reign of Artaxerxes I.<\/p>\n<p>But the initial passage is actually a history of opposition to rebuilding the ruined temple. It narrates the frustrations experienced by the Judean community from the time of return to their homeland during Cyrus’s rule (4:1-5) up to the time of King Darius (v 24). The prophet Haggai (520 <span>BC<\/span>) aroused the people with his message and persuaded them to lay the foundations of the new temple.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra resumes the theme of the book in chapter 5. He points out the problems, frustrations, and hindrances the Jewish people had with the construction of the temple. It was not until a diligent search had been made in the archives by the Persian authorities that the original edict granting permission to build the temple was found (5:7–6:5).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Ezra (Person) #1; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EZRA, Book of One of the historical books of the OT, associated with 2 Chronicles and Nehemiah. Preview • Name • Background • Sources • Date • Languages, Texts, and Versions • Purpose and Content Name In the Talmud tractate Baba Bathra 15a, the rabbis and scribes regarded Ezra and Nehemiah as one book. Josephus (Apion 1.8) also considered the two books to be one when the number of OT books was given as 22. Some church fathers, such as Melito of Sardis and Jerome, thought of them as one book. ...","summary_en":"EZRA, Book of One of the historical books of the OT, associated with 2 Chronicles and Nehemiah. Preview • Name • Background • Sources • Date • Languages, Texts, and Versions • Purpose and Content Name In the Talmud tractate Baba Bathra 15a, the rabbis and scribes regarded Ezra and Nehemiah as one book. Josephus (Apion 1.8) also considered the two books to be one when the number of OT books was given as 22. Some church fathers, such as Melito of Sardis and Jerome, thought of them as one book. ...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13447,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Genealogy","title_en":"Genealogy","content_ro":"<h3>GENEALOGY<\/h3>\n<p>Record or study of descent involving a tracing backward or forward of the ancestry of a nation, tribe, family, or individual. The Hebrews were not the only people in the ancient world to take an interest in maintaining genealogical records. The Sumerian king list of the third millennium <span>BC<\/span> contains records of the early rulers of Mesopotamia. In Babylonian records the word “son” was frequently used in the sense of “descendant of.” King Tirhakah of Egypt (c. 685 <span>BC<\/span>) referred to his “father,” Sesostris III, who lived some 1,200 years before him. Greeks and Romans also kept genealogical records. However, the biblical genealogies, especially those in Genesis and 1 Chronicles 1–9, are unique in the literature of the ancient Near East. Only at the beginning of the Islamic age are such broad genealogical records found. Even today among tribal Semites, such as Arab nomads, there is an intense interest in genealogy, and it is not unusual for an Arab to be able to recite accurately the names of his ancestors for 10 or 15 generations back, covering a period of several hundred years.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TermsUsed\">Terms Used<\/p>\n<p>The word “genealogy” occurs only once as a noun in the Hebrew OT (Neh 7:5), where it refers to a register of those who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel at the end of the exile. The verbal form of the same word is found a total of 20 times in 1—2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. The terms “generations” and “book of the generations,” used in Genesis and elsewhere in the OT, convey the same idea. The equivalent NT terms are found in 1 Timothy 1:4 and Titus 3:9 (“genealogies”) and Matthew 1:1, which refers to the “book of the genealogy” of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofGenealogicalRecords\">Purpose of Genealogical Records<\/p>\n<p>The keeping of genealogical records in ancient Israel was an important activity and served a number of useful purposes. God’s promise of a land to Abraham and his descendants made such records necessary to establish and preserve the allotment of the land; a genealogical record served as evidence of a legitimate title to the ancestral property. Genealogies were essential for the preservation of the exclusive priesthood that had been established by the Mosaic law. In the time of Josephus every priest was supposed to be able to prove his descent.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most important reasons for keeping genealogical records was to establish and maintain the right of royal succession in Judah through the family of David. The belief that the Messiah would come from the Davidic house made such records even more important.<\/p>\n<p>Other purposes served by these family records included the imposition of military duty according to families (Nm 1:2-3). Position in camp and on the march from Egypt was determined by tribes and families (2:2, 17; 10:11-28). Also, God’s blessings were passed from one member of the family to his descendants (Gn 27). The stress placed on the purity of the congregation (Dt 7:1-4; 23:1-8) required complete family records, particularly in the postexilic period. With the insistence of Ezra and Nehemiah upon racial purity, and with the purging of foreign elements from among the people (Ezr 2:59-63; 10:9-44; Neh 13:23-28), written evidence of purity of descent became essential; interest in the compilation of genealogies became intense after the exile.<\/p>\n<p>Lineage was ordinarily traced through the male members of the family, with females being mentioned only rarely (e.g., Gn 11:29, Sarah and Milcah; 22:23, Rebekah; and Nm 26:33–27:11, where the property inheritance of the daughters of Zelophehad was involved). Matthew mentions three women: Tamar, Rahab, and Ruth; and in the second group alludes to Bathsheba (see discussion below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PrincipalGenealogicalListsintheBible\">Principal Genealogical Lists in the Bible<\/p>\n<p>The principal sources of genealogical material in the OT are found in Genesis, Numbers, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 1—2 Chronicles (which contain the greatest amount of genealogical material in the Bible), Ezra, and Nehemiah. The genealogies of Jesus Christ in Matthew 1 and Luke 3 are the only NT records. Together they contain a genealogical record from Adam to Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Grouped together by historical periods, the following are the principal genealogical lists found in the Bible:<\/p>\n<h5>Before the Flood<\/h5>\n<p>Three lists are from this period. The first, found in Genesis 4:17-22, traces the descendants of Cain through seven generations and explains the hereditary origin of certain occupations and crafts. The second, Genesis 4:25-26, begins the account of the descendants of Seth, the posterity of Adam whose faithfulness to God is contrasted with the ungodly posterity of Cain. The third list, Genesis 5:1-32 (cf. 1 Chr 1:1-4), traces the descendants of Adam through Seth down to Noah and his sons at the time of the Flood.<\/p>\n<h5>From Noah to Abraham<\/h5>\n<p>Genesis 10:1-32 (cf. 1 Chr 1:4-23), frequently called the “table of nations,” contains a list of the nations descended from the sons of Noah (Shem, Ham, and Japheth). Genesis 11:10-26 (cf. 1 Chr 1:24-27) traces the descendants of Shem to the time of Abraham, and Genesis 11:27-30 (see also Gn 22:20-24) lists the descendants of Nahor, Abraham’s brother.<\/p>\n<h5>From Abraham to the Descent into Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>The descendants of Abraham by Hagar, Sarah, and Keturah are found in Genesis 16:15, 21:1-3, and 25:1-4 (introducing the Arabs as descendants of Abraham; cf. 1 Chr 1:28-34). Genesis 19:37-38 links the Moabites and Ammonites to Abraham through his nephew Lot. A very important genealogical list during this period is that of the descendants of Jacob, giving the account of the parentage, birth, and naming of the founders of the 12 tribes of Israel (Gn 29:31–30:24; 35:16-26). Esau is acknowledged as the ancestor of the Edomites; his Edomite descendants are traced through his three wives (Gn 26:34; 36:1-43; 1 Chr 1:35-54). The list of Jacob’s family at the time he entered Egypt, numbering 70, is found in Genesis 46:1-27 (cf. Ex 6:14-16; Nm 26:1-51; 1 Chr 2–8). A partial list of the heads of the fathers’ houses of Reuben, Simeon, and Levi is found in Exodus 6:14-25; the chief purpose of this genealogy is to establish Aaron and Moses as members of Levi’s tribe.<\/p>\n<h5>From the Exodus to the Conquest of Canaan<\/h5>\n<p>While the tribes were still in the desert after leaving Egypt, a census was taken to determine the total number of Israelites (Nm 1:4-54; 2:2-33). During this same period, a genealogy of the family of Aaron was compiled, and a separate census was taken of the Levites (3:1-39). A list of the 12 spies who searched out the land and the tribes they represented is given in Numbers 13:4-16; the most important names on this list are Caleb and Joshua. Near the end of the wilderness wanderings, another census of the people was ordered; the total number was approximately the same as that of the first census almost 40 years earlier (26:4-51, 57-62). As the tribes neared the Promised Land, a list was prepared of the tribal representatives who would take part in the division of the land (34:16-29).<\/p>\n<h5>Period of the Kings<\/h5>\n<p>During the entire period of the monarchy, over 400 years, the only genealogical records of any consequence are those that pertain to David. His descendants are traced through 20 rulers who sat upon the throne of Judah until the nation fell to the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (1—2 Kgs; cf. 1 Chr 11:1—2 Chr 36:21). A list of David’s children is found in 2 Samuel 3:2-5 and 5:14-16 (cf. 1 Chr 3:1-9; 14:4-7). His mighty men, an elite group of soldiers, are named in 2 Samuel 23:8-39 (cf. 1 Chr 11:10-47). His recruits at Ziklag are recorded in 1 Chronicles 12:1-22. Those who were his musicians and doorkeepers when the ark was brought to Jerusalem are named in 1 Chronicles 15:1-24 (cf. 1 Chr 16:5-6, 37-43). David’s political and religious organization of the kingdom—including the Levites, priests, singers, porters and other administrative officials, and military officers—is found in 1 Chronicles 23–27. In spite of the literary activity associated with the reign of Solomon, the only genealogical record preserved from this period is that of Solomon’s princes and 12 officers (1 Kgs 4:1-19). The genealogy of one prophet is traced back four generations (Zep 1:1).<\/p>\n<h5>The Postexilic Period<\/h5>\n<p>During the postexilic period, the keeping of genealogical records probably received its greatest impetus through the activity of Ezra and Nehemiah, primarily because of their insistence upon racial purity and the purging of foreign elements from the community. A list of the exiles who returned with Zerubbabel is found in Ezra 2:1-70 (cf. Neh 7:6-73, where the same list is found). A list of those who returned with Ezra is included in 8:1-20. Ezra’s own genealogy is also recorded (Ezr 7:5). There is a list of the Jews who married foreign women that included priests, Levites, singers, porters, and other Israelites (Ezr 10:18-44). Nehemiah 8:4-7 names the Levites and others who assisted Ezra when he read the law publicly. Nehemiah also contains a list of those who participated in the ceremony of sealing the covenant (Neh 10:1-27) and a list of those who lived in Jerusalem and other cities (11:3-36). His interest in the priesthood is reflected in the list of priests and Levites who returned with Zerubbabel (12:1-9), of the high priests from Jeshua to Jaddua (vv 10-11), of the heads of the priestly families (vv 12-21), of the Levites and porters who served under the high priest (vv 22-26), and of the princes and priests who were present at the dedication of the rebuilt wall of Jerusalem (vv 31-42).<\/p>\n<p>The final genealogical record that must be mentioned is the genealogy from Adam to Saul (1 Chr 1–8), the longest section of genealogical material in the Bible. It is properly included with the genealogies compiled during the postexilic period, as the unknown chronicler (some think he was Ezra) prepared this list around 400 <span>BC<\/span> from extant records and documents available to him. His purpose seems to have been to conserve the purity of blood in the restored nation and to insist that the nation’s well-being depended on its faithfulness to God’s law.<\/p>\n<h5>The New Testament Period<\/h5>\n<p>The only genealogies of consequence in the NT are those concerning Jesus Christ in Matthew 1:1-17 and Luke 3:23-38. <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GENEALOGY<\/h3>\n<p>Record or study of descent involving a tracing backward or forward of the ancestry of a nation, tribe, family, or individual. The Hebrews were not the only people in the ancient world to take an interest in maintaining genealogical records. The Sumerian king list of the third millennium <span>BC<\/span> contains records of the early rulers of Mesopotamia. In Babylonian records the word “son” was frequently used in the sense of “descendant of.” King Tirhakah of Egypt (c. 685 <span>BC<\/span>) referred to his “father,” Sesostris III, who lived some 1,200 years before him. Greeks and Romans also kept genealogical records. However, the biblical genealogies, especially those in Genesis and 1 Chronicles 1–9, are unique in the literature of the ancient Near East. Only at the beginning of the Islamic age are such broad genealogical records found. Even today among tribal Semites, such as Arab nomads, there is an intense interest in genealogy, and it is not unusual for an Arab to be able to recite accurately the names of his ancestors for 10 or 15 generations back, covering a period of several hundred years.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TermsUsed\">Terms Used<\/p>\n<p>The word “genealogy” occurs only once as a noun in the Hebrew OT (Neh 7:5), where it refers to a register of those who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel at the end of the exile. The verbal form of the same word is found a total of 20 times in 1—2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. The terms “generations” and “book of the generations,” used in Genesis and elsewhere in the OT, convey the same idea. The equivalent NT terms are found in 1 Timothy 1:4 and Titus 3:9 (“genealogies”) and Matthew 1:1, which refers to the “book of the genealogy” of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofGenealogicalRecords\">Purpose of Genealogical Records<\/p>\n<p>The keeping of genealogical records in ancient Israel was an important activity and served a number of useful purposes. God’s promise of a land to Abraham and his descendants made such records necessary to establish and preserve the allotment of the land; a genealogical record served as evidence of a legitimate title to the ancestral property. Genealogies were essential for the preservation of the exclusive priesthood that had been established by the Mosaic law. In the time of Josephus every priest was supposed to be able to prove his descent.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most important reasons for keeping genealogical records was to establish and maintain the right of royal succession in Judah through the family of David. The belief that the Messiah would come from the Davidic house made such records even more important.<\/p>\n<p>Other purposes served by these family records included the imposition of military duty according to families (Nm 1:2-3). Position in camp and on the march from Egypt was determined by tribes and families (2:2, 17; 10:11-28). Also, God’s blessings were passed from one member of the family to his descendants (Gn 27). The stress placed on the purity of the congregation (Dt 7:1-4; 23:1-8) required complete family records, particularly in the postexilic period. With the insistence of Ezra and Nehemiah upon racial purity, and with the purging of foreign elements from among the people (Ezr 2:59-63; 10:9-44; Neh 13:23-28), written evidence of purity of descent became essential; interest in the compilation of genealogies became intense after the exile.<\/p>\n<p>Lineage was ordinarily traced through the male members of the family, with females being mentioned only rarely (e.g., Gn 11:29, Sarah and Milcah; 22:23, Rebekah; and Nm 26:33–27:11, where the property inheritance of the daughters of Zelophehad was involved). Matthew mentions three women: Tamar, Rahab, and Ruth; and in the second group alludes to Bathsheba (see discussion below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PrincipalGenealogicalListsintheBible\">Principal Genealogical Lists in the Bible<\/p>\n<p>The principal sources of genealogical material in the OT are found in Genesis, Numbers, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 1—2 Chronicles (which contain the greatest amount of genealogical material in the Bible), Ezra, and Nehemiah. The genealogies of Jesus Christ in Matthew 1 and Luke 3 are the only NT records. Together they contain a genealogical record from Adam to Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Grouped together by historical periods, the following are the principal genealogical lists found in the Bible:<\/p>\n<h5>Before the Flood<\/h5>\n<p>Three lists are from this period. The first, found in Genesis 4:17-22, traces the descendants of Cain through seven generations and explains the hereditary origin of certain occupations and crafts. The second, Genesis 4:25-26, begins the account of the descendants of Seth, the posterity of Adam whose faithfulness to God is contrasted with the ungodly posterity of Cain. The third list, Genesis 5:1-32 (cf. 1 Chr 1:1-4), traces the descendants of Adam through Seth down to Noah and his sons at the time of the Flood.<\/p>\n<h5>From Noah to Abraham<\/h5>\n<p>Genesis 10:1-32 (cf. 1 Chr 1:4-23), frequently called the “table of nations,” contains a list of the nations descended from the sons of Noah (Shem, Ham, and Japheth). Genesis 11:10-26 (cf. 1 Chr 1:24-27) traces the descendants of Shem to the time of Abraham, and Genesis 11:27-30 (see also Gn 22:20-24) lists the descendants of Nahor, Abraham’s brother.<\/p>\n<h5>From Abraham to the Descent into Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>The descendants of Abraham by Hagar, Sarah, and Keturah are found in Genesis 16:15, 21:1-3, and 25:1-4 (introducing the Arabs as descendants of Abraham; cf. 1 Chr 1:28-34). Genesis 19:37-38 links the Moabites and Ammonites to Abraham through his nephew Lot. A very important genealogical list during this period is that of the descendants of Jacob, giving the account of the parentage, birth, and naming of the founders of the 12 tribes of Israel (Gn 29:31–30:24; 35:16-26). Esau is acknowledged as the ancestor of the Edomites; his Edomite descendants are traced through his three wives (Gn 26:34; 36:1-43; 1 Chr 1:35-54). The list of Jacob’s family at the time he entered Egypt, numbering 70, is found in Genesis 46:1-27 (cf. Ex 6:14-16; Nm 26:1-51; 1 Chr 2–8). A partial list of the heads of the fathers’ houses of Reuben, Simeon, and Levi is found in Exodus 6:14-25; the chief purpose of this genealogy is to establish Aaron and Moses as members of Levi’s tribe.<\/p>\n<h5>From the Exodus to the Conquest of Canaan<\/h5>\n<p>While the tribes were still in the desert after leaving Egypt, a census was taken to determine the total number of Israelites (Nm 1:4-54; 2:2-33). During this same period, a genealogy of the family of Aaron was compiled, and a separate census was taken of the Levites (3:1-39). A list of the 12 spies who searched out the land and the tribes they represented is given in Numbers 13:4-16; the most important names on this list are Caleb and Joshua. Near the end of the wilderness wanderings, another census of the people was ordered; the total number was approximately the same as that of the first census almost 40 years earlier (26:4-51, 57-62). As the tribes neared the Promised Land, a list was prepared of the tribal representatives who would take part in the division of the land (34:16-29).<\/p>\n<h5>Period of the Kings<\/h5>\n<p>During the entire period of the monarchy, over 400 years, the only genealogical records of any consequence are those that pertain to David. His descendants are traced through 20 rulers who sat upon the throne of Judah until the nation fell to the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (1—2 Kgs; cf. 1 Chr 11:1—2 Chr 36:21). A list of David’s children is found in 2 Samuel 3:2-5 and 5:14-16 (cf. 1 Chr 3:1-9; 14:4-7). His mighty men, an elite group of soldiers, are named in 2 Samuel 23:8-39 (cf. 1 Chr 11:10-47). His recruits at Ziklag are recorded in 1 Chronicles 12:1-22. Those who were his musicians and doorkeepers when the ark was brought to Jerusalem are named in 1 Chronicles 15:1-24 (cf. 1 Chr 16:5-6, 37-43). David’s political and religious organization of the kingdom—including the Levites, priests, singers, porters and other administrative officials, and military officers—is found in 1 Chronicles 23–27. In spite of the literary activity associated with the reign of Solomon, the only genealogical record preserved from this period is that of Solomon’s princes and 12 officers (1 Kgs 4:1-19). The genealogy of one prophet is traced back four generations (Zep 1:1).<\/p>\n<h5>The Postexilic Period<\/h5>\n<p>During the postexilic period, the keeping of genealogical records probably received its greatest impetus through the activity of Ezra and Nehemiah, primarily because of their insistence upon racial purity and the purging of foreign elements from the community. A list of the exiles who returned with Zerubbabel is found in Ezra 2:1-70 (cf. Neh 7:6-73, where the same list is found). A list of those who returned with Ezra is included in 8:1-20. Ezra’s own genealogy is also recorded (Ezr 7:5). There is a list of the Jews who married foreign women that included priests, Levites, singers, porters, and other Israelites (Ezr 10:18-44). Nehemiah 8:4-7 names the Levites and others who assisted Ezra when he read the law publicly. Nehemiah also contains a list of those who participated in the ceremony of sealing the covenant (Neh 10:1-27) and a list of those who lived in Jerusalem and other cities (11:3-36). His interest in the priesthood is reflected in the list of priests and Levites who returned with Zerubbabel (12:1-9), of the high priests from Jeshua to Jaddua (vv 10-11), of the heads of the priestly families (vv 12-21), of the Levites and porters who served under the high priest (vv 22-26), and of the princes and priests who were present at the dedication of the rebuilt wall of Jerusalem (vv 31-42).<\/p>\n<p>The final genealogical record that must be mentioned is the genealogy from Adam to Saul (1 Chr 1–8), the longest section of genealogical material in the Bible. It is properly included with the genealogies compiled during the postexilic period, as the unknown chronicler (some think he was Ezra) prepared this list around 400 <span>BC<\/span> from extant records and documents available to him. His purpose seems to have been to conserve the purity of blood in the restored nation and to insist that the nation’s well-being depended on its faithfulness to God’s law.<\/p>\n<h5>The New Testament Period<\/h5>\n<p>The only genealogies of consequence in the NT are those concerning Jesus Christ in Matthew 1:1-17 and Luke 3:23-38. <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GENEALOGY Record or study of descent involving a tracing backward or forward of the ancestry of a nation, tribe, family, or individual. The Hebrews were not the only people in the ancient world to take an interest in maintaining genealogical records. The Sumerian king list of the third millennium BC contains records of the early rulers of Mesopotamia. In Babylonian records the word “son” was frequently used in the sense of “descendant of.” King Tirhakah of Egypt (c. 685 BC) referred to his “f...","summary_en":"GENEALOGY Record or study of descent involving a tracing backward or forward of the ancestry of a nation, tribe, family, or individual. The Hebrews were not the only people in the ancient world to take an interest in maintaining genealogical records. The Sumerian king list of the third millennium BC contains records of the early rulers of Mesopotamia. In Babylonian records the word “son” was frequently used in the sense of “descendant of.” King Tirhakah of Egypt (c. 685 BC) referred to his “f...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":47991,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:1","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:1-70<\/strong> This chapter is the first of Ezra’s major digressions from the main story line. The returning exiles needed to keep track of who the true Jews were so that the community could maintain its identity (by knowing whom they could marry) and theological purity (by knowing who could worship at the Temple). This list is not an initial list (cp. Neh 7:6-73) of all the Jews who returned to Jerusalem but a slightly later list (after Sheshbazzar had died) of people who had settled in their towns.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:1-70<\/strong> This chapter is the first of Ezra’s major digressions from the main story line. The returning exiles needed to keep track of who the true Jews were so that the community could maintain its identity (by knowing whom they could marry) and theological purity (by knowing who could worship at the Temple). This list is not an initial list (cp. Neh 7:6-73) of all the Jews who returned to Jerusalem but a slightly later list (after Sheshbazzar had died) of people who had settled in their towns.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:1-70 This chapter is the first of Ezra’s major digressions from the main story line. The returning exiles needed to keep track of who the true Jews were so that the community could maintain its identity (by knowing whom they could marry) and theological purity (by knowing who could worship at the Temple). This list is not an initial list (cp. Neh 7:6-73) of all the Jews who returned to Jerusalem but a slightly later list (after Sheshbazzar had died) of people who had settled in their towns.","summary_en":"2:1-70 This chapter is the first of Ezra’s major digressions from the main story line. The returning exiles needed to keep track of who the true Jews were so that the community could maintain its identity (by knowing whom they could marry) and theological purity (by knowing who could worship at the Temple). This list is not an initial list (cp. Neh 7:6-73) of all the Jews who returned to Jerusalem but a slightly later list (after Sheshbazzar had died) of people who had settled in their towns.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75617,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:1","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:1-70<\/strong> This chapter is the first of Ezra’s major digressions from the main story line. The returning exiles needed to keep track of who the true Jews were so that the community could maintain its identity (by knowing whom they could marry) and theological purity (by knowing who could worship at the Temple). This list is not an initial list (cp. Neh 7:6-73) of all the Jews who returned to Jerusalem but a slightly later list (after Sheshbazzar had died) of people who had settled in their towns.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:1-70<\/strong> This chapter is the first of Ezra’s major digressions from the main story line. The returning exiles needed to keep track of who the true Jews were so that the community could maintain its identity (by knowing whom they could marry) and theological purity (by knowing who could worship at the Temple). This list is not an initial list (cp. Neh 7:6-73) of all the Jews who returned to Jerusalem but a slightly later list (after Sheshbazzar had died) of people who had settled in their towns.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:1-70 This chapter is the first of Ezra’s major digressions from the main story line. The returning exiles needed to keep track of who the true Jews were so that the community could maintain its identity (by knowing whom they could marry) and theological purity (by knowing who could worship at the Temple). This list is not an initial list (cp. Neh 7:6-73) of all the Jews who returned to Jerusalem but a slightly later list (after Sheshbazzar had died) of people who had settled in their towns.","summary_en":"2:1-70 This chapter is the first of Ezra’s major digressions from the main story line. The returning exiles needed to keep track of who the true Jews were so that the community could maintain its identity (by knowing whom they could marry) and theological purity (by knowing who could worship at the Temple). This list is not an initial list (cp. Neh 7:6-73) of all the Jews who returned to Jerusalem but a slightly later list (after Sheshbazzar had died) of people who had settled in their towns.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103243,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:1","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:1-70<\/strong> This chapter is the first of Ezra’s major digressions from the main story line. The returning exiles needed to keep track of who the true Jews were so that the community could maintain its identity (by knowing whom they could marry) and theological purity (by knowing who could worship at the Temple). This list is not an initial list (cp. Neh 7:6-73) of all the Jews who returned to Jerusalem but a slightly later list (after Sheshbazzar had died) of people who had settled in their towns.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:1-70<\/strong> This chapter is the first of Ezra’s major digressions from the main story line. The returning exiles needed to keep track of who the true Jews were so that the community could maintain its identity (by knowing whom they could marry) and theological purity (by knowing who could worship at the Temple). This list is not an initial list (cp. Neh 7:6-73) of all the Jews who returned to Jerusalem but a slightly later list (after Sheshbazzar had died) of people who had settled in their towns.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:1-70 This chapter is the first of Ezra’s major digressions from the main story line. The returning exiles needed to keep track of who the true Jews were so that the community could maintain its identity (by knowing whom they could marry) and theological purity (by knowing who could worship at the Temple). This list is not an initial list (cp. Neh 7:6-73) of all the Jews who returned to Jerusalem but a slightly later list (after Sheshbazzar had died) of people who had settled in their towns.","summary_en":"2:1-70 This chapter is the first of Ezra’s major digressions from the main story line. The returning exiles needed to keep track of who the true Jews were so that the community could maintain its identity (by knowing whom they could marry) and theological purity (by knowing who could worship at the Temple). This list is not an initial list (cp. Neh 7:6-73) of all the Jews who returned to Jerusalem but a slightly later list (after Sheshbazzar had died) of people who had settled in their towns.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":130869,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:1","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:1-70<\/strong> This chapter is the first of Ezra’s major digressions from the main story line. The returning exiles needed to keep track of who the true Jews were so that the community could maintain its identity (by knowing whom they could marry) and theological purity (by knowing who could worship at the Temple). This list is not an initial list (cp. Neh 7:6-73) of all the Jews who returned to Jerusalem but a slightly later list (after Sheshbazzar had died) of people who had settled in their towns.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:1-70<\/strong> This chapter is the first of Ezra’s major digressions from the main story line. The returning exiles needed to keep track of who the true Jews were so that the community could maintain its identity (by knowing whom they could marry) and theological purity (by knowing who could worship at the Temple). This list is not an initial list (cp. Neh 7:6-73) of all the Jews who returned to Jerusalem but a slightly later list (after Sheshbazzar had died) of people who had settled in their towns.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:1-70 This chapter is the first of Ezra’s major digressions from the main story line. The returning exiles needed to keep track of who the true Jews were so that the community could maintain its identity (by knowing whom they could marry) and theological purity (by knowing who could worship at the Temple). This list is not an initial list (cp. Neh 7:6-73) of all the Jews who returned to Jerusalem but a slightly later list (after Sheshbazzar had died) of people who had settled in their towns.","summary_en":"2:1-70 This chapter is the first of Ezra’s major digressions from the main story line. The returning exiles needed to keep track of who the true Jews were so that the community could maintain its identity (by knowing whom they could marry) and theological purity (by knowing who could worship at the Temple). This list is not an initial list (cp. Neh 7:6-73) of all the Jews who returned to Jerusalem but a slightly later list (after Sheshbazzar had died) of people who had settled in their towns.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":3289,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Azariah","title_en":"Azariah","content_ro":"<h3>AZARIAH<\/h3>\n<p>Very common Jewish name. Its numerous occurrences in the priestly genealogies has caused much confusion. The following is one of several possible arrangements:<\/p>\n<li> 1. Zadok’s son or grandson. According to most translations, Azariah was high priest during Solomon’s reign (1 Kgs 4:2). It is possible, however, that his position should be understood as that of a special counselor or keeper of the royal calendar.<\/li>\n<li> 2. Nathan’s son, a high official in King Solomon’s court. He was chief officer over the 12 regional administrators (1 Kgs 4:5).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Amaziah’s son, king of Judah (2 Kgs 14:21; 15:1-7), more frequently known as Uzziah. <em>See<\/em> Uzziah #1.<\/li>\n<li> 4. Ethan’s son, a descendant of Judah (1 Chr 2:8).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Jehu’s son, another descendant of Judah (1 Chr 2:38).<\/li>\n<li> 6. Ahimaaz’s son and Zadok’s grandson (1 Chr 6:9). If Azariah #1 was indeed a high priest, this Azariah could be identified with him.<\/li>\n<li> 7. Johanan’s son and Amariah’s father (1 Chr 6:10-11). He is identical with the Azariah of Ezra 7:3 and 2 Esdras 1:2, whose father (meaning “ancestor”) was Meraioth. The parenthetical note about Solomon’s temple (1 Chr 6:10) is generally held to go with the Azariah of verse 9 (see #6 above). It is possible, however, that this Azariah served in the temple (built by Solomon) during the reign of Uzziah and is therefore identical with #17 below.<\/li>\n<li> 8. Hilkiah’s son and Seriah’s father (1 Chr 6:13-14; Ezr 7:1; 2 Esd 1:1). Some have identified this Azariah with #10 or #11 below.<\/li>\n<li> 9. Zephaniah’s son, an ancestor of the singer Heman. Heman sang in the worship ritual instituted by King David (1 Chr 6:36).<\/li>\n<li>10. Hilkiah’s son or descendant, one of the first priests to settle in Jerusalem after the exile (1 Chr 9:11; “Seraiah,” Neh 11:11).<\/li>\n<li>11. Oded’s son, a prophet in the days of King Asa of Judah. He encouraged Asa to initiate badly needed reforms in the king’s 15th year (2 Chr 15:1-15).<\/li>\n<li>12, 13. Two sons of King Jehoshaphat of Judah. Along with four of their brothers, they were killed for political reasons by Jehoram, heir to the throne (2 Chr 21:1-4).<\/li>\n<li>14. Alternate name of Ahaziah, king of Judah (2 Chr 22:6, <span>kjv<\/span>). <em>See<\/em> Ahaziah #2.<\/li>\n<li>15. Jehoram’s son, one of Judah’s military commanders. This Azariah followed Jehoiada the priest in a rebellion that resulted in the execution of Queen Athaliah and the crowning of Joash as king (2 Chr 23:1).<\/li>\n<li>16. Obed’s son, another of the five commanders in league with Jehoiada against Athaliah (2 Chr 23:1).<\/li>\n<li>17. High priest in Jerusalem during the reign of King Uzziah (2 Chr 26:16-21). He opposed Uzziah’s arrogant attempt to burn incense on the altar. Perhaps the same as #7 above.<\/li>\n<li>18. Johanan’s son, a leader of Ephraim’s tribe. Azariah and other leaders of the tribe joined the prophet Obed in protesting the capture of Judean prisoners by King Pekah of Israel and in effecting their release (2 Chr 28:12).<\/li>\n<li>19. Descendant of Kohath and the father of a Levite named Joel. Joel participated in the temple cleansing instituted by King Hezekiah of Judah (2 Chr 29:12).<\/li>\n<li>20. Jehallelel’s son. This Azariah, a descendant of Merari, also participated in Hezekiah’s cleansing of the temple (2 Chr 29:12).<\/li>\n<li>21. Zadok’s descendant and high priest during the reign of Hezekiah of Judah (2 Chr 31:10, 13). He participated in Hezekiah’s massive religious reforms.<\/li>\n<li>22. Maaseiah’s son, a householder in Jerusalem who participated in Nehemiah’s rebuilding of the wall (Neh 3:23).<\/li>\n<li>23. Leader who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Neh 7:7; “Seraiah,” Ezr 2:2).<\/li>\n<li>24. Levitical assistant of Ezra who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7).<\/li>\n<li>25. Priest who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:2).<\/li>\n<li>26. Participant in the dedication of the rebuilt wall of Jerusalem (Neh 12:33).<\/li>\n<li>27. Alternate form of Jaazaniah, the name of Hoshaiah’s son, in Jeremiah 42:1 and 43:2. <em>See<\/em> Jaazaniah #1.<\/li>\n<li>28. One of the three young Jews taken into captivity with Daniel. In Babylon he was renamed Abednego (Dn 1:6-7, 11, 19; 2:17). <em>See<\/em> Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>AZARIAH<\/h3>\n<p>Very common Jewish name. Its numerous occurrences in the priestly genealogies has caused much confusion. The following is one of several possible arrangements:<\/p>\n<li> 1. Zadok’s son or grandson. According to most translations, Azariah was high priest during Solomon’s reign (1 Kgs 4:2). It is possible, however, that his position should be understood as that of a special counselor or keeper of the royal calendar.<\/li>\n<li> 2. Nathan’s son, a high official in King Solomon’s court. He was chief officer over the 12 regional administrators (1 Kgs 4:5).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Amaziah’s son, king of Judah (2 Kgs 14:21; 15:1-7), more frequently known as Uzziah. <em>See<\/em> Uzziah #1.<\/li>\n<li> 4. Ethan’s son, a descendant of Judah (1 Chr 2:8).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Jehu’s son, another descendant of Judah (1 Chr 2:38).<\/li>\n<li> 6. Ahimaaz’s son and Zadok’s grandson (1 Chr 6:9). If Azariah #1 was indeed a high priest, this Azariah could be identified with him.<\/li>\n<li> 7. Johanan’s son and Amariah’s father (1 Chr 6:10-11). He is identical with the Azariah of Ezra 7:3 and 2 Esdras 1:2, whose father (meaning “ancestor”) was Meraioth. The parenthetical note about Solomon’s temple (1 Chr 6:10) is generally held to go with the Azariah of verse 9 (see #6 above). It is possible, however, that this Azariah served in the temple (built by Solomon) during the reign of Uzziah and is therefore identical with #17 below.<\/li>\n<li> 8. Hilkiah’s son and Seriah’s father (1 Chr 6:13-14; Ezr 7:1; 2 Esd 1:1). Some have identified this Azariah with #10 or #11 below.<\/li>\n<li> 9. Zephaniah’s son, an ancestor of the singer Heman. Heman sang in the worship ritual instituted by King David (1 Chr 6:36).<\/li>\n<li>10. Hilkiah’s son or descendant, one of the first priests to settle in Jerusalem after the exile (1 Chr 9:11; “Seraiah,” Neh 11:11).<\/li>\n<li>11. Oded’s son, a prophet in the days of King Asa of Judah. He encouraged Asa to initiate badly needed reforms in the king’s 15th year (2 Chr 15:1-15).<\/li>\n<li>12, 13. Two sons of King Jehoshaphat of Judah. Along with four of their brothers, they were killed for political reasons by Jehoram, heir to the throne (2 Chr 21:1-4).<\/li>\n<li>14. Alternate name of Ahaziah, king of Judah (2 Chr 22:6, <span>kjv<\/span>). <em>See<\/em> Ahaziah #2.<\/li>\n<li>15. Jehoram’s son, one of Judah’s military commanders. This Azariah followed Jehoiada the priest in a rebellion that resulted in the execution of Queen Athaliah and the crowning of Joash as king (2 Chr 23:1).<\/li>\n<li>16. Obed’s son, another of the five commanders in league with Jehoiada against Athaliah (2 Chr 23:1).<\/li>\n<li>17. High priest in Jerusalem during the reign of King Uzziah (2 Chr 26:16-21). He opposed Uzziah’s arrogant attempt to burn incense on the altar. Perhaps the same as #7 above.<\/li>\n<li>18. Johanan’s son, a leader of Ephraim’s tribe. Azariah and other leaders of the tribe joined the prophet Obed in protesting the capture of Judean prisoners by King Pekah of Israel and in effecting their release (2 Chr 28:12).<\/li>\n<li>19. Descendant of Kohath and the father of a Levite named Joel. Joel participated in the temple cleansing instituted by King Hezekiah of Judah (2 Chr 29:12).<\/li>\n<li>20. Jehallelel’s son. This Azariah, a descendant of Merari, also participated in Hezekiah’s cleansing of the temple (2 Chr 29:12).<\/li>\n<li>21. Zadok’s descendant and high priest during the reign of Hezekiah of Judah (2 Chr 31:10, 13). He participated in Hezekiah’s massive religious reforms.<\/li>\n<li>22. Maaseiah’s son, a householder in Jerusalem who participated in Nehemiah’s rebuilding of the wall (Neh 3:23).<\/li>\n<li>23. Leader who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Neh 7:7; “Seraiah,” Ezr 2:2).<\/li>\n<li>24. Levitical assistant of Ezra who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7).<\/li>\n<li>25. Priest who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:2).<\/li>\n<li>26. Participant in the dedication of the rebuilt wall of Jerusalem (Neh 12:33).<\/li>\n<li>27. Alternate form of Jaazaniah, the name of Hoshaiah’s son, in Jeremiah 42:1 and 43:2. <em>See<\/em> Jaazaniah #1.<\/li>\n<li>28. One of the three young Jews taken into captivity with Daniel. In Babylon he was renamed Abednego (Dn 1:6-7, 11, 19; 2:17). <em>See<\/em> Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego.<\/li>","summary_ro":"AZARIAH Very common Jewish name. Its numerous occurrences in the priestly genealogies has caused much confusion. The following is one of several possible arrangements: 1. Zadok’s son or grandson. According to most translations, Azariah was high priest during Solomon’s reign (1 Kgs 4:2). It is possible, however, that his position should be understood as that of a special counselor or keeper of the royal calendar. 2. Nathan’s son, a high official in King Solomon’s court. He was chief officer ov...","summary_en":"AZARIAH Very common Jewish name. Its numerous occurrences in the priestly genealogies has caused much confusion. The following is one of several possible arrangements: 1. Zadok’s son or grandson. According to most translations, Azariah was high priest during Solomon’s reign (1 Kgs 4:2). It is possible, however, that his position should be understood as that of a special counselor or keeper of the royal calendar. 2. Nathan’s son, a high official in King Solomon’s court. He was chief officer ov...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":3428,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Baanah","title_en":"Baanah","content_ro":"<h3>BAANAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Rimmon’s son, a member of Benjamin’s tribe. Baanah and his brother Rechab were captains under Ishbosheth after Ishbosheth’s father, King Saul, died in battle. Ishbosheth, crowned king by Saul’s general, Abner, was David’s rival to the throne of Israel. Baanah and Rechab murdered Ishbosheth in his sleep and cut off his head (2 Sm 4:2-7). They took the head to David, thinking he would be pleased that they had killed the son of his enemy. But David, who had wept at the death of Saul, God’s chosen king (ch 1), was angry instead. He ordered Baanah and Rechab executed. Their hands and feet were cut off and their bodies hanged (4:8-12).<\/li>\n<li>2. Baanah’s son, Heled, from the town of Netophah near Bethlehem in Judah’s territory, was one of David’s 30 “mighty men” (2 Sm 23:29; 1 Chr 11:30).<\/li>\n<li>3. KJV form of Baana, Hushai’s son, in 1 Kings 4:16. <em>See<\/em> Baana #2.<\/li>\n<li>4. Leader who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7).<\/li>\n<li>5. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:27). He is possibly the same as Baana (Neh 3:4).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>BAANAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Rimmon’s son, a member of Benjamin’s tribe. Baanah and his brother Rechab were captains under Ishbosheth after Ishbosheth’s father, King Saul, died in battle. Ishbosheth, crowned king by Saul’s general, Abner, was David’s rival to the throne of Israel. Baanah and Rechab murdered Ishbosheth in his sleep and cut off his head (2 Sm 4:2-7). They took the head to David, thinking he would be pleased that they had killed the son of his enemy. But David, who had wept at the death of Saul, God’s chosen king (ch 1), was angry instead. He ordered Baanah and Rechab executed. Their hands and feet were cut off and their bodies hanged (4:8-12).<\/li>\n<li>2. Baanah’s son, Heled, from the town of Netophah near Bethlehem in Judah’s territory, was one of David’s 30 “mighty men” (2 Sm 23:29; 1 Chr 11:30).<\/li>\n<li>3. KJV form of Baana, Hushai’s son, in 1 Kings 4:16. <em>See<\/em> Baana #2.<\/li>\n<li>4. Leader who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7).<\/li>\n<li>5. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:27). He is possibly the same as Baana (Neh 3:4).<\/li>","summary_ro":"BAANAH 1. Rimmon’s son, a member of Benjamin’s tribe. Baanah and his brother Rechab were captains under Ishbosheth after Ishbosheth’s father, King Saul, died in battle. Ishbosheth, crowned king by Saul’s general, Abner, was David’s rival to the throne of Israel. Baanah and Rechab murdered Ishbosheth in his sleep and cut off his head (2 Sm 4:2-7). They took the head to David, thinking he would be pleased that they had killed the son of his enemy. But David, who had wept at the death of Saul, G...","summary_en":"BAANAH 1. Rimmon’s son, a member of Benjamin’s tribe. Baanah and his brother Rechab were captains under Ishbosheth after Ishbosheth’s father, King Saul, died in battle. Ishbosheth, crowned king by Saul’s general, Abner, was David’s rival to the throne of Israel. Baanah and Rechab murdered Ishbosheth in his sleep and cut off his head (2 Sm 4:2-7). They took the head to David, thinking he would be pleased that they had killed the son of his enemy. But David, who had wept at the death of Saul, G...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":4916,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bigvai","title_en":"Bigvai","content_ro":"<h3>BIGVAI<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:2, 14; Neh 7:7, 19). Since his name is Persian, Bigvai may have been born or renamed during the exile.<\/li>\n<li>2. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:16); possibly a representative for the family descended from #1 above.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>BIGVAI<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:2, 14; Neh 7:7, 19). Since his name is Persian, Bigvai may have been born or renamed during the exile.<\/li>\n<li>2. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:16); possibly a representative for the family descended from #1 above.<\/li>","summary_ro":"BIGVAI 1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:2, 14; Neh 7:7, 19). Since his name is Persian, Bigvai may have been born or renamed during the exile. 2. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:16); possibly a representative for the family descended from #1 above.","summary_en":"BIGVAI 1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:2, 14; Neh 7:7, 19). Since his name is Persian, Bigvai may have been born or renamed during the exile. 2. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:16); possibly a representative for the family descended from #1 above.","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":4942,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bilshan","title_en":"Bilshan","content_ro":"<h3>BILSHAN<\/h3>\n<p>One, who with Nehemiah and Zerubbabel, led a group of Jews to Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BILSHAN<\/h3>\n<p>One, who with Nehemiah and Zerubbabel, led a group of Jews to Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BILSHAN One, who with Nehemiah and Zerubbabel, led a group of Jews to Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7).","summary_en":"BILSHAN One, who with Nehemiah and Zerubbabel, led a group of Jews to Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7).","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":8605,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Darius","title_en":"Darius","content_ro":"<h3>DARIUS<\/h3>\n<p>Name of three emperors in the Persian dynasty of the legendary King Achaemenes. A Darius appears in the biblical books of Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, and Zechariah as a Persian king, and in the book of Daniel as a Mede who became king over the Chaldeans (Dn 9:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DariusI\">Darius I (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>)<\/p>\n<p>Also known as Darius Hystaspes and Darius the Great, Darius I seized the throne of the Persian Empire after the death of Cambyses II. Although he was an Achaemenid, he was from a different branch of the royal family than Cyrus and Cambyses, and his authority was not accepted in all the provinces. After Darius quelled several revolts, however, his power was firmly established, and he turned his attention to expanding the empire. His military campaigns extended Persian borders to the Danube River in the west and to the Indus River in the east, making him ruler of the largest empire the world had known. Greco-Persian conflict, which continued until Alexander the Great conquered the empire in 330 <span>BC<\/span>, began when Darius launched two invasions of Greece after conquering Thrace and Macedonia. The first expedition was destroyed by a storm in the Aegean Sea; the second was defeated by the Athenians in the famous battle of Marathon in 490 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>An able administrator, Darius did much to promote trade and commerce. He instituted a uniform system of weights and measures. During his reign, a canal from the Nile River to the Red Sea was completed, and a sea route from the Indus River to Egypt was explored.<\/p>\n<p>During Darius’s reign, Persian architecture developed a style that continued until the end of the Achaemenid dynasty. Darius built at Babylon, Ecbatana, and Susa, his capital. A great royal road was constructed from Susa to the Lydian capital of Sardis. His greatest architectural accomplishment was the founding of Persepolis, a new royal city to replace the emperor’s residence at Pasargadae. Darius also allowed temples to be built in Egypt and in Jerusalem, continuing Cyrus’s policy of respecting the religious customs of his subjects.<\/p>\n<p>Darius I is the Darius, king of Persia, mentioned in the books of Ezra, Haggai, and Zechariah. Ezra 5–6 record that Zerubbabel and Jeshua, with the help of Haggai and Zechariah, finished rebuilding the temple during Darius’s reign while Tattenai was governor of the province “Beyond the River” (Syria-Palestine). Zerubbabel and Jeshua had returned to Jerusalem under Cyrus II about 538 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 2:2). They completed the temple in the sixth year of Darius (6:15). That must have been the sixth year of Darius I (516 <span>BC<\/span>), since the sixth year of Darius II would certainly be too late. That identification was confirmed by discovery of a Babylonian document, dated June 5, 502 <span>BC<\/span>, which refers to Tattenai as “the governor of Beyond the River.”<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 4 of Ezra three Persian rulers are mentioned: Darius (vv 5, 24); Ahasuerus (probably Xerxes I, v 6); and Artaxerxes (probably Artaxerxes I, vv 7-23). The chapter is a brief record of resistance to Jewish efforts to rebuild the city of Jerusalem and the temple. Verse 24 states that work on the temple stopped until “the second year of the reign of Darius,” yet the temple was completed in the sixth year of Darius I. Obviously, work on the temple could not have stopped in the second year of Artaxerxes’ son Darius II (421 <span>BC<\/span>) if it had already been finished in 515 <span>BC<\/span>. Therefore, Ezra 4:24 should be understood not as a chronological continuation of the first 23 verses but as an introduction to the next two chapters, which discuss the building of the temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DariusII\">Darius II (423–404 <span>BC<\/span>)<\/p>\n<p>Also known as Ochus (his real name) and Darius Nothus (“Darius the bastard”), Darius II was the son of Artaxerxes I by a Babylonian concubine. Before he became emperor, Ochus was a satrap (governor) of Hyrcania, a region on the southeast coast of the Caspian Sea. In 423 <span>BC<\/span> his half brother, Sogdianus (or Secydianus), killed Xerxes II. Ochus then seized the throne from Sogdianus, whom he executed, and adopted the name Darius II. His reign was plagued with revolution and corruption. His own full brother, Arsites, revolted soon after Darius seized the throne, and Darius had him executed.<\/p>\n<p>After an alliance with Sparta was formed against Athens, Persia joined the Peloponnesian War. Several successful military campaigns succeeded in recovering the Greek coastal cities of Asia Minor and breaking Athenian power in the Aegean area. Darius II died in Babylon in 404 <span>BC<\/span>, the year the Peloponnesian War ended.<\/p>\n<p>The Darius mentioned only once in the book of Nehemiah probably is Darius II. The passage states that Jewish priests were recorded “until the reign of Darius the Persian” (Neh 12:22b); descendants of Levi were recorded “until the days of Johanan son of Eliashib” (Neh 12:23). An Aramaic document found in Elephantine, Egypt, refers to Johanan the high priest in Jerusalem. The document was written in 407 <span>BC<\/span>, thus placing Johanan in the reign of Darius II.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DariustheMede\">Darius the Mede<\/p>\n<p>Unknown in historical documents of the period of the Babylonian and Persian empires, this biblical Darius has been identified with several known figures. The most important efforts have identified Darius the Mede as another name for Cyrus II (“Cyrus the Persian,” Dn 6:28); for Cambyses II, Cyrus’s son; or for Gubaru, who was governor of Babylon and the province Beyond the River during the reigns of Cyrus II and Cambyses II.<\/p>\n<p>According to the book of Daniel, “Darius the Mede received the kingdom” when Belshazzar, king of Babylon, was slain (Dn 5:30-31). Darius was about 62 years old (v 31) and was “the son of Ahasuerus, by birth a Mede” (9:1). Daniel never suggested that Darius was king of Media or of the whole Persian Empire, only of the Chaldean (Babylonian) kingdom. The Babylonian Empire included Mesopotamia (Babylonia and Assyria) and Syro-Palestine (Syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine). In the Persian Empire, that huge area became known as the province of Babylon (Mesopotamia) and Beyond the River (Syro-Palestine). Daniel also recorded that Darius appointed governors in the kingdom. By the third year of Cyrus the Persian (536 <span>BC<\/span>), the first year of Darius the Mede had already passed (Dn 10:1–11:1).<\/p>\n<p>According to Nabonidus’s Chronicle and the Persian Verse Account of Nabonidus (two cuneiform documents from Nabonidus’s reign), Nabonidus was in Tema until Cyrus’s invasion of Babylonia. While he was away, he “entrusted the kingship” to his son Belshazzar. On October 12, 539 <span>BC<\/span>, Babylon fell to Ugbaru, general of Cyrus’s army. Cyrus entered Babylon on October 29, 539 <span>BC<\/span>, and appointed a person named Gubaru governor of Babylon. Gubaru then appointed other governors under him. General Ugbaru died on November 6, 539 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Clearly there is no place for Darius the Mede between the reigns of Nabonidus\/Belshazzar and Cyrus II. Thus Darius the Mede must be Cyrus, a subordinate of Cyrus, or Cambyses, crown prince under Cyrus. But Cyrus II is mentioned as a separate person (Dn 6:28; 10:1–11:1), and it seems unlikely that the author would name the same figure both “Cyrus the Persian” and “Darius the Mede.” Cambyses II could not have been 62 years old; also, since he was not made king of Babylon until he became king of the empire in 529 <span>BC<\/span>, Cambyses’ first year could not precede Cyrus’s third year (536 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Darius the Mede was thus probably a subordinate of Cyrus who was made ruler of “the realm of the Chaldeans” after Belshazzar and who could have been considered a king by his subjects. Accordingly, the reign of Darius (Dn 6:28) should be understood as simultaneous with that of Cyrus, not as a preceding reign. Thus, Gubaru was made governor of Babylon immediately following the reign of Belshazzar, and he appointed governors, as did Darius the Mede. There is no record of Gubaru’s age, nationality, or ancestry. He may well have been a 62-year-old Mede whose father was named Ahasuerus. The Ahasuerus of the book of Esther and of Ezra 4:6 should be identified with a later king, probably Xerxes I.<\/p>\n<p>Many Babylonian texts record that Gubaru was governor of Babylon and the province Beyond the River for about 14 years (539–525 <span>BC<\/span>). The documents attribute much power to him. His name is a final warning to officials who might disobey the laws. In documents that mention Cyrus II or Cambyses II, crimes in Babylon are stated to be sins against Gubaru, not against Cyrus or Cambyses. The province of Babylon and Beyond the River was the richest and most populous in the Persian Empire, encompassing many nations and languages. For a powerful governor of such a region to be called “king” by his subjects seems only natural.<\/p>\n<p>The case for Gubaru is admittedly circumstantial, but it remains the best solution to the problem. Until further evidence comes to light, it is safe to assume that Darius the Mede, “king over the realm of the Chaldeans,” was actually Gubaru, the known governor of that realm.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Medes, Media, Median; Persia, Persians.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DARIUS<\/h3>\n<p>Name of three emperors in the Persian dynasty of the legendary King Achaemenes. A Darius appears in the biblical books of Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, and Zechariah as a Persian king, and in the book of Daniel as a Mede who became king over the Chaldeans (Dn 9:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DariusI\">Darius I (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>)<\/p>\n<p>Also known as Darius Hystaspes and Darius the Great, Darius I seized the throne of the Persian Empire after the death of Cambyses II. Although he was an Achaemenid, he was from a different branch of the royal family than Cyrus and Cambyses, and his authority was not accepted in all the provinces. After Darius quelled several revolts, however, his power was firmly established, and he turned his attention to expanding the empire. His military campaigns extended Persian borders to the Danube River in the west and to the Indus River in the east, making him ruler of the largest empire the world had known. Greco-Persian conflict, which continued until Alexander the Great conquered the empire in 330 <span>BC<\/span>, began when Darius launched two invasions of Greece after conquering Thrace and Macedonia. The first expedition was destroyed by a storm in the Aegean Sea; the second was defeated by the Athenians in the famous battle of Marathon in 490 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>An able administrator, Darius did much to promote trade and commerce. He instituted a uniform system of weights and measures. During his reign, a canal from the Nile River to the Red Sea was completed, and a sea route from the Indus River to Egypt was explored.<\/p>\n<p>During Darius’s reign, Persian architecture developed a style that continued until the end of the Achaemenid dynasty. Darius built at Babylon, Ecbatana, and Susa, his capital. A great royal road was constructed from Susa to the Lydian capital of Sardis. His greatest architectural accomplishment was the founding of Persepolis, a new royal city to replace the emperor’s residence at Pasargadae. Darius also allowed temples to be built in Egypt and in Jerusalem, continuing Cyrus’s policy of respecting the religious customs of his subjects.<\/p>\n<p>Darius I is the Darius, king of Persia, mentioned in the books of Ezra, Haggai, and Zechariah. Ezra 5–6 record that Zerubbabel and Jeshua, with the help of Haggai and Zechariah, finished rebuilding the temple during Darius’s reign while Tattenai was governor of the province “Beyond the River” (Syria-Palestine). Zerubbabel and Jeshua had returned to Jerusalem under Cyrus II about 538 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 2:2). They completed the temple in the sixth year of Darius (6:15). That must have been the sixth year of Darius I (516 <span>BC<\/span>), since the sixth year of Darius II would certainly be too late. That identification was confirmed by discovery of a Babylonian document, dated June 5, 502 <span>BC<\/span>, which refers to Tattenai as “the governor of Beyond the River.”<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 4 of Ezra three Persian rulers are mentioned: Darius (vv 5, 24); Ahasuerus (probably Xerxes I, v 6); and Artaxerxes (probably Artaxerxes I, vv 7-23). The chapter is a brief record of resistance to Jewish efforts to rebuild the city of Jerusalem and the temple. Verse 24 states that work on the temple stopped until “the second year of the reign of Darius,” yet the temple was completed in the sixth year of Darius I. Obviously, work on the temple could not have stopped in the second year of Artaxerxes’ son Darius II (421 <span>BC<\/span>) if it had already been finished in 515 <span>BC<\/span>. Therefore, Ezra 4:24 should be understood not as a chronological continuation of the first 23 verses but as an introduction to the next two chapters, which discuss the building of the temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DariusII\">Darius II (423–404 <span>BC<\/span>)<\/p>\n<p>Also known as Ochus (his real name) and Darius Nothus (“Darius the bastard”), Darius II was the son of Artaxerxes I by a Babylonian concubine. Before he became emperor, Ochus was a satrap (governor) of Hyrcania, a region on the southeast coast of the Caspian Sea. In 423 <span>BC<\/span> his half brother, Sogdianus (or Secydianus), killed Xerxes II. Ochus then seized the throne from Sogdianus, whom he executed, and adopted the name Darius II. His reign was plagued with revolution and corruption. His own full brother, Arsites, revolted soon after Darius seized the throne, and Darius had him executed.<\/p>\n<p>After an alliance with Sparta was formed against Athens, Persia joined the Peloponnesian War. Several successful military campaigns succeeded in recovering the Greek coastal cities of Asia Minor and breaking Athenian power in the Aegean area. Darius II died in Babylon in 404 <span>BC<\/span>, the year the Peloponnesian War ended.<\/p>\n<p>The Darius mentioned only once in the book of Nehemiah probably is Darius II. The passage states that Jewish priests were recorded “until the reign of Darius the Persian” (Neh 12:22b); descendants of Levi were recorded “until the days of Johanan son of Eliashib” (Neh 12:23). An Aramaic document found in Elephantine, Egypt, refers to Johanan the high priest in Jerusalem. The document was written in 407 <span>BC<\/span>, thus placing Johanan in the reign of Darius II.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DariustheMede\">Darius the Mede<\/p>\n<p>Unknown in historical documents of the period of the Babylonian and Persian empires, this biblical Darius has been identified with several known figures. The most important efforts have identified Darius the Mede as another name for Cyrus II (“Cyrus the Persian,” Dn 6:28); for Cambyses II, Cyrus’s son; or for Gubaru, who was governor of Babylon and the province Beyond the River during the reigns of Cyrus II and Cambyses II.<\/p>\n<p>According to the book of Daniel, “Darius the Mede received the kingdom” when Belshazzar, king of Babylon, was slain (Dn 5:30-31). Darius was about 62 years old (v 31) and was “the son of Ahasuerus, by birth a Mede” (9:1). Daniel never suggested that Darius was king of Media or of the whole Persian Empire, only of the Chaldean (Babylonian) kingdom. The Babylonian Empire included Mesopotamia (Babylonia and Assyria) and Syro-Palestine (Syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine). In the Persian Empire, that huge area became known as the province of Babylon (Mesopotamia) and Beyond the River (Syro-Palestine). Daniel also recorded that Darius appointed governors in the kingdom. By the third year of Cyrus the Persian (536 <span>BC<\/span>), the first year of Darius the Mede had already passed (Dn 10:1–11:1).<\/p>\n<p>According to Nabonidus’s Chronicle and the Persian Verse Account of Nabonidus (two cuneiform documents from Nabonidus’s reign), Nabonidus was in Tema until Cyrus’s invasion of Babylonia. While he was away, he “entrusted the kingship” to his son Belshazzar. On October 12, 539 <span>BC<\/span>, Babylon fell to Ugbaru, general of Cyrus’s army. Cyrus entered Babylon on October 29, 539 <span>BC<\/span>, and appointed a person named Gubaru governor of Babylon. Gubaru then appointed other governors under him. General Ugbaru died on November 6, 539 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Clearly there is no place for Darius the Mede between the reigns of Nabonidus\/Belshazzar and Cyrus II. Thus Darius the Mede must be Cyrus, a subordinate of Cyrus, or Cambyses, crown prince under Cyrus. But Cyrus II is mentioned as a separate person (Dn 6:28; 10:1–11:1), and it seems unlikely that the author would name the same figure both “Cyrus the Persian” and “Darius the Mede.” Cambyses II could not have been 62 years old; also, since he was not made king of Babylon until he became king of the empire in 529 <span>BC<\/span>, Cambyses’ first year could not precede Cyrus’s third year (536 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Darius the Mede was thus probably a subordinate of Cyrus who was made ruler of “the realm of the Chaldeans” after Belshazzar and who could have been considered a king by his subjects. Accordingly, the reign of Darius (Dn 6:28) should be understood as simultaneous with that of Cyrus, not as a preceding reign. Thus, Gubaru was made governor of Babylon immediately following the reign of Belshazzar, and he appointed governors, as did Darius the Mede. There is no record of Gubaru’s age, nationality, or ancestry. He may well have been a 62-year-old Mede whose father was named Ahasuerus. The Ahasuerus of the book of Esther and of Ezra 4:6 should be identified with a later king, probably Xerxes I.<\/p>\n<p>Many Babylonian texts record that Gubaru was governor of Babylon and the province Beyond the River for about 14 years (539–525 <span>BC<\/span>). The documents attribute much power to him. His name is a final warning to officials who might disobey the laws. In documents that mention Cyrus II or Cambyses II, crimes in Babylon are stated to be sins against Gubaru, not against Cyrus or Cambyses. The province of Babylon and Beyond the River was the richest and most populous in the Persian Empire, encompassing many nations and languages. For a powerful governor of such a region to be called “king” by his subjects seems only natural.<\/p>\n<p>The case for Gubaru is admittedly circumstantial, but it remains the best solution to the problem. Until further evidence comes to light, it is safe to assume that Darius the Mede, “king over the realm of the Chaldeans,” was actually Gubaru, the known governor of that realm.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Medes, Media, Median; Persia, Persians.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DARIUS Name of three emperors in the Persian dynasty of the legendary King Achaemenes. A Darius appears in the biblical books of Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, and Zechariah as a Persian king, and in the book of Daniel as a Mede who became king over the Chaldeans (Dn 9:1). Darius I (521–486 BC) Also known as Darius Hystaspes and Darius the Great, Darius I seized the throne of the Persian Empire after the death of Cambyses II. Although he was an Achaemenid, he was from a different branch of the royal...","summary_en":"DARIUS Name of three emperors in the Persian dynasty of the legendary King Achaemenes. A Darius appears in the biblical books of Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, and Zechariah as a Persian king, and in the book of Daniel as a Mede who became king over the Chaldeans (Dn 9:1). Darius I (521–486 BC) Also known as Darius Hystaspes and Darius the Great, Darius I seized the throne of the Persian Empire after the death of Cambyses II. Although he was an Achaemenid, he was from a different branch of the royal...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":19251,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jerusalem","title_en":"Jerusalem","content_ro":"<h3>JERUSALEM<\/h3>\n<p>Historic city sacred to Christians, Jews, and Muslims; the chief city of ancient Palestine and of the modern state of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Meaning of the Name<\/p>\n<p>• Geographical Situation<\/p>\n<p>• History<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MeaningoftheName\">Meaning of the Name<\/p>\n<h5>Egyptian Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>The earliest mention of the name occurs in the Egyptian Execration Texts of the 19th and 18th centuries <span>BC<\/span> in the form probably transliterated <em>Urusalimum.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>Semitic Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>In the 14th century <span>BC<\/span> the name appears in the Abdi-Hepa correspondence from Tell el-Amarna, written <em>Urusalim.<\/em> Later it is found in the inscription of the Assyrian monarch Sennacherib, written <em>Ursalimmu.<\/em> The two transparently Semitic elements, <em>uru<\/em> (city) and <em>salim<\/em> (a divine name), have produced the hyphenated composite meaning “the city of [the god] Salim.” Hyphenating geographic names to incorporate divine elements was a common practice in the ancient Near Eastern world, and the deity Salim, or Shalem (Akkadian, Shulmanu; cf. Solomon), was a member of the Amorite pantheon (cf. Ez 16:3). Since the oldest textual evidence—Egyptian, West Semitic, and Akkadian—supports only <em>urusalim,<\/em> and since the OT itself attests that Jerusalem was not originally a Hebrew city, it is probable that the Semitic etymological origin of this name produced the meaning “the city of [the god] Salim.”<\/p>\n<h5>Hebrew\/Aramaic Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>In the Hebrew OT, Jerusalem is written <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yerushalayim<\/span><em>,<\/em> and in the Aramaic portions the name is rendered <em>yerushalem.<\/em> Containing the elements <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yarah<\/span> (“to found,” cf. Jb 38:6) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalem<\/span> (a divine name), it yields the meaning “the foundation of [the god] Shalem,” the <em>sh<\/em> of the Hebrew\/Aramaic to be taken as the phonemic equivalent of the Akkadian <em>s.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>Greek Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>In the NT, Jerusalem translates the two Greek words <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Ierousalem<\/span> and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Hierosoluma<\/span><em>.<\/em> The former is simply the Greek transliteration of the OT Aramaic form; the latter reflects the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieros<\/span> (holy), representing a Hellenized paronomasia, corresponding neither with the Semitic root of the name nor with the city’s historical reality.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GeographicalSituation\">Geographical Situation<\/p>\n<p>Jerusalem is situated 31º 46’ 45” north latitude and 35º 13’ 25” east longitude. The city rises to just over 2,500 feet (762 meters) above sea level and rests some 14 miles (22.5 kilometers) west of the northern end of the Dead Sea and approximately 33 miles (53 kilometers) east of the Mediterranean coast.<\/p>\n<p>A Mediterranean climate pervades Jerusalem. From October to May, the city experiences its rainy season, with an annual accumulation of about 25 inches (63.5 centimeters). Throughout January and February the rains are often driven by winds, and the mercury drops to near freezing (cf. Ezr 10:9); the coldest weather coincides with the days of heaviest rainfall. Snow falls two years out of three. There is no rain between May and September, and a high percentage of solar radiation produces oppressive heat.<\/p>\n<p>Like Rome, Jerusalem is a city set on hills. A cluster of five hills comprise the denuded quadrilateral landmass roughly one mile (1.6 kilometers) long and one-half mile (.8 kilometer) wide, bordered on all sides, except the north, by deep ravines. Stationed astride the crest of Palestine’s central plateau and located at the crossroad of the watershed route connecting Hebron, Bethlehem, Shechem (Nablus), and points north with the longitudinal route from the Jordan Valley and the several arteries to the Mediterranean, Jerusalem is commercially central to the country. The lateral highway through the Judean mountains and eastward could not pass south of Jerusalem, being blocked by the Dead Sea and its sheer cliffs. Because it lacked significant water supply, the city’s strategic commercial location was probably the deciding criterion for its original occupation.<\/p>\n<p>Water, a lifeline of civilization, has always been in meager supply at Jerusalem. The only natural source of permanent water was the spring at Gihon, today sometimes called the Virgin’s Fountain, located in the Kidron Valley immediately east of the ancient fortress conquered by David. Tunnels were burrowed to provide access to the Gihon when Jerusalem was besieged. Later, the Siloam Tunnel was cut through nearly 1,800 feet (548.6 meters) of limestone, allowing the waters of the Gihon to pass through the hill of Zion to the pool of Siloam.<\/p>\n<p>Farther south, where the Kidron and Hinnom Valleys converge, there was another spring, called En-rogel in the Bible (modern Bir Eyyub). Owing to the lowering of the water table, this source of water ceased to percolate and was subsequently converted into a well.<\/p>\n<p>These two sources were clearly insufficient to sustain a sizable population, and both were too deep in the Kidron to be employed for irrigation. Hence, a vast network of cisterns, reservoirs, and water conduits for supplemental supply has been devised since ancient times.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"History\">History<\/p>\n<h5>The Pre-Israelite Period<\/h5>\n<p>Paleolithic and Mesolithic flint implements of an Acheulian type found in the plain of the Rephaim constitute the earliest evidence of the existence of human beings in the area of Jerusalem. Near the beginning of the fourth millennium <span>BC<\/span>, the southeastern hill was first occupied by a sedentary group, a fact evinced from the artifactual remains recovered from three graves and the pottery type discovered on bedrock. By 1800 <span>BC<\/span>, the crest of the southeastern hill was walled in rudimentary form.<\/p>\n<p>From the Bible one learns that Abraham paid tithes to Melchizedek, king of Salem (Gn 14:17-20). Again (ch 22) the great patriarch visited an area later incorporated into Jerusalem, Mt Moriah, the site where Isaac was nearly sacrificed. Second Chronicles 3:1 identifies Mt Moriah as the temple hill. In the 15th century <span>BC<\/span> or thereabouts the Hurrians (possibly the biblical Horites) penetrated into Palestine. About the same time at Jerusalem, extensive building activities were initiated and improved fortification methods were introduced. Accordingly, most writers attribute these projects at Jerusalem to the Hurrian infiltration.<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest and Settlement Period<\/h5>\n<p>Upon learning of Gibeon’s placation of Joshua’s army (Jos 9), Adoni-zedek, king of Jerusalem, formed a coalition with the kings of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon and attacked Gibeon. In response, Joshua marshaled his forces and defeated the coalition, killing all five monarchs at Makkedah (Jos 10:16-27). It appears that the tribe of Judah temporarily took control of Jerusalem and burned it in the wake of this victory (Jgs 1:8). However, the Jebusites reoccupied the site (Jos 15:63; 1 Chr 11:4-5). Apparently, the Jebusites more or less maintained control of Jerusalem until the time of David.<\/p>\n<p>The city appears again as a boundary separating the tribal inheritances of Judah and Benjamin, becoming the southern border of the latter’s domain. The identification of the “shoulder of the Jebusite” (<span>rsv<\/span> Jos 15:8; 18:16) with Jerusalem is usually explained as a reference to the southwestern hill, probably held also by the Jebusites at this time.<\/p>\n<h5>David’s Jerusalem<\/h5>\n<p>Following the Philistine victory atop Mt Gilboa, where Saul and Jonathan were killed in battle (1 Sm 31), David reigned over the tribe of Judah from Hebron, while a surviving son of Saul, Ishbosheth, ruled over the northern tribes from Mahanaim. During the two-year struggle that ensued, the house of David grew stronger while the forces of Ishbosheth shrunk considerably (2 Sm 3:1). This struggle culminated in the death and decapitation of Ishbosheth and the dispersion of his forces. David became the undisputed monarch of all the tribes of Israel.<\/p>\n\n<p>But the new monarch recognized that a consolidated national capital acceptable to both the north and the south would have to be created. Jerusalem had remained neutral in the conflict, being the site of a Jebusite enclave. It also represented a location that was militarily desirable, and by being commercially central to the fledgling nation, it was ideally suited.<\/p>\n<p>In the course of David’s 33-year reign at Jerusalem he made the city into the center of an empire that stretched from Egypt to the Euphrates River. He engaged in considerable building and expansion of the city. He fortified the Canaanite walls and prepared an extension of the city, possibly along the east slope of Zion.<\/p>\n<p>David also constructed a royal residence, receiving the technology and many materials from Hiram, king of Tyre (2 Sm 5:11). Nehemiah 12:37 suggests that this palace also may have been near the east side of the southeastern hill. It was from a window of this house that Michal saw David dancing in an undignified manner—according to her perception (2 Sm 6:16-23). From the roof of this palace David gazed upon Bathsheba as she bathed (11:2-5), and from this residence he plotted the murder of her husband, Uriah (vv 14-25).<\/p>\n<p>By bringing the ark of the covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6:1-15)—implying that Yahweh would reside there—David displayed his most profound leadership. For in this perceptive act he merged for the first time in Israel’s history its political and religious capitals. Jerusalem took on the unique character of a holy city <em>and<\/em> a royal city. As a result, the city would be known as the “city of David” (5:7) as well as the “city of God” (Ps 46:4). Adult male Jews would make their pilgrimages to Jerusalem to take part in the feasts and offerings. It only remained for David to make this arrangement permanent, to enshrine Yahweh at Jerusalem forever by building him a temple. David aspired to do so (2 Sm 7), but God responded that such an undertaking was to be reserved for a son of the king.<\/p>\n<h5>The First Temple Period<\/h5>\n<p>A growing national realization of the extent and impact of the Davidic empire was employed by Solomon to full advantage. Himself an innovative and dynamic administrator, Solomon turned Jerusalem into a cosmopolitan center. The revenues of caravans from Egypt to Babylonia as well as the Phoenician trade with Elath, the Red Sea, and Ophir passed through his royal capital. Solomon’s own naval fleet traveled as far as Tarshish, most likely located on an island along the western coast of Spain. These expeditions returned every three years with such exotic commodities as apes, peacocks, silver, iron, tin, ivory, and gold. The capital swelled with residents and visitors, and the monarch’s fame became proverbial (1 Kgs 10).<\/p>\n<p>Solomon was the great OT builder of Jerusalem. His most significant building enterprise was undoubtedly the first temple. Erected on the summit of the temple hill, this edifice required seven years to construct, from April\/May 966 (1 Kgs 6:1) to October\/November 959 (v 38). Hiram again provided both the technology and the cedar beams.<\/p>\n<p>One may find in 1 Kings 10:27 a succinct encapsulation of the economic wealth lavished upon Jerusalem by Solomon: silver became as abundant as stone, and cedar was as common as sycamore. It is estimated that the annual revenues that coursed into Jerusalem were as high as $17 million. Ironically, it was the fiscal factor that became the burden of Solomon’s monarchy. Overextending himself financially, his economic and political programs soon required the levying of heavy taxes (1 Kgs 4:7-19) and the drafting of Israelites into forced labor (1 Kgs 5:13-18; cf. 9:20-23). These were the primary factors that prompted the schism in Israel’s political structure after the death of Solomon and resulted in a divided monarchy by 930 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>When the Babylonian army laid final siege to Jerusalem (588 <span>BC<\/span>), capturing it after many months, the city was completely decimated. The temple and Solomon’s palace were destroyed with fire; the city walls were demolished. The temple treasures were completely plundered, and the citizens were deported in large numbers.<\/p>\n<h5>The Second Temple Period<\/h5>\n<p>Jerusalem’s doom and 70-year captivity had been spelled out by Jeremiah (Jer 25:11; 29:10; cf. 2 Chr 36:21; Dn 9:2). In 538 <span>BC<\/span>, after the fall of Babylon, Cyrus, king of Persia, issued his famous proclamation (2 Chr 36:22-23; Ezr 1:1-4; cf. Is 44:28; 45:1). Thereupon, a humble group of Jews returned to Jerusalem with Sheshbazzar, a prince of Judah (Ezr 1:8-11) and Zerubbabel (2:2). In 515 <span>BC<\/span>, the doors of the second temple were opened officially, and the Passover feast was again observed from Jerusalem (6:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Ezra came to Jerusalem in the seventh year of Artaxerxes (Ezr 7:7). Assuming this is a reference to Artaxerxes I, the date of Ezra’s return would have been 458 <span>BC<\/span>. Again, it was only a meager remnant who felt the compelling urge to make that difficult journey (cf. Josephus’s <em>Antiquities<\/em> 11.1.3).<\/p>\n<p>Moved by reports of troubled conditions (Neh 1:3-4), Nehemiah, in the 20th year of Artaxerxes (445 <span>BC<\/span>), was able to leave his post as cup-bearer to the king and to go to Jerusalem. If the concern of the earlier returnees focused upon the temple, Nehemiah’s was upon the city walls. His is the most comprehensive description of Jerusalem’s postexilic city walls and topography (Neh 2:11-16). Spurred on by his energetic enthusiasm, the people completed the task of rebuilding the walls in 52 days (6:15).<\/p>\n\n<h5>The Roman Period<\/h5>\n<p>In 40 <span>BC<\/span>, with the aid of the Parthians, Antigonus attacked and seized Jerusalem, forcing Herod to escape by night. He journeyed to Rome, where the Senate appointed him as “king of the Jews” (cf. Mt 2:1). Armed with this new authority, Herod marshaled two Roman legions, and in 37 <span>BC<\/span>, he succeeded in forever expelling the Parthians. So began the long and infamous rule of Herod, who reigned at Jerusalem for 33 years (37–4 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>It cannot be denied that Jerusalem enjoyed prosperous and peaceful years during his reign. Herod transformed the external aspect of Jerusalem. He transferred the seat of government to the southwestern hill. Here he erected a lavish palace, an arena for athletic contests, a theater, and a vast aqueduct network.<\/p>\n<p>Other building projects concerned the temple hill. Herod transformed the old Maccabean fortress into a much larger structure and named it Antonia, in honor of Mark Antony. In the temple area proper he enlarged the esplanade on both the north and south sides, giving it a rectangular shape. Herod’s reconstruction of the temple was undertaken in 20 <span>BC<\/span>, and it was not completed until around <span>AD<\/span> 64, just six years prior to its destruction by Titus (cf. Jn 2:20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Jerusalem, New; Judaism; Zion; Zion, Daughter of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JERUSALEM<\/h3>\n<p>Historic city sacred to Christians, Jews, and Muslims; the chief city of ancient Palestine and of the modern state of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Meaning of the Name<\/p>\n<p>• Geographical Situation<\/p>\n<p>• History<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MeaningoftheName\">Meaning of the Name<\/p>\n<h5>Egyptian Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>The earliest mention of the name occurs in the Egyptian Execration Texts of the 19th and 18th centuries <span>BC<\/span> in the form probably transliterated <em>Urusalimum.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>Semitic Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>In the 14th century <span>BC<\/span> the name appears in the Abdi-Hepa correspondence from Tell el-Amarna, written <em>Urusalim.<\/em> Later it is found in the inscription of the Assyrian monarch Sennacherib, written <em>Ursalimmu.<\/em> The two transparently Semitic elements, <em>uru<\/em> (city) and <em>salim<\/em> (a divine name), have produced the hyphenated composite meaning “the city of [the god] Salim.” Hyphenating geographic names to incorporate divine elements was a common practice in the ancient Near Eastern world, and the deity Salim, or Shalem (Akkadian, Shulmanu; cf. Solomon), was a member of the Amorite pantheon (cf. Ez 16:3). Since the oldest textual evidence—Egyptian, West Semitic, and Akkadian—supports only <em>urusalim,<\/em> and since the OT itself attests that Jerusalem was not originally a Hebrew city, it is probable that the Semitic etymological origin of this name produced the meaning “the city of [the god] Salim.”<\/p>\n<h5>Hebrew\/Aramaic Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>In the Hebrew OT, Jerusalem is written <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yerushalayim<\/span><em>,<\/em> and in the Aramaic portions the name is rendered <em>yerushalem.<\/em> Containing the elements <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yarah<\/span> (“to found,” cf. Jb 38:6) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalem<\/span> (a divine name), it yields the meaning “the foundation of [the god] Shalem,” the <em>sh<\/em> of the Hebrew\/Aramaic to be taken as the phonemic equivalent of the Akkadian <em>s.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>Greek Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>In the NT, Jerusalem translates the two Greek words <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Ierousalem<\/span> and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Hierosoluma<\/span><em>.<\/em> The former is simply the Greek transliteration of the OT Aramaic form; the latter reflects the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieros<\/span> (holy), representing a Hellenized paronomasia, corresponding neither with the Semitic root of the name nor with the city’s historical reality.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GeographicalSituation\">Geographical Situation<\/p>\n<p>Jerusalem is situated 31º 46’ 45” north latitude and 35º 13’ 25” east longitude. The city rises to just over 2,500 feet (762 meters) above sea level and rests some 14 miles (22.5 kilometers) west of the northern end of the Dead Sea and approximately 33 miles (53 kilometers) east of the Mediterranean coast.<\/p>\n<p>A Mediterranean climate pervades Jerusalem. From October to May, the city experiences its rainy season, with an annual accumulation of about 25 inches (63.5 centimeters). Throughout January and February the rains are often driven by winds, and the mercury drops to near freezing (cf. Ezr 10:9); the coldest weather coincides with the days of heaviest rainfall. Snow falls two years out of three. There is no rain between May and September, and a high percentage of solar radiation produces oppressive heat.<\/p>\n<p>Like Rome, Jerusalem is a city set on hills. A cluster of five hills comprise the denuded quadrilateral landmass roughly one mile (1.6 kilometers) long and one-half mile (.8 kilometer) wide, bordered on all sides, except the north, by deep ravines. Stationed astride the crest of Palestine’s central plateau and located at the crossroad of the watershed route connecting Hebron, Bethlehem, Shechem (Nablus), and points north with the longitudinal route from the Jordan Valley and the several arteries to the Mediterranean, Jerusalem is commercially central to the country. The lateral highway through the Judean mountains and eastward could not pass south of Jerusalem, being blocked by the Dead Sea and its sheer cliffs. Because it lacked significant water supply, the city’s strategic commercial location was probably the deciding criterion for its original occupation.<\/p>\n<p>Water, a lifeline of civilization, has always been in meager supply at Jerusalem. The only natural source of permanent water was the spring at Gihon, today sometimes called the Virgin’s Fountain, located in the Kidron Valley immediately east of the ancient fortress conquered by David. Tunnels were burrowed to provide access to the Gihon when Jerusalem was besieged. Later, the Siloam Tunnel was cut through nearly 1,800 feet (548.6 meters) of limestone, allowing the waters of the Gihon to pass through the hill of Zion to the pool of Siloam.<\/p>\n<p>Farther south, where the Kidron and Hinnom Valleys converge, there was another spring, called En-rogel in the Bible (modern Bir Eyyub). Owing to the lowering of the water table, this source of water ceased to percolate and was subsequently converted into a well.<\/p>\n<p>These two sources were clearly insufficient to sustain a sizable population, and both were too deep in the Kidron to be employed for irrigation. Hence, a vast network of cisterns, reservoirs, and water conduits for supplemental supply has been devised since ancient times.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"History\">History<\/p>\n<h5>The Pre-Israelite Period<\/h5>\n<p>Paleolithic and Mesolithic flint implements of an Acheulian type found in the plain of the Rephaim constitute the earliest evidence of the existence of human beings in the area of Jerusalem. Near the beginning of the fourth millennium <span>BC<\/span>, the southeastern hill was first occupied by a sedentary group, a fact evinced from the artifactual remains recovered from three graves and the pottery type discovered on bedrock. By 1800 <span>BC<\/span>, the crest of the southeastern hill was walled in rudimentary form.<\/p>\n<p>From the Bible one learns that Abraham paid tithes to Melchizedek, king of Salem (Gn 14:17-20). Again (ch 22) the great patriarch visited an area later incorporated into Jerusalem, Mt Moriah, the site where Isaac was nearly sacrificed. Second Chronicles 3:1 identifies Mt Moriah as the temple hill. In the 15th century <span>BC<\/span> or thereabouts the Hurrians (possibly the biblical Horites) penetrated into Palestine. About the same time at Jerusalem, extensive building activities were initiated and improved fortification methods were introduced. Accordingly, most writers attribute these projects at Jerusalem to the Hurrian infiltration.<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest and Settlement Period<\/h5>\n<p>Upon learning of Gibeon’s placation of Joshua’s army (Jos 9), Adoni-zedek, king of Jerusalem, formed a coalition with the kings of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon and attacked Gibeon. In response, Joshua marshaled his forces and defeated the coalition, killing all five monarchs at Makkedah (Jos 10:16-27). It appears that the tribe of Judah temporarily took control of Jerusalem and burned it in the wake of this victory (Jgs 1:8). However, the Jebusites reoccupied the site (Jos 15:63; 1 Chr 11:4-5). Apparently, the Jebusites more or less maintained control of Jerusalem until the time of David.<\/p>\n<p>The city appears again as a boundary separating the tribal inheritances of Judah and Benjamin, becoming the southern border of the latter’s domain. The identification of the “shoulder of the Jebusite” (<span>rsv<\/span> Jos 15:8; 18:16) with Jerusalem is usually explained as a reference to the southwestern hill, probably held also by the Jebusites at this time.<\/p>\n<h5>David’s Jerusalem<\/h5>\n<p>Following the Philistine victory atop Mt Gilboa, where Saul and Jonathan were killed in battle (1 Sm 31), David reigned over the tribe of Judah from Hebron, while a surviving son of Saul, Ishbosheth, ruled over the northern tribes from Mahanaim. During the two-year struggle that ensued, the house of David grew stronger while the forces of Ishbosheth shrunk considerably (2 Sm 3:1). This struggle culminated in the death and decapitation of Ishbosheth and the dispersion of his forces. David became the undisputed monarch of all the tribes of Israel.<\/p>\n\n<p>But the new monarch recognized that a consolidated national capital acceptable to both the north and the south would have to be created. Jerusalem had remained neutral in the conflict, being the site of a Jebusite enclave. It also represented a location that was militarily desirable, and by being commercially central to the fledgling nation, it was ideally suited.<\/p>\n<p>In the course of David’s 33-year reign at Jerusalem he made the city into the center of an empire that stretched from Egypt to the Euphrates River. He engaged in considerable building and expansion of the city. He fortified the Canaanite walls and prepared an extension of the city, possibly along the east slope of Zion.<\/p>\n<p>David also constructed a royal residence, receiving the technology and many materials from Hiram, king of Tyre (2 Sm 5:11). Nehemiah 12:37 suggests that this palace also may have been near the east side of the southeastern hill. It was from a window of this house that Michal saw David dancing in an undignified manner—according to her perception (2 Sm 6:16-23). From the roof of this palace David gazed upon Bathsheba as she bathed (11:2-5), and from this residence he plotted the murder of her husband, Uriah (vv 14-25).<\/p>\n<p>By bringing the ark of the covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6:1-15)—implying that Yahweh would reside there—David displayed his most profound leadership. For in this perceptive act he merged for the first time in Israel’s history its political and religious capitals. Jerusalem took on the unique character of a holy city <em>and<\/em> a royal city. As a result, the city would be known as the “city of David” (5:7) as well as the “city of God” (Ps 46:4). Adult male Jews would make their pilgrimages to Jerusalem to take part in the feasts and offerings. It only remained for David to make this arrangement permanent, to enshrine Yahweh at Jerusalem forever by building him a temple. David aspired to do so (2 Sm 7), but God responded that such an undertaking was to be reserved for a son of the king.<\/p>\n<h5>The First Temple Period<\/h5>\n<p>A growing national realization of the extent and impact of the Davidic empire was employed by Solomon to full advantage. Himself an innovative and dynamic administrator, Solomon turned Jerusalem into a cosmopolitan center. The revenues of caravans from Egypt to Babylonia as well as the Phoenician trade with Elath, the Red Sea, and Ophir passed through his royal capital. Solomon’s own naval fleet traveled as far as Tarshish, most likely located on an island along the western coast of Spain. These expeditions returned every three years with such exotic commodities as apes, peacocks, silver, iron, tin, ivory, and gold. The capital swelled with residents and visitors, and the monarch’s fame became proverbial (1 Kgs 10).<\/p>\n<p>Solomon was the great OT builder of Jerusalem. His most significant building enterprise was undoubtedly the first temple. Erected on the summit of the temple hill, this edifice required seven years to construct, from April\/May 966 (1 Kgs 6:1) to October\/November 959 (v 38). Hiram again provided both the technology and the cedar beams.<\/p>\n<p>One may find in 1 Kings 10:27 a succinct encapsulation of the economic wealth lavished upon Jerusalem by Solomon: silver became as abundant as stone, and cedar was as common as sycamore. It is estimated that the annual revenues that coursed into Jerusalem were as high as $17 million. Ironically, it was the fiscal factor that became the burden of Solomon’s monarchy. Overextending himself financially, his economic and political programs soon required the levying of heavy taxes (1 Kgs 4:7-19) and the drafting of Israelites into forced labor (1 Kgs 5:13-18; cf. 9:20-23). These were the primary factors that prompted the schism in Israel’s political structure after the death of Solomon and resulted in a divided monarchy by 930 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>When the Babylonian army laid final siege to Jerusalem (588 <span>BC<\/span>), capturing it after many months, the city was completely decimated. The temple and Solomon’s palace were destroyed with fire; the city walls were demolished. The temple treasures were completely plundered, and the citizens were deported in large numbers.<\/p>\n<h5>The Second Temple Period<\/h5>\n<p>Jerusalem’s doom and 70-year captivity had been spelled out by Jeremiah (Jer 25:11; 29:10; cf. 2 Chr 36:21; Dn 9:2). In 538 <span>BC<\/span>, after the fall of Babylon, Cyrus, king of Persia, issued his famous proclamation (2 Chr 36:22-23; Ezr 1:1-4; cf. Is 44:28; 45:1). Thereupon, a humble group of Jews returned to Jerusalem with Sheshbazzar, a prince of Judah (Ezr 1:8-11) and Zerubbabel (2:2). In 515 <span>BC<\/span>, the doors of the second temple were opened officially, and the Passover feast was again observed from Jerusalem (6:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Ezra came to Jerusalem in the seventh year of Artaxerxes (Ezr 7:7). Assuming this is a reference to Artaxerxes I, the date of Ezra’s return would have been 458 <span>BC<\/span>. Again, it was only a meager remnant who felt the compelling urge to make that difficult journey (cf. Josephus’s <em>Antiquities<\/em> 11.1.3).<\/p>\n<p>Moved by reports of troubled conditions (Neh 1:3-4), Nehemiah, in the 20th year of Artaxerxes (445 <span>BC<\/span>), was able to leave his post as cup-bearer to the king and to go to Jerusalem. If the concern of the earlier returnees focused upon the temple, Nehemiah’s was upon the city walls. His is the most comprehensive description of Jerusalem’s postexilic city walls and topography (Neh 2:11-16). Spurred on by his energetic enthusiasm, the people completed the task of rebuilding the walls in 52 days (6:15).<\/p>\n\n<h5>The Roman Period<\/h5>\n<p>In 40 <span>BC<\/span>, with the aid of the Parthians, Antigonus attacked and seized Jerusalem, forcing Herod to escape by night. He journeyed to Rome, where the Senate appointed him as “king of the Jews” (cf. Mt 2:1). Armed with this new authority, Herod marshaled two Roman legions, and in 37 <span>BC<\/span>, he succeeded in forever expelling the Parthians. So began the long and infamous rule of Herod, who reigned at Jerusalem for 33 years (37–4 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>It cannot be denied that Jerusalem enjoyed prosperous and peaceful years during his reign. Herod transformed the external aspect of Jerusalem. He transferred the seat of government to the southwestern hill. Here he erected a lavish palace, an arena for athletic contests, a theater, and a vast aqueduct network.<\/p>\n<p>Other building projects concerned the temple hill. Herod transformed the old Maccabean fortress into a much larger structure and named it Antonia, in honor of Mark Antony. In the temple area proper he enlarged the esplanade on both the north and south sides, giving it a rectangular shape. Herod’s reconstruction of the temple was undertaken in 20 <span>BC<\/span>, and it was not completed until around <span>AD<\/span> 64, just six years prior to its destruction by Titus (cf. Jn 2:20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Jerusalem, New; Judaism; Zion; Zion, Daughter of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JERUSALEM Historic city sacred to Christians, Jews, and Muslims; the chief city of ancient Palestine and of the modern state of Israel. Preview • Meaning of the Name • Geographical Situation • History Meaning of the Name Egyptian Meaning The earliest mention of the name occurs in the Egyptian Execration Texts of the 19th and 18th centuries BC in the form probably transliterated Urusalimum. Semitic Meaning In the 14th century BC the name appears in the Abdi-Hepa correspondence from Tell el-Ama...","summary_en":"JERUSALEM Historic city sacred to Christians, Jews, and Muslims; the chief city of ancient Palestine and of the modern state of Israel. Preview • Meaning of the Name • Geographical Situation • History Meaning of the Name Egyptian Meaning The earliest mention of the name occurs in the Egyptian Execration Texts of the 19th and 18th centuries BC in the form probably transliterated Urusalimum. Semitic Meaning In the 14th century BC the name appears in the Abdi-Hepa correspondence from Tell el-Ama...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":19335,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jeshua (Person)","title_en":"Jeshua (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>JESHUA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Jozadak was deported by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylon (1 Chr 6:14-15). Jeshua, Jozadak’s successor as high priest, returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem after the exile (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7; 12:1). Upon arrival, he led his fellow priests in making the altar of God (Ezr 3:2; 5:2) and eventually headed up a construction program to rebuild the temple (3:8). Confirmed as God’s leader by Haggai and Zechariah (Hg 1:1-14; 2:2, 4; Zec 3:1-9; 6:11), Jeshua (alternately “Joshua” in these passages) resolutely resisted attempts by adversaries to infiltrate his people and hinder the work on the temple (Ezr 4:3). Joiakim was Jeshua’s son and successor as high priest, serving in the days of Nehemiah and Ezra (Neh 12:12, 26).<\/li>\n<li>4. Descendant of Pahath-moab and the forefather of a family of Jews who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:6; Neh 7:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Father of a family of Levites who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:40; Neh 7:43; 12:8). He and his sons were responsible for overseeing the workmen building the temple (Ezr 3:9; this Jeshua may be identical with #3 above).<\/li>\n<li>6. Levite and Jozabad’s father. Jozabad assisted Meremoth, Eleazar, and Noadiah with taking inventory of the temple’s precious metals and vessels during the days of Ezra (Ezr 8:33).<\/li>\n<li>7. Ezer’s father. Ezer was ruler of Mizpah, who repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 3:19).<\/li>\n<li>8. Azaniah’s son and a leader of the Levites in the days of Ezra and Nehemiah. Jeshua assisted Ezra with teaching the people the law (Neh 8:7) and later set his seal on Ezra’s covenant (10:9).<\/li>\n<li>9. Alternate spelling of Joshua, the son of Nun, in Nehemiah 8:17. <em>See<\/em> Joshua (Person) #1.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JESHUA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Jozadak was deported by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylon (1 Chr 6:14-15). Jeshua, Jozadak’s successor as high priest, returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem after the exile (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7; 12:1). Upon arrival, he led his fellow priests in making the altar of God (Ezr 3:2; 5:2) and eventually headed up a construction program to rebuild the temple (3:8). Confirmed as God’s leader by Haggai and Zechariah (Hg 1:1-14; 2:2, 4; Zec 3:1-9; 6:11), Jeshua (alternately “Joshua” in these passages) resolutely resisted attempts by adversaries to infiltrate his people and hinder the work on the temple (Ezr 4:3). Joiakim was Jeshua’s son and successor as high priest, serving in the days of Nehemiah and Ezra (Neh 12:12, 26).<\/li>\n<li>4. Descendant of Pahath-moab and the forefather of a family of Jews who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:6; Neh 7:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Father of a family of Levites who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:40; Neh 7:43; 12:8). He and his sons were responsible for overseeing the workmen building the temple (Ezr 3:9; this Jeshua may be identical with #3 above).<\/li>\n<li>6. Levite and Jozabad’s father. Jozabad assisted Meremoth, Eleazar, and Noadiah with taking inventory of the temple’s precious metals and vessels during the days of Ezra (Ezr 8:33).<\/li>\n<li>7. Ezer’s father. Ezer was ruler of Mizpah, who repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 3:19).<\/li>\n<li>8. Azaniah’s son and a leader of the Levites in the days of Ezra and Nehemiah. Jeshua assisted Ezra with teaching the people the law (Neh 8:7) and later set his seal on Ezra’s covenant (10:9).<\/li>\n<li>9. Alternate spelling of Joshua, the son of Nun, in Nehemiah 8:17. <em>See<\/em> Joshua (Person) #1.<\/li>","summary_ro":"JESHUA (Person) 1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39). 2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15). 3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Joz...","summary_en":"JESHUA (Person) 1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39). 2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15). 3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Joz...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26087,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Mispar, Mispereth*","title_en":"Mispar, Mispereth*","content_ro":"<h3>MISPAR, MISPERETH*<\/h3>\n<p>One of the men who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:2); alternately called Mispereth in Nehemiah 7:7.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MISPAR, MISPERETH*<\/h3>\n<p>One of the men who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:2); alternately called Mispereth in Nehemiah 7:7.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MISPAR, MISPERETH* One of the men who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:2); alternately called Mispereth in Nehemiah 7:7.","summary_en":"MISPAR, MISPERETH* One of the men who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:2); alternately called Mispereth in Nehemiah 7:7.","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26126,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Mizpar*","title_en":"Mizpar*","content_ro":"<h3>MIZPAR*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV spelling of Mispar in Ezra 2:2. <em>See<\/em> Mispar, Mispereth.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MIZPAR*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV spelling of Mispar in Ezra 2:2. <em>See<\/em> Mispar, Mispereth.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MIZPAR* KJV spelling of Mispar in Ezra 2:2. See Mispar, Mispereth.","summary_en":"MIZPAR* KJV spelling of Mispar in Ezra 2:2. See Mispar, Mispereth.","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26280,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Mordecai","title_en":"Mordecai","content_ro":"<h3>MORDECAI<\/h3>\n<li>1. Jewish leader during the exile. Our knowledge of Mordecai comes exclusively from the book of Esther, which, according to some rabbinic sources, Mordecai himself wrote. Mordecai’s activities are set against the period in which Xerxes (Ahasuerus) reigned over ancient Persia, a vast empire stretching over 127 provinces. Mordecai was a Benjamite descendant of Kish, the father of King Saul. His relatives were among those Jews who left Palestine during the captivity of Nebuchadnezzar. While his name reveals a Babylonian etymology, his heart burned with love for his countrymen who, notwithstanding the decree of Cyrus permitting their return to the Holy Land (538 <span>BC<\/span>), determined to colonize in dispersion rather than face the hardships of resettling in Palestine.<\/li>\n<p>His remarkable life’s drama is intertwined with Hadassah (Esther), his cousin, who became his ward following the death of her parents. Esther’s sudden, unexpected exaltation to the position of queen following Vashti’s deposition was an essential link to the deliverance of her people; Mordecai’s forceful influence upon this beautiful Jewess was another. Behind them both, however, moved their sovereign God, whose love for Israel provided protection against the malevolent designs of Xerxes’ prime minister, Haman.<\/p>\n<p>Haman, the very incarnation of evil, had determined to exterminate the Jews of Persia because of Mordecai’s unwillingness to pay him homage. Mordecai, learning of the plot, communicated the matter to Esther by way of Hathach, one of the king’s officers. Her initial hesitancy to intervene on behalf of her people was met with her cousin’s concise and stern answer: “Do not think that because you are in the king’s house you alone of all the Jews will escape. For if you remain silent at this time, relief and deliverance for the Jews will arise from another place, but you and your father’s family will perish. And who knows but that you have come to royal position for such a time as this?” (Est 4:13-14, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Several days elapsed during which Haman erected an enormous gallows upon which to hang Mordecai. On the evening of its completion, Xerxes, being unable to sleep, ordered the book containing the record of his reign to be read to him. Upon hearing of the actions of Mordecai in frustrating an earlier assassination attempt against him, he inquired as to what honors Mordecai had received in recognition of his service. Finding he had not been rewarded, Xerxes summoned Haman and asked him what fitting thing should be done for the man the king had purposed to honor. Haman, thinking that he was the object of the king’s query, responded with three grand ideas (Est 6:7-9). Ironically, Haman was chosen to carry out his recommendations on behalf of Mordecai. A final touch of irony is seen in the execution of Haman on the very instrument he had prepared for Mordecai.<\/p>\n<p>Following Haman’s death, Mordecai and Esther had to act quickly to counteract the irrevocable edict directed against the Jews at Haman’s instigation. Xerxes, now solicitous of the Jews’ well-being, issued another edict allowing the Jews the freedom both to defend themselves and to retaliate against any aggressors. Apparently, the Persian officials to whom Mordecai forwarded this follow-up directive cooperated fully in protecting the Jews from their adversaries, thousands of whom were slain.<\/p>\n<p>Consequently, Mordecai instructed all Jews to celebrate the time of their deliverance annually on the 14th and 15th days of Adar (roughly, March). The name of the festival, Purim, is derived from the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pur<\/span> (“lot”), which was cast by Haman to determine the day for the Jews’ annihilation.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Esther, Book of.<\/p>\n<li>2. One of the 10 leaders who returned with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>MORDECAI<\/h3>\n<li>1. Jewish leader during the exile. Our knowledge of Mordecai comes exclusively from the book of Esther, which, according to some rabbinic sources, Mordecai himself wrote. Mordecai’s activities are set against the period in which Xerxes (Ahasuerus) reigned over ancient Persia, a vast empire stretching over 127 provinces. Mordecai was a Benjamite descendant of Kish, the father of King Saul. His relatives were among those Jews who left Palestine during the captivity of Nebuchadnezzar. While his name reveals a Babylonian etymology, his heart burned with love for his countrymen who, notwithstanding the decree of Cyrus permitting their return to the Holy Land (538 <span>BC<\/span>), determined to colonize in dispersion rather than face the hardships of resettling in Palestine.<\/li>\n<p>His remarkable life’s drama is intertwined with Hadassah (Esther), his cousin, who became his ward following the death of her parents. Esther’s sudden, unexpected exaltation to the position of queen following Vashti’s deposition was an essential link to the deliverance of her people; Mordecai’s forceful influence upon this beautiful Jewess was another. Behind them both, however, moved their sovereign God, whose love for Israel provided protection against the malevolent designs of Xerxes’ prime minister, Haman.<\/p>\n<p>Haman, the very incarnation of evil, had determined to exterminate the Jews of Persia because of Mordecai’s unwillingness to pay him homage. Mordecai, learning of the plot, communicated the matter to Esther by way of Hathach, one of the king’s officers. Her initial hesitancy to intervene on behalf of her people was met with her cousin’s concise and stern answer: “Do not think that because you are in the king’s house you alone of all the Jews will escape. For if you remain silent at this time, relief and deliverance for the Jews will arise from another place, but you and your father’s family will perish. And who knows but that you have come to royal position for such a time as this?” (Est 4:13-14, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Several days elapsed during which Haman erected an enormous gallows upon which to hang Mordecai. On the evening of its completion, Xerxes, being unable to sleep, ordered the book containing the record of his reign to be read to him. Upon hearing of the actions of Mordecai in frustrating an earlier assassination attempt against him, he inquired as to what honors Mordecai had received in recognition of his service. Finding he had not been rewarded, Xerxes summoned Haman and asked him what fitting thing should be done for the man the king had purposed to honor. Haman, thinking that he was the object of the king’s query, responded with three grand ideas (Est 6:7-9). Ironically, Haman was chosen to carry out his recommendations on behalf of Mordecai. A final touch of irony is seen in the execution of Haman on the very instrument he had prepared for Mordecai.<\/p>\n<p>Following Haman’s death, Mordecai and Esther had to act quickly to counteract the irrevocable edict directed against the Jews at Haman’s instigation. Xerxes, now solicitous of the Jews’ well-being, issued another edict allowing the Jews the freedom both to defend themselves and to retaliate against any aggressors. Apparently, the Persian officials to whom Mordecai forwarded this follow-up directive cooperated fully in protecting the Jews from their adversaries, thousands of whom were slain.<\/p>\n<p>Consequently, Mordecai instructed all Jews to celebrate the time of their deliverance annually on the 14th and 15th days of Adar (roughly, March). The name of the festival, Purim, is derived from the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pur<\/span> (“lot”), which was cast by Haman to determine the day for the Jews’ annihilation.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Esther, Book of.<\/p>\n<li>2. One of the 10 leaders who returned with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7).<\/li>","summary_ro":"MORDECAI 1. Jewish leader during the exile. Our knowledge of Mordecai comes exclusively from the book of Esther, which, according to some rabbinic sources, Mordecai himself wrote. Mordecai’s activities are set against the period in which Xerxes (Ahasuerus) reigned over ancient Persia, a vast empire stretching over 127 provinces. Mordecai was a Benjamite descendant of Kish, the father of King Saul. His relatives were among those Jews who left Palestine during the captivity of Nebuchadnezzar. W...","summary_en":"MORDECAI 1. Jewish leader during the exile. Our knowledge of Mordecai comes exclusively from the book of Esther, which, according to some rabbinic sources, Mordecai himself wrote. Mordecai’s activities are set against the period in which Xerxes (Ahasuerus) reigned over ancient Persia, a vast empire stretching over 127 provinces. Mordecai was a Benjamite descendant of Kish, the father of King Saul. His relatives were among those Jews who left Palestine during the captivity of Nebuchadnezzar. W...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26838,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nahamani","title_en":"Nahamani","content_ro":"<h3>NAHAMANI<\/h3>\n<p>One of the leading officials who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the exile (Neh 7:7). His name is omitted in the parallel list of returning officials in Ezra 2:2.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NAHAMANI<\/h3>\n<p>One of the leading officials who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the exile (Neh 7:7). His name is omitted in the parallel list of returning officials in Ezra 2:2.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NAHAMANI One of the leading officials who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the exile (Neh 7:7). His name is omitted in the parallel list of returning officials in Ezra 2:2.","summary_en":"NAHAMANI One of the leading officials who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the exile (Neh 7:7). His name is omitted in the parallel list of returning officials in Ezra 2:2.","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27201,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nehemiah (Person)","title_en":"Nehemiah (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>NEHEMIAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Name of three men mentioned in the OT after the period of the exile. The name means “the Lord comforts” and was appropriate for this time of hope and fulfillment.<\/p>\n<p>1. Leader mentioned in a list of Jewish exiles who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel sometime after 538 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7).<\/p>\n<li>2. Ruler of half the district of Beth-zur who helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall in 444 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 3:16).<\/li>\n<li>3. Governor of Judah during the restoration. Originally cupbearer to the Persian king Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>), Nehemiah pleaded to be sent to Judah to aid his fellow Jews in their difficulties and in particular to rebuild Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8). He was appointed governor of Judah for 12 years.<\/li>\n<p>After inspecting the walls upon his arrival, he realized that their repair was to be his prime task. This repair would guarantee the security of the city and could provide a focal point for the Jewish community scattered throughout Judah. That he was able to marshal support for this project and to complete it attests to his skills in management and administration. He also had a strong personal faith, as his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and conviction of divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20) attest. He had to overcome hostility and intimidation from powerful neighboring authorities in Samaria, Ammon, and Arabia (4:1-9; 6:1-14). He also required economic justice (ch 5). A few rich Jews were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer brothers.<\/p>\n<p>Included in Nehemiah’s concern for Jerusalem was a strong interest in the maintenance of temple worship. He was involved in the production of a document in which the Jewish community pledged themselves to support the temple personnel and to provide offerings (Neh 10:1, 32-39). Clearly, he realized that Judah needed at its heart a religious emphasis as well as political stability. These particular religious reforms are linked with those of his second period as governor (ch 13). Other reforms of that period concerned the observance of the Sabbath (13:15-22) and the problem of marriages to non-Jews (13:23-27). Nehemiah was a forceful leader (v 25) who used his imperial powers to restore to the settlers a national and religious identity in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Nehemiah, Book of; Ezra (Person) #1; Ezra, Book of; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEHEMIAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Name of three men mentioned in the OT after the period of the exile. The name means “the Lord comforts” and was appropriate for this time of hope and fulfillment.<\/p>\n<p>1. Leader mentioned in a list of Jewish exiles who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel sometime after 538 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7).<\/p>\n<li>2. Ruler of half the district of Beth-zur who helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall in 444 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 3:16).<\/li>\n<li>3. Governor of Judah during the restoration. Originally cupbearer to the Persian king Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>), Nehemiah pleaded to be sent to Judah to aid his fellow Jews in their difficulties and in particular to rebuild Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8). He was appointed governor of Judah for 12 years.<\/li>\n<p>After inspecting the walls upon his arrival, he realized that their repair was to be his prime task. This repair would guarantee the security of the city and could provide a focal point for the Jewish community scattered throughout Judah. That he was able to marshal support for this project and to complete it attests to his skills in management and administration. He also had a strong personal faith, as his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and conviction of divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20) attest. He had to overcome hostility and intimidation from powerful neighboring authorities in Samaria, Ammon, and Arabia (4:1-9; 6:1-14). He also required economic justice (ch 5). A few rich Jews were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer brothers.<\/p>\n<p>Included in Nehemiah’s concern for Jerusalem was a strong interest in the maintenance of temple worship. He was involved in the production of a document in which the Jewish community pledged themselves to support the temple personnel and to provide offerings (Neh 10:1, 32-39). Clearly, he realized that Judah needed at its heart a religious emphasis as well as political stability. These particular religious reforms are linked with those of his second period as governor (ch 13). Other reforms of that period concerned the observance of the Sabbath (13:15-22) and the problem of marriages to non-Jews (13:23-27). Nehemiah was a forceful leader (v 25) who used his imperial powers to restore to the settlers a national and religious identity in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Nehemiah, Book of; Ezra (Person) #1; Ezra, Book of; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEHEMIAH (Person) Name of three men mentioned in the OT after the period of the exile. The name means “the Lord comforts” and was appropriate for this time of hope and fulfillment. 1. Leader mentioned in a list of Jewish exiles who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel sometime after 538 BC (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7). 2. Ruler of half the district of Beth-zur who helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall in 444 BC (Neh 3:16). 3. Governor of Judah during the restoration. Originally cupbearer to the Persian ki...","summary_en":"NEHEMIAH (Person) Name of three men mentioned in the OT after the period of the exile. The name means “the Lord comforts” and was appropriate for this time of hope and fulfillment. 1. Leader mentioned in a list of Jewish exiles who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel sometime after 538 BC (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7). 2. Ruler of half the district of Beth-zur who helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall in 444 BC (Neh 3:16). 3. Governor of Judah during the restoration. Originally cupbearer to the Persian ki...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27251,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nehum*","title_en":"Nehum*","content_ro":"<h3>NEHUM*<\/h3>\n<p>One of the men listed in Nehemiah 7:7 who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the Babylonian captivity. His name is alternately spelled Rehum in Ezra 2:2. <em>See<\/em> Rehum #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEHUM*<\/h3>\n<p>One of the men listed in Nehemiah 7:7 who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the Babylonian captivity. His name is alternately spelled Rehum in Ezra 2:2. <em>See<\/em> Rehum #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEHUM* One of the men listed in Nehemiah 7:7 who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the Babylonian captivity. His name is alternately spelled Rehum in Ezra 2:2. See Rehum #1.","summary_en":"NEHUM* One of the men listed in Nehemiah 7:7 who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the Babylonian captivity. His name is alternately spelled Rehum in Ezra 2:2. See Rehum #1.","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32255,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Raamiah*","title_en":"Raamiah*","content_ro":"<h3>RAAMIAH*<\/h3>\n<p>One who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the Babylonian captivity (Neh 7:7, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). Raamiah is alternately spelled Reelaiah in Ezra 2:2. The correct form of the word is uncertain. <em>See<\/em> Reelaiah.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>RAAMIAH*<\/h3>\n<p>One who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the Babylonian captivity (Neh 7:7, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). Raamiah is alternately spelled Reelaiah in Ezra 2:2. The correct form of the word is uncertain. <em>See<\/em> Reelaiah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"RAAMIAH* One who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the Babylonian captivity (Neh 7:7, nlt mg). Raamiah is alternately spelled Reelaiah in Ezra 2:2. The correct form of the word is uncertain. See Reelaiah.","summary_en":"RAAMIAH* One who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the Babylonian captivity (Neh 7:7, nlt mg). Raamiah is alternately spelled Reelaiah in Ezra 2:2. The correct form of the word is uncertain. See Reelaiah.","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32587,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Reelaiah","title_en":"Reelaiah","content_ro":"<h3>REELAIAH<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:2); alternately called Raamiah (Neh 7:7). <em>See<\/em> Raamiah.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>REELAIAH<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:2); alternately called Raamiah (Neh 7:7). <em>See<\/em> Raamiah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"REELAIAH Head of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:2); alternately called Raamiah (Neh 7:7). See Raamiah.","summary_en":"REELAIAH Head of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:2); alternately called Raamiah (Neh 7:7). See Raamiah.","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32644,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Rehum","title_en":"Rehum","content_ro":"<h3>REHUM<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of the 12 Jewish leaders who returned from captivity with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7, where “Nehum” is apparently a copyist’s error). <em>See<\/em> Nehum.<\/li>\n<li>2. Persian commander who, with Shimshai the scribe, wrote to Artaxerxes I, complaining of the Jews’ temple-rebuilding project and promising dire consequences should the project be completed. The king’s response halted construction until the second year of Darius’s reign (Ezr 4:8-23).<\/li>\n<li>3. Levite identified as Bani’s son, who helped repair the Jerusalem wall under Nehemiah’s direction (Neh 3:17).<\/li>\n<li>4. Leader who set his seal on Ezra’s covenant (Neh 10:25).<\/li>\n<li>5. Priest who accompanied Zerubbabel (Neh 12:3); elsewhere he was called Harim (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg). <em>See<\/em> Harim #5.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>REHUM<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of the 12 Jewish leaders who returned from captivity with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7, where “Nehum” is apparently a copyist’s error). <em>See<\/em> Nehum.<\/li>\n<li>2. Persian commander who, with Shimshai the scribe, wrote to Artaxerxes I, complaining of the Jews’ temple-rebuilding project and promising dire consequences should the project be completed. The king’s response halted construction until the second year of Darius’s reign (Ezr 4:8-23).<\/li>\n<li>3. Levite identified as Bani’s son, who helped repair the Jerusalem wall under Nehemiah’s direction (Neh 3:17).<\/li>\n<li>4. Leader who set his seal on Ezra’s covenant (Neh 10:25).<\/li>\n<li>5. Priest who accompanied Zerubbabel (Neh 12:3); elsewhere he was called Harim (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg). <em>See<\/em> Harim #5.<\/li>","summary_ro":"REHUM 1. One of the 12 Jewish leaders who returned from captivity with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7, where “Nehum” is apparently a copyist’s error). See Nehum. 2. Persian commander who, with Shimshai the scribe, wrote to Artaxerxes I, complaining of the Jews’ temple-rebuilding project and promising dire consequences should the project be completed. The king’s response halted construction until the second year of Darius’s reign (Ezr 4:8-23). 3. Levite identified as Bani’s son, who helped repai...","summary_en":"REHUM 1. One of the 12 Jewish leaders who returned from captivity with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7, where “Nehum” is apparently a copyist’s error). See Nehum. 2. Persian commander who, with Shimshai the scribe, wrote to Artaxerxes I, complaining of the Jews’ temple-rebuilding project and promising dire consequences should the project be completed. The king’s response halted construction until the second year of Darius’s reign (Ezr 4:8-23). 3. Levite identified as Bani’s son, who helped repai...","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34367,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Seraiah","title_en":"Seraiah","content_ro":"<h3>SERAIAH<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Royal secretary of King David (2 Sm 8:17); alternately called Sheva in 2 Samuel 20:25, Shisha in 1 Kings 4:3, and Shavsha in 1 Chronicles 18:16.<\/li>\n<li> 2. Chief priest in Jerusalem at the time of its destruction by the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. He was taken by Nebuzaradan, the captain of the guard, to Nebuchadnezzar at Riblah, where he was put to death (2 Kgs 25:18; Jer 52:24). First Chronicles 6:14 records Seraiah as the son of Azariah, the father of Jehozadak and a descendant of Levi through Aaron’s line.<\/li>\n<li> 3. Son of Tanhumeth the Netophathite and one of the captains of the Judean forces who sought clemency from Nebuchadnezzar under Gedaliah (2 Kgs 25:23; Jer 40:8).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Judahite, the son of Kenaz, the brother of Othniel and Joab’s father (1 Chr 4:13-14).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Simeonite, the son of Asiel and Joshibiah’s father (1 Chr 4:35).<\/li>\n<li> 6. One of the men who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:2); called Azariah in Nehemiah 7:7. <em>See<\/em> Azariah #23.<\/li>\n<li> 7. Father of Ezra the scribe. Ezra returned to Jerusalem during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 7:1). He is perhaps identical with #2 above, in which case Jehozadak would be Ezra’s brother.<\/li>\n<li> 8. One of the priests who set his seal on the covenant of Ezra (Neh 10:2).<\/li>\n<li> 9. Son of Hilkiah and a priest living in Jerusalem during the postexilic era (Neh 11:11); called Azariah in 1 Chronicles 9:11. <em>See<\/em> Azariah #10.<\/li>\n<li>10. One of the leaders of the priests who returned with Zerubbabel and Jeshua to Judah after the exile (Neh 12:1). His house in the next generation was headed by Meraiah. He is perhaps identical with #6 above.<\/li>\n<li>11. Son of Azriel who, with Jerahmeel and Shelemiah, was ordered by King Jehoiakim of Judah (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>) to capture Baruch and Jeremiah (Jer 36:26).<\/li>\n<li>12. Son of Neriah and the official who accompanied King Zedekiah of Judah (597–586 <span>BC<\/span>) to Babylon. Seraiah was to relay Jeremiah’s message against Babylon (Jer 51:59-61).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>SERAIAH<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Royal secretary of King David (2 Sm 8:17); alternately called Sheva in 2 Samuel 20:25, Shisha in 1 Kings 4:3, and Shavsha in 1 Chronicles 18:16.<\/li>\n<li> 2. Chief priest in Jerusalem at the time of its destruction by the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. He was taken by Nebuzaradan, the captain of the guard, to Nebuchadnezzar at Riblah, where he was put to death (2 Kgs 25:18; Jer 52:24). First Chronicles 6:14 records Seraiah as the son of Azariah, the father of Jehozadak and a descendant of Levi through Aaron’s line.<\/li>\n<li> 3. Son of Tanhumeth the Netophathite and one of the captains of the Judean forces who sought clemency from Nebuchadnezzar under Gedaliah (2 Kgs 25:23; Jer 40:8).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Judahite, the son of Kenaz, the brother of Othniel and Joab’s father (1 Chr 4:13-14).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Simeonite, the son of Asiel and Joshibiah’s father (1 Chr 4:35).<\/li>\n<li> 6. One of the men who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:2); called Azariah in Nehemiah 7:7. <em>See<\/em> Azariah #23.<\/li>\n<li> 7. Father of Ezra the scribe. Ezra returned to Jerusalem during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 7:1). He is perhaps identical with #2 above, in which case Jehozadak would be Ezra’s brother.<\/li>\n<li> 8. One of the priests who set his seal on the covenant of Ezra (Neh 10:2).<\/li>\n<li> 9. Son of Hilkiah and a priest living in Jerusalem during the postexilic era (Neh 11:11); called Azariah in 1 Chronicles 9:11. <em>See<\/em> Azariah #10.<\/li>\n<li>10. One of the leaders of the priests who returned with Zerubbabel and Jeshua to Judah after the exile (Neh 12:1). His house in the next generation was headed by Meraiah. He is perhaps identical with #6 above.<\/li>\n<li>11. Son of Azriel who, with Jerahmeel and Shelemiah, was ordered by King Jehoiakim of Judah (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>) to capture Baruch and Jeremiah (Jer 36:26).<\/li>\n<li>12. Son of Neriah and the official who accompanied King Zedekiah of Judah (597–586 <span>BC<\/span>) to Babylon. Seraiah was to relay Jeremiah’s message against Babylon (Jer 51:59-61).<\/li>","summary_ro":"SERAIAH 1. Royal secretary of King David (2 Sm 8:17); alternately called Sheva in 2 Samuel 20:25, Shisha in 1 Kings 4:3, and Shavsha in 1 Chronicles 18:16. 2. Chief priest in Jerusalem at the time of its destruction by the Babylonians in 586 BC. He was taken by Nebuzaradan, the captain of the guard, to Nebuchadnezzar at Riblah, where he was put to death (2 Kgs 25:18; Jer 52:24). First Chronicles 6:14 records Seraiah as the son of Azariah, the father of Jehozadak and a descendant of Levi throu...","summary_en":"SERAIAH 1. Royal secretary of King David (2 Sm 8:17); alternately called Sheva in 2 Samuel 20:25, Shisha in 1 Kings 4:3, and Shavsha in 1 Chronicles 18:16. 2. Chief priest in Jerusalem at the time of its destruction by the Babylonians in 586 BC. He was taken by Nebuzaradan, the captain of the guard, to Nebuchadnezzar at Riblah, where he was put to death (2 Kgs 25:18; Jer 52:24). First Chronicles 6:14 records Seraiah as the son of Azariah, the father of Jehozadak and a descendant of Levi throu...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37018,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Temple","title_en":"Temple","content_ro":"<h3>TEMPLE<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Solomon’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>• Zerubbabel’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>• Herod’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>• Significance of the Temple in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Significance of the Temple in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>David’s capture of Jerusalem (2 Sm 5:6-9) and his designation of it as the nation’s capital is one of the great masterstrokes of history. Occupied by the Jebusites, it was a pocket of neutral territory between the northern and southern sections of David’s united kingdom and was politically acceptable to both. Jerusalem was then established as the national religious center by the return of the ark, which had been largely neglected since its capture by the Philistines (2 Sm 6:1-17). Henceforth, God’s choices of both David and Jerusalem (“Mount Zion”) were indissolubly linked (Ps 78:67-72).<\/p>\n<p>David’s great impulse was to build an adequate dwelling place for Israel’s God. The idea was initially approved by Nathan the prophet (2 Sm 7:1-3), but God revealed otherwise to him, and he conveyed the divine purpose to David (vv 4-17). In a significant wordplay, David was informed that, while he was not to build a house (temple) for God, God would build a house (dynasty) for him. David was not the one to build a temple because of the numerous wars during his reign; the temple would instead be built by his son (1 Kgs 5:3; 1 Chr 22:7-8; 28:3). Nevertheless, David enthusiastically amassed most of the necessary finances and materials and drew up the blueprints for the temple (1 Chr 22:3-5, 14; 28:2, 11-19). He also purchased the temple site (21:25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SolomonsTemple\">Solomon’s Temple<\/p>\n\n<h5>Date<\/h5>\n<p>Construction commenced in Solomon’s fourth year, about 966 <span>BC<\/span>, and took seven years to complete (1 Kgs 6:1, 38). Everything necessary for the temple, including the workers, had been prepared by David (1 Chr 28:21). The temple evidently had first priority among Solomon’s building schemes, as he built his own palace later (1 Kgs 7:1).<\/p>\n<h5>Superintendents and Workforce<\/h5>\n<p>The principal architect for the bronze furnishings was Huram (Hebrew “Hiram”), whose father was a metal craftsman from Tyre and whose mother was an Israelite (1 Kgs 7:13-14). Cedar for the temple came from Lebanon and was felled and transported by the skilled woodsmen of another Hiram—the king of Tyre, Solomon’s ally (5:5-9). Thirty thousand Israelites, divided into three groups, were drafted to assist at Lebanon. Each group was on duty for one month in three. For the stonework, Solomon conscripted 153,600 foreigners resident in Israel to provide a self-contained group of carriers, stone cutters, and supervisors (vv 15-17; 2 Chr 2:17-18). Possibly the “men of Gebal,” with their specialized skills, formed yet another group (1 Kgs 5:18). Building the temple was obviously a national project of immense size and effort. In order to preserve the sanctity of the site and to eliminate noise, the masonry and carpentry were not done at the temple site (6:7).<\/p>\n<h5>Description<\/h5>\n<p>The details given in the Bible are sufficiently clear for us to make a reasonably accurate description of the temple. The accounts in Kings and Chronicles are supplemented by Ezekiel’s depiction of the temple (see below), which was broadly based on his knowledge of the Jerusalem temple (Ez 40–48).<\/p>\n<p>The side rooms probably rested on a foundation or platform that was separate from the temple itself (1 Kgs 6:5, 10; cf. Ez 41:8-9) and were arranged in three stories, each seven and a half feet (2.3 meters) high, extending around the whole building except for the porch side. Each successive story was one and a half feet (.5 meter) wider than the one below, these dimensions coinciding with the thickness of the side wall of the Holy Place. The ground floor rooms were seven and a half feet (2.3 meters) wide; the first story was nine feet (2.7 meters), and the second was ten and a half feet (3.2 meters). Access to the upper stories was possibly by winding staircases (1 Kgs 6:8). There is some uncertainty concerning the location of the entrances; there may have been one on either side, but only one is mentioned (v 8). As in Ezekiel’s temple (Ez 40:17, 28), there were two adjacent courts, an inner and an outer (1 Kgs 6:36; 7:12), but no dimensions are given for these. The inner court, or “court of the priests,” being next to the temple itself, was also called “the upper court” (2 Chr 4:9; Jer 36:10). The wall of the inner court was made of three layers of hewn stone held together by a layer of cedar beams (1 Kgs 6:36), and the doors of both courts were sheathed in bronze (2 Chr 4:9). The palace buildings were within the outer court area, probably with a private passageway between the palace and the temple that was later closed during the reign of Ahaz (2 Chr 4:9, 12; 2 Kgs 16:18).<\/p>\n<p>The temple itself was 90 feet (27.4 meters) long, 30 feet (9.1 meters) wide, and 45 feet (13.7 meters) high (1 Kgs 6:2), with a porch or vestibule 15 feet (4.6 meters) deep stretching across the width. Probably the vestibule was on the east end of the temple, thus corresponding with the orientation of Ezekiel’s temple (Ez 43:1; 44:1). The larger part of the main sanctuary, next to the porch, formed the Holy Place, which was 60 feet (18.3 meters) long (1 Kgs 6:17). Beyond this was the innermost sanctuary, the Holy of Holies (or the “Most Holy Place“), which was a perfect cube of 30 feet (9.1 meters). All the interior walls were paneled with cedar decorated with flower patterns, cherubim, and palm trees, so that no masonry was visible. The walls of both inner and outer sanctuaries were “overlaid” (v 22) with pure gold. Actually the gold decoration may have been inlaid, on the basis that a solid sheath of gold would spoil the natural beauty of the wood carving. The floor was made of cypress planks (v 15). Narrow windows set high in the walls above the level of the three-storied outer chambers provided light in the Holy Place (v 4). The ceiling was paneled with beams and planks of cedar. No detail is given about the exterior roofing, but probably the contemporary technique was employed, using a wooden, latticelike framework into which a waterproof, limestone plaster was packed and rolled.<\/p>\n<p>The outer porch was apparently an open space, since no doors are mentioned. Access into the Holy Place was by double doors, both hinged to fold back on themselves, made of cypress and decorated in exactly the same way as the interior walls (vv 34-35). The doorposts were made of olive wood. Within the Holy Place was the altar of incense made of cedar overlaid with gold; it was placed centrally before the Holy of Holies. Also in the Holy Place were a table for the bread of the Presence of God, ten lampstands arranged in two groups of five on either side, and various utensils required for maintaining the priestly duties (1 Kgs 7:48-50). All these were made or overlaid with gold. The ten tables, arranged five on each side, were presumably for the utensils and accessories (2 Chr 4:8).<\/p>\n<p>Between the Holy Place and the Holy of Holies was a double door made of olive wood, carved with cherubim, palm trees, and flower patterns and overlaid with gold. Inside these doors, veiling still further the Holy of Holies, was a blue, purple, and crimson curtain, made of the finest fabrics and ornamented with cherubim (2 Chr 3:14).<\/p>\n<p>In the Holy of Holies were two cherubim, each 15 feet (4.6 meters) high and made of olive wood covered with gold (1 Kgs 6:23-28). Each wing measured seven and a half feet (2.3 meters). A wing of each touched the side walls; the other wings met at the center of the room. The divine throne had been considerably less impressive in the tabernacle, where a wing of each cherubim fused into the mercy seat above the ark (Ex 25:17-22). In Solomon’s temple, the ark of the covenant was placed below the forward-facing cherubim, the symbolic protectors. The ark, the only major item surviving from the Mosaic tabernacle, still contained the tablets of the law, but the pot of manna and Aaron’s rod were missing (1 Kgs 8:9).<\/p>\n<p>Immediately outside the temple and on either side of the vestibule were two hollow bronze pillars (1 Kgs 7:15-20; 2 Chr 3:15-17). According to the book of Kings, these pillars were 27 feet (8.2 meters) high, with a circumference of 18 feet (5.5 meters). The metal itself was about four inches (10.2 centimeters) thick. The pillars were surmounted by bronze, lily-shaped capitals seven and a half feet (2.3 meters) high and six feet (1.8 meters) wide, intricately adorned with a chain latticework that supported two rows of pomegranates. The total weight must have been enormous, and their size is attested to by Jeremiah, who notes that the Babylonians had to break them in pieces before transporting them to Babylon (Jer 52:17, 21-23).<\/p>\n<p>The bronze altar of sacrifice in front of the vestibule is not listed in the specifications of 1 Kings 7. However, it is mentioned in the temple dedication and subsequently (1 Kgs 8:22, 54, 64; 9:25) and clearly stood in the inner court. Its dimensions were 30 feet (9.1 meters) square and 15 feet (4.6 meters) high (2 Chr 4:1). In view of its weight, it was probably cast in sections at Solomon’s foundry in the Jordan Rift valley (vv 17-18) and then transported to the temple site for assembly.<\/p>\n<p>Probably the most striking article in the inner court was the “molten (bronze) sea,” a huge, round tank made of bronze 3 inches (8 centimeters) thick, 7½ feet (2.3 meters) high, and 15 feet (4.6 meters) in diameter (1 Kgs 7:23-26). Its rim flared out like a lily (2 Chr 4:2-5). The tank was supported on 12 bronze oxen, four on each side, and had two rows of decoration, possibly gourds or pomegranates, under the brim. Its capacity was between 10,000 and 12,000 gallons (37,850–45,420 liters). The bronze sea was used for priestly ablutions (v 6). Presumably this involved a platform of sorts, for the brim of this vast basin would have been about 15 feet (4.6 meters) above ground level.<\/p>\n<p>Hiram also constructed ten large lavers, mounted on moveable stands and placed in two groups of five, on the north and south sides of the inner court (1 Kgs 7:27-39). Basically the stands were bronze boxes, six feet (1.8 meters) square and four and a half feet (1.4 meters) high with a nine-inch (22.9-centimeter) rim around the top edge. Each corner was attached to braced posts to which the axles were fixed. The four-spoked wheels were 27 inches (68.6 centimeters) high. Into each stand there fitted a laver containing approximately 220 gallons (832.7 liters) of water, used for washing sacrificial animals (2 Chr 4:6). Probably each was adjacent to one of the ten tables that would be used to flay and otherwise prepare the sacrifices (v 8). Supplementary items, such as pots, shovels, and basins, all made of bronze, were also manufactured (1 Kgs 7:40, 45).<\/p>\n<h5>The Dedication<\/h5>\n<p>Eleven months elapsed between the completion of the temple and its dedication (1 Kgs 6:38; 8:2), during which time the major items of furniture were set in place. The dedication itself took place in the seventh month, presumably in connection with the Feast of Tabernacles and the Day of Atonement (Lv 23:23-36). The ark of the covenant was brought into its final resting place (1 Kgs 8:3-4), but the inner court proved inadequate for the vast numbers of beasts sacrificed (1 Kgs 8:62-64; 2 Chr 7:7).<\/p>\n<p>The temple employed the most sophisticated building techniques of the age, and no expense had been spared in construction, ornamentation, or equipment. Yet Solomon readily confessed its utter inadequacy to house the eternal God (1 Kgs 8:27). His prayer also underlined Israel’s propensity to forsake the Lord, contrasting the nation with God, who, though a just judge, was also merciful and faithful. The climax of the proceedings came when fire from heaven consumed the sacrifices and the shekinah glory filled the temple (2 Chr 7:1-3).<\/p>\n<h5>Later History<\/h5>\n<p>Like most ancient shrines, the temple became a treasury for national wealth and as such was often the target for attack. Shishak of Egypt plundered it within five years of Solomon’s death (1 Kgs 14:25-38). Shortly afterward, King Asa (910–869 <span>BC<\/span>) depleted its gold and silver treasures to buy Syrian help against his oppressor, Baasha (908–886 <span>BC<\/span>), king of Israel (15:16-19). Joash, the king of Judah (835–796 <span>BC<\/span>) who was concealed in the temple from the vicious Athaliah during his youth (2 Kgs 11), made provision for its repair after protesting the priests’ embezzlement of gifts (12:4-16). But after the death of Jehoiada, the high priest, Joash himself was adversely influenced by his nobles (2 Chr 24:15-19). As punishment for his apostasy, the Lord allowed the Syrians to attack, and Joash used the temple treasures to buy them off (2 Kgs 12:17-18). Hardly had provision for replacements been made, when Jehoash of Israel (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>), having shattered the arrogant pride of Amaziah of Judah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>), again stripped the temple (14:8-14). Later, King Ahaz (735-715 <span>BC<\/span>) used the remaining resources of the temple to enlist support from the Assyrians (16:7-9), though he eventually became completely subservient to them.<\/p>\n<p> Then Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>), one of the great reforming kings, thoroughly renovated the temple and restored worship after it had fallen into disuse during theclosing years of Ahaz (2 Chr 29:1-19; 31:9-21). Manasseh (696–642 <span>BC<\/span>), however, completely reversed his father’s policy, bringing the practices of Canaanite and Mesopotamian worship into the temple (2 Kgs 21:3-7). His conversion experience, which probably occurred late in his reign and resulted in certain reform measures in the temple (2 Chr 33:12-19), was not far-reaching enough to escape the final judgment that his reign was the dark spot of Judah’s history (2 Kgs 21:10-16).<\/p>\n<p>Manasseh’s grandson Josiah (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>), was the second great reforming king. He organized the repair of the temple in 622 <span>BC<\/span>, during which the lost Book of the Law (almost certainly the book of Deuteronomy) was discovered (2 Kgs 22:3-13). As a result, Josiah’s reformation gained a new dimension and sense of urgency (22:14–23:3). The reformation included a thorough purge of all idolatrous elements from the temple (23:4-12) and the restoration of the traditional festivals. Sadly, however, Josiah’s reformation died with him, and Judah’s downward slide continued under the apostate Jehoiakim (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>). It was probably during this time that Jeremiah preached his famous temple sermon foretelling its destruction (Jer 7:1–8:3; 26:1-19), which alienated him from the religious leaders. In Nebuchadnezzar’s reprisal raid following Jehoiakim’s rebellion in 601 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 24:1-4), Jerusalem was captured (596 <span>BC<\/span>) and many of the temple treasures were transported to Babylon (2 Chr 36:7). The temple itself appears to have escaped damage, but when Judah again rebelled under Zedekiah (597–586 <span>BC<\/span>), the temple was demolished (2 Kgs 25:8-10). The remaining temple treasures were taken away.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ZerubbabelsTemple\">Zerubbabel’s Temple<\/p>\n<h5>Construction<\/h5>\n<p>Although the temple was devastated, the site still remained as a place of pilgrimage during the exile (Jer 41:4-5). In 538 <span>BC<\/span> the Persian king, Cyrus, in pursuance of a liberal policy diametrically opposed to that of the earlier empires, permitted the Jews to return from exile. And he authorized the rebuilding of the temple, financing it from the Persian treasury.<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Ezra, the decree of authorization has been preserved in two forms: the general proclamation (Ezr 1:2-4) and a more prosaic memorandum in the national archives indicating the main temple specifications and the amount of promised Persian help (6:1-5). Probably only a minority of the Jews opted to leave the relative comforts of Mesopotamia for the dangers of a long journey to their desolated homeland. According to the book of Ezra, 42,360 dedicated individuals and their servants (2:64-65) responded under the leadership of Sheshbazzar (1:8-11; 5:14-16) and Zerubbabel (2:2; 3:2, 8; 4:2). With great enthusiasm, the altar was rebuilt on the temple site and the traditional pattern of worship reestablished (3:1-6). Utilizing the grant from Persia as well as their own freewill gifts (2:68-69; 3:7), the Jews began to plan the second temple and lay its foundations (3:7-13). The initial impetus quickly died as a result of local opposition (4:1-4, 24), selfish preoccupation, and crop failures (Hg 1:2-11). In 520 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 4:24; Hg 1:1; Zec 1:1), inspired by the prophets Haggai and Zechariah, the Jews under Zerubbabel and Joshua the high priest commenced rebuilding. Work continued in spite of official suspicion, if not direct opposition, and the temple was completed and dedicated in 515 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 5:1–6:22).<\/p>\n<p>Little is known of the physical features of Zerubbabel’s temple. The inference that it was vastly inferior to Solomon’s temple (Hg 2:3) probably relates to an early stage in the building operation. In fact, the second temple stood for over 500 years. The dimensions noted in Ezra 6:3 are incomplete; the new temple was no doubt about the same size as its predecessor and was probably built on the same foundation. The construction technique appears to have followed the method of the original, with layers of timber providing a framework for sections of masonry (v 4). Clearly, there was auxiliary accommodation, probably like the side rooms of Solomon’s temple (Ezr 8:29; Neh 12:44; 13:4-5). If Persian aid was forthcoming as promised (Ezr 6:8-12), the second temple was a more splendid, substantial structure than is generally supposed.<\/p>\n<h5>Later History<\/h5>\n<p>Several references in the Apocrypha, pseudepigrapha, rabbinic writings, and the historian Josephus help to illumine the history of the temple and give more detail on its structure and furnishings. Josephus, quoting from Hecateus of Abdera (fourth century <span>BC<\/span>), states that the temple was a large building in an enclosure about 500 feet by 150 feet (152.4 meters by 45.7 meters), surrounded by a stone wall, with an altar of unhewn stones the same size as Solomon’s bronze altar (cf. 2 Chr 4:1). Within the sanctuary was a golden altar of incense and a lampstand, the flame of which burned continually. Josephus also notes that Antiochus III (223–187 <span>BC<\/span>) financially supported the temple when the Seleucids displaced the Ptolemies as masters of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Ben Sirach, early in the second century <span>BC<\/span>, commended Simon, the son of Onias the high priest, for his work in fortifying and repairing the temple area. First Maccabees provides valuable evidence of the fate of the temple during the oppression under Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175–164 <span>BC<\/span>). The books of the Maccabees recount the defilement of the altar of burnt offering (1 Macc 1:54) and the plundering of the golden lampstand, altar of incense, table of offering, veil, and other treasures (2 Macc 5:15-16; 6:2-4). When the temple was recaptured and restored, the victorious Maccabees replaced the items taken by the Seleucids, except for the altar of sacrifice, which was considered so polluted that it was dismantled and replaced by a new one constructed of unhewn stone (1 Macc 4:36-61; 2 Macc 10:1-9). Clearly the temple area was used as a fortress, both in opposition to the Seleucid garrison that was maintained in Jerusalem in the Maccabean period and in the conflicts of the later Hasmonean period. When Pompey captured Jerusalem about 63 <span>BC<\/span>, he entered the temple to assert his authority but took no plunder, thus showing respect for it.<\/p>\n<p>The history of Zerubbabel’s temple closed when Herod, having carefully preserved it from any major damage when he gained control of Jerusalem with Roman aid in 37 <span>BC<\/span>, began to dismantle it about 21 <span>BC<\/span> in preparation for the construction of his own grand temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HerodsTemple\">Herod’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>Apart from over 100 references in the NT, our main sources of information about Herod’s temple come from the Jewish historian Josephus and from the Middoth (a section of the Jewish rabbinic writings). There are considerable differences in detail between the two, which rules out any dogmatic interpretation in attempted reconstructions. Since Josephus was contemporary with the temple (he was born about <span>AD<\/span> 37 and died early in the second century), he is probably more reliable than the Middoth, which, dating from about <span>AD<\/span> 150, appears to exaggerate occasionally. Archaeological research has been helpful in determining the positions of the outer walls and gates.<\/p>\n<p>Herod’s motive in building his temple was political rather than religious. As an Idumean, he wished to placate his Jewish subjects by constructing a sanctuary as magnificent as Solomon’s. Possible fears that the site might be profaned, or that the existing temple might be demolished and never rebuilt, were allayed by the training of 1,000 priests as masons and the amassing of materials before the work commenced. Herod’s temple followed the tripartite plan of its predecessors, although its porch was much larger. It was built in the contemporary Greco-Roman architectural style and must therefore be regarded as distinct from Zerubbabel’s temple. Work began in 20 <span>BC<\/span>, and while the main sanctuary was quickly erected (it was in full operation within ten years), the total project was not completed until <span>AD<\/span> 64, only six years before it was destroyed by the Romans.<\/p>\n<p>Herod first prepared the site by clearing and leveling an area approximately 500 yards (457.2 meters) from north to south and about 325 yards (297.2 meters) from east to west. This involved cutting away sections of rock in some areas and building up with rubble in others. Considerable sections of the enclosing wall, constructed on stone blocks averaging about 15 feet (4.6 meters) long by 4 feet (1.2 meters) high, still survive. Some of the stones in the corners of the south wall weigh up to 70 tons (63.5 metric tons).<\/p>\n<p>The sanctuary itself seems to have been based on the same dimensions as Solomon’s temple. It was divided into the Holy Place, which was 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, 30 feet (9.1 meters) wide, and 60 feet high, and the Holy of Holies, which was 30 feet square. There was no furniture within the Holy of Holies, which was separated by a veil from the Holy Place. The Holy Place contained the seven-branch lampstand, the table for the bread of the Presence, and the incense altar. The main divergence from Solomon’s temple was the imposing porch, 150 feet (45.7 meters) in width and height. Outside was a doorway approximately 30 feet (9.1 meters) wide by 40 feet (12.2 meters) high, with an inner doorway about half that size leading into the sanctuary. By allowing empty rooms over the Holy of Holies and the Holy Place, there was a uniform roof height of 150 feet (45.7 meters). Golden spikes on the roof discouraged birds from alighting and defiling the structure. Like its predecessors, the temple was oriented toward the east and was surrounded on the other sides by three stories of rooms rising to a height of 60 feet (18.3 meters). The stone used was the local white stone, cut in huge blocks and highly polished.<\/p>\n<p>Access to the porch was by a flight of 12 steps from the Court of the Priests. Centrally placed before the porch and 33 feet (10.1 meters) away was the altar of sacrifice. Made of unhewn stone, it was a multilevel construction 15 feet (4.6 meters) high and about 48 feet (14.6 meters) square at its base. Male Israelites were allowed into this area once a year, during the Feast of the Tabernacles, to walk around the altar of sacrifice. Otherwise, they were restricted to the Court of Israel. To the east of the Court of Israel, and separated from it by a flight of 15 steps and by the ornate Great Gate, made of Corinthian bronze, was the Court of the Women. Here the offertory chests for temple expenses were located (Mk 12:41-44). The next court was the large, lower, outer Court of the Gentiles, which surrounded the inner courts and was separated from them by a balustrade and a series of warning notices. Two of these have been excavated, written in Latin and Greek and forbidding trespass by Gentiles into the inner areas, on pain of death. This outer court was widely used. Immediately inside its walls was a portico, supported by four rows of columns almost 40 feet (12.2 meters) high on the south side (the Royal Porch), and two rows on the other sides, the eastern portico known as “Solomon’s Porch” or “Solomon’s Colonnade.” Here is the area where the stalls of the money changers and merchants were set up, where the Sanhedrin met, and where Christ and the scribes taught and debated (Mk 11:27; Lk 2:46; 19:47; Jn 10:23). Here, too, the infant church met before it was rejected by a hostile Judaism (Acts 3:11; 5:12). Just to the northwest of the temple enclosure was the Fortress of Antonia, where the Roman governor resided while in Jerusalem, and where a Roman garrison was on hand to deal with disturbances (Acts 21:31-40). Overlooking the temple area, it was separated from it by a wide moat. The high priest’s vestments were stored in the fortress as a symbol of Roman authority. Access to the Court of the Gentiles was by four gates in the west wall; two in the south wall, where the ground fell away steeply into the valley, a site often identified as the pinnacle of the temple (Mt 4:5; Lk 4:9); and one gate in each of the east and north walls.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SignificanceoftheTempleintheOldTestament\">Significance of the Temple in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The temple in Jerusalem functioned as the focal point of the tribal confederation. In spite of the attempt of Jeroboam I, the first king of the northern kingdom, to divert attention from Jerusalem by establishing shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:26-30), Jerusalem never lost its preeminence. Naturally, both Hezekiah and Josiah sought to extend their reformation into the area of the northern tribes (2 Chr 30:1-12; 34:6-7), and Jerusalem was a pilgrimage center for those areas even after its destruction (Jer 41:5). The prophets foretold its destiny as the focal point of universal worship (Is 2:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>The temple was God’s dwelling place among his people. God’s presence, symbolized in the shekinah glory and the pillar of cloud, was associated with the tent of meeting (Ex 33:9-11), with the tabernacle (40:34-38), and finally with the temple (1 Kgs 8:10-11). The paradox is that while God is completely unrestricted, the temple was considered a place for God to live forever (vv 13, 27). God had chosen Zion, as he had chosen David (Pss 68:15-18; 76:2; 78:67-72), so the temple was regarded as God’s house (27:4; 42:4; 84:1-4).<\/p>\n<h5>Ezekiel’s Temple<\/h5>\n<p>Ezekiel’s detailed description of the ideal temple (Ez 40–48) was not used as the blueprint for Zerubbabel’s temple. In fact, since Ezekiel must have been familiar with Solomon’s temple before his deportation in 597 <span>BC<\/span>, his description is of greater help in determining uncertain details of the first temple. Ezekiel’s concern was to show the nature of pure worship, safeguarded from all contamination. This worship would allow the glory of God, which had departed from corrupted Solomon’s temple (9:3; 10:4, 18-19: 11:22-23), to return so that Jerusalem could again be named “the Lord is there” (43:1-5; 48:35). This thought, linked with Ezekiel’s vital concept of God’s Spirit indwelling his faithful worshipers (36:24-28), anticipated the NT teaching of the believers becoming God’s temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SignificanceoftheTempleintheNewTestament\">Significance of the Temple in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>Christ and the Temple<\/h5>\n<p>Christ showed considerable respect for the temple. When he was 12 years old, he entered into the rabbinic discussions in its porticoes and described it as his Father’s house (Lk 2:41-50). To him “the house of God” was indwelt by God (Mt 12:4; 23:21). Although he twice cleansed it in righteous anger (Mt 21:12-13; Jn 2:13-16), he wept over the impending destruction of the city and temple (Lk 19:41-44). He often taught there, but he was “greater than the temple” (Mt 12:6). When his presentation to Jerusalem as the predicted Messiah was rejected, in spite of attendant miracles, he foretold its inevitable destruction (Mt 21:9-15; 24:1-2). For a brief period after Pentecost, the early church used the temple as its meeting place, until mounting opposition drove believers from Jerusalem (Acts 5:12, 21, 42; 8:1).<\/p>\n<h5>The Church as the Temple<\/h5>\n<p>The NT writers used two different Greek words to describe the temple: <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span><em>.<\/em> <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Naos<\/span> refers to the actual sanctuary of the temple, the place of God’s dwelling. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Hieron<\/span> refers to the temple precincts as well as to the sanctuary. Generally speaking, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> was used to designate the inner section of the temple known as the Holy Place and the Holy of Holies, whereas <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span> included the outer court and the temple proper.<\/p>\n<p>In Paul’s epistles the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> appears six times (1 Cor 3:16-17; 6:19; 2 Cor 6:16; Eph 2:21; 2 Thes 2:4) and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span> once (1 Cor 9:13). In these verses Paul maintains the distinction of definition noted above. When speaking of the actual physical temple, he used the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span> to indicate the place where the priests offered up animal sacrifices on the altar (1 Cor 9:13), which was situated in the outer court (see Ex 27–29, 40). And when Paul referred to the abominable act of the lawless one in usurping God’s place in the temple, he used the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span>—the word that designates the place of deity’s presence (2 Thes 2:4).<\/p>\n<p>In all the other Pauline passages, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> is used metaphorically—to depict a human habitation for the divine Spirit. In one instance the sanctuary image is used to describe the individual believer’s body (1 Cor 6:19); in every other instance the sanctuary depicts Christ’s body, the church (1 Cor 3:16-17; 2 Cor 6:16; Eph 2:21). Mistakenly, many readers think 1 Corinthians 3:16-17 speaks of the individual, but according to the Greek text, it is unquestionably clear that Paul was speaking about the collective church (specifically, the church in Corinth).<\/p>\n<p>When Paul told the church in Corinth that it was God’s sanctuary, they would have understood the image from their knowledge of pagan temples. But Paul probably had in mind the one temple in Jerusalem. The Gentiles had many gods with many temples in one city; the Jews had one God with only one temple in all of Israel. This helped to preserve unity among the Israelites. The Corinthians needed spiritual unity; they were fragmented due to their individual preferences (see 1 Cor 1:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>In Ephesians, Paul’s masterpiece on the church, he speaks of the local churches as living, organic entities that are all (compositely speaking) growing into a holy sanctuary in the Lord (Eph 2:21). Paul pictured each local church as providing God with a spiritual habitation in that locality (v 22) and as growing together with all the other churches into one holy, universal sanctuary for the Lord’s indwelling.<\/p>\n<h5>The Temple in John’s Revelation<\/h5>\n<p>In John’s revelation there is no material temple, even though he continues to use the imagery of Jerusalem and Mt Zion (Rv 3:12; 14:1; 21:2, 10, 22). Three interrelated ideas dominate. First is the concept of the church made up of martyrs, whose faithful members are God’s temple (3:12; 14:1). This temple grows gradually as the number of martyrs increases (6:11). Another aspect is the temple as the place of judgment (11:19; 14:15; 15:5–16:1). Finally, any temple in the new age is unnecessary, “for its temple is the Lord God Almighty and the Lamb” (21:22). The ultimate state will be God’s dwelling with his people—the eternal, spritual temple.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Altar; Ark of the Covenant; Bread of the Presence; David; Feasts and Festivals of Israel; First Jewish Revolt; Judaism; Mercy Seat; Offerings and Sacrifices; Priests and Levites; Sanctuary; Singers in the Temple; Solomon (Person).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TEMPLE<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Solomon’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>• Zerubbabel’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>• Herod’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>• Significance of the Temple in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Significance of the Temple in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>David’s capture of Jerusalem (2 Sm 5:6-9) and his designation of it as the nation’s capital is one of the great masterstrokes of history. Occupied by the Jebusites, it was a pocket of neutral territory between the northern and southern sections of David’s united kingdom and was politically acceptable to both. Jerusalem was then established as the national religious center by the return of the ark, which had been largely neglected since its capture by the Philistines (2 Sm 6:1-17). Henceforth, God’s choices of both David and Jerusalem (“Mount Zion”) were indissolubly linked (Ps 78:67-72).<\/p>\n<p>David’s great impulse was to build an adequate dwelling place for Israel’s God. The idea was initially approved by Nathan the prophet (2 Sm 7:1-3), but God revealed otherwise to him, and he conveyed the divine purpose to David (vv 4-17). In a significant wordplay, David was informed that, while he was not to build a house (temple) for God, God would build a house (dynasty) for him. David was not the one to build a temple because of the numerous wars during his reign; the temple would instead be built by his son (1 Kgs 5:3; 1 Chr 22:7-8; 28:3). Nevertheless, David enthusiastically amassed most of the necessary finances and materials and drew up the blueprints for the temple (1 Chr 22:3-5, 14; 28:2, 11-19). He also purchased the temple site (21:25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SolomonsTemple\">Solomon’s Temple<\/p>\n\n<h5>Date<\/h5>\n<p>Construction commenced in Solomon’s fourth year, about 966 <span>BC<\/span>, and took seven years to complete (1 Kgs 6:1, 38). Everything necessary for the temple, including the workers, had been prepared by David (1 Chr 28:21). The temple evidently had first priority among Solomon’s building schemes, as he built his own palace later (1 Kgs 7:1).<\/p>\n<h5>Superintendents and Workforce<\/h5>\n<p>The principal architect for the bronze furnishings was Huram (Hebrew “Hiram”), whose father was a metal craftsman from Tyre and whose mother was an Israelite (1 Kgs 7:13-14). Cedar for the temple came from Lebanon and was felled and transported by the skilled woodsmen of another Hiram—the king of Tyre, Solomon’s ally (5:5-9). Thirty thousand Israelites, divided into three groups, were drafted to assist at Lebanon. Each group was on duty for one month in three. For the stonework, Solomon conscripted 153,600 foreigners resident in Israel to provide a self-contained group of carriers, stone cutters, and supervisors (vv 15-17; 2 Chr 2:17-18). Possibly the “men of Gebal,” with their specialized skills, formed yet another group (1 Kgs 5:18). Building the temple was obviously a national project of immense size and effort. In order to preserve the sanctity of the site and to eliminate noise, the masonry and carpentry were not done at the temple site (6:7).<\/p>\n<h5>Description<\/h5>\n<p>The details given in the Bible are sufficiently clear for us to make a reasonably accurate description of the temple. The accounts in Kings and Chronicles are supplemented by Ezekiel’s depiction of the temple (see below), which was broadly based on his knowledge of the Jerusalem temple (Ez 40–48).<\/p>\n<p>The side rooms probably rested on a foundation or platform that was separate from the temple itself (1 Kgs 6:5, 10; cf. Ez 41:8-9) and were arranged in three stories, each seven and a half feet (2.3 meters) high, extending around the whole building except for the porch side. Each successive story was one and a half feet (.5 meter) wider than the one below, these dimensions coinciding with the thickness of the side wall of the Holy Place. The ground floor rooms were seven and a half feet (2.3 meters) wide; the first story was nine feet (2.7 meters), and the second was ten and a half feet (3.2 meters). Access to the upper stories was possibly by winding staircases (1 Kgs 6:8). There is some uncertainty concerning the location of the entrances; there may have been one on either side, but only one is mentioned (v 8). As in Ezekiel’s temple (Ez 40:17, 28), there were two adjacent courts, an inner and an outer (1 Kgs 6:36; 7:12), but no dimensions are given for these. The inner court, or “court of the priests,” being next to the temple itself, was also called “the upper court” (2 Chr 4:9; Jer 36:10). The wall of the inner court was made of three layers of hewn stone held together by a layer of cedar beams (1 Kgs 6:36), and the doors of both courts were sheathed in bronze (2 Chr 4:9). The palace buildings were within the outer court area, probably with a private passageway between the palace and the temple that was later closed during the reign of Ahaz (2 Chr 4:9, 12; 2 Kgs 16:18).<\/p>\n<p>The temple itself was 90 feet (27.4 meters) long, 30 feet (9.1 meters) wide, and 45 feet (13.7 meters) high (1 Kgs 6:2), with a porch or vestibule 15 feet (4.6 meters) deep stretching across the width. Probably the vestibule was on the east end of the temple, thus corresponding with the orientation of Ezekiel’s temple (Ez 43:1; 44:1). The larger part of the main sanctuary, next to the porch, formed the Holy Place, which was 60 feet (18.3 meters) long (1 Kgs 6:17). Beyond this was the innermost sanctuary, the Holy of Holies (or the “Most Holy Place“), which was a perfect cube of 30 feet (9.1 meters). All the interior walls were paneled with cedar decorated with flower patterns, cherubim, and palm trees, so that no masonry was visible. The walls of both inner and outer sanctuaries were “overlaid” (v 22) with pure gold. Actually the gold decoration may have been inlaid, on the basis that a solid sheath of gold would spoil the natural beauty of the wood carving. The floor was made of cypress planks (v 15). Narrow windows set high in the walls above the level of the three-storied outer chambers provided light in the Holy Place (v 4). The ceiling was paneled with beams and planks of cedar. No detail is given about the exterior roofing, but probably the contemporary technique was employed, using a wooden, latticelike framework into which a waterproof, limestone plaster was packed and rolled.<\/p>\n<p>The outer porch was apparently an open space, since no doors are mentioned. Access into the Holy Place was by double doors, both hinged to fold back on themselves, made of cypress and decorated in exactly the same way as the interior walls (vv 34-35). The doorposts were made of olive wood. Within the Holy Place was the altar of incense made of cedar overlaid with gold; it was placed centrally before the Holy of Holies. Also in the Holy Place were a table for the bread of the Presence of God, ten lampstands arranged in two groups of five on either side, and various utensils required for maintaining the priestly duties (1 Kgs 7:48-50). All these were made or overlaid with gold. The ten tables, arranged five on each side, were presumably for the utensils and accessories (2 Chr 4:8).<\/p>\n<p>Between the Holy Place and the Holy of Holies was a double door made of olive wood, carved with cherubim, palm trees, and flower patterns and overlaid with gold. Inside these doors, veiling still further the Holy of Holies, was a blue, purple, and crimson curtain, made of the finest fabrics and ornamented with cherubim (2 Chr 3:14).<\/p>\n<p>In the Holy of Holies were two cherubim, each 15 feet (4.6 meters) high and made of olive wood covered with gold (1 Kgs 6:23-28). Each wing measured seven and a half feet (2.3 meters). A wing of each touched the side walls; the other wings met at the center of the room. The divine throne had been considerably less impressive in the tabernacle, where a wing of each cherubim fused into the mercy seat above the ark (Ex 25:17-22). In Solomon’s temple, the ark of the covenant was placed below the forward-facing cherubim, the symbolic protectors. The ark, the only major item surviving from the Mosaic tabernacle, still contained the tablets of the law, but the pot of manna and Aaron’s rod were missing (1 Kgs 8:9).<\/p>\n<p>Immediately outside the temple and on either side of the vestibule were two hollow bronze pillars (1 Kgs 7:15-20; 2 Chr 3:15-17). According to the book of Kings, these pillars were 27 feet (8.2 meters) high, with a circumference of 18 feet (5.5 meters). The metal itself was about four inches (10.2 centimeters) thick. The pillars were surmounted by bronze, lily-shaped capitals seven and a half feet (2.3 meters) high and six feet (1.8 meters) wide, intricately adorned with a chain latticework that supported two rows of pomegranates. The total weight must have been enormous, and their size is attested to by Jeremiah, who notes that the Babylonians had to break them in pieces before transporting them to Babylon (Jer 52:17, 21-23).<\/p>\n<p>The bronze altar of sacrifice in front of the vestibule is not listed in the specifications of 1 Kings 7. However, it is mentioned in the temple dedication and subsequently (1 Kgs 8:22, 54, 64; 9:25) and clearly stood in the inner court. Its dimensions were 30 feet (9.1 meters) square and 15 feet (4.6 meters) high (2 Chr 4:1). In view of its weight, it was probably cast in sections at Solomon’s foundry in the Jordan Rift valley (vv 17-18) and then transported to the temple site for assembly.<\/p>\n<p>Probably the most striking article in the inner court was the “molten (bronze) sea,” a huge, round tank made of bronze 3 inches (8 centimeters) thick, 7½ feet (2.3 meters) high, and 15 feet (4.6 meters) in diameter (1 Kgs 7:23-26). Its rim flared out like a lily (2 Chr 4:2-5). The tank was supported on 12 bronze oxen, four on each side, and had two rows of decoration, possibly gourds or pomegranates, under the brim. Its capacity was between 10,000 and 12,000 gallons (37,850–45,420 liters). The bronze sea was used for priestly ablutions (v 6). Presumably this involved a platform of sorts, for the brim of this vast basin would have been about 15 feet (4.6 meters) above ground level.<\/p>\n<p>Hiram also constructed ten large lavers, mounted on moveable stands and placed in two groups of five, on the north and south sides of the inner court (1 Kgs 7:27-39). Basically the stands were bronze boxes, six feet (1.8 meters) square and four and a half feet (1.4 meters) high with a nine-inch (22.9-centimeter) rim around the top edge. Each corner was attached to braced posts to which the axles were fixed. The four-spoked wheels were 27 inches (68.6 centimeters) high. Into each stand there fitted a laver containing approximately 220 gallons (832.7 liters) of water, used for washing sacrificial animals (2 Chr 4:6). Probably each was adjacent to one of the ten tables that would be used to flay and otherwise prepare the sacrifices (v 8). Supplementary items, such as pots, shovels, and basins, all made of bronze, were also manufactured (1 Kgs 7:40, 45).<\/p>\n<h5>The Dedication<\/h5>\n<p>Eleven months elapsed between the completion of the temple and its dedication (1 Kgs 6:38; 8:2), during which time the major items of furniture were set in place. The dedication itself took place in the seventh month, presumably in connection with the Feast of Tabernacles and the Day of Atonement (Lv 23:23-36). The ark of the covenant was brought into its final resting place (1 Kgs 8:3-4), but the inner court proved inadequate for the vast numbers of beasts sacrificed (1 Kgs 8:62-64; 2 Chr 7:7).<\/p>\n<p>The temple employed the most sophisticated building techniques of the age, and no expense had been spared in construction, ornamentation, or equipment. Yet Solomon readily confessed its utter inadequacy to house the eternal God (1 Kgs 8:27). His prayer also underlined Israel’s propensity to forsake the Lord, contrasting the nation with God, who, though a just judge, was also merciful and faithful. The climax of the proceedings came when fire from heaven consumed the sacrifices and the shekinah glory filled the temple (2 Chr 7:1-3).<\/p>\n<h5>Later History<\/h5>\n<p>Like most ancient shrines, the temple became a treasury for national wealth and as such was often the target for attack. Shishak of Egypt plundered it within five years of Solomon’s death (1 Kgs 14:25-38). Shortly afterward, King Asa (910–869 <span>BC<\/span>) depleted its gold and silver treasures to buy Syrian help against his oppressor, Baasha (908–886 <span>BC<\/span>), king of Israel (15:16-19). Joash, the king of Judah (835–796 <span>BC<\/span>) who was concealed in the temple from the vicious Athaliah during his youth (2 Kgs 11), made provision for its repair after protesting the priests’ embezzlement of gifts (12:4-16). But after the death of Jehoiada, the high priest, Joash himself was adversely influenced by his nobles (2 Chr 24:15-19). As punishment for his apostasy, the Lord allowed the Syrians to attack, and Joash used the temple treasures to buy them off (2 Kgs 12:17-18). Hardly had provision for replacements been made, when Jehoash of Israel (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>), having shattered the arrogant pride of Amaziah of Judah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>), again stripped the temple (14:8-14). Later, King Ahaz (735-715 <span>BC<\/span>) used the remaining resources of the temple to enlist support from the Assyrians (16:7-9), though he eventually became completely subservient to them.<\/p>\n<p> Then Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>), one of the great reforming kings, thoroughly renovated the temple and restored worship after it had fallen into disuse during theclosing years of Ahaz (2 Chr 29:1-19; 31:9-21). Manasseh (696–642 <span>BC<\/span>), however, completely reversed his father’s policy, bringing the practices of Canaanite and Mesopotamian worship into the temple (2 Kgs 21:3-7). His conversion experience, which probably occurred late in his reign and resulted in certain reform measures in the temple (2 Chr 33:12-19), was not far-reaching enough to escape the final judgment that his reign was the dark spot of Judah’s history (2 Kgs 21:10-16).<\/p>\n<p>Manasseh’s grandson Josiah (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>), was the second great reforming king. He organized the repair of the temple in 622 <span>BC<\/span>, during which the lost Book of the Law (almost certainly the book of Deuteronomy) was discovered (2 Kgs 22:3-13). As a result, Josiah’s reformation gained a new dimension and sense of urgency (22:14–23:3). The reformation included a thorough purge of all idolatrous elements from the temple (23:4-12) and the restoration of the traditional festivals. Sadly, however, Josiah’s reformation died with him, and Judah’s downward slide continued under the apostate Jehoiakim (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>). It was probably during this time that Jeremiah preached his famous temple sermon foretelling its destruction (Jer 7:1–8:3; 26:1-19), which alienated him from the religious leaders. In Nebuchadnezzar’s reprisal raid following Jehoiakim’s rebellion in 601 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 24:1-4), Jerusalem was captured (596 <span>BC<\/span>) and many of the temple treasures were transported to Babylon (2 Chr 36:7). The temple itself appears to have escaped damage, but when Judah again rebelled under Zedekiah (597–586 <span>BC<\/span>), the temple was demolished (2 Kgs 25:8-10). The remaining temple treasures were taken away.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ZerubbabelsTemple\">Zerubbabel’s Temple<\/p>\n<h5>Construction<\/h5>\n<p>Although the temple was devastated, the site still remained as a place of pilgrimage during the exile (Jer 41:4-5). In 538 <span>BC<\/span> the Persian king, Cyrus, in pursuance of a liberal policy diametrically opposed to that of the earlier empires, permitted the Jews to return from exile. And he authorized the rebuilding of the temple, financing it from the Persian treasury.<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Ezra, the decree of authorization has been preserved in two forms: the general proclamation (Ezr 1:2-4) and a more prosaic memorandum in the national archives indicating the main temple specifications and the amount of promised Persian help (6:1-5). Probably only a minority of the Jews opted to leave the relative comforts of Mesopotamia for the dangers of a long journey to their desolated homeland. According to the book of Ezra, 42,360 dedicated individuals and their servants (2:64-65) responded under the leadership of Sheshbazzar (1:8-11; 5:14-16) and Zerubbabel (2:2; 3:2, 8; 4:2). With great enthusiasm, the altar was rebuilt on the temple site and the traditional pattern of worship reestablished (3:1-6). Utilizing the grant from Persia as well as their own freewill gifts (2:68-69; 3:7), the Jews began to plan the second temple and lay its foundations (3:7-13). The initial impetus quickly died as a result of local opposition (4:1-4, 24), selfish preoccupation, and crop failures (Hg 1:2-11). In 520 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 4:24; Hg 1:1; Zec 1:1), inspired by the prophets Haggai and Zechariah, the Jews under Zerubbabel and Joshua the high priest commenced rebuilding. Work continued in spite of official suspicion, if not direct opposition, and the temple was completed and dedicated in 515 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 5:1–6:22).<\/p>\n<p>Little is known of the physical features of Zerubbabel’s temple. The inference that it was vastly inferior to Solomon’s temple (Hg 2:3) probably relates to an early stage in the building operation. In fact, the second temple stood for over 500 years. The dimensions noted in Ezra 6:3 are incomplete; the new temple was no doubt about the same size as its predecessor and was probably built on the same foundation. The construction technique appears to have followed the method of the original, with layers of timber providing a framework for sections of masonry (v 4). Clearly, there was auxiliary accommodation, probably like the side rooms of Solomon’s temple (Ezr 8:29; Neh 12:44; 13:4-5). If Persian aid was forthcoming as promised (Ezr 6:8-12), the second temple was a more splendid, substantial structure than is generally supposed.<\/p>\n<h5>Later History<\/h5>\n<p>Several references in the Apocrypha, pseudepigrapha, rabbinic writings, and the historian Josephus help to illumine the history of the temple and give more detail on its structure and furnishings. Josephus, quoting from Hecateus of Abdera (fourth century <span>BC<\/span>), states that the temple was a large building in an enclosure about 500 feet by 150 feet (152.4 meters by 45.7 meters), surrounded by a stone wall, with an altar of unhewn stones the same size as Solomon’s bronze altar (cf. 2 Chr 4:1). Within the sanctuary was a golden altar of incense and a lampstand, the flame of which burned continually. Josephus also notes that Antiochus III (223–187 <span>BC<\/span>) financially supported the temple when the Seleucids displaced the Ptolemies as masters of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Ben Sirach, early in the second century <span>BC<\/span>, commended Simon, the son of Onias the high priest, for his work in fortifying and repairing the temple area. First Maccabees provides valuable evidence of the fate of the temple during the oppression under Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175–164 <span>BC<\/span>). The books of the Maccabees recount the defilement of the altar of burnt offering (1 Macc 1:54) and the plundering of the golden lampstand, altar of incense, table of offering, veil, and other treasures (2 Macc 5:15-16; 6:2-4). When the temple was recaptured and restored, the victorious Maccabees replaced the items taken by the Seleucids, except for the altar of sacrifice, which was considered so polluted that it was dismantled and replaced by a new one constructed of unhewn stone (1 Macc 4:36-61; 2 Macc 10:1-9). Clearly the temple area was used as a fortress, both in opposition to the Seleucid garrison that was maintained in Jerusalem in the Maccabean period and in the conflicts of the later Hasmonean period. When Pompey captured Jerusalem about 63 <span>BC<\/span>, he entered the temple to assert his authority but took no plunder, thus showing respect for it.<\/p>\n<p>The history of Zerubbabel’s temple closed when Herod, having carefully preserved it from any major damage when he gained control of Jerusalem with Roman aid in 37 <span>BC<\/span>, began to dismantle it about 21 <span>BC<\/span> in preparation for the construction of his own grand temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HerodsTemple\">Herod’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>Apart from over 100 references in the NT, our main sources of information about Herod’s temple come from the Jewish historian Josephus and from the Middoth (a section of the Jewish rabbinic writings). There are considerable differences in detail between the two, which rules out any dogmatic interpretation in attempted reconstructions. Since Josephus was contemporary with the temple (he was born about <span>AD<\/span> 37 and died early in the second century), he is probably more reliable than the Middoth, which, dating from about <span>AD<\/span> 150, appears to exaggerate occasionally. Archaeological research has been helpful in determining the positions of the outer walls and gates.<\/p>\n<p>Herod’s motive in building his temple was political rather than religious. As an Idumean, he wished to placate his Jewish subjects by constructing a sanctuary as magnificent as Solomon’s. Possible fears that the site might be profaned, or that the existing temple might be demolished and never rebuilt, were allayed by the training of 1,000 priests as masons and the amassing of materials before the work commenced. Herod’s temple followed the tripartite plan of its predecessors, although its porch was much larger. It was built in the contemporary Greco-Roman architectural style and must therefore be regarded as distinct from Zerubbabel’s temple. Work began in 20 <span>BC<\/span>, and while the main sanctuary was quickly erected (it was in full operation within ten years), the total project was not completed until <span>AD<\/span> 64, only six years before it was destroyed by the Romans.<\/p>\n<p>Herod first prepared the site by clearing and leveling an area approximately 500 yards (457.2 meters) from north to south and about 325 yards (297.2 meters) from east to west. This involved cutting away sections of rock in some areas and building up with rubble in others. Considerable sections of the enclosing wall, constructed on stone blocks averaging about 15 feet (4.6 meters) long by 4 feet (1.2 meters) high, still survive. Some of the stones in the corners of the south wall weigh up to 70 tons (63.5 metric tons).<\/p>\n<p>The sanctuary itself seems to have been based on the same dimensions as Solomon’s temple. It was divided into the Holy Place, which was 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, 30 feet (9.1 meters) wide, and 60 feet high, and the Holy of Holies, which was 30 feet square. There was no furniture within the Holy of Holies, which was separated by a veil from the Holy Place. The Holy Place contained the seven-branch lampstand, the table for the bread of the Presence, and the incense altar. The main divergence from Solomon’s temple was the imposing porch, 150 feet (45.7 meters) in width and height. Outside was a doorway approximately 30 feet (9.1 meters) wide by 40 feet (12.2 meters) high, with an inner doorway about half that size leading into the sanctuary. By allowing empty rooms over the Holy of Holies and the Holy Place, there was a uniform roof height of 150 feet (45.7 meters). Golden spikes on the roof discouraged birds from alighting and defiling the structure. Like its predecessors, the temple was oriented toward the east and was surrounded on the other sides by three stories of rooms rising to a height of 60 feet (18.3 meters). The stone used was the local white stone, cut in huge blocks and highly polished.<\/p>\n<p>Access to the porch was by a flight of 12 steps from the Court of the Priests. Centrally placed before the porch and 33 feet (10.1 meters) away was the altar of sacrifice. Made of unhewn stone, it was a multilevel construction 15 feet (4.6 meters) high and about 48 feet (14.6 meters) square at its base. Male Israelites were allowed into this area once a year, during the Feast of the Tabernacles, to walk around the altar of sacrifice. Otherwise, they were restricted to the Court of Israel. To the east of the Court of Israel, and separated from it by a flight of 15 steps and by the ornate Great Gate, made of Corinthian bronze, was the Court of the Women. Here the offertory chests for temple expenses were located (Mk 12:41-44). The next court was the large, lower, outer Court of the Gentiles, which surrounded the inner courts and was separated from them by a balustrade and a series of warning notices. Two of these have been excavated, written in Latin and Greek and forbidding trespass by Gentiles into the inner areas, on pain of death. This outer court was widely used. Immediately inside its walls was a portico, supported by four rows of columns almost 40 feet (12.2 meters) high on the south side (the Royal Porch), and two rows on the other sides, the eastern portico known as “Solomon’s Porch” or “Solomon’s Colonnade.” Here is the area where the stalls of the money changers and merchants were set up, where the Sanhedrin met, and where Christ and the scribes taught and debated (Mk 11:27; Lk 2:46; 19:47; Jn 10:23). Here, too, the infant church met before it was rejected by a hostile Judaism (Acts 3:11; 5:12). Just to the northwest of the temple enclosure was the Fortress of Antonia, where the Roman governor resided while in Jerusalem, and where a Roman garrison was on hand to deal with disturbances (Acts 21:31-40). Overlooking the temple area, it was separated from it by a wide moat. The high priest’s vestments were stored in the fortress as a symbol of Roman authority. Access to the Court of the Gentiles was by four gates in the west wall; two in the south wall, where the ground fell away steeply into the valley, a site often identified as the pinnacle of the temple (Mt 4:5; Lk 4:9); and one gate in each of the east and north walls.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SignificanceoftheTempleintheOldTestament\">Significance of the Temple in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The temple in Jerusalem functioned as the focal point of the tribal confederation. In spite of the attempt of Jeroboam I, the first king of the northern kingdom, to divert attention from Jerusalem by establishing shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:26-30), Jerusalem never lost its preeminence. Naturally, both Hezekiah and Josiah sought to extend their reformation into the area of the northern tribes (2 Chr 30:1-12; 34:6-7), and Jerusalem was a pilgrimage center for those areas even after its destruction (Jer 41:5). The prophets foretold its destiny as the focal point of universal worship (Is 2:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>The temple was God’s dwelling place among his people. God’s presence, symbolized in the shekinah glory and the pillar of cloud, was associated with the tent of meeting (Ex 33:9-11), with the tabernacle (40:34-38), and finally with the temple (1 Kgs 8:10-11). The paradox is that while God is completely unrestricted, the temple was considered a place for God to live forever (vv 13, 27). God had chosen Zion, as he had chosen David (Pss 68:15-18; 76:2; 78:67-72), so the temple was regarded as God’s house (27:4; 42:4; 84:1-4).<\/p>\n<h5>Ezekiel’s Temple<\/h5>\n<p>Ezekiel’s detailed description of the ideal temple (Ez 40–48) was not used as the blueprint for Zerubbabel’s temple. In fact, since Ezekiel must have been familiar with Solomon’s temple before his deportation in 597 <span>BC<\/span>, his description is of greater help in determining uncertain details of the first temple. Ezekiel’s concern was to show the nature of pure worship, safeguarded from all contamination. This worship would allow the glory of God, which had departed from corrupted Solomon’s temple (9:3; 10:4, 18-19: 11:22-23), to return so that Jerusalem could again be named “the Lord is there” (43:1-5; 48:35). This thought, linked with Ezekiel’s vital concept of God’s Spirit indwelling his faithful worshipers (36:24-28), anticipated the NT teaching of the believers becoming God’s temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SignificanceoftheTempleintheNewTestament\">Significance of the Temple in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>Christ and the Temple<\/h5>\n<p>Christ showed considerable respect for the temple. When he was 12 years old, he entered into the rabbinic discussions in its porticoes and described it as his Father’s house (Lk 2:41-50). To him “the house of God” was indwelt by God (Mt 12:4; 23:21). Although he twice cleansed it in righteous anger (Mt 21:12-13; Jn 2:13-16), he wept over the impending destruction of the city and temple (Lk 19:41-44). He often taught there, but he was “greater than the temple” (Mt 12:6). When his presentation to Jerusalem as the predicted Messiah was rejected, in spite of attendant miracles, he foretold its inevitable destruction (Mt 21:9-15; 24:1-2). For a brief period after Pentecost, the early church used the temple as its meeting place, until mounting opposition drove believers from Jerusalem (Acts 5:12, 21, 42; 8:1).<\/p>\n<h5>The Church as the Temple<\/h5>\n<p>The NT writers used two different Greek words to describe the temple: <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span><em>.<\/em> <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Naos<\/span> refers to the actual sanctuary of the temple, the place of God’s dwelling. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Hieron<\/span> refers to the temple precincts as well as to the sanctuary. Generally speaking, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> was used to designate the inner section of the temple known as the Holy Place and the Holy of Holies, whereas <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span> included the outer court and the temple proper.<\/p>\n<p>In Paul’s epistles the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> appears six times (1 Cor 3:16-17; 6:19; 2 Cor 6:16; Eph 2:21; 2 Thes 2:4) and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span> once (1 Cor 9:13). In these verses Paul maintains the distinction of definition noted above. When speaking of the actual physical temple, he used the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span> to indicate the place where the priests offered up animal sacrifices on the altar (1 Cor 9:13), which was situated in the outer court (see Ex 27–29, 40). And when Paul referred to the abominable act of the lawless one in usurping God’s place in the temple, he used the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span>—the word that designates the place of deity’s presence (2 Thes 2:4).<\/p>\n<p>In all the other Pauline passages, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> is used metaphorically—to depict a human habitation for the divine Spirit. In one instance the sanctuary image is used to describe the individual believer’s body (1 Cor 6:19); in every other instance the sanctuary depicts Christ’s body, the church (1 Cor 3:16-17; 2 Cor 6:16; Eph 2:21). Mistakenly, many readers think 1 Corinthians 3:16-17 speaks of the individual, but according to the Greek text, it is unquestionably clear that Paul was speaking about the collective church (specifically, the church in Corinth).<\/p>\n<p>When Paul told the church in Corinth that it was God’s sanctuary, they would have understood the image from their knowledge of pagan temples. But Paul probably had in mind the one temple in Jerusalem. The Gentiles had many gods with many temples in one city; the Jews had one God with only one temple in all of Israel. This helped to preserve unity among the Israelites. The Corinthians needed spiritual unity; they were fragmented due to their individual preferences (see 1 Cor 1:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>In Ephesians, Paul’s masterpiece on the church, he speaks of the local churches as living, organic entities that are all (compositely speaking) growing into a holy sanctuary in the Lord (Eph 2:21). Paul pictured each local church as providing God with a spiritual habitation in that locality (v 22) and as growing together with all the other churches into one holy, universal sanctuary for the Lord’s indwelling.<\/p>\n<h5>The Temple in John’s Revelation<\/h5>\n<p>In John’s revelation there is no material temple, even though he continues to use the imagery of Jerusalem and Mt Zion (Rv 3:12; 14:1; 21:2, 10, 22). Three interrelated ideas dominate. First is the concept of the church made up of martyrs, whose faithful members are God’s temple (3:12; 14:1). This temple grows gradually as the number of martyrs increases (6:11). Another aspect is the temple as the place of judgment (11:19; 14:15; 15:5–16:1). Finally, any temple in the new age is unnecessary, “for its temple is the Lord God Almighty and the Lamb” (21:22). The ultimate state will be God’s dwelling with his people—the eternal, spritual temple.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Altar; Ark of the Covenant; Bread of the Presence; David; Feasts and Festivals of Israel; First Jewish Revolt; Judaism; Mercy Seat; Offerings and Sacrifices; Priests and Levites; Sanctuary; Singers in the Temple; Solomon (Person).<\/p>","summary_ro":"TEMPLE Preview • Background • Solomon’s Temple • Zerubbabel’s Temple • Herod’s Temple • Significance of the Temple in the Old Testament • Significance of the Temple in the New Testament Background David’s capture of Jerusalem (2 Sm 5:6-9) and his designation of it as the nation’s capital is one of the great masterstrokes of history. Occupied by the Jebusites, it was a pocket of neutral territory between the northern and southern sections of David’s united kingdom and was politically acceptabl...","summary_en":"TEMPLE Preview • Background • Solomon’s Temple • Zerubbabel’s Temple • Herod’s Temple • Significance of the Temple in the Old Testament • Significance of the Temple in the New Testament Background David’s capture of Jerusalem (2 Sm 5:6-9) and his designation of it as the nation’s capital is one of the great masterstrokes of history. Occupied by the Jebusites, it was a pocket of neutral territory between the northern and southern sections of David’s united kingdom and was politically acceptabl...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":47992,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:2","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:2<\/strong> <em>Jeshua<\/em> (a variant spelling of <em>Joshua<\/em>), son of Jehozadak (3:2, 8), from the line of Aaron, was the high priest (Hag 1:1; Zech 3:1). The <em>Nehemiah<\/em> mentioned here is not the person who later built the walls of Jerusalem, nor is this <em>Mordecai<\/em> the famous relative of Esther.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:2<\/strong> <em>Jeshua<\/em> (a variant spelling of <em>Joshua<\/em>), son of Jehozadak (3:2, 8), from the line of Aaron, was the high priest (Hag 1:1; Zech 3:1). The <em>Nehemiah<\/em> mentioned here is not the person who later built the walls of Jerusalem, nor is this <em>Mordecai<\/em> the famous relative of Esther.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:2 Jeshua (a variant spelling of Joshua), son of Jehozadak (3:2, 8), from the line of Aaron, was the high priest (Hag 1:1; Zech 3:1). The Nehemiah mentioned here is not the person who later built the walls of Jerusalem, nor is this Mordecai the famous relative of Esther.","summary_en":"2:2 Jeshua (a variant spelling of Joshua), son of Jehozadak (3:2, 8), from the line of Aaron, was the high priest (Hag 1:1; Zech 3:1). The Nehemiah mentioned here is not the person who later built the walls of Jerusalem, nor is this Mordecai the famous relative of Esther.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75618,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:2","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:2<\/strong> <em>Jeshua<\/em> (a variant spelling of <em>Joshua<\/em>), son of Jehozadak (3:2, 8), from the line of Aaron, was the high priest (Hag 1:1; Zech 3:1). The <em>Nehemiah<\/em> mentioned here is not the person who later built the walls of Jerusalem, nor is this <em>Mordecai<\/em> the famous relative of Esther.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:2<\/strong> <em>Jeshua<\/em> (a variant spelling of <em>Joshua<\/em>), son of Jehozadak (3:2, 8), from the line of Aaron, was the high priest (Hag 1:1; Zech 3:1). The <em>Nehemiah<\/em> mentioned here is not the person who later built the walls of Jerusalem, nor is this <em>Mordecai<\/em> the famous relative of Esther.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:2 Jeshua (a variant spelling of Joshua), son of Jehozadak (3:2, 8), from the line of Aaron, was the high priest (Hag 1:1; Zech 3:1). The Nehemiah mentioned here is not the person who later built the walls of Jerusalem, nor is this Mordecai the famous relative of Esther.","summary_en":"2:2 Jeshua (a variant spelling of Joshua), son of Jehozadak (3:2, 8), from the line of Aaron, was the high priest (Hag 1:1; Zech 3:1). The Nehemiah mentioned here is not the person who later built the walls of Jerusalem, nor is this Mordecai the famous relative of Esther.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103244,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:2","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:2<\/strong> <em>Jeshua<\/em> (a variant spelling of <em>Joshua<\/em>), son of Jehozadak (3:2, 8), from the line of Aaron, was the high priest (Hag 1:1; Zech 3:1). The <em>Nehemiah<\/em> mentioned here is not the person who later built the walls of Jerusalem, nor is this <em>Mordecai<\/em> the famous relative of Esther.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:2<\/strong> <em>Jeshua<\/em> (a variant spelling of <em>Joshua<\/em>), son of Jehozadak (3:2, 8), from the line of Aaron, was the high priest (Hag 1:1; Zech 3:1). The <em>Nehemiah<\/em> mentioned here is not the person who later built the walls of Jerusalem, nor is this <em>Mordecai<\/em> the famous relative of Esther.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:2 Jeshua (a variant spelling of Joshua), son of Jehozadak (3:2, 8), from the line of Aaron, was the high priest (Hag 1:1; Zech 3:1). The Nehemiah mentioned here is not the person who later built the walls of Jerusalem, nor is this Mordecai the famous relative of Esther.","summary_en":"2:2 Jeshua (a variant spelling of Joshua), son of Jehozadak (3:2, 8), from the line of Aaron, was the high priest (Hag 1:1; Zech 3:1). The Nehemiah mentioned here is not the person who later built the walls of Jerusalem, nor is this Mordecai the famous relative of Esther.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":130870,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:2","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:2<\/strong> <em>Jeshua<\/em> (a variant spelling of <em>Joshua<\/em>), son of Jehozadak (3:2, 8), from the line of Aaron, was the high priest (Hag 1:1; Zech 3:1). The <em>Nehemiah<\/em> mentioned here is not the person who later built the walls of Jerusalem, nor is this <em>Mordecai<\/em> the famous relative of Esther.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:2<\/strong> <em>Jeshua<\/em> (a variant spelling of <em>Joshua<\/em>), son of Jehozadak (3:2, 8), from the line of Aaron, was the high priest (Hag 1:1; Zech 3:1). The <em>Nehemiah<\/em> mentioned here is not the person who later built the walls of Jerusalem, nor is this <em>Mordecai<\/em> the famous relative of Esther.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:2 Jeshua (a variant spelling of Joshua), son of Jehozadak (3:2, 8), from the line of Aaron, was the high priest (Hag 1:1; Zech 3:1). The Nehemiah mentioned here is not the person who later built the walls of Jerusalem, nor is this Mordecai the famous relative of Esther.","summary_en":"2:2 Jeshua (a variant spelling of Joshua), son of Jehozadak (3:2, 8), from the line of Aaron, was the high priest (Hag 1:1; Zech 3:1). The Nehemiah mentioned here is not the person who later built the walls of Jerusalem, nor is this Mordecai the famous relative of Esther.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":28881,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Parosh","title_en":"Parosh","content_ro":"<h3>PAROSH<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:3; Neh 7:8). One of his descendants, Pedaiah, participated in rebuilding the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:25); other descendants are mentioned as having taken foreign wives (Ezr 10:25).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PAROSH<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:3; Neh 7:8). One of his descendants, Pedaiah, participated in rebuilding the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:25); other descendants are mentioned as having taken foreign wives (Ezr 10:25).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PAROSH Head of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:3; Neh 7:8). One of his descendants, Pedaiah, participated in rebuilding the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:25); other descendants are mentioned as having taken foreign wives (Ezr 10:25).","summary_en":"PAROSH Head of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:3; Neh 7:8). One of his descendants, Pedaiah, participated in rebuilding the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:25); other descendants are mentioned as having taken foreign wives (Ezr 10:25).","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":47993,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:3","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:3-20<\/strong> <em>The family of:<\/em> In the ancient Near East, an individual’s identity was closely connected to the question, “Who are your father and your family?” Ultimately, the priests were identified as the sons of Aaron. If this link could not be verified, they were barred from service (2:61-62). Others were identified by a well-known elder in their group.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:3-20<\/strong> <em>The family of:<\/em> In the ancient Near East, an individual’s identity was closely connected to the question, “Who are your father and your family?” Ultimately, the priests were identified as the sons of Aaron. If this link could not be verified, they were barred from service (2:61-62). Others were identified by a well-known elder in their group.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:3-20 The family of: In the ancient Near East, an individual’s identity was closely connected to the question, “Who are your father and your family?” Ultimately, the priests were identified as the sons of Aaron. If this link could not be verified, they were barred from service (2:61-62). Others were identified by a well-known elder in their group.","summary_en":"2:3-20 The family of: In the ancient Near East, an individual’s identity was closely connected to the question, “Who are your father and your family?” Ultimately, the priests were identified as the sons of Aaron. If this link could not be verified, they were barred from service (2:61-62). Others were identified by a well-known elder in their group.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75619,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:3","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:3-20<\/strong> <em>The family of:<\/em> In the ancient Near East, an individual’s identity was closely connected to the question, “Who are your father and your family?” Ultimately, the priests were identified as the sons of Aaron. If this link could not be verified, they were barred from service (2:61-62). Others were identified by a well-known elder in their group.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:3-20<\/strong> <em>The family of:<\/em> In the ancient Near East, an individual’s identity was closely connected to the question, “Who are your father and your family?” Ultimately, the priests were identified as the sons of Aaron. If this link could not be verified, they were barred from service (2:61-62). Others were identified by a well-known elder in their group.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:3-20 The family of: In the ancient Near East, an individual’s identity was closely connected to the question, “Who are your father and your family?” Ultimately, the priests were identified as the sons of Aaron. If this link could not be verified, they were barred from service (2:61-62). Others were identified by a well-known elder in their group.","summary_en":"2:3-20 The family of: In the ancient Near East, an individual’s identity was closely connected to the question, “Who are your father and your family?” Ultimately, the priests were identified as the sons of Aaron. If this link could not be verified, they were barred from service (2:61-62). Others were identified by a well-known elder in their group.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103245,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:3","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:3-20<\/strong> <em>The family of:<\/em> In the ancient Near East, an individual’s identity was closely connected to the question, “Who are your father and your family?” Ultimately, the priests were identified as the sons of Aaron. If this link could not be verified, they were barred from service (2:61-62). Others were identified by a well-known elder in their group.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:3-20<\/strong> <em>The family of:<\/em> In the ancient Near East, an individual’s identity was closely connected to the question, “Who are your father and your family?” Ultimately, the priests were identified as the sons of Aaron. If this link could not be verified, they were barred from service (2:61-62). Others were identified by a well-known elder in their group.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:3-20 The family of: In the ancient Near East, an individual’s identity was closely connected to the question, “Who are your father and your family?” Ultimately, the priests were identified as the sons of Aaron. If this link could not be verified, they were barred from service (2:61-62). Others were identified by a well-known elder in their group.","summary_en":"2:3-20 The family of: In the ancient Near East, an individual’s identity was closely connected to the question, “Who are your father and your family?” Ultimately, the priests were identified as the sons of Aaron. If this link could not be verified, they were barred from service (2:61-62). Others were identified by a well-known elder in their group.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":130871,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:3","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:3-20<\/strong> <em>The family of:<\/em> In the ancient Near East, an individual’s identity was closely connected to the question, “Who are your father and your family?” Ultimately, the priests were identified as the sons of Aaron. If this link could not be verified, they were barred from service (2:61-62). Others were identified by a well-known elder in their group.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:3-20<\/strong> <em>The family of:<\/em> In the ancient Near East, an individual’s identity was closely connected to the question, “Who are your father and your family?” Ultimately, the priests were identified as the sons of Aaron. If this link could not be verified, they were barred from service (2:61-62). Others were identified by a well-known elder in their group.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:3-20 The family of: In the ancient Near East, an individual’s identity was closely connected to the question, “Who are your father and your family?” Ultimately, the priests were identified as the sons of Aaron. If this link could not be verified, they were barred from service (2:61-62). Others were identified by a well-known elder in their group.","summary_en":"2:3-20 The family of: In the ancient Near East, an individual’s identity was closely connected to the question, “Who are your father and your family?” Ultimately, the priests were identified as the sons of Aaron. If this link could not be verified, they were barred from service (2:61-62). Others were identified by a well-known elder in their group.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"4":[{"id":34962,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shephatiah","title_en":"Shephatiah","content_ro":"<h3>SHEPHATIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of six sons born to David during his seven-year reign at Hebron. Shephatiah’s mother was Abital, one of David’s wives (2 Sm 3:4; 1 Chr 3:3).<\/li>\n<li>2. Benjaminite and the father of Meshullam, a returnee to Jerusalem after the Babylonian captivity (1 Chr 9:8).<\/li>\n<li>3. Haruphite from Benjamin’s tribe and one of the men of military prowess who came to David’s support at Ziklag (1 Chr 12:5).<\/li>\n<li>4. Son of Maacah and chief official of the Simeonites during David’s reign (1 Chr 27:16).<\/li>\n<li>5. One of the seven sons of King Jehoshaphat of Judah (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>) and the brother of Jehoram who became sole regent (853–841 <span>BC<\/span>) after his father’s death (2 Chr 21:1-2).<\/li>\n<li>6. Forefather of 372 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:4; Neh 7:9). Later, 81 members of Shephatiah’s house accompanied Ezra back to Palestine during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 8:8).<\/li>\n<li>7. Founder of a household of Solomon’s servants that returned with Zerubbabel to Judah after the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:57; Neh 7:59).<\/li>\n<li>8. Descendant of Perez and an ancestor of a Judahite family living in Jerusalem during the postexilic period (Neh 11:4).<\/li>\n<li>9. Son of Mattan and a prince of Judah during the reign of King Zedekiah (597–586 <span>BC<\/span>). Annoyed with Jeremiah’s prophecies of doom for Jerusalem, Shephatiah (with Gedaliah, Jucal, and Pashhur) tried to put him to death. With Zedekiah’s permission, they hoped to achieve their ends by imprisoning Jeremiah in a cistern (Jer 38:1).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>SHEPHATIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of six sons born to David during his seven-year reign at Hebron. Shephatiah’s mother was Abital, one of David’s wives (2 Sm 3:4; 1 Chr 3:3).<\/li>\n<li>2. Benjaminite and the father of Meshullam, a returnee to Jerusalem after the Babylonian captivity (1 Chr 9:8).<\/li>\n<li>3. Haruphite from Benjamin’s tribe and one of the men of military prowess who came to David’s support at Ziklag (1 Chr 12:5).<\/li>\n<li>4. Son of Maacah and chief official of the Simeonites during David’s reign (1 Chr 27:16).<\/li>\n<li>5. One of the seven sons of King Jehoshaphat of Judah (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>) and the brother of Jehoram who became sole regent (853–841 <span>BC<\/span>) after his father’s death (2 Chr 21:1-2).<\/li>\n<li>6. Forefather of 372 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:4; Neh 7:9). Later, 81 members of Shephatiah’s house accompanied Ezra back to Palestine during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 8:8).<\/li>\n<li>7. Founder of a household of Solomon’s servants that returned with Zerubbabel to Judah after the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:57; Neh 7:59).<\/li>\n<li>8. Descendant of Perez and an ancestor of a Judahite family living in Jerusalem during the postexilic period (Neh 11:4).<\/li>\n<li>9. Son of Mattan and a prince of Judah during the reign of King Zedekiah (597–586 <span>BC<\/span>). Annoyed with Jeremiah’s prophecies of doom for Jerusalem, Shephatiah (with Gedaliah, Jucal, and Pashhur) tried to put him to death. With Zedekiah’s permission, they hoped to achieve their ends by imprisoning Jeremiah in a cistern (Jer 38:1).<\/li>","summary_ro":"SHEPHATIAH 1. One of six sons born to David during his seven-year reign at Hebron. Shephatiah’s mother was Abital, one of David’s wives (2 Sm 3:4; 1 Chr 3:3). 2. Benjaminite and the father of Meshullam, a returnee to Jerusalem after the Babylonian captivity (1 Chr 9:8). 3. Haruphite from Benjamin’s tribe and one of the men of military prowess who came to David’s support at Ziklag (1 Chr 12:5). 4. Son of Maacah and chief official of the Simeonites during David’s reign (1 Chr 27:16). 5. One of ...","summary_en":"SHEPHATIAH 1. One of six sons born to David during his seven-year reign at Hebron. Shephatiah’s mother was Abital, one of David’s wives (2 Sm 3:4; 1 Chr 3:3). 2. Benjaminite and the father of Meshullam, a returnee to Jerusalem after the Babylonian captivity (1 Chr 9:8). 3. Haruphite from Benjamin’s tribe and one of the men of military prowess who came to David’s support at Ziklag (1 Chr 12:5). 4. Son of Maacah and chief official of the Simeonites during David’s reign (1 Chr 27:16). 5. One of ...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":2495,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Arah","title_en":"Arah","content_ro":"<h3>ARAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ulla’s son from Asher’s tribe (1 Chr 7:39).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of a group of people that returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:5; Neh 7:10).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ARAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ulla’s son from Asher’s tribe (1 Chr 7:39).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of a group of people that returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:5; Neh 7:10).<\/li>","summary_ro":"ARAH 1. Ulla’s son from Asher’s tribe (1 Chr 7:39). 2. Ancestor of a group of people that returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:5; Neh 7:10).","summary_en":"ARAH 1. Ulla’s son from Asher’s tribe (1 Chr 7:39). 2. Ancestor of a group of people that returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:5; Neh 7:10).","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":19345,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jeshua (Person)","title_en":"Jeshua (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>JESHUA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Jozadak was deported by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylon (1 Chr 6:14-15). Jeshua, Jozadak’s successor as high priest, returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem after the exile (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7; 12:1). Upon arrival, he led his fellow priests in making the altar of God (Ezr 3:2; 5:2) and eventually headed up a construction program to rebuild the temple (3:8). Confirmed as God’s leader by Haggai and Zechariah (Hg 1:1-14; 2:2, 4; Zec 3:1-9; 6:11), Jeshua (alternately “Joshua” in these passages) resolutely resisted attempts by adversaries to infiltrate his people and hinder the work on the temple (Ezr 4:3). Joiakim was Jeshua’s son and successor as high priest, serving in the days of Nehemiah and Ezra (Neh 12:12, 26).<\/li>\n<li>4. Descendant of Pahath-moab and the forefather of a family of Jews who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:6; Neh 7:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Father of a family of Levites who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:40; Neh 7:43; 12:8). He and his sons were responsible for overseeing the workmen building the temple (Ezr 3:9; this Jeshua may be identical with #3 above).<\/li>\n<li>6. Levite and Jozabad’s father. Jozabad assisted Meremoth, Eleazar, and Noadiah with taking inventory of the temple’s precious metals and vessels during the days of Ezra (Ezr 8:33).<\/li>\n<li>7. Ezer’s father. Ezer was ruler of Mizpah, who repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 3:19).<\/li>\n<li>8. Azaniah’s son and a leader of the Levites in the days of Ezra and Nehemiah. Jeshua assisted Ezra with teaching the people the law (Neh 8:7) and later set his seal on Ezra’s covenant (10:9).<\/li>\n<li>9. Alternate spelling of Joshua, the son of Nun, in Nehemiah 8:17. <em>See<\/em> Joshua (Person) #1.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JESHUA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Jozadak was deported by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylon (1 Chr 6:14-15). Jeshua, Jozadak’s successor as high priest, returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem after the exile (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7; 12:1). Upon arrival, he led his fellow priests in making the altar of God (Ezr 3:2; 5:2) and eventually headed up a construction program to rebuild the temple (3:8). Confirmed as God’s leader by Haggai and Zechariah (Hg 1:1-14; 2:2, 4; Zec 3:1-9; 6:11), Jeshua (alternately “Joshua” in these passages) resolutely resisted attempts by adversaries to infiltrate his people and hinder the work on the temple (Ezr 4:3). Joiakim was Jeshua’s son and successor as high priest, serving in the days of Nehemiah and Ezra (Neh 12:12, 26).<\/li>\n<li>4. Descendant of Pahath-moab and the forefather of a family of Jews who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:6; Neh 7:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Father of a family of Levites who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:40; Neh 7:43; 12:8). He and his sons were responsible for overseeing the workmen building the temple (Ezr 3:9; this Jeshua may be identical with #3 above).<\/li>\n<li>6. Levite and Jozabad’s father. Jozabad assisted Meremoth, Eleazar, and Noadiah with taking inventory of the temple’s precious metals and vessels during the days of Ezra (Ezr 8:33).<\/li>\n<li>7. Ezer’s father. Ezer was ruler of Mizpah, who repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 3:19).<\/li>\n<li>8. Azaniah’s son and a leader of the Levites in the days of Ezra and Nehemiah. Jeshua assisted Ezra with teaching the people the law (Neh 8:7) and later set his seal on Ezra’s covenant (10:9).<\/li>\n<li>9. Alternate spelling of Joshua, the son of Nun, in Nehemiah 8:17. <em>See<\/em> Joshua (Person) #1.<\/li>","summary_ro":"JESHUA (Person) 1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39). 2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15). 3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Joz...","summary_en":"JESHUA (Person) 1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39). 2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15). 3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Joz...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":19911,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Joab","title_en":"Joab","content_ro":"<h3>JOAB<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Zeruiah, the half sister of David (1 Chr 2:16), who, along with his brothers Abishai and Asahel, was well known for his military valor in Judah (2 Sm 2:18; cf. 1 Sm 26:6). According to 2 Samuel, Joab rose to prominence and distinguished himself at the battle of Gibeon when Saul’s troops under Abner were vanquished (2 Sm 2:8-32). Because Abner had slain Joab’s brother Asahel (v 23), Joab later killed Abner in revenge (3:26-30), despite Abner’s new loyalty to David (vv 12-19). Possibly Joab sensed that Abner would be his rival. Nevertheless, David praised the slain commander as a prince and a great man (vv 31-39) and set a curse on the house of Joab for his insubordination (vv 26-29, 39). This incident illumines Joab’s sometimes unscrupulous and ruthless behavior.<\/li>\n<p>Joab spearheaded David’s siege of the Jebusite city of Jerusalem, and when David consolidated his reign there, Joab became the commander of the king’s army (2 Sm 8:16; 11:1; cf. 1 Chr 11:6-8; 18:15). He suppressed a rebellion among the Syrians and Ammonites (2 Sm 10:7-14; 1 Chr 19:8-15). At Rabbah he not only conquered the city (2 Sm 11–12) but arranged for the death of Uriah the Hittite so that David could take Uriah’s wife, Bathsheba.<\/p>\n<p>Joab’s loyalties to David and shrewd control of the army are seen during Absalom’s rebellion (2 Sm 15). Joab suppressed the conspiracy (ch 18), but ignoring a direct order from David not to kill his son (18:5), brutally killed him anyway (vv 10-17). When David mourned, Joab rebuked the king, urging that a crisis with the army was imminent (19:5-7). This insubordination led David to replace Joab with Amasa as commander (v 13), but later, at Gibeon, Joab also killed him dishonorably (20:8-10). Joab’s influence in the army must have been great, since he regained his former role as military commander (2 Sm 20:23, 24:2; 1 Kgs 1:19).<\/p>\n<p>At the end of David’s reign, Joab supported the conspiracy of Adonijah and Abiathar against the throne (1 Kgs 1:7). David’s distrust of him led the king to warn Solomon specifically about Joab’s repeated treacheries (2:5-9). Solomon had to resolve the problem of an untrustworthy army. Therefore, upon his father’s death, Solomon pursued the conspirators Adonijah (v 23), Abiathar (v 26), and Joab (v 28). Solomon’s officer Benaiah found Joab at the altar seeking refuge and killed him there (vv 28-35), thus cleansing Solomon’s reign from the wrongdoing of Joab.<\/p>\n<li>2. KJV translation (“Ataroth, the house of Joab”) of Atroth-beth-joab in 1 Chronicles 2:54. <em>See<\/em> Atroth-beth-joab.<\/li>\n<li>3. Judahite, Seraiah’s son from the house of Kenaz and forefather of the residents of the valley of craftsmen (1 Chr 4:14).<\/li>\n<li>4. Forefather of a clan of Jews who returned to Palestine with Zerubbabel following the exile (Ezr 2:6; Neh 7:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Forefather of a family of which 219 members returned with Ezra to Palestine following the exile (Ezr 8:9). He is perhaps identifiable with #4 above.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JOAB<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Zeruiah, the half sister of David (1 Chr 2:16), who, along with his brothers Abishai and Asahel, was well known for his military valor in Judah (2 Sm 2:18; cf. 1 Sm 26:6). According to 2 Samuel, Joab rose to prominence and distinguished himself at the battle of Gibeon when Saul’s troops under Abner were vanquished (2 Sm 2:8-32). Because Abner had slain Joab’s brother Asahel (v 23), Joab later killed Abner in revenge (3:26-30), despite Abner’s new loyalty to David (vv 12-19). Possibly Joab sensed that Abner would be his rival. Nevertheless, David praised the slain commander as a prince and a great man (vv 31-39) and set a curse on the house of Joab for his insubordination (vv 26-29, 39). This incident illumines Joab’s sometimes unscrupulous and ruthless behavior.<\/li>\n<p>Joab spearheaded David’s siege of the Jebusite city of Jerusalem, and when David consolidated his reign there, Joab became the commander of the king’s army (2 Sm 8:16; 11:1; cf. 1 Chr 11:6-8; 18:15). He suppressed a rebellion among the Syrians and Ammonites (2 Sm 10:7-14; 1 Chr 19:8-15). At Rabbah he not only conquered the city (2 Sm 11–12) but arranged for the death of Uriah the Hittite so that David could take Uriah’s wife, Bathsheba.<\/p>\n<p>Joab’s loyalties to David and shrewd control of the army are seen during Absalom’s rebellion (2 Sm 15). Joab suppressed the conspiracy (ch 18), but ignoring a direct order from David not to kill his son (18:5), brutally killed him anyway (vv 10-17). When David mourned, Joab rebuked the king, urging that a crisis with the army was imminent (19:5-7). This insubordination led David to replace Joab with Amasa as commander (v 13), but later, at Gibeon, Joab also killed him dishonorably (20:8-10). Joab’s influence in the army must have been great, since he regained his former role as military commander (2 Sm 20:23, 24:2; 1 Kgs 1:19).<\/p>\n<p>At the end of David’s reign, Joab supported the conspiracy of Adonijah and Abiathar against the throne (1 Kgs 1:7). David’s distrust of him led the king to warn Solomon specifically about Joab’s repeated treacheries (2:5-9). Solomon had to resolve the problem of an untrustworthy army. Therefore, upon his father’s death, Solomon pursued the conspirators Adonijah (v 23), Abiathar (v 26), and Joab (v 28). Solomon’s officer Benaiah found Joab at the altar seeking refuge and killed him there (vv 28-35), thus cleansing Solomon’s reign from the wrongdoing of Joab.<\/p>\n<li>2. KJV translation (“Ataroth, the house of Joab”) of Atroth-beth-joab in 1 Chronicles 2:54. <em>See<\/em> Atroth-beth-joab.<\/li>\n<li>3. Judahite, Seraiah’s son from the house of Kenaz and forefather of the residents of the valley of craftsmen (1 Chr 4:14).<\/li>\n<li>4. Forefather of a clan of Jews who returned to Palestine with Zerubbabel following the exile (Ezr 2:6; Neh 7:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Forefather of a family of which 219 members returned with Ezra to Palestine following the exile (Ezr 8:9). He is perhaps identifiable with #4 above.<\/li>","summary_ro":"JOAB 1. Son of Zeruiah, the half sister of David (1 Chr 2:16), who, along with his brothers Abishai and Asahel, was well known for his military valor in Judah (2 Sm 2:18; cf. 1 Sm 26:6). According to 2 Samuel, Joab rose to prominence and distinguished himself at the battle of Gibeon when Saul’s troops under Abner were vanquished (2 Sm 2:8-32). Because Abner had slain Joab’s brother Asahel (v 23), Joab later killed Abner in revenge (3:26-30), despite Abner’s new loyalty to David (vv 12-19). Po...","summary_en":"JOAB 1. Son of Zeruiah, the half sister of David (1 Chr 2:16), who, along with his brothers Abishai and Asahel, was well known for his military valor in Judah (2 Sm 2:18; cf. 1 Sm 26:6). According to 2 Samuel, Joab rose to prominence and distinguished himself at the battle of Gibeon when Saul’s troops under Abner were vanquished (2 Sm 2:8-32). Because Abner had slain Joab’s brother Asahel (v 23), Joab later killed Abner in revenge (3:26-30), despite Abner’s new loyalty to David (vv 12-19). Po...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":28705,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Pahath-Moab","title_en":"Pahath-Moab","content_ro":"<h3>PAHATH-MOAB<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a family of Israelites who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine after the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:6; Neh 7:11). Other members of his family, about 200 men, came with Ezra (Ezr 8:4). After the return, certain of his sons were included among the Israelites who vowed to sever their relationships with foreign wives (10:30). Hasshub, Pahath-moab’s son, helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall and the tower of furnaces in Nehemiah’s day (Neh 3:11). Pahath-moab, called a chief of the people, set his seal on Ezra’s covenant (10:14).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PAHATH-MOAB<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a family of Israelites who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine after the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:6; Neh 7:11). Other members of his family, about 200 men, came with Ezra (Ezr 8:4). After the return, certain of his sons were included among the Israelites who vowed to sever their relationships with foreign wives (10:30). Hasshub, Pahath-moab’s son, helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall and the tower of furnaces in Nehemiah’s day (Neh 3:11). Pahath-moab, called a chief of the people, set his seal on Ezra’s covenant (10:14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PAHATH-MOAB Head of a family of Israelites who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine after the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:6; Neh 7:11). Other members of his family, about 200 men, came with Ezra (Ezr 8:4). After the return, certain of his sons were included among the Israelites who vowed to sever their relationships with foreign wives (10:30). Hasshub, Pahath-moab’s son, helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall and the tower of furnaces in Nehemiah’s day (Neh 3:11). Pahath-moab, called a chief of t...","summary_en":"PAHATH-MOAB Head of a family of Israelites who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine after the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:6; Neh 7:11). Other members of his family, about 200 men, came with Ezra (Ezr 8:4). After the return, certain of his sons were included among the Israelites who vowed to sever their relationships with foreign wives (10:30). Hasshub, Pahath-moab’s son, helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall and the tower of furnaces in Nehemiah’s day (Neh 3:11). Pahath-moab, called a chief of t...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":10241,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Elam (Person)","title_en":"Elam (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>ELAM (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Firstborn son of Shem and a grandson of Noah (Gn 10:22; 1 Chr 1:17).<\/li>\n<li>2. Benjamite and the son of Shashak (1 Chr 8:24).<\/li>\n<li>3. Korahite Levite and the fifth son of Kore from the house of Asaph (1 Chr 26:3).<\/li>\n<li>4. Forefather of 1,254 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:7; Neh 7:12). Later, 71 members of Elam’s house accompanied Ezra back to Palestine during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 8:7). In postexilic Judah, Shecaniah, Elam’s descendant, urged Ezra to command the sons of Israel to divorce their foreign wives (10:2); a number from Elam’s house eventually did so (v 26).<\/li>\n<li>5. Another forefather of 1,254 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah (Ezr 2:31; Neh 7:34).<\/li>\n<li>6. One of the chiefs of Israel who set his seal on Ezra’s covenant (Neh 10:14).<\/li>\n<li>7. One of the priestly musicians who performed at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall (Neh 12:42).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ELAM (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Firstborn son of Shem and a grandson of Noah (Gn 10:22; 1 Chr 1:17).<\/li>\n<li>2. Benjamite and the son of Shashak (1 Chr 8:24).<\/li>\n<li>3. Korahite Levite and the fifth son of Kore from the house of Asaph (1 Chr 26:3).<\/li>\n<li>4. Forefather of 1,254 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:7; Neh 7:12). Later, 71 members of Elam’s house accompanied Ezra back to Palestine during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 8:7). In postexilic Judah, Shecaniah, Elam’s descendant, urged Ezra to command the sons of Israel to divorce their foreign wives (10:2); a number from Elam’s house eventually did so (v 26).<\/li>\n<li>5. Another forefather of 1,254 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah (Ezr 2:31; Neh 7:34).<\/li>\n<li>6. One of the chiefs of Israel who set his seal on Ezra’s covenant (Neh 10:14).<\/li>\n<li>7. One of the priestly musicians who performed at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall (Neh 12:42).<\/li>","summary_ro":"ELAM (Person) 1. Firstborn son of Shem and a grandson of Noah (Gn 10:22; 1 Chr 1:17). 2. Benjamite and the son of Shashak (1 Chr 8:24). 3. Korahite Levite and the fifth son of Kore from the house of Asaph (1 Chr 26:3). 4. Forefather of 1,254 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:7; Neh 7:12). Later, 71 members of Elam’s house accompanied Ezra back to Palestine during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia (464–424 BC; Ezr 8:7). In postexilic Judah, She...","summary_en":"ELAM (Person) 1. Firstborn son of Shem and a grandson of Noah (Gn 10:22; 1 Chr 1:17). 2. Benjamite and the son of Shashak (1 Chr 8:24). 3. Korahite Levite and the fifth son of Kore from the house of Asaph (1 Chr 26:3). 4. Forefather of 1,254 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:7; Neh 7:12). Later, 71 members of Elam’s house accompanied Ezra back to Palestine during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia (464–424 BC; Ezr 8:7). In postexilic Judah, She...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":38929,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Zattu","title_en":"Zattu","content_ro":"<h3>ZATTU<\/h3>\n<li>1. Clan chief with whom 945 people returned with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:8; Neh 7:13 cites 845 returnees). Of the priests who renounced their foreign wives, six are listed as “sons” of Zattu (Ezr 10:27).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the chiefs of the people who signed Nehemiah’s covenant (Neh 10:14); perhaps the same person as #1 above.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ZATTU<\/h3>\n<li>1. Clan chief with whom 945 people returned with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:8; Neh 7:13 cites 845 returnees). Of the priests who renounced their foreign wives, six are listed as “sons” of Zattu (Ezr 10:27).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the chiefs of the people who signed Nehemiah’s covenant (Neh 10:14); perhaps the same person as #1 above.<\/li>","summary_ro":"ZATTU 1. Clan chief with whom 945 people returned with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:8; Neh 7:13 cites 845 returnees). Of the priests who renounced their foreign wives, six are listed as “sons” of Zattu (Ezr 10:27). 2. One of the chiefs of the people who signed Nehemiah’s covenant (Neh 10:14); perhaps the same person as #1 above.","summary_en":"ZATTU 1. Clan chief with whom 945 people returned with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:8; Neh 7:13 cites 845 returnees). Of the priests who renounced their foreign wives, six are listed as “sons” of Zattu (Ezr 10:27). 2. One of the chiefs of the people who signed Nehemiah’s covenant (Neh 10:14); perhaps the same person as #1 above.","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"9":[{"id":38846,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Zaccai","title_en":"Zaccai","content_ro":"<h3>ZACCAI<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of a family who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:9; Neh 7:14).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZACCAI<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of a family who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:9; Neh 7:14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ZACCAI Forefather of a family who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:9; Neh 7:14).","summary_en":"ZACCAI Forefather of a family who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:9; Neh 7:14).","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"10":[{"id":3587,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bani","title_en":"Bani","content_ro":"<h3>BANI<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Member of Gad’s tribe and warrior among David’s mighty men who were known as “the thirty” (2 Sm 23:36).<\/li>\n<li> 2. Shemer’s son and ancestor of Ethan. Ethan was the Levite of Merari’s line in charge of the music in the tabernacle during King David’s reign (1 Chr 6:46).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Member of Judah’s tribe and ancestor of Uthai (1 Chr 9:4). Uthai was one of the first to settle again in Jerusalem after the exile. Possibly the same as #4 below.<\/li>\n<li> 4. Ancestor of a family that returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:10), alternately spelled Binnui in Nehemiah 7:15.<\/li>\n<li> 5. Ancestor of a family that returned to Judah with Ezra after the exile (Ezr 8:10; 1 Esd 8:36). Possibly the same as #4 above.<\/li>\n<li> 6. Ancestor of some Israelites who were found guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezr 10:29).<\/li>\n<li> 7. Ancestor of another group of Israelites who were found guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezr 10:34).<\/li>\n<li> 8. Son (descendant) of Bani (#7 above). This Bani was among those found guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezr 10:38, <span>kjv<\/span>). Because Bani is spelled almost the same as “sons of” in Hebrew, most modern translations render verse 38 “of the sons of Binnui.”<\/li>\n<li> 9. Rehum’s father and a Levite. Rehum repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall after the exile (Neh 3:17).<\/li>\n<li>10. Levitical assistant of Ezra who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7). He was among those who offered praises to God on the steps of the temple (Neh 9:4-5). He is probably the same as Binnui (Ezr 10:38) and Anniuth (1 Esd 9:48).<\/li>\n<li>11. Another Levitical assistant who explained passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 9:4b).<\/li>\n<li>12. Levite who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God after the exile (Neh 10:13). He was a leader of the people representing the Bani family mentioned under #4 above.<\/li>\n<li>13. Uzzi’s father. Uzzi was the head of the Levites in Jerusalem after the exile (Neh 11:22). Possibly the same as #9 or #10 above.<\/li>\n<p>The popularity of this name and its similarity to other Jewish names (e.g., Binnui) has caused much confusion in the genealogical lists. The list above is one of several possible arrangements.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BANI<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Member of Gad’s tribe and warrior among David’s mighty men who were known as “the thirty” (2 Sm 23:36).<\/li>\n<li> 2. Shemer’s son and ancestor of Ethan. Ethan was the Levite of Merari’s line in charge of the music in the tabernacle during King David’s reign (1 Chr 6:46).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Member of Judah’s tribe and ancestor of Uthai (1 Chr 9:4). Uthai was one of the first to settle again in Jerusalem after the exile. Possibly the same as #4 below.<\/li>\n<li> 4. Ancestor of a family that returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:10), alternately spelled Binnui in Nehemiah 7:15.<\/li>\n<li> 5. Ancestor of a family that returned to Judah with Ezra after the exile (Ezr 8:10; 1 Esd 8:36). Possibly the same as #4 above.<\/li>\n<li> 6. Ancestor of some Israelites who were found guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezr 10:29).<\/li>\n<li> 7. Ancestor of another group of Israelites who were found guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezr 10:34).<\/li>\n<li> 8. Son (descendant) of Bani (#7 above). This Bani was among those found guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezr 10:38, <span>kjv<\/span>). Because Bani is spelled almost the same as “sons of” in Hebrew, most modern translations render verse 38 “of the sons of Binnui.”<\/li>\n<li> 9. Rehum’s father and a Levite. Rehum repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall after the exile (Neh 3:17).<\/li>\n<li>10. Levitical assistant of Ezra who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7). He was among those who offered praises to God on the steps of the temple (Neh 9:4-5). He is probably the same as Binnui (Ezr 10:38) and Anniuth (1 Esd 9:48).<\/li>\n<li>11. Another Levitical assistant who explained passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 9:4b).<\/li>\n<li>12. Levite who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God after the exile (Neh 10:13). He was a leader of the people representing the Bani family mentioned under #4 above.<\/li>\n<li>13. Uzzi’s father. Uzzi was the head of the Levites in Jerusalem after the exile (Neh 11:22). Possibly the same as #9 or #10 above.<\/li>\n<p>The popularity of this name and its similarity to other Jewish names (e.g., Binnui) has caused much confusion in the genealogical lists. The list above is one of several possible arrangements.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BANI 1. Member of Gad’s tribe and warrior among David’s mighty men who were known as “the thirty” (2 Sm 23:36). 2. Shemer’s son and ancestor of Ethan. Ethan was the Levite of Merari’s line in charge of the music in the tabernacle during King David’s reign (1 Chr 6:46). 3. Member of Judah’s tribe and ancestor of Uthai (1 Chr 9:4). Uthai was one of the first to settle again in Jerusalem after the exile. Possibly the same as #4 below. 4. Ancestor of a family that returned to Judah with Zerubbabe...","summary_en":"BANI 1. Member of Gad’s tribe and warrior among David’s mighty men who were known as “the thirty” (2 Sm 23:36). 2. Shemer’s son and ancestor of Ethan. Ethan was the Levite of Merari’s line in charge of the music in the tabernacle during King David’s reign (1 Chr 6:46). 3. Member of Judah’s tribe and ancestor of Uthai (1 Chr 9:4). Uthai was one of the first to settle again in Jerusalem after the exile. Possibly the same as #4 below. 4. Ancestor of a family that returned to Judah with Zerubbabe...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":4077,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bebai (Person)","title_en":"Bebai (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>BEBAI (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a family that returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:11; 8:11; Neh 7:16). Some of the members of that family were guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezr 10:28).<\/li>\n<li>2. Levitical leader of Israel who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:15). This individual was perhaps a member of the family of #1 above.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>BEBAI (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a family that returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:11; 8:11; Neh 7:16). Some of the members of that family were guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezr 10:28).<\/li>\n<li>2. Levitical leader of Israel who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:15). This individual was perhaps a member of the family of #1 above.<\/li>","summary_ro":"BEBAI (Person) 1. Ancestor of a family that returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:11; 8:11; Neh 7:16). Some of the members of that family were guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezr 10:28). 2. Levitical leader of Israel who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:15). This individual was perhaps a member of the family of #1 above.","summary_en":"BEBAI (Person) 1. Ancestor of a family that returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:11; 8:11; Neh 7:16). Some of the members of that family were guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezr 10:28). 2. Levitical leader of Israel who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:15). This individual was perhaps a member of the family of #1 above.","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":3316,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Azgad","title_en":"Azgad","content_ro":"<h3>AZGAD<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a group that returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:12; Neh 7:17).<\/li>\n<li>2. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:15).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>AZGAD<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a group that returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:12; Neh 7:17).<\/li>\n<li>2. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:15).<\/li>","summary_ro":"AZGAD 1. Ancestor of a group that returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:12; Neh 7:17). 2. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:15).","summary_en":"AZGAD 1. Ancestor of a group that returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:12; Neh 7:17). 2. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:15).","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":617,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Adonikam","title_en":"Adonikam","content_ro":"<h3>ADONIKAM<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a family whose descendants returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:13; Neh 7:18). Ezra states the number of Adonikam’s family returning as 666; Nehemiah gives the number as 667 (as does 1 Esd 5:14), probably a scribal variation.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ADONIKAM<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a family whose descendants returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:13; Neh 7:18). Ezra states the number of Adonikam’s family returning as 666; Nehemiah gives the number as 667 (as does 1 Esd 5:14), probably a scribal variation.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ADONIKAM Head of a family whose descendants returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:13; Neh 7:18). Ezra states the number of Adonikam’s family returning as 666; Nehemiah gives the number as 667 (as does 1 Esd 5:14), probably a scribal variation.","summary_en":"ADONIKAM Head of a family whose descendants returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:13; Neh 7:18). Ezra states the number of Adonikam’s family returning as 666; Nehemiah gives the number as 667 (as does 1 Esd 5:14), probably a scribal variation.","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"15":[{"id":586,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Adin","title_en":"Adin","content_ro":"<h3>ADIN<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile. Comparison of various lists (Ezr 2:15; 8:6; Neh 7:20; 1 Esd 5:14; 8:32) shows that groups of Adin’s descendants returned at different times.<\/li>\n<li>2. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:16).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ADIN<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile. Comparison of various lists (Ezr 2:15; 8:6; Neh 7:20; 1 Esd 5:14; 8:32) shows that groups of Adin’s descendants returned at different times.<\/li>\n<li>2. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:16).<\/li>","summary_ro":"ADIN 1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile. Comparison of various lists (Ezr 2:15; 8:6; Neh 7:20; 1 Esd 5:14; 8:32) shows that groups of Adin’s descendants returned at different times. 2. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:16).","summary_en":"ADIN 1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile. Comparison of various lists (Ezr 2:15; 8:6; Neh 7:20; 1 Esd 5:14; 8:32) shows that groups of Adin’s descendants returned at different times. 2. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:16).","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"16":[{"id":2137,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Annias","title_en":"Annias","content_ro":"<h3>ANNIAS<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a family of 101 sons that undertook the rigorous migration from Babylon with Zerubbabel, according to the Apocrypha (1 Esd 5:16). Parallel canonical texts omit this family (Ezr 2:16-20; Neh 7:21-25).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ANNIAS<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a family of 101 sons that undertook the rigorous migration from Babylon with Zerubbabel, according to the Apocrypha (1 Esd 5:16). Parallel canonical texts omit this family (Ezr 2:16-20; Neh 7:21-25).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ANNIAS Ancestor of a family of 101 sons that undertook the rigorous migration from Babylon with Zerubbabel, according to the Apocrypha (1 Esd 5:16). Parallel canonical texts omit this family (Ezr 2:16-20; Neh 7:21-25).","summary_en":"ANNIAS Ancestor of a family of 101 sons that undertook the rigorous migration from Babylon with Zerubbabel, according to the Apocrypha (1 Esd 5:16). Parallel canonical texts omit this family (Ezr 2:16-20; Neh 7:21-25).","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":3137,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ater","title_en":"Ater","content_ro":"<h3>ATER<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:16; Neh 7:21).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of a family of gatekeepers who also returned to Judah with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45).<\/li>\n<li>3. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:17).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ATER<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:16; Neh 7:21).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of a family of gatekeepers who also returned to Judah with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45).<\/li>\n<li>3. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:17).<\/li>","summary_ro":"ATER 1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:16; Neh 7:21). 2. Ancestor of a family of gatekeepers who also returned to Judah with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45). 3. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:17).","summary_en":"ATER 1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:16; Neh 7:21). 2. Ancestor of a family of gatekeepers who also returned to Judah with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45). 3. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:17).","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":16351,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hezekiah","title_en":"Hezekiah","content_ro":"<h3>HEZEKIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. King of Judah from 715–686 <span>BC<\/span>. The account of Hezekiah’s reign is in 2 Kings 18:1–20:21, 2 Chronicles 29:1–32:33, and Isaiah 36:1–39:8.<\/li>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chronology\">Chronology<\/p>\n<p>Hezekiah succeeded to Judah’s throne at 25 and ruled for 29 years (2 Kgs 18:2; 2 Chr 29:1). His mother was Abi (2 Kgs 18:2; 2 Chr 29:1; “Abijah,” a longer form), a daughter of Zechariah. The chronology of Hezekiah’s reign is difficult to establish with certainty. The Bible says the Assyrian siege of Samaria, capital of the northern kingdom of Israel, began in the fourth year of his reign and that Samaria fell in the sixth year (2 Kgs 18:9-10), which would make his reign begin about 728 <span>BC<\/span> and end about 699 <span>BC<\/span>. Assyrian king Sennacherib besieged the fortified Judean cities during Hezekiah’s 14th year (2 Kgs 18:13), which would have been 714 <span>BC<\/span>. Assyrian records, however, indicate that Sennacherib came to the Assyrian throne in 705 <span>BC<\/span> and that his Judean campaign took place in 701 <span>BC<\/span>. The most generally accepted solution to the discrepancy is that Hezekiah came to the throne in 715 <span>BC<\/span>, probably after a co-regency with his father, Ahaz, that began in 728 <span>BC<\/span>. That solution harmonizes with the statement that Sennacherib’s siege took place in the 14th year of Hezekiah’s reign, or 701 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HezekiahsReligiousReforms\">Hezekiah’s Religious Reforms<\/p>\n<p>Hezekiah came to the throne at a critical juncture in Judah’s history. Sargon II had taken Samaria in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, and Judah was militarily weakened from wars and raids by surrounding nations during the reign of Ahaz. Perhaps motivated by warnings to the northern kingdom delivered by the prophets Amos and Hosea that punishment would come if Israel did not turn back to God, Hezekiah began his religious reforms soon after becoming king.<\/p>\n<p>In the first month of his reign, Hezekiah opened the temple doors and repaired them. He brought the Levites together and ordered them to sanctify themselves and the temple and to reinstate the religious ceremonies that had long been neglected. Hezekiah brought sacrifices, and the priestly temple service was restored (2 Chr 29).<\/p>\n<p>Hezekiah then sent invitations throughout Judah and Israel for the Passover celebration in Jerusalem (held a month later than the prescribed time because the priests and people could not be ready earlier). It was hoped that religious unification would be a prelude to political reunification of the northern kingdom of Israel and the southern kingdom of Judah. However, most of the northern tribes mocked the Judean messengers who brought the invitations, and only a few persons from the tribes of Asher, Manasseh, and Zebulun went to Jerusalem for the celebration (2 Chr 30).<\/p>\n<p>After the Passover observance, the worshipers set about destroying the high places and altars. They broke the pillars and cut down the Asherim throughout Judah and Benjamin, and also went into Ephraim and Manasseh (2 Chr 31:1). Hezekiah even smashed the bronze serpent that Moses had made (Nm 21:6-9), for it had become an object of worship and was identified with a serpent deity, Nehushtan (2 Kgs 18:4). Because of his sweeping reforms, later generations said of Hezekiah, “There was never another king like him in the land of Judah, either before or after his time” (2 Kgs 18:5, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheAssyrianThreat\">The Assyrian Threat<\/p>\n<p>Hezekiah knew that Assyria’s growing international dominance was a serious threat to his kingdom, but following his father’s policy of submission, Hezekiah did not attempt any resistance at first.<\/p>\n<p>The inscriptions of the Assyrian king Sargon II record his victorious campaign in 711 <span>BC<\/span> against a revolt by Aziru, king of Ashdod, who requested help from Egypt and Judah. Perhaps a prophecy received by Isaiah warned Hezekiah not to interfere with the Ashdod siege (Is 20), and so no punitive action was taken against Judah by Assyria. Sargon died in 705, and his son Sennacherib came to the throne. This triggered widespread rebellion throughout the Assyrian provinces. Hezekiah withheld tribute from the new Assyrian ruler and, taking advantage of the confused situation, made raids against the Philistines (2 Kgs 18:8). After subduing rebellious elements in the East, Sennacherib began his campaign against the “land of Hatti” (the Assyrian name for the western countries) in 701 <span>BC<\/span>. In preparation Hezekiah repaired Jerusalem’s city wall, raised towers on it, built another wall outside it, and strengthened the Millo in the City of David. He also stockpiled abundant quantities of weapons and shields (2 Chr 32:5). Knowing the necessity of an adequate water supply for a city under siege, Hezekiah had a 1,777-foot (542-meter) tunnel cut through solid rock from the spring of Gihon to the Siloam Pool to bring water into the city and to prevent the Assyrians from gaining access to the spring water outside the city (2 Kgs 20:20; 2 Chr 32:3-4). The Siloam inscription, carved inside the tunnel itself, records the completion of that remarkable conduit and is one of the oldest preserved examples of the Hebrew language.<\/p>\n<p>Sennacherib invaded Palestine and, after an extensive campaign, put down the rebellion there. That campaign is well documented in Assyrian records, including a description of his siege on Jerusalem in 701, and this documentation is supplemented by the biblical account (2 Kgs 18:13–19:37; 2 Chr 32:1-22; Is 36–37). Sidon, the cities of Phoenicia, and the immediate neighbors of Judah (including Byblos, Arnon, Moab, Edom, and Ashdod) submitted to the Assyrians. Resistant Philistine cities were also taken. Sennacherib laid siege against Ekron, whose king, Padi (a loyal subject of Sennacherib), had been taken prisoner by his own subjects and turned over in chains to Hezekiah. A large Egyptian and Ethiopian army failed to relieve the Ekronites, who were defeated by the Assyrians in the vicinity of Eltekah. Ekron was captured, and Padi was recalled to his throne by Sennacherib.<\/p>\n<p>Sennacherib then turned his attention to the fortified cities of Judah and took them one by one (2 Kgs 18:13). Assyrian records claim that he captured 46 walled cities and countless villages, including Lachish and Debir (southwest of Jerusalem), 200,150 people, homes, cattle, and flocks without number. While Lachish was still under siege, Hezekiah saw that it was hopeless to resist and sent word to Sennacherib offering to surrender and pay whatever tribute he would impose. The Assyrian ruler demanded an enormous tribute of 300 talents of silver (800 talents according to Assyrian records, either an exaggerated figure or computed by a different standard) and 30 talents of gold. In order to pay that tribute, Hezekiah took all the silver in the temple and the royal treasuries, and stripped the gold from the temple doors and doorposts (2 Kgs 18:14-16). This treasure was sent to Sennacherib along with other gifts that, according to the Assyrian account, included some of Hezekiah’s own daughters as concubines.<\/p>\n<p>The account in 2 Kings 18:17–19:37 raises the question of whether there was another invasion of Judah at a later date, or whether this passage gives additional details about the invasion of 701. Although Hezekiah had already submitted and paid tribute, these verses describe further Assyrian demands. Those who believe it was a single invasion suggest that this is an account of the Assyrian deputation sent by Sennacherib to demand Jerusalem’s surrender while Lachish was still under siege. The deputation included the Tartan, Rabsaris, and Rabshakeh (titles of court officials rather than personal names). They warned the citizens that their God was no more able to save them than the gods of other cities defeated by the Assyrians. In distress Hezekiah sent word to the prophet Isaiah, who assured the king that Sennacherib would hear a rumor and return to his own land and there die by the sword (2 Kgs 19:1-7). Shortly afterward Sennacherib received word of Babylon’s revolt in his eastern provinces, so he departed at once without taking Jerusalem. Assyrian records do not claim that Jerusalem was taken but only say that Hezekiah was “shut up in Jerusalem like a bird in a cage.” Judah’s surrounding neighbors celebrated their deliverance and brought gifts of gratitude to Hezekiah (2 Chr 32:23).<\/p>\n<p>Later, the Assyrian king heard that Tirhakah, king of Ethiopia, was advancing against him, so he sent another threatening message to Hezekiah, probably to warn him against making an alliance with Tirhakah. Hezekiah took the matter before the Lord and received word from Isaiah that the Assyrian king would return the same way he came and that Jerusalem would be untouched. Soon afterward, in a miraculous intervention by God, 185,000 Assyrian troops were killed, and the Assyrian monarch abandoned his plans to conquer Hezekiah. That embarrassing calamity understandably is not mentioned by the Assyrian records. In 681 Sennacherib was killed by two of his sons as Isaiah had predicted (2 Kgs 19:7, 37).<\/p>\n<p>Sometime prior to 701, Hezekiah became seriously ill, and Isaiah told him to prepare for death. The king earnestly prayed for an extension of life, and God promised him 15 more years as well as deliverance from the Assyrians. Hezekiah asked Isaiah for a sign that he would be healed, and a shadow cast by the sun moved backward 10 steps contrary to its normal direction (2 Kgs 20:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>Sometime after his recovery Hezekiah received a delegation with presents from Merodach-baladan of Babylon, ostensibly to congratulate Hezekiah on his return to health. The real object of the visit was probably to enlist Hezekiah as an ally in a conspiracy being formed against Assyria. The king showed the Babylonian envoys all the gold, silver, and other valuables he possessed. This act brought a warning from Isaiah that the day would come when all those treasures would be carried away to Babylon (2 Kgs 20:12-19).<\/p>\n<p>Hezekiah lived the remainder of his life in peace and prosperity. It may have been during this time that he encouraged literary efforts in Judah, which included copying some of Solomon’s proverbs (Prv 25–29). Upon his death in 686, he was succeeded by his son Manasseh, who probably had become co-regent 10 years earlier.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Israel, History of; King.<\/p>\n<li>2. KJV form of Hizkiah, Neariah’s son, in 1 Chronicles 3:23. <em>See<\/em> Hizkiah #1.<\/li>\n<li>3. Head of a family of exiles (the sons of Ater), 98 of whose descendants returned from the Babylonian exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:16; Neh 7:21; 10:17).<\/li>\n<li>4. Ancestor of the prophet Zephaniah, possibly King Hezekiah himself (Zep 1:1).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>HEZEKIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. King of Judah from 715–686 <span>BC<\/span>. The account of Hezekiah’s reign is in 2 Kings 18:1–20:21, 2 Chronicles 29:1–32:33, and Isaiah 36:1–39:8.<\/li>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chronology\">Chronology<\/p>\n<p>Hezekiah succeeded to Judah’s throne at 25 and ruled for 29 years (2 Kgs 18:2; 2 Chr 29:1). His mother was Abi (2 Kgs 18:2; 2 Chr 29:1; “Abijah,” a longer form), a daughter of Zechariah. The chronology of Hezekiah’s reign is difficult to establish with certainty. The Bible says the Assyrian siege of Samaria, capital of the northern kingdom of Israel, began in the fourth year of his reign and that Samaria fell in the sixth year (2 Kgs 18:9-10), which would make his reign begin about 728 <span>BC<\/span> and end about 699 <span>BC<\/span>. Assyrian king Sennacherib besieged the fortified Judean cities during Hezekiah’s 14th year (2 Kgs 18:13), which would have been 714 <span>BC<\/span>. Assyrian records, however, indicate that Sennacherib came to the Assyrian throne in 705 <span>BC<\/span> and that his Judean campaign took place in 701 <span>BC<\/span>. The most generally accepted solution to the discrepancy is that Hezekiah came to the throne in 715 <span>BC<\/span>, probably after a co-regency with his father, Ahaz, that began in 728 <span>BC<\/span>. That solution harmonizes with the statement that Sennacherib’s siege took place in the 14th year of Hezekiah’s reign, or 701 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HezekiahsReligiousReforms\">Hezekiah’s Religious Reforms<\/p>\n<p>Hezekiah came to the throne at a critical juncture in Judah’s history. Sargon II had taken Samaria in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, and Judah was militarily weakened from wars and raids by surrounding nations during the reign of Ahaz. Perhaps motivated by warnings to the northern kingdom delivered by the prophets Amos and Hosea that punishment would come if Israel did not turn back to God, Hezekiah began his religious reforms soon after becoming king.<\/p>\n<p>In the first month of his reign, Hezekiah opened the temple doors and repaired them. He brought the Levites together and ordered them to sanctify themselves and the temple and to reinstate the religious ceremonies that had long been neglected. Hezekiah brought sacrifices, and the priestly temple service was restored (2 Chr 29).<\/p>\n<p>Hezekiah then sent invitations throughout Judah and Israel for the Passover celebration in Jerusalem (held a month later than the prescribed time because the priests and people could not be ready earlier). It was hoped that religious unification would be a prelude to political reunification of the northern kingdom of Israel and the southern kingdom of Judah. However, most of the northern tribes mocked the Judean messengers who brought the invitations, and only a few persons from the tribes of Asher, Manasseh, and Zebulun went to Jerusalem for the celebration (2 Chr 30).<\/p>\n<p>After the Passover observance, the worshipers set about destroying the high places and altars. They broke the pillars and cut down the Asherim throughout Judah and Benjamin, and also went into Ephraim and Manasseh (2 Chr 31:1). Hezekiah even smashed the bronze serpent that Moses had made (Nm 21:6-9), for it had become an object of worship and was identified with a serpent deity, Nehushtan (2 Kgs 18:4). Because of his sweeping reforms, later generations said of Hezekiah, “There was never another king like him in the land of Judah, either before or after his time” (2 Kgs 18:5, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheAssyrianThreat\">The Assyrian Threat<\/p>\n<p>Hezekiah knew that Assyria’s growing international dominance was a serious threat to his kingdom, but following his father’s policy of submission, Hezekiah did not attempt any resistance at first.<\/p>\n<p>The inscriptions of the Assyrian king Sargon II record his victorious campaign in 711 <span>BC<\/span> against a revolt by Aziru, king of Ashdod, who requested help from Egypt and Judah. Perhaps a prophecy received by Isaiah warned Hezekiah not to interfere with the Ashdod siege (Is 20), and so no punitive action was taken against Judah by Assyria. Sargon died in 705, and his son Sennacherib came to the throne. This triggered widespread rebellion throughout the Assyrian provinces. Hezekiah withheld tribute from the new Assyrian ruler and, taking advantage of the confused situation, made raids against the Philistines (2 Kgs 18:8). After subduing rebellious elements in the East, Sennacherib began his campaign against the “land of Hatti” (the Assyrian name for the western countries) in 701 <span>BC<\/span>. In preparation Hezekiah repaired Jerusalem’s city wall, raised towers on it, built another wall outside it, and strengthened the Millo in the City of David. He also stockpiled abundant quantities of weapons and shields (2 Chr 32:5). Knowing the necessity of an adequate water supply for a city under siege, Hezekiah had a 1,777-foot (542-meter) tunnel cut through solid rock from the spring of Gihon to the Siloam Pool to bring water into the city and to prevent the Assyrians from gaining access to the spring water outside the city (2 Kgs 20:20; 2 Chr 32:3-4). The Siloam inscription, carved inside the tunnel itself, records the completion of that remarkable conduit and is one of the oldest preserved examples of the Hebrew language.<\/p>\n<p>Sennacherib invaded Palestine and, after an extensive campaign, put down the rebellion there. That campaign is well documented in Assyrian records, including a description of his siege on Jerusalem in 701, and this documentation is supplemented by the biblical account (2 Kgs 18:13–19:37; 2 Chr 32:1-22; Is 36–37). Sidon, the cities of Phoenicia, and the immediate neighbors of Judah (including Byblos, Arnon, Moab, Edom, and Ashdod) submitted to the Assyrians. Resistant Philistine cities were also taken. Sennacherib laid siege against Ekron, whose king, Padi (a loyal subject of Sennacherib), had been taken prisoner by his own subjects and turned over in chains to Hezekiah. A large Egyptian and Ethiopian army failed to relieve the Ekronites, who were defeated by the Assyrians in the vicinity of Eltekah. Ekron was captured, and Padi was recalled to his throne by Sennacherib.<\/p>\n<p>Sennacherib then turned his attention to the fortified cities of Judah and took them one by one (2 Kgs 18:13). Assyrian records claim that he captured 46 walled cities and countless villages, including Lachish and Debir (southwest of Jerusalem), 200,150 people, homes, cattle, and flocks without number. While Lachish was still under siege, Hezekiah saw that it was hopeless to resist and sent word to Sennacherib offering to surrender and pay whatever tribute he would impose. The Assyrian ruler demanded an enormous tribute of 300 talents of silver (800 talents according to Assyrian records, either an exaggerated figure or computed by a different standard) and 30 talents of gold. In order to pay that tribute, Hezekiah took all the silver in the temple and the royal treasuries, and stripped the gold from the temple doors and doorposts (2 Kgs 18:14-16). This treasure was sent to Sennacherib along with other gifts that, according to the Assyrian account, included some of Hezekiah’s own daughters as concubines.<\/p>\n<p>The account in 2 Kings 18:17–19:37 raises the question of whether there was another invasion of Judah at a later date, or whether this passage gives additional details about the invasion of 701. Although Hezekiah had already submitted and paid tribute, these verses describe further Assyrian demands. Those who believe it was a single invasion suggest that this is an account of the Assyrian deputation sent by Sennacherib to demand Jerusalem’s surrender while Lachish was still under siege. The deputation included the Tartan, Rabsaris, and Rabshakeh (titles of court officials rather than personal names). They warned the citizens that their God was no more able to save them than the gods of other cities defeated by the Assyrians. In distress Hezekiah sent word to the prophet Isaiah, who assured the king that Sennacherib would hear a rumor and return to his own land and there die by the sword (2 Kgs 19:1-7). Shortly afterward Sennacherib received word of Babylon’s revolt in his eastern provinces, so he departed at once without taking Jerusalem. Assyrian records do not claim that Jerusalem was taken but only say that Hezekiah was “shut up in Jerusalem like a bird in a cage.” Judah’s surrounding neighbors celebrated their deliverance and brought gifts of gratitude to Hezekiah (2 Chr 32:23).<\/p>\n<p>Later, the Assyrian king heard that Tirhakah, king of Ethiopia, was advancing against him, so he sent another threatening message to Hezekiah, probably to warn him against making an alliance with Tirhakah. Hezekiah took the matter before the Lord and received word from Isaiah that the Assyrian king would return the same way he came and that Jerusalem would be untouched. Soon afterward, in a miraculous intervention by God, 185,000 Assyrian troops were killed, and the Assyrian monarch abandoned his plans to conquer Hezekiah. That embarrassing calamity understandably is not mentioned by the Assyrian records. In 681 Sennacherib was killed by two of his sons as Isaiah had predicted (2 Kgs 19:7, 37).<\/p>\n<p>Sometime prior to 701, Hezekiah became seriously ill, and Isaiah told him to prepare for death. The king earnestly prayed for an extension of life, and God promised him 15 more years as well as deliverance from the Assyrians. Hezekiah asked Isaiah for a sign that he would be healed, and a shadow cast by the sun moved backward 10 steps contrary to its normal direction (2 Kgs 20:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>Sometime after his recovery Hezekiah received a delegation with presents from Merodach-baladan of Babylon, ostensibly to congratulate Hezekiah on his return to health. The real object of the visit was probably to enlist Hezekiah as an ally in a conspiracy being formed against Assyria. The king showed the Babylonian envoys all the gold, silver, and other valuables he possessed. This act brought a warning from Isaiah that the day would come when all those treasures would be carried away to Babylon (2 Kgs 20:12-19).<\/p>\n<p>Hezekiah lived the remainder of his life in peace and prosperity. It may have been during this time that he encouraged literary efforts in Judah, which included copying some of Solomon’s proverbs (Prv 25–29). Upon his death in 686, he was succeeded by his son Manasseh, who probably had become co-regent 10 years earlier.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Israel, History of; King.<\/p>\n<li>2. KJV form of Hizkiah, Neariah’s son, in 1 Chronicles 3:23. <em>See<\/em> Hizkiah #1.<\/li>\n<li>3. Head of a family of exiles (the sons of Ater), 98 of whose descendants returned from the Babylonian exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:16; Neh 7:21; 10:17).<\/li>\n<li>4. Ancestor of the prophet Zephaniah, possibly King Hezekiah himself (Zep 1:1).<\/li>","summary_ro":"HEZEKIAH 1. King of Judah from 715–686 BC. The account of Hezekiah’s reign is in 2 Kings 18:1–20:21, 2 Chronicles 29:1–32:33, and Isaiah 36:1–39:8. Chronology Hezekiah succeeded to Judah’s throne at 25 and ruled for 29 years (2 Kgs 18:2; 2 Chr 29:1). His mother was Abi (2 Kgs 18:2; 2 Chr 29:1; “Abijah,” a longer form), a daughter of Zechariah. The chronology of Hezekiah’s reign is difficult to establish with certainty. The Bible says the Assyrian siege of Samaria, capital of the northern king...","summary_en":"HEZEKIAH 1. King of Judah from 715–686 BC. The account of Hezekiah’s reign is in 2 Kings 18:1–20:21, 2 Chronicles 29:1–32:33, and Isaiah 36:1–39:8. Chronology Hezekiah succeeded to Judah’s throne at 25 and ruled for 29 years (2 Kgs 18:2; 2 Chr 29:1). His mother was Abi (2 Kgs 18:2; 2 Chr 29:1; “Abijah,” a longer form), a daughter of Zechariah. The chronology of Hezekiah’s reign is difficult to establish with certainty. The Bible says the Assyrian siege of Samaria, capital of the northern king...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"17":[{"id":4603,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bezai","title_en":"Bezai","content_ro":"<h3>BEZAI<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:17; Neh 7:23).<\/li>\n<li>2. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:18).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>BEZAI<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:17; Neh 7:23).<\/li>\n<li>2. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:18).<\/li>","summary_ro":"BEZAI 1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:17; Neh 7:23). 2. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:18).","summary_en":"BEZAI 1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:17; Neh 7:23). 2. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:18).","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"18":[{"id":15380,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hariph","title_en":"Hariph","content_ro":"<h3>HARIPH<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Neh 7:24). The name Jorah appears in the parallel list of Ezra 2:18. A representative of this family signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others (Neh 10:19).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HARIPH<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Neh 7:24). The name Jorah appears in the parallel list of Ezra 2:18. A representative of this family signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others (Neh 10:19).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HARIPH Ancestor of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Neh 7:24). The name Jorah appears in the parallel list of Ezra 2:18. A representative of this family signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others (Neh 10:19).","summary_en":"HARIPH Ancestor of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Neh 7:24). The name Jorah appears in the parallel list of Ezra 2:18. A representative of this family signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others (Neh 10:19).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20506,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jorah","title_en":"Jorah","content_ro":"<h3>JORAH<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate name for Hariph in Ezra 2:18 and Nehemiah 7:24. <em>See<\/em> Hariph.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JORAH<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate name for Hariph in Ezra 2:18 and Nehemiah 7:24. <em>See<\/em> Hariph.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JORAH Alternate name for Hariph in Ezra 2:18 and Nehemiah 7:24. See Hariph.","summary_en":"JORAH Alternate name for Hariph in Ezra 2:18 and Nehemiah 7:24. See Hariph.","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"19":[{"id":15441,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hashum","title_en":"Hashum","content_ro":"<h3>HASHUM<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a family who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:19; 10:33; Neh 7:22).<\/li>\n<li>2. Israelite who stood to Ezra’s left at the reading of the law (Neh 8:4).<\/li>\n<li>3. Leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:18).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>HASHUM<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a family who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:19; 10:33; Neh 7:22).<\/li>\n<li>2. Israelite who stood to Ezra’s left at the reading of the law (Neh 8:4).<\/li>\n<li>3. Leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:18).<\/li>","summary_ro":"HASHUM 1. Ancestor of a family who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:19; 10:33; Neh 7:22). 2. Israelite who stood to Ezra’s left at the reading of the law (Neh 8:4). 3. Leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:18).","summary_en":"HASHUM 1. Ancestor of a family who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:19; 10:33; Neh 7:22). 2. Israelite who stood to Ezra’s left at the reading of the law (Neh 8:4). 3. Leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:18).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"20":[{"id":13750,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gibbar","title_en":"Gibbar","content_ro":"<h3>GIBBAR<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of a family that returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:20). The parallel list in Nehemiah 7:25 reads “sons of Gibeon,” suggesting that “Gibbar” may be a textual corruption. Some support for this view lies in the fact that Ezra 2:21 begins listing descendants by their home city rather than by family.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GIBBAR<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of a family that returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:20). The parallel list in Nehemiah 7:25 reads “sons of Gibeon,” suggesting that “Gibbar” may be a textual corruption. Some support for this view lies in the fact that Ezra 2:21 begins listing descendants by their home city rather than by family.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GIBBAR Forefather of a family that returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:20). The parallel list in Nehemiah 7:25 reads “sons of Gibeon,” suggesting that “Gibbar” may be a textual corruption. Some support for this view lies in the fact that Ezra 2:21 begins listing descendants by their home city rather than by family.","summary_en":"GIBBAR Forefather of a family that returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:20). The parallel list in Nehemiah 7:25 reads “sons of Gibeon,” suggesting that “Gibbar” may be a textual corruption. Some support for this view lies in the fact that Ezra 2:21 begins listing descendants by their home city rather than by family.","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"21":[{"id":4506,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bethlehem","title_en":"Bethlehem","content_ro":"<h3>BETHLEHEM<\/h3>\n<li>1. “City of David” and the birthplace of Jesus Christ, five miles (8 kilometers) south of Jerusalem. This city is sometimes called Bethlehem-judah (<span>kjv<\/span>) or Ephrath (Gn 35:19; Mi 5:2) to distinguish it from the Bethlehem of Zebulun.<\/li>\n<p>As an early Canaanite settlement, it was associated with the patriarchs, for Rachel died and was buried in its vicinity (Gn 35:16, 19; 48:7). The earliest known historical reference to Bethlehem occurs in the Amarna texts (14th century <span>BC<\/span>) in which battle reports refer to <em>bitil u-lahama<\/em> south of Jerusalem. The name may have meant “house of (the goddess) Lahama.” A branch of Caleb’s family settled there, and Caleb’s son Salma was known as “the father of Bethlehem” (1 Chr 2:51). Bethlehem was the home of a young Levite who served as priest to Micah (Jgs 17:7-8), and of Boaz, Ruth, Obed, and Jesse, the Bethlehemite, David’s father (Ru 4:11, 17; 1 Sm 16:18).<\/p>\n<p>Bethlehem was the birthplace of David (1 Sm 17:12) and the home of one of David’s mighty men, Elhanan (2 Sm 23:24; 1 Chr 11:26). It was the scene of a daring exploit by three of David’s warriors; they broke through the cordon of Philistine marauders occupying Bethlehem to bring David water from the well (or cistern) near the city gate of his hometown (2 Sm 23:14-17). Much later, Bethlehem is mentioned as being adjacent to the village of Geruth-kimham, where Jews fleeing from the Babylonians stayed en route to Egypt (Jer 41:17). People from Bethlehem were among those returning from the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:21; Neh 7:26; 1 Esd 5:17).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus was born there, Bethlehem was only a village (Mt 2:1-16; Lk 2:4-6, 15; Jn 7:42). Under the census decree of Caesar Augustus, Joseph had to go to Bethlehem “because he was of the house and lineage of David” (Lk 2:4). The family may still have had property there. The birth of Jesus possibly took place in a cave in the rocks outside the town. The early Christian writer Justin Martyr thought so, as did Origen some years later. Origen frequently resided in the Holy Land and wrote, “In Bethlehem you are shown the cave where he was born, and within the cave the manger where he was wrapped in swaddling clothes.”<\/p>\n<p>Jerome later described the grotto over which the Emperor Constantine had built a basilica. In excavations in 1934–35, evidence indicated a second period of building in the reign of Justinian (<span>AD<\/span> 527–565), when Constantine’s basilica was extended beyond its original proportions. Steps lead down to the grotto, the rectangular shape of which suggests that Constantine’s builders reshaped the original. But there is no description of the grotto prior to the construction of Constantine’s basilica.<\/p>\n<li>2. Town in Zebulun (Jos 19:15), probably the home of the judge Ibzan (Jgs 12:8-10), an early ruler of Israel. It is identified today with the village of Beit Lahm, some seven miles (11.3 kilometers) northwest of Nazareth.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>BETHLEHEM<\/h3>\n<li>1. “City of David” and the birthplace of Jesus Christ, five miles (8 kilometers) south of Jerusalem. This city is sometimes called Bethlehem-judah (<span>kjv<\/span>) or Ephrath (Gn 35:19; Mi 5:2) to distinguish it from the Bethlehem of Zebulun.<\/li>\n<p>As an early Canaanite settlement, it was associated with the patriarchs, for Rachel died and was buried in its vicinity (Gn 35:16, 19; 48:7). The earliest known historical reference to Bethlehem occurs in the Amarna texts (14th century <span>BC<\/span>) in which battle reports refer to <em>bitil u-lahama<\/em> south of Jerusalem. The name may have meant “house of (the goddess) Lahama.” A branch of Caleb’s family settled there, and Caleb’s son Salma was known as “the father of Bethlehem” (1 Chr 2:51). Bethlehem was the home of a young Levite who served as priest to Micah (Jgs 17:7-8), and of Boaz, Ruth, Obed, and Jesse, the Bethlehemite, David’s father (Ru 4:11, 17; 1 Sm 16:18).<\/p>\n<p>Bethlehem was the birthplace of David (1 Sm 17:12) and the home of one of David’s mighty men, Elhanan (2 Sm 23:24; 1 Chr 11:26). It was the scene of a daring exploit by three of David’s warriors; they broke through the cordon of Philistine marauders occupying Bethlehem to bring David water from the well (or cistern) near the city gate of his hometown (2 Sm 23:14-17). Much later, Bethlehem is mentioned as being adjacent to the village of Geruth-kimham, where Jews fleeing from the Babylonians stayed en route to Egypt (Jer 41:17). People from Bethlehem were among those returning from the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:21; Neh 7:26; 1 Esd 5:17).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus was born there, Bethlehem was only a village (Mt 2:1-16; Lk 2:4-6, 15; Jn 7:42). Under the census decree of Caesar Augustus, Joseph had to go to Bethlehem “because he was of the house and lineage of David” (Lk 2:4). The family may still have had property there. The birth of Jesus possibly took place in a cave in the rocks outside the town. The early Christian writer Justin Martyr thought so, as did Origen some years later. Origen frequently resided in the Holy Land and wrote, “In Bethlehem you are shown the cave where he was born, and within the cave the manger where he was wrapped in swaddling clothes.”<\/p>\n<p>Jerome later described the grotto over which the Emperor Constantine had built a basilica. In excavations in 1934–35, evidence indicated a second period of building in the reign of Justinian (<span>AD<\/span> 527–565), when Constantine’s basilica was extended beyond its original proportions. Steps lead down to the grotto, the rectangular shape of which suggests that Constantine’s builders reshaped the original. But there is no description of the grotto prior to the construction of Constantine’s basilica.<\/p>\n<li>2. Town in Zebulun (Jos 19:15), probably the home of the judge Ibzan (Jgs 12:8-10), an early ruler of Israel. It is identified today with the village of Beit Lahm, some seven miles (11.3 kilometers) northwest of Nazareth.<\/li>","summary_ro":"BETHLEHEM 1. “City of David” and the birthplace of Jesus Christ, five miles (8 kilometers) south of Jerusalem. This city is sometimes called Bethlehem-judah (kjv) or Ephrath (Gn 35:19; Mi 5:2) to distinguish it from the Bethlehem of Zebulun. As an early Canaanite settlement, it was associated with the patriarchs, for Rachel died and was buried in its vicinity (Gn 35:16, 19; 48:7). The earliest known historical reference to Bethlehem occurs in the Amarna texts (14th century BC) in which battle...","summary_en":"BETHLEHEM 1. “City of David” and the birthplace of Jesus Christ, five miles (8 kilometers) south of Jerusalem. This city is sometimes called Bethlehem-judah (kjv) or Ephrath (Gn 35:19; Mi 5:2) to distinguish it from the Bethlehem of Zebulun. As an early Canaanite settlement, it was associated with the patriarchs, for Rachel died and was buried in its vicinity (Gn 35:16, 19; 48:7). The earliest known historical reference to Bethlehem occurs in the Amarna texts (14th century BC) in which battle...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13752,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gibbar","title_en":"Gibbar","content_ro":"<h3>GIBBAR<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of a family that returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:20). The parallel list in Nehemiah 7:25 reads “sons of Gibeon,” suggesting that “Gibbar” may be a textual corruption. Some support for this view lies in the fact that Ezra 2:21 begins listing descendants by their home city rather than by family.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GIBBAR<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of a family that returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:20). The parallel list in Nehemiah 7:25 reads “sons of Gibeon,” suggesting that “Gibbar” may be a textual corruption. Some support for this view lies in the fact that Ezra 2:21 begins listing descendants by their home city rather than by family.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GIBBAR Forefather of a family that returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:20). The parallel list in Nehemiah 7:25 reads “sons of Gibeon,” suggesting that “Gibbar” may be a textual corruption. Some support for this view lies in the fact that Ezra 2:21 begins listing descendants by their home city rather than by family.","summary_en":"GIBBAR Forefather of a family that returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:20). The parallel list in Nehemiah 7:25 reads “sons of Gibeon,” suggesting that “Gibbar” may be a textual corruption. Some support for this view lies in the fact that Ezra 2:21 begins listing descendants by their home city rather than by family.","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":47994,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:21","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:21-35<\/strong> <em>The people of . . . The citizens of:<\/em> Some of the returnees were identified by their towns of origin. Apparently, not all knew their genealogical histories or had large families with renowned leaders. Most of the cities mentioned were concentrated in a relatively small area in the vicinity of Jerusalem.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:21-35<\/strong> <em>The people of . . . The citizens of:<\/em> Some of the returnees were identified by their towns of origin. Apparently, not all knew their genealogical histories or had large families with renowned leaders. Most of the cities mentioned were concentrated in a relatively small area in the vicinity of Jerusalem.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:21-35 The people of . . . The citizens of: Some of the returnees were identified by their towns of origin. Apparently, not all knew their genealogical histories or had large families with renowned leaders. Most of the cities mentioned were concentrated in a relatively small area in the vicinity of Jerusalem.","summary_en":"2:21-35 The people of . . . The citizens of: Some of the returnees were identified by their towns of origin. Apparently, not all knew their genealogical histories or had large families with renowned leaders. Most of the cities mentioned were concentrated in a relatively small area in the vicinity of Jerusalem.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75620,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:21","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:21-35<\/strong> <em>The people of . . . The citizens of:<\/em> Some of the returnees were identified by their towns of origin. Apparently, not all knew their genealogical histories or had large families with renowned leaders. Most of the cities mentioned were concentrated in a relatively small area in the vicinity of Jerusalem.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:21-35<\/strong> <em>The people of . . . The citizens of:<\/em> Some of the returnees were identified by their towns of origin. Apparently, not all knew their genealogical histories or had large families with renowned leaders. Most of the cities mentioned were concentrated in a relatively small area in the vicinity of Jerusalem.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:21-35 The people of . . . The citizens of: Some of the returnees were identified by their towns of origin. Apparently, not all knew their genealogical histories or had large families with renowned leaders. Most of the cities mentioned were concentrated in a relatively small area in the vicinity of Jerusalem.","summary_en":"2:21-35 The people of . . . The citizens of: Some of the returnees were identified by their towns of origin. Apparently, not all knew their genealogical histories or had large families with renowned leaders. Most of the cities mentioned were concentrated in a relatively small area in the vicinity of Jerusalem.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103246,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:21","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:21-35<\/strong> <em>The people of . . . The citizens of:<\/em> Some of the returnees were identified by their towns of origin. Apparently, not all knew their genealogical histories or had large families with renowned leaders. Most of the cities mentioned were concentrated in a relatively small area in the vicinity of Jerusalem.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:21-35<\/strong> <em>The people of . . . The citizens of:<\/em> Some of the returnees were identified by their towns of origin. Apparently, not all knew their genealogical histories or had large families with renowned leaders. Most of the cities mentioned were concentrated in a relatively small area in the vicinity of Jerusalem.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:21-35 The people of . . . The citizens of: Some of the returnees were identified by their towns of origin. Apparently, not all knew their genealogical histories or had large families with renowned leaders. Most of the cities mentioned were concentrated in a relatively small area in the vicinity of Jerusalem.","summary_en":"2:21-35 The people of . . . The citizens of: Some of the returnees were identified by their towns of origin. Apparently, not all knew their genealogical histories or had large families with renowned leaders. Most of the cities mentioned were concentrated in a relatively small area in the vicinity of Jerusalem.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":130872,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:21","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:21-35<\/strong> <em>The people of . . . The citizens of:<\/em> Some of the returnees were identified by their towns of origin. Apparently, not all knew their genealogical histories or had large families with renowned leaders. Most of the cities mentioned were concentrated in a relatively small area in the vicinity of Jerusalem.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:21-35<\/strong> <em>The people of . . . The citizens of:<\/em> Some of the returnees were identified by their towns of origin. Apparently, not all knew their genealogical histories or had large families with renowned leaders. Most of the cities mentioned were concentrated in a relatively small area in the vicinity of Jerusalem.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:21-35 The people of . . . The citizens of: Some of the returnees were identified by their towns of origin. Apparently, not all knew their genealogical histories or had large families with renowned leaders. Most of the cities mentioned were concentrated in a relatively small area in the vicinity of Jerusalem.","summary_en":"2:21-35 The people of . . . The citizens of: Some of the returnees were identified by their towns of origin. Apparently, not all knew their genealogical histories or had large families with renowned leaders. Most of the cities mentioned were concentrated in a relatively small area in the vicinity of Jerusalem.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"22":[{"id":27387,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Netophathite Netophah","title_en":"Netophathite Netophah","content_ro":"<h3>NETOPHAH, NETOPHATHITE<\/h3>\n<p>Home and designation for two of David’s thirty mighty men (2 Sm 23:28-29; 1 Chr 11:30; 27:13-15). Seraiah, one of the captains who came to Gedaliah, the governor in Jerusalem after its fall to Babylon in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, was a Netophathite (2 Kgs 25:23; Jer 40:8). Fifty-six men of Netophah are mentioned as among the exiles who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel and Joshua (Ezr 2:22).<\/p>\n<p>First Chronicles 9:16 speaks of Levites who lived in the villages of Netophathites, while Nehemiah 12:28 says that temple singers were gathered from the villages surrounding Jerusalem and from the villages of the Netophathites. Both of these references suggest that Netophah was the name of a district and not just of a town.<\/p>\n<p>The linking of Netophah with Bethlehem (see 1 Chr 2:54; Neh 7:26) indicates that it was in that vicinity. The actual site of Netophah is not known; however, the most probable location is the modern Khirbet Bedd Faluh, three miles (4.8 kilometers) southeast of Bethlehem.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NETOPHAH, NETOPHATHITE<\/h3>\n<p>Home and designation for two of David’s thirty mighty men (2 Sm 23:28-29; 1 Chr 11:30; 27:13-15). Seraiah, one of the captains who came to Gedaliah, the governor in Jerusalem after its fall to Babylon in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, was a Netophathite (2 Kgs 25:23; Jer 40:8). Fifty-six men of Netophah are mentioned as among the exiles who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel and Joshua (Ezr 2:22).<\/p>\n<p>First Chronicles 9:16 speaks of Levites who lived in the villages of Netophathites, while Nehemiah 12:28 says that temple singers were gathered from the villages surrounding Jerusalem and from the villages of the Netophathites. Both of these references suggest that Netophah was the name of a district and not just of a town.<\/p>\n<p>The linking of Netophah with Bethlehem (see 1 Chr 2:54; Neh 7:26) indicates that it was in that vicinity. The actual site of Netophah is not known; however, the most probable location is the modern Khirbet Bedd Faluh, three miles (4.8 kilometers) southeast of Bethlehem.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NETOPHAH, NETOPHATHITE Home and designation for two of David’s thirty mighty men (2 Sm 23:28-29; 1 Chr 11:30; 27:13-15). Seraiah, one of the captains who came to Gedaliah, the governor in Jerusalem after its fall to Babylon in 586 BC, was a Netophathite (2 Kgs 25:23; Jer 40:8). Fifty-six men of Netophah are mentioned as among the exiles who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel and Joshua (Ezr 2:22). First Chronicles 9:16 speaks of Levites who lived in the villages of Netophathites, while Neh...","summary_en":"NETOPHAH, NETOPHATHITE Home and designation for two of David’s thirty mighty men (2 Sm 23:28-29; 1 Chr 11:30; 27:13-15). Seraiah, one of the captains who came to Gedaliah, the governor in Jerusalem after its fall to Babylon in 586 BC, was a Netophathite (2 Kgs 25:23; Jer 40:8). Fifty-six men of Netophah are mentioned as among the exiles who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel and Joshua (Ezr 2:22). First Chronicles 9:16 speaks of Levites who lived in the villages of Netophathites, while Neh...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"24":[{"id":3327,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Azmaveth (Place)","title_en":"Azmaveth (Place)","content_ro":"<h3>AZMAVETH (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Town near Anathoth. Forty-two men from the town returned from the Babylonian exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:24; “Beth-azmaveth,” Neh 7:28). Later, Azmaveth supplied singers to help celebrate the dedication of the rebuilt wall of Jerusalem (Neh 12:29). It has been identified as Hizmeh, a site five miles (8 kilometers) north of Jerusalem.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AZMAVETH (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Town near Anathoth. Forty-two men from the town returned from the Babylonian exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:24; “Beth-azmaveth,” Neh 7:28). Later, Azmaveth supplied singers to help celebrate the dedication of the rebuilt wall of Jerusalem (Neh 12:29). It has been identified as Hizmeh, a site five miles (8 kilometers) north of Jerusalem.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AZMAVETH (Place) Town near Anathoth. Forty-two men from the town returned from the Babylonian exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:24; “Beth-azmaveth,” Neh 7:28). Later, Azmaveth supplied singers to help celebrate the dedication of the rebuilt wall of Jerusalem (Neh 12:29). It has been identified as Hizmeh, a site five miles (8 kilometers) north of Jerusalem.","summary_en":"AZMAVETH (Place) Town near Anathoth. Forty-two men from the town returned from the Babylonian exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:24; “Beth-azmaveth,” Neh 7:28). Later, Azmaveth supplied singers to help celebrate the dedication of the rebuilt wall of Jerusalem (Neh 12:29). It has been identified as Hizmeh, a site five miles (8 kilometers) north of Jerusalem.","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"25":[{"id":1303,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ammidians","title_en":"Ammidians","content_ro":"<h3>AMMIDIANS<\/h3>\n<p>Name used in a list of towns identifying groups of exiles that returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel around 538 <span>BC<\/span> (1 Esd 5:20). Corresponding lists in Ezra 2:25-26 and Nehemiah 7:29-30 make no mention of a group from such a place.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AMMIDIANS<\/h3>\n<p>Name used in a list of towns identifying groups of exiles that returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel around 538 <span>BC<\/span> (1 Esd 5:20). Corresponding lists in Ezra 2:25-26 and Nehemiah 7:29-30 make no mention of a group from such a place.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AMMIDIANS Name used in a list of towns identifying groups of exiles that returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel around 538 BC (1 Esd 5:20). Corresponding lists in Ezra 2:25-26 and Nehemiah 7:29-30 make no mention of a group from such a place.","summary_en":"AMMIDIANS Name used in a list of towns identifying groups of exiles that returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel around 538 BC (1 Esd 5:20). Corresponding lists in Ezra 2:25-26 and Nehemiah 7:29-30 make no mention of a group from such a place.","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":4118,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Beeroth","title_en":"Beeroth","content_ro":"<h3>BEEROTH<\/h3>\n<p>One of four Hivite cities that secured Joshua’s promise not to destroy them when the Israelites marched into Canaan (Jos 9:17). Beeroth was later identified as a city in Benjamin’s territory (Jos 18:25; 2 Sm 4:2-3). It was the home of Rechab and Baanah, assassins of King Ishbosheth (2 Sm 4:2-9), and of Naharai, Joab’s armor bearer (2 Sm 23:37; 1 Chr 11:39). The city was repopulated after the exile (Ezr 2:25; Neh 7:29). El Bireh near Ramallah and Nebi Samwil north of Jerusalem have both been suggested as possible locations for Beeroth.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BEEROTH<\/h3>\n<p>One of four Hivite cities that secured Joshua’s promise not to destroy them when the Israelites marched into Canaan (Jos 9:17). Beeroth was later identified as a city in Benjamin’s territory (Jos 18:25; 2 Sm 4:2-3). It was the home of Rechab and Baanah, assassins of King Ishbosheth (2 Sm 4:2-9), and of Naharai, Joab’s armor bearer (2 Sm 23:37; 1 Chr 11:39). The city was repopulated after the exile (Ezr 2:25; Neh 7:29). El Bireh near Ramallah and Nebi Samwil north of Jerusalem have both been suggested as possible locations for Beeroth.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BEEROTH One of four Hivite cities that secured Joshua’s promise not to destroy them when the Israelites marched into Canaan (Jos 9:17). Beeroth was later identified as a city in Benjamin’s territory (Jos 18:25; 2 Sm 4:2-3). It was the home of Rechab and Baanah, assassins of King Ishbosheth (2 Sm 4:2-9), and of Naharai, Joab’s armor bearer (2 Sm 23:37; 1 Chr 11:39). The city was repopulated after the exile (Ezr 2:25; Neh 7:29). El Bireh near Ramallah and Nebi Samwil north of Jerusalem have bot...","summary_en":"BEEROTH One of four Hivite cities that secured Joshua’s promise not to destroy them when the Israelites marched into Canaan (Jos 9:17). Beeroth was later identified as a city in Benjamin’s territory (Jos 18:25; 2 Sm 4:2-3). It was the home of Rechab and Baanah, assassins of King Ishbosheth (2 Sm 4:2-9), and of Naharai, Joab’s armor bearer (2 Sm 23:37; 1 Chr 11:39). The city was repopulated after the exile (Ezr 2:25; Neh 7:29). El Bireh near Ramallah and Nebi Samwil north of Jerusalem have bot...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21616,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kephirah","title_en":"Kephirah","content_ro":"<h3>KEPHIRAH<\/h3>\n<p>Hivite city included in a treaty with Joshua that the Gibeonites secured by deception (Jos 9:17). When the Israelites conquered the land of Canaan, Kephirah became the property of Benjamin’s tribe (18:26). Many inhabitants of this city came back to Judea with the repatriates after the exile (Ezr 2:25; Neh 7:29). The site is now identified as Khirbet Kefireh, located southwest of ancient Gibeon.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KEPHIRAH<\/h3>\n<p>Hivite city included in a treaty with Joshua that the Gibeonites secured by deception (Jos 9:17). When the Israelites conquered the land of Canaan, Kephirah became the property of Benjamin’s tribe (18:26). Many inhabitants of this city came back to Judea with the repatriates after the exile (Ezr 2:25; Neh 7:29). The site is now identified as Khirbet Kefireh, located southwest of ancient Gibeon.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KEPHIRAH Hivite city included in a treaty with Joshua that the Gibeonites secured by deception (Jos 9:17). When the Israelites conquered the land of Canaan, Kephirah became the property of Benjamin’s tribe (18:26). Many inhabitants of this city came back to Judea with the repatriates after the exile (Ezr 2:25; Neh 7:29). The site is now identified as Khirbet Kefireh, located southwest of ancient Gibeon.","summary_en":"KEPHIRAH Hivite city included in a treaty with Joshua that the Gibeonites secured by deception (Jos 9:17). When the Israelites conquered the land of Canaan, Kephirah became the property of Benjamin’s tribe (18:26). Many inhabitants of this city came back to Judea with the repatriates after the exile (Ezr 2:25; Neh 7:29). The site is now identified as Khirbet Kefireh, located southwest of ancient Gibeon.","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22156,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kiriath-Arim*","title_en":"Kiriath-Arim*","content_ro":"<h3>KIRIATH-ARIM*<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate name for Kiriath-jearim in Ezra 2:25 (<span>nlt<\/span> mg). <em>See<\/em> Kiriath-jearim.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KIRIATH-ARIM*<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate name for Kiriath-jearim in Ezra 2:25 (<span>nlt<\/span> mg). <em>See<\/em> Kiriath-jearim.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KIRIATH-ARIM* Alternate name for Kiriath-jearim in Ezra 2:25 (nlt mg). See Kiriath-jearim.","summary_en":"KIRIATH-ARIM* Alternate name for Kiriath-jearim in Ezra 2:25 (nlt mg). See Kiriath-jearim.","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22168,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kiriath-Jearim","title_en":"Kiriath-Jearim","content_ro":"<h3>KIRIATH-JEARIM<\/h3>\n<p>Village on the road from Jerusalem to Tel Aviv, about 10 miles (16 kilometers) northwest of Jerusalem. Excavations by the French revealed a settlement 7,000 years old in which the residents changed from grazing to farming. Its modern name is Abu Ghosh, so named after a family of Arab sheiks who robbed pilgrims en route to Jerusalem until Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt terminated the practice early in the 19th century. The Crusaders mistakenly identified this village as Emmaus, where Jesus revealed himself to two people after his resurrection (Lk 24:13). Because of this, they built a church there (in the 12th century). The massive walls of the church were built over the remains of a Roman fort where Titus had stationed his veterans of the Jewish Revolt. The large crypt under the church contains a spring, mentioned in memoirs of the First Crusade as the “Emmaus Spring.”<\/p>\n<p>In the time of the judges this village was one of the four cities of the Gibeonites who, under false pretenses, made a mutual defense pact with Joshua and the elders of Israel (Jos 9:3-27). Because it was on the border between Judah and Benjamin, it was integrated into the tribe of Judah (15:9; 18:14). During the time of Samuel, after the Philistines captured the ark (1 Sm 4:11) and found its possession to be dangerous, they were advised to return it to Israel. This they did; the ark arrived in Beth-shemesh, where 70 men who peered into it perished. Because of the danger its presence presented, it was sent on to Kiriath-jearim, where it remained in the house of Abinadab (1 Sm 7:1) for 20 years. One of King David’s first official acts after arriving in Jerusalem was to bring the ark from Baalah (Kiriath-jearim) to Obed-edom’s house, then on to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6).<\/p>\n<p>Uriah the prophet, who condemned the reign of King Jehoiakim and was later executed (Jer 26:20-23), was a native of Kiriath-jearim. Among the returnees from the exile were citizens originally from Kiriath-jearim (Ezr 2:25; Neh 7:29).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KIRIATH-JEARIM<\/h3>\n<p>Village on the road from Jerusalem to Tel Aviv, about 10 miles (16 kilometers) northwest of Jerusalem. Excavations by the French revealed a settlement 7,000 years old in which the residents changed from grazing to farming. Its modern name is Abu Ghosh, so named after a family of Arab sheiks who robbed pilgrims en route to Jerusalem until Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt terminated the practice early in the 19th century. The Crusaders mistakenly identified this village as Emmaus, where Jesus revealed himself to two people after his resurrection (Lk 24:13). Because of this, they built a church there (in the 12th century). The massive walls of the church were built over the remains of a Roman fort where Titus had stationed his veterans of the Jewish Revolt. The large crypt under the church contains a spring, mentioned in memoirs of the First Crusade as the “Emmaus Spring.”<\/p>\n<p>In the time of the judges this village was one of the four cities of the Gibeonites who, under false pretenses, made a mutual defense pact with Joshua and the elders of Israel (Jos 9:3-27). Because it was on the border between Judah and Benjamin, it was integrated into the tribe of Judah (15:9; 18:14). During the time of Samuel, after the Philistines captured the ark (1 Sm 4:11) and found its possession to be dangerous, they were advised to return it to Israel. This they did; the ark arrived in Beth-shemesh, where 70 men who peered into it perished. Because of the danger its presence presented, it was sent on to Kiriath-jearim, where it remained in the house of Abinadab (1 Sm 7:1) for 20 years. One of King David’s first official acts after arriving in Jerusalem was to bring the ark from Baalah (Kiriath-jearim) to Obed-edom’s house, then on to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6).<\/p>\n<p>Uriah the prophet, who condemned the reign of King Jehoiakim and was later executed (Jer 26:20-23), was a native of Kiriath-jearim. Among the returnees from the exile were citizens originally from Kiriath-jearim (Ezr 2:25; Neh 7:29).<\/p>","summary_ro":"KIRIATH-JEARIM Village on the road from Jerusalem to Tel Aviv, about 10 miles (16 kilometers) northwest of Jerusalem. Excavations by the French revealed a settlement 7,000 years old in which the residents changed from grazing to farming. Its modern name is Abu Ghosh, so named after a family of Arab sheiks who robbed pilgrims en route to Jerusalem until Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt terminated the practice early in the 19th century. The Crusaders mistakenly identified this village as Emmaus, where Je...","summary_en":"KIRIATH-JEARIM Village on the road from Jerusalem to Tel Aviv, about 10 miles (16 kilometers) northwest of Jerusalem. Excavations by the French revealed a settlement 7,000 years old in which the residents changed from grazing to farming. Its modern name is Abu Ghosh, so named after a family of Arab sheiks who robbed pilgrims en route to Jerusalem until Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt terminated the practice early in the 19th century. The Crusaders mistakenly identified this village as Emmaus, where Je...","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22177,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kirjath-Arim*","title_en":"Kirjath-Arim*","content_ro":"<h3>KIRJATH-ARIM*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV form of Kiriatharim, an alternate name for Kiriath-jearim, in Ezra 2:25. <em>See<\/em> Kiriath-jearim.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KIRJATH-ARIM*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV form of Kiriatharim, an alternate name for Kiriath-jearim, in Ezra 2:25. <em>See<\/em> Kiriath-jearim.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KIRJATH-ARIM* KJV form of Kiriatharim, an alternate name for Kiriath-jearim, in Ezra 2:25. See Kiriath-jearim.","summary_en":"KIRJATH-ARIM* KJV form of Kiriatharim, an alternate name for Kiriath-jearim, in Ezra 2:25. See Kiriath-jearim.","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"26":[{"id":12999,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gaba*","title_en":"Gaba*","content_ro":"<h3>GABA*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV spelling of the Benjamite city, Geba, in Joshua 18:24, Ezra 2:26, and Nehemiah 7:30. <em>See<\/em> Geba.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GABA*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV spelling of the Benjamite city, Geba, in Joshua 18:24, Ezra 2:26, and Nehemiah 7:30. <em>See<\/em> Geba.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GABA* KJV spelling of the Benjamite city, Geba, in Joshua 18:24, Ezra 2:26, and Nehemiah 7:30. See Geba.","summary_en":"GABA* KJV spelling of the Benjamite city, Geba, in Joshua 18:24, Ezra 2:26, and Nehemiah 7:30. See Geba.","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13303,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Geba","title_en":"Geba","content_ro":"<h3>GEBA<\/h3>\n<p>Levitical city in the territory of Benjamin (Jos 18:24; 21:17), about seven miles (11.3 kilometers) northeast of Jerusalem and south of Michmash (1 Sm 14:5; Is 10:29). It is easily confused with Gibeah, the hometown of Saul, which is also in Benjamin, to the southwest of Geba. Both names mean “hill.” The phrase “from Geba to Beersheba” indicated the northern and southern extremities of Judah’s tribe (2 Kgs 23:8).<\/p>\n<p>In the time of Saul the Philistines had a garrison at Geba (1 Sm 10:5; 13:3). Jonathan defeated this outpost and stirred up the Philistines, who swarmed into Israel with an army vastly outnumbering the forces of Saul. Saul and his men were at Geba (13:16) and later approached Gibeah (14:2). The Philistines had set up a garrison at Michmash, just opposite Geba. Jonathan proposed to his armor bearer that they go over to this outpost and suggested that if the Philistines called to them to come over, that would be a sign that the Lord had given their enemy into their hand. The Philistines did just that, so the two Israelites approached and killed some 20 of the Philistines, putting the garrison and the entire army to rout. During the reign of David, another horde of Philistine invaders was struck down by him “from Geba to Gezer” (2 Sm 5:25).<\/p>\n<p>Men from Geba are mentioned among the Jews who returned from the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:26, <span>kjv<\/span> “Gaba”; Neh 11:31). At the dedication of the rebuilt Jerusalem wall, singers from the area of Geba participated (Neh 12:29).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GEBA<\/h3>\n<p>Levitical city in the territory of Benjamin (Jos 18:24; 21:17), about seven miles (11.3 kilometers) northeast of Jerusalem and south of Michmash (1 Sm 14:5; Is 10:29). It is easily confused with Gibeah, the hometown of Saul, which is also in Benjamin, to the southwest of Geba. Both names mean “hill.” The phrase “from Geba to Beersheba” indicated the northern and southern extremities of Judah’s tribe (2 Kgs 23:8).<\/p>\n<p>In the time of Saul the Philistines had a garrison at Geba (1 Sm 10:5; 13:3). Jonathan defeated this outpost and stirred up the Philistines, who swarmed into Israel with an army vastly outnumbering the forces of Saul. Saul and his men were at Geba (13:16) and later approached Gibeah (14:2). The Philistines had set up a garrison at Michmash, just opposite Geba. Jonathan proposed to his armor bearer that they go over to this outpost and suggested that if the Philistines called to them to come over, that would be a sign that the Lord had given their enemy into their hand. The Philistines did just that, so the two Israelites approached and killed some 20 of the Philistines, putting the garrison and the entire army to rout. During the reign of David, another horde of Philistine invaders was struck down by him “from Geba to Gezer” (2 Sm 5:25).<\/p>\n<p>Men from Geba are mentioned among the Jews who returned from the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:26, <span>kjv<\/span> “Gaba”; Neh 11:31). At the dedication of the rebuilt Jerusalem wall, singers from the area of Geba participated (Neh 12:29).<\/p>","summary_ro":"GEBA Levitical city in the territory of Benjamin (Jos 18:24; 21:17), about seven miles (11.3 kilometers) northeast of Jerusalem and south of Michmash (1 Sm 14:5; Is 10:29). It is easily confused with Gibeah, the hometown of Saul, which is also in Benjamin, to the southwest of Geba. Both names mean “hill.” The phrase “from Geba to Beersheba” indicated the northern and southern extremities of Judah’s tribe (2 Kgs 23:8). In the time of Saul the Philistines had a garrison at Geba (1 Sm 10:5; 13:3...","summary_en":"GEBA Levitical city in the territory of Benjamin (Jos 18:24; 21:17), about seven miles (11.3 kilometers) northeast of Jerusalem and south of Michmash (1 Sm 14:5; Is 10:29). It is easily confused with Gibeah, the hometown of Saul, which is also in Benjamin, to the southwest of Geba. Both names mean “hill.” The phrase “from Geba to Beersheba” indicated the northern and southern extremities of Judah’s tribe (2 Kgs 23:8). In the time of Saul the Philistines had a garrison at Geba (1 Sm 10:5; 13:3...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32363,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ramah","title_en":"Ramah","content_ro":"<h3>RAMAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of the cities located in the territory allotted to Benjamin’s tribe for an inheritance, listed between Gibeon and Beeroth (Jos 18:25). In the proximity of this town, Rachel, Jacob’s wife, was buried (Mt 2:18; cf. Gn 35:16-21; Jer 31:15). Ramah, positioned near Bethel, was the place where Deborah judged Israel (Jgs 4:5). This city was a temporary resting place for a Levite and his concubine traveling north from Bethlehem (19:13).<\/li>\n<p>During the period of the divided kingdom (930– 722 <span>BC<\/span>), King Baasha of Israel (908–886 <span>BC<\/span>) fortified Ramah. From Ramah, Baasha was able to prevent an invasion of King Asa’s (910–869 <span>BC<\/span>) Judean army. Baasha later abandoned the city and hurried his army north to repulse a Syrian offensive led by King Ben-hadad I (c. 885 <span>BC<\/span>). Asa dismantled Ramah’s military fortifications, using the material to build the towns of Geba and Mizpah (1 Kgs 15:17-22; 2 Chr 16:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The cities of Geba, Ramah, and Gibeah formed the route taken by the Assyrian army during Sennacherib’s military incursion into Judah (c. 701 <span>BC<\/span>) against King Hezekiah and Jerusalem (Is 10:29). Later King Nebuchadnezzar used Ramah as a place of detainment for the Jews being deported to Babylon. Here Nebuzaradan, the captain of the guard, released Jeremiah from among the captives (Jer 40:1).<\/p>\n<p>Following the Babylonian captivity, inhabitants of Ramah returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine and rebuilt this city (Ezr 2:26; Neh 7:30). Some suggest that the postexilic town of Ramah was another Benjaminite town located farther west near the coastal plain (Neh 11:33). The site of Ramah is identified with the modern village of er-Ram, five miles (8 kilometers) north of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<li>2. City in the Negev marking the southern extremity of the territory allotted to the tribe of Simeon within Judah’s inheritance (Jos 19:8); also called Ramoth of the Negev (1 Sm 30:27) and Baalath-beer (Jos 19:8; cf. 1 Chr 4:33). <em>See<\/em> Baalath-beer.<\/li>\n<li>3. Town defining the boundary of the territory assigned to Asher’s tribe for an inheritance, mentioned between Sidon and Tyre (Jos 19:29).<\/li>\n<li>4. One of 19 fortified cities given to Naphtali’s tribe for a possession, mentioned between Adamah and Hazor (Jos 19:36). Its location is identifiable with the modern town of er-Rameh, about 11 miles (17.7 kilometers) northwest of the Sea of Galilee.<\/li>\n<li>5. Home of Samuel’s parents, Elkanah and Hannah; the birthplace of Samuel (1 Sm 1:19; 2:11); and later his home (7:17; 16:13). Samuel judged Israel from Ramah, Bethel, Gilgal, and Mizpah (7:17). Saul first met Samuel at this city (9:6-10). Here the elders of Israel petitioned Samuel to appoint a king for them (8:4), and later this city provided David a place of refuge from King Saul (19:18–20:1). Samuel was buried at Ramah (25:1; 28:3). Ramah is alternately called Ramathaim-zophim in 1 Samuel 1:1.<\/li>\n<li>6. Abbreviated name for Ramoth-gilead (2 Kgs 8:29; 2 Chr 22:6). <em>See<\/em> Ramoth-gilead.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>RAMAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of the cities located in the territory allotted to Benjamin’s tribe for an inheritance, listed between Gibeon and Beeroth (Jos 18:25). In the proximity of this town, Rachel, Jacob’s wife, was buried (Mt 2:18; cf. Gn 35:16-21; Jer 31:15). Ramah, positioned near Bethel, was the place where Deborah judged Israel (Jgs 4:5). This city was a temporary resting place for a Levite and his concubine traveling north from Bethlehem (19:13).<\/li>\n<p>During the period of the divided kingdom (930– 722 <span>BC<\/span>), King Baasha of Israel (908–886 <span>BC<\/span>) fortified Ramah. From Ramah, Baasha was able to prevent an invasion of King Asa’s (910–869 <span>BC<\/span>) Judean army. Baasha later abandoned the city and hurried his army north to repulse a Syrian offensive led by King Ben-hadad I (c. 885 <span>BC<\/span>). Asa dismantled Ramah’s military fortifications, using the material to build the towns of Geba and Mizpah (1 Kgs 15:17-22; 2 Chr 16:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The cities of Geba, Ramah, and Gibeah formed the route taken by the Assyrian army during Sennacherib’s military incursion into Judah (c. 701 <span>BC<\/span>) against King Hezekiah and Jerusalem (Is 10:29). Later King Nebuchadnezzar used Ramah as a place of detainment for the Jews being deported to Babylon. Here Nebuzaradan, the captain of the guard, released Jeremiah from among the captives (Jer 40:1).<\/p>\n<p>Following the Babylonian captivity, inhabitants of Ramah returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine and rebuilt this city (Ezr 2:26; Neh 7:30). Some suggest that the postexilic town of Ramah was another Benjaminite town located farther west near the coastal plain (Neh 11:33). The site of Ramah is identified with the modern village of er-Ram, five miles (8 kilometers) north of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<li>2. City in the Negev marking the southern extremity of the territory allotted to the tribe of Simeon within Judah’s inheritance (Jos 19:8); also called Ramoth of the Negev (1 Sm 30:27) and Baalath-beer (Jos 19:8; cf. 1 Chr 4:33). <em>See<\/em> Baalath-beer.<\/li>\n<li>3. Town defining the boundary of the territory assigned to Asher’s tribe for an inheritance, mentioned between Sidon and Tyre (Jos 19:29).<\/li>\n<li>4. One of 19 fortified cities given to Naphtali’s tribe for a possession, mentioned between Adamah and Hazor (Jos 19:36). Its location is identifiable with the modern town of er-Rameh, about 11 miles (17.7 kilometers) northwest of the Sea of Galilee.<\/li>\n<li>5. Home of Samuel’s parents, Elkanah and Hannah; the birthplace of Samuel (1 Sm 1:19; 2:11); and later his home (7:17; 16:13). Samuel judged Israel from Ramah, Bethel, Gilgal, and Mizpah (7:17). Saul first met Samuel at this city (9:6-10). Here the elders of Israel petitioned Samuel to appoint a king for them (8:4), and later this city provided David a place of refuge from King Saul (19:18–20:1). Samuel was buried at Ramah (25:1; 28:3). Ramah is alternately called Ramathaim-zophim in 1 Samuel 1:1.<\/li>\n<li>6. Abbreviated name for Ramoth-gilead (2 Kgs 8:29; 2 Chr 22:6). <em>See<\/em> Ramoth-gilead.<\/li>","summary_ro":"RAMAH 1. One of the cities located in the territory allotted to Benjamin’s tribe for an inheritance, listed between Gibeon and Beeroth (Jos 18:25). In the proximity of this town, Rachel, Jacob’s wife, was buried (Mt 2:18; cf. Gn 35:16-21; Jer 31:15). Ramah, positioned near Bethel, was the place where Deborah judged Israel (Jgs 4:5). This city was a temporary resting place for a Levite and his concubine traveling north from Bethlehem (19:13). During the period of the divided kingdom (930– 722 ...","summary_en":"RAMAH 1. One of the cities located in the territory allotted to Benjamin’s tribe for an inheritance, listed between Gibeon and Beeroth (Jos 18:25). In the proximity of this town, Rachel, Jacob’s wife, was buried (Mt 2:18; cf. Gn 35:16-21; Jer 31:15). Ramah, positioned near Bethel, was the place where Deborah judged Israel (Jgs 4:5). This city was a temporary resting place for a Levite and his concubine traveling north from Bethlehem (19:13). During the period of the divided kingdom (930– 722 ...","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"28":[{"id":4457,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bethelite* Bethel (Place)","title_en":"Bethelite*, Bethel (Place)","content_ro":"<h3>BETHEL (P<span>lace<\/span>), BETHELITE*<\/h3>\n<li>1. Important OT city located about 11 miles (17.7 kilometers) north of Jerusalem on the north-south ridge road at the tribal borders of Benjamin and Ephraim (Jos 16:1-2; 18:13). Hiel, a resident of the city, is referred to as a Bethelite in 1 Kings 16:34 (<span>kjv<\/span>). As a trading center, Bethel attracted merchandise both from the Mediterranean coast and from Transjordan via Jericho. Although the site was located in dry hill country, several springs supplied ample water for its inhabitants (the oldest artifact recovered from the site is a water jar dating from about 3500 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/li>\n<p>The name of Bethel, meaning “house of El (god),” may have been used as early as the fourth millennium <span>BC<\/span> by Canaanites in the area. Archaeological excavations at Chalcolithic levels (i.e., between the Stone Age and the Bronze Age) indicate that pagan worship of the Canaanite deity El took place on top of the hill at that early period. The patriarch Jacob named the place Bethel, or gave the old name new significance, after having a dream from God there (Gn 28:10-22). The site was said to be known as Bethel to the patriarch Abraham (12:8); that designation, however, could be a scribal updating of a more ancient local name, since Bethel had earlier been known as Luz (28:19). Possibly the sanctuary was known as Bethel, the nearby settlement as Luz. No doubt the name Bethel was firmly established by the beginning of the intermediate Bronze Age (c. 2200 <span>BC<\/span>) and remained throughout its history. An OT passage mentioning both names records that a man from Luz founded another city of that name in Hittite territory (Jgs 1:26).<\/p>\n<p>Although Bethel was assigned to Benjamin’s tribe, Ephraim’s tribe actually captured Bethel from its Canaanite fortress in their own territory (Jgs 1:22-26; 1 Chr 7:28). Under the judges, the ark of the covenant was located at Bethel, where the normal functions of Israelite worship were carried out; the ark was superintended by the high priest Phinehas, son of Eleazar (Jgs 20:18-28; 21:2-4). There is no archaeological evidence of Philistine occupation of Bethel in the time of the judges; in the days of King Saul it was bypassed when other Israelite centers were being attacked (cf. 1 Sm 12–14). Archaeological discoveries indicate that Bethel flourished in the early reign of Saul but declined when he made Gibeah his capital city.<\/p>\n<p>When Israel and Judah became separate entities in the time of Jeroboam I (930–909 <span>BC<\/span>), Bethel returned to prominence as the capital of the northern kingdom of Israel, thus becoming the counterpart of Judah’s capital, Jerusalem. Bethel was one of two northern cities where golden calves were worshiped (1 Kgs 12:28-33); the sanctuary area for that cultic practice has not been discovered. The city was the home of an elderly prophet (13:11) who may have been connected with the prophetic colony existing there in the time of Elijah and Elisha (2 Kgs 2:2-3). During the reign of Judah’s King Abijah (913–910 <span>BC<\/span>), Bethel fell under Judah’s control (2 Chr 13:19) but later was returned to Israel. The prophet Amos went to Bethel to deliver scathing denunciations about contemporary social and religious life in Israel, for which the priest Amaziah had him expelled (Am 7:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>There is no archaeological evidence that Bethel was destroyed during the Assyrian conquest of Israel (722 <span>BC<\/span>). In fact, one of its deported priests was returned to Bethel to instruct Mesopotamian colonists in the ways of the Lord (2 Kgs 17:28). Under Judah’s King Josiah, the pagan shrine was demolished (23:15-20), but no damage was done to the city itself. Under either Nabonidus (555–539 <span>BC<\/span>) or Darius I (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>), however, the city was burned, so that by Ezra’s time Bethel had reverted to a small village settlement (Ezr 2:28).<\/p>\n<li>2. Alternate name for Bethuel, a town in Judah’s territory, in 1 Samuel 30:27. <em>See<\/em> Bethuel, Bethul (Place).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>BETHEL (P<span>lace<\/span>), BETHELITE*<\/h3>\n<li>1. Important OT city located about 11 miles (17.7 kilometers) north of Jerusalem on the north-south ridge road at the tribal borders of Benjamin and Ephraim (Jos 16:1-2; 18:13). Hiel, a resident of the city, is referred to as a Bethelite in 1 Kings 16:34 (<span>kjv<\/span>). As a trading center, Bethel attracted merchandise both from the Mediterranean coast and from Transjordan via Jericho. Although the site was located in dry hill country, several springs supplied ample water for its inhabitants (the oldest artifact recovered from the site is a water jar dating from about 3500 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/li>\n<p>The name of Bethel, meaning “house of El (god),” may have been used as early as the fourth millennium <span>BC<\/span> by Canaanites in the area. Archaeological excavations at Chalcolithic levels (i.e., between the Stone Age and the Bronze Age) indicate that pagan worship of the Canaanite deity El took place on top of the hill at that early period. The patriarch Jacob named the place Bethel, or gave the old name new significance, after having a dream from God there (Gn 28:10-22). The site was said to be known as Bethel to the patriarch Abraham (12:8); that designation, however, could be a scribal updating of a more ancient local name, since Bethel had earlier been known as Luz (28:19). Possibly the sanctuary was known as Bethel, the nearby settlement as Luz. No doubt the name Bethel was firmly established by the beginning of the intermediate Bronze Age (c. 2200 <span>BC<\/span>) and remained throughout its history. An OT passage mentioning both names records that a man from Luz founded another city of that name in Hittite territory (Jgs 1:26).<\/p>\n<p>Although Bethel was assigned to Benjamin’s tribe, Ephraim’s tribe actually captured Bethel from its Canaanite fortress in their own territory (Jgs 1:22-26; 1 Chr 7:28). Under the judges, the ark of the covenant was located at Bethel, where the normal functions of Israelite worship were carried out; the ark was superintended by the high priest Phinehas, son of Eleazar (Jgs 20:18-28; 21:2-4). There is no archaeological evidence of Philistine occupation of Bethel in the time of the judges; in the days of King Saul it was bypassed when other Israelite centers were being attacked (cf. 1 Sm 12–14). Archaeological discoveries indicate that Bethel flourished in the early reign of Saul but declined when he made Gibeah his capital city.<\/p>\n<p>When Israel and Judah became separate entities in the time of Jeroboam I (930–909 <span>BC<\/span>), Bethel returned to prominence as the capital of the northern kingdom of Israel, thus becoming the counterpart of Judah’s capital, Jerusalem. Bethel was one of two northern cities where golden calves were worshiped (1 Kgs 12:28-33); the sanctuary area for that cultic practice has not been discovered. The city was the home of an elderly prophet (13:11) who may have been connected with the prophetic colony existing there in the time of Elijah and Elisha (2 Kgs 2:2-3). During the reign of Judah’s King Abijah (913–910 <span>BC<\/span>), Bethel fell under Judah’s control (2 Chr 13:19) but later was returned to Israel. The prophet Amos went to Bethel to deliver scathing denunciations about contemporary social and religious life in Israel, for which the priest Amaziah had him expelled (Am 7:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>There is no archaeological evidence that Bethel was destroyed during the Assyrian conquest of Israel (722 <span>BC<\/span>). In fact, one of its deported priests was returned to Bethel to instruct Mesopotamian colonists in the ways of the Lord (2 Kgs 17:28). Under Judah’s King Josiah, the pagan shrine was demolished (23:15-20), but no damage was done to the city itself. Under either Nabonidus (555–539 <span>BC<\/span>) or Darius I (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>), however, the city was burned, so that by Ezra’s time Bethel had reverted to a small village settlement (Ezr 2:28).<\/p>\n<li>2. Alternate name for Bethuel, a town in Judah’s territory, in 1 Samuel 30:27. <em>See<\/em> Bethuel, Bethul (Place).<\/li>","summary_ro":"BETHEL (Place), BETHELITE* 1. Important OT city located about 11 miles (17.7 kilometers) north of Jerusalem on the north-south ridge road at the tribal borders of Benjamin and Ephraim (Jos 16:1-2; 18:13). Hiel, a resident of the city, is referred to as a Bethelite in 1 Kings 16:34 (kjv). As a trading center, Bethel attracted merchandise both from the Mediterranean coast and from Transjordan via Jericho. Although the site was located in dry hill country, several springs supplied ample water fo...","summary_en":"BETHEL (Place), BETHELITE* 1. Important OT city located about 11 miles (17.7 kilometers) north of Jerusalem on the north-south ridge road at the tribal borders of Benjamin and Ephraim (Jos 16:1-2; 18:13). Hiel, a resident of the city, is referred to as a Bethelite in 1 Kings 16:34 (kjv). As a trading center, Bethel attracted merchandise both from the Mediterranean coast and from Transjordan via Jericho. Although the site was located in dry hill country, several springs supplied ample water fo...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"29":[{"id":27139,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nebo (Person)","title_en":"Nebo (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>NEBO (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of 52 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:29; Neh 7:33), 7 of whom were encouraged by Ezra to divorce their foreign wives (Ezr 10:43). Some suggest that Nebo refers to a town in Benjamin’s tribe from which some inhabitants went into exile to Babylon.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEBO (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of 52 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:29; Neh 7:33), 7 of whom were encouraged by Ezra to divorce their foreign wives (Ezr 10:43). Some suggest that Nebo refers to a town in Benjamin’s tribe from which some inhabitants went into exile to Babylon.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEBO (Person) Forefather of 52 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:29; Neh 7:33), 7 of whom were encouraged by Ezra to divorce their foreign wives (Ezr 10:43). Some suggest that Nebo refers to a town in Benjamin’s tribe from which some inhabitants went into exile to Babylon.","summary_en":"NEBO (Person) Forefather of 52 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:29; Neh 7:33), 7 of whom were encouraged by Ezra to divorce their foreign wives (Ezr 10:43). Some suggest that Nebo refers to a town in Benjamin’s tribe from which some inhabitants went into exile to Babylon.","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"30":[{"id":23874,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Magbish","title_en":"Magbish","content_ro":"<h3>MAGBISH<\/h3>\n<p>Town reoccupied after the exile by 156 descendants of its former residents (Ezr 2:30).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MAGBISH<\/h3>\n<p>Town reoccupied after the exile by 156 descendants of its former residents (Ezr 2:30).<\/p>","summary_ro":"MAGBISH Town reoccupied after the exile by 156 descendants of its former residents (Ezr 2:30).","summary_en":"MAGBISH Town reoccupied after the exile by 156 descendants of its former residents (Ezr 2:30).","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"31":[{"id":10246,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Elam (Person)","title_en":"Elam (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>ELAM (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Firstborn son of Shem and a grandson of Noah (Gn 10:22; 1 Chr 1:17).<\/li>\n<li>2. Benjamite and the son of Shashak (1 Chr 8:24).<\/li>\n<li>3. Korahite Levite and the fifth son of Kore from the house of Asaph (1 Chr 26:3).<\/li>\n<li>4. Forefather of 1,254 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:7; Neh 7:12). Later, 71 members of Elam’s house accompanied Ezra back to Palestine during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 8:7). In postexilic Judah, Shecaniah, Elam’s descendant, urged Ezra to command the sons of Israel to divorce their foreign wives (10:2); a number from Elam’s house eventually did so (v 26).<\/li>\n<li>5. Another forefather of 1,254 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah (Ezr 2:31; Neh 7:34).<\/li>\n<li>6. One of the chiefs of Israel who set his seal on Ezra’s covenant (Neh 10:14).<\/li>\n<li>7. One of the priestly musicians who performed at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall (Neh 12:42).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ELAM (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Firstborn son of Shem and a grandson of Noah (Gn 10:22; 1 Chr 1:17).<\/li>\n<li>2. Benjamite and the son of Shashak (1 Chr 8:24).<\/li>\n<li>3. Korahite Levite and the fifth son of Kore from the house of Asaph (1 Chr 26:3).<\/li>\n<li>4. Forefather of 1,254 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:7; Neh 7:12). Later, 71 members of Elam’s house accompanied Ezra back to Palestine during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 8:7). In postexilic Judah, Shecaniah, Elam’s descendant, urged Ezra to command the sons of Israel to divorce their foreign wives (10:2); a number from Elam’s house eventually did so (v 26).<\/li>\n<li>5. Another forefather of 1,254 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah (Ezr 2:31; Neh 7:34).<\/li>\n<li>6. One of the chiefs of Israel who set his seal on Ezra’s covenant (Neh 10:14).<\/li>\n<li>7. One of the priestly musicians who performed at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall (Neh 12:42).<\/li>","summary_ro":"ELAM (Person) 1. Firstborn son of Shem and a grandson of Noah (Gn 10:22; 1 Chr 1:17). 2. Benjamite and the son of Shashak (1 Chr 8:24). 3. Korahite Levite and the fifth son of Kore from the house of Asaph (1 Chr 26:3). 4. Forefather of 1,254 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:7; Neh 7:12). Later, 71 members of Elam’s house accompanied Ezra back to Palestine during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia (464–424 BC; Ezr 8:7). In postexilic Judah, She...","summary_en":"ELAM (Person) 1. Firstborn son of Shem and a grandson of Noah (Gn 10:22; 1 Chr 1:17). 2. Benjamite and the son of Shashak (1 Chr 8:24). 3. Korahite Levite and the fifth son of Kore from the house of Asaph (1 Chr 26:3). 4. Forefather of 1,254 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:7; Neh 7:12). Later, 71 members of Elam’s house accompanied Ezra back to Palestine during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia (464–424 BC; Ezr 8:7). In postexilic Judah, She...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"32":[{"id":15370,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Harim","title_en":"Harim","content_ro":"<h3>HARIM<\/h3>\n<li>1. Priest whom King David appointed to official duties in the temple (1 Chr 24:8).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of a Jewish family who returned from the Babylonian exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:32; Neh 10:5). Members of this family were guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezr 10:31), but they divorced their wives and a representative of the clan signed Ezra’s covenant (Neh 10:27).<\/li>\n<li>3. Ancestor of a family of priests who returned from the exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:39; Neh 7:42). Some identify him with #1 above. Members of this family were guilty of marrying foreign women.<\/li>\n<li>4. Ancestor of Malkijah. Malkijah repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall during Nehemiah’s time (Neh 3:11). This Harim could be the same as #2 above.<\/li>\n<li>5. Priest who returned from the exile with Zerubbabel (Neh 12:3; Hebrew “Rehum,” see <span>nlt<\/span> mg). His son (or grandson) Adna is listed as a leading priest during the high priesthood of Joiakim (12:15). Later, under Ezra, a representative of the family (probably related to #3 above) signed the covenant of faithfulness to God (10:5).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>HARIM<\/h3>\n<li>1. Priest whom King David appointed to official duties in the temple (1 Chr 24:8).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of a Jewish family who returned from the Babylonian exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:32; Neh 10:5). Members of this family were guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezr 10:31), but they divorced their wives and a representative of the clan signed Ezra’s covenant (Neh 10:27).<\/li>\n<li>3. Ancestor of a family of priests who returned from the exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:39; Neh 7:42). Some identify him with #1 above. Members of this family were guilty of marrying foreign women.<\/li>\n<li>4. Ancestor of Malkijah. Malkijah repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall during Nehemiah’s time (Neh 3:11). This Harim could be the same as #2 above.<\/li>\n<li>5. Priest who returned from the exile with Zerubbabel (Neh 12:3; Hebrew “Rehum,” see <span>nlt<\/span> mg). His son (or grandson) Adna is listed as a leading priest during the high priesthood of Joiakim (12:15). Later, under Ezra, a representative of the family (probably related to #3 above) signed the covenant of faithfulness to God (10:5).<\/li>","summary_ro":"HARIM 1. Priest whom King David appointed to official duties in the temple (1 Chr 24:8). 2. Ancestor of a Jewish family who returned from the Babylonian exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:32; Neh 10:5). Members of this family were guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezr 10:31), but they divorced their wives and a representative of the clan signed Ezra’s covenant (Neh 10:27). 3. Ancestor of a family of priests who returned from the exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:39; Neh 7:42). Some identify him with #1 ...","summary_en":"HARIM 1. Priest whom King David appointed to official duties in the temple (1 Chr 24:8). 2. Ancestor of a Jewish family who returned from the Babylonian exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:32; Neh 10:5). Members of this family were guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezr 10:31), but they divorced their wives and a representative of the clan signed Ezra’s covenant (Neh 10:27). 3. Ancestor of a family of priests who returned from the exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:39; Neh 7:42). Some identify him with #1 ...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"33":[{"id":14980,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hadid","title_en":"Hadid","content_ro":"<h3>HADID<\/h3>\n<p>City in Benjamin (Neh 11:31-35) mentioned with Lod and Ono (Ezr 2:33; Neh 7:37) as the home of over 720 Benjamites returning from the Babylonian captivity (Neh 11:34). In 1 Maccabees 12:38 and 13:13 the place is identified with Adida, which was fortified by Simon Maccabeus and later by Vespasian. A more likely suggestion identifies it with the modern site of el-Haditheth, about three to four miles (4.8 to 6.4 kilometers) northeast of Lydda.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HADID<\/h3>\n<p>City in Benjamin (Neh 11:31-35) mentioned with Lod and Ono (Ezr 2:33; Neh 7:37) as the home of over 720 Benjamites returning from the Babylonian captivity (Neh 11:34). In 1 Maccabees 12:38 and 13:13 the place is identified with Adida, which was fortified by Simon Maccabeus and later by Vespasian. A more likely suggestion identifies it with the modern site of el-Haditheth, about three to four miles (4.8 to 6.4 kilometers) northeast of Lydda.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HADID City in Benjamin (Neh 11:31-35) mentioned with Lod and Ono (Ezr 2:33; Neh 7:37) as the home of over 720 Benjamites returning from the Babylonian captivity (Neh 11:34). In 1 Maccabees 12:38 and 13:13 the place is identified with Adida, which was fortified by Simon Maccabeus and later by Vespasian. A more likely suggestion identifies it with the modern site of el-Haditheth, about three to four miles (4.8 to 6.4 kilometers) northeast of Lydda.","summary_en":"HADID City in Benjamin (Neh 11:31-35) mentioned with Lod and Ono (Ezr 2:33; Neh 7:37) as the home of over 720 Benjamites returning from the Babylonian captivity (Neh 11:34). In 1 Maccabees 12:38 and 13:13 the place is identified with Adida, which was fortified by Simon Maccabeus and later by Vespasian. A more likely suggestion identifies it with the modern site of el-Haditheth, about three to four miles (4.8 to 6.4 kilometers) northeast of Lydda.","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":23361,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Lod","title_en":"Lod","content_ro":"<h3>LOD<\/h3>\n<p>City on the coastal plain of Palestine. The modern city, called Ludd, is located 10 miles (16.1 kilometers) southeast of Tel Aviv. The name of the city first occurs in a list of Canaanite towns that goes back to 1465 <span>BC<\/span>, to the reign of the Egyptian pharaoh Thutmose III, who supplied the list. The founder of the city is said to have been Shemed, a Benjamite (1 Chr 8:12). It is included in a list of places that were resettled by returning exiles from Babylon (Ezr 2:33; Neh 7:37), and is included in the list of Benjamite settlements (Neh 11:35). The history of the city can be traced continuously from Maccabean times, through the Roman period, including the first and second Jewish wars against the Romans, to the Byzantine and Crusader periods, through to modern times.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT era Jewish sources emphasize the importance of the city, at that time named Lydda. It had a large market and was noted for the raising of cattle. Textile, dyeing, and pottery industries flourished there. And it was the seat of a Sanhedrin; famous Talmudic scholars taught there. This, then, was the kind of bustling, flourishing community that existed when Peter visited the city and ministered to its Christians (Acts 9:32-35).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LOD<\/h3>\n<p>City on the coastal plain of Palestine. The modern city, called Ludd, is located 10 miles (16.1 kilometers) southeast of Tel Aviv. The name of the city first occurs in a list of Canaanite towns that goes back to 1465 <span>BC<\/span>, to the reign of the Egyptian pharaoh Thutmose III, who supplied the list. The founder of the city is said to have been Shemed, a Benjamite (1 Chr 8:12). It is included in a list of places that were resettled by returning exiles from Babylon (Ezr 2:33; Neh 7:37), and is included in the list of Benjamite settlements (Neh 11:35). The history of the city can be traced continuously from Maccabean times, through the Roman period, including the first and second Jewish wars against the Romans, to the Byzantine and Crusader periods, through to modern times.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT era Jewish sources emphasize the importance of the city, at that time named Lydda. It had a large market and was noted for the raising of cattle. Textile, dyeing, and pottery industries flourished there. And it was the seat of a Sanhedrin; famous Talmudic scholars taught there. This, then, was the kind of bustling, flourishing community that existed when Peter visited the city and ministered to its Christians (Acts 9:32-35).<\/p>","summary_ro":"LOD City on the coastal plain of Palestine. The modern city, called Ludd, is located 10 miles (16.1 kilometers) southeast of Tel Aviv. The name of the city first occurs in a list of Canaanite towns that goes back to 1465 BC, to the reign of the Egyptian pharaoh Thutmose III, who supplied the list. The founder of the city is said to have been Shemed, a Benjamite (1 Chr 8:12). It is included in a list of places that were resettled by returning exiles from Babylon (Ezr 2:33; Neh 7:37), and is in...","summary_en":"LOD City on the coastal plain of Palestine. The modern city, called Ludd, is located 10 miles (16.1 kilometers) southeast of Tel Aviv. The name of the city first occurs in a list of Canaanite towns that goes back to 1465 BC, to the reign of the Egyptian pharaoh Thutmose III, who supplied the list. The founder of the city is said to have been Shemed, a Benjamite (1 Chr 8:12). It is included in a list of places that were resettled by returning exiles from Babylon (Ezr 2:33; Neh 7:37), and is in...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":28481,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ono","title_en":"Ono","content_ro":"<h3>ONO<\/h3>\n<p>Benjaminite town built by Shemed (1 Chr 8:12). Some of its inhabitants returned to Palestine with Zerubbabel following the exile (Ezr 2:33; Neh 7:37). Its location was variously known as the plain of Ono (Neh 6:2) or as the valley of craftsmen (11:35). Ono is identified with Kefr ‘Ana, seven miles (11.3 kilometers) southeast of Joppa.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ONO<\/h3>\n<p>Benjaminite town built by Shemed (1 Chr 8:12). Some of its inhabitants returned to Palestine with Zerubbabel following the exile (Ezr 2:33; Neh 7:37). Its location was variously known as the plain of Ono (Neh 6:2) or as the valley of craftsmen (11:35). Ono is identified with Kefr ‘Ana, seven miles (11.3 kilometers) southeast of Joppa.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ONO Benjaminite town built by Shemed (1 Chr 8:12). Some of its inhabitants returned to Palestine with Zerubbabel following the exile (Ezr 2:33; Neh 7:37). Its location was variously known as the plain of Ono (Neh 6:2) or as the valley of craftsmen (11:35). Ono is identified with Kefr ‘Ana, seven miles (11.3 kilometers) southeast of Joppa.","summary_en":"ONO Benjaminite town built by Shemed (1 Chr 8:12). Some of its inhabitants returned to Palestine with Zerubbabel following the exile (Ezr 2:33; Neh 7:37). Its location was variously known as the plain of Ono (Neh 6:2) or as the valley of craftsmen (11:35). Ono is identified with Kefr ‘Ana, seven miles (11.3 kilometers) southeast of Joppa.","source":"Articles\/O.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"34":[{"id":19138,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jericho","title_en":"Jericho","content_ro":"<h3>JERICHO<\/h3>\n<p>Ancient city on the west side of the Jordan River. The name Jericho may be connected to the ancient name of the Canaanite moon god. The Hebrew words for moon, month, new moon, and Jericho are very similar. Others associate it with the word for spirit or smell, assuming that the pleasant fragrances of the fruits and spices that grew in this oasis occasioned the name of the place. The OT occasionally calls it “the city of palm trees” (e.g., Dt 34:3; 2 Chr 28:15).<\/p>\n<p>Jericho was located on the west side of the Jordan River about five miles (8 kilometers) from the southernmost fords and about ten miles (16 kilometers) northwest of the Dead Sea. Being in the broad part of the plain of the Jordan, it lies nearly 1,000 feet (305 meters) below sea level and about 3,500 feet (1,067 meters) below Jerusalem, which was a mere 17 miles (27 kilometers) away. This simple topographical fact explains the incidental words in Jesus’ parable of the good Samaritan, “down from Jerusalem to Jericho” (Lk 10:30).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"History\">History<\/p>\n<h5>Prebiblical Record<\/h5>\n<p>Jericho was a large and thriving city for centuries, even millennia, before the Bible first mentions it in connection with the exodus from Egypt. In fact, Jericho is one of the oldest cities in the world, with remains dating to and before the Neolithic Age 10,000 years ago.<\/p>\n<p>For three reasons primitive people would have chosen this site, first as a settlement and eventually as a key city: (1) It has a copious spring, now called Elisha’s Fountain (cf. 2 Kgs 2:18-22). (2) It has a warm climate in the winter, although “hot” describes it in the summer. (3) It is strategically located at a Jordan ford and at the base of several routes leading westward to the foothills.<\/p>\n<p>The comings and goings of various populations can be reconstructed only sketchily from noninscriptional archaeological data. The civilizations grew more complex over the years, going from a simple food-gathering economy at first to the relatively complex urban society, complete with king, soldiers, and guest houses, that Joshua encountered. The first certain identification of its inhabitants occurs in Numbers 13:29: “The Hittites, the Jebusites, and the Amorites dwell in the hill country; and the Canaanites dwell by the sea, and along the Jordan” (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n\n<h5>In the Old Testament<\/h5>\n<p>The Jericho of the OT is best known as the first city taken by the invading Israelites through the miracle of the falling walls. Having spent some time on the east bank of the Jordan in the plains of Moab (Nm 22:1; 26:3, 63), the Israelites targeted it as the first military objective in the Conquest. Joshua sent spies to reconnoiter the land and the city. Rahab the harlot took them in and later engineered their escape. For her cooperation, she and her family were spared when Israel destroyed the city (Jos 2, 6). The fall of the city itself occurred after the Israelites had marched around it in silence, except for the continual blowing of trumpets, once a day for six days and then seven times on the seventh day. Then, as the priests blew the trumpets, the people shouted and the walls collapsed.<\/p>\n<p>Joshua laid a curse on anyone who might rebuild Jericho (Jos 6:26). The curse was fulfilled about 500 years later when Hiel rebuilt the city at the cost of two of his sons (1 Kgs 16:34).<\/p>\n<p>Jericho was in the territory of Benjamin but right on the border with the territory of Ephraim to the north (Jos 16:1, 7; 18:12, 21) and appears in scattered incidents throughout the rest of the OT. In 2 Samuel 10:5 (see also 1 Chr 19:5) David had his humiliated ambassadors wait there until their beards grew back. It served as a kind of headquarters for Elisha and apparently was where a “company of the prophets” lived (2 Kgs 2:5; cf. 1 Sm 10:5). During the time of Ahaz, a return of prisoners took place there (2 Chr 28:15). When Jerusalem fell in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, the reigning king, Zedekiah, fled to near Jericho but was caught by the Babylonians, who later put out his eyes at Riblah in Syria (2 Kgs 25:5; Jer 39:5; 52:8). The last OT references to Jericho are in the census lists of Ezra (Ezr 2:34) and Nehemiah (Neh 7:36). Men from Jericho also helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall (3:2).<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament<\/h5>\n<p>First, it must be understood that the Jericho of NT times was built by Herod more than a mile to the south of the OT site, at the mouth of the Wadi Qilt. It is possible to sort out the healing of the blind men episodes in the synoptic Gospels by understanding that Jesus was passing from the site of ancient Jericho (Mt 20:29; Mk 10:46) and approaching Herodian Jericho (Lk 18:35). The modern city of Jericho includes both these sites. As Jesus passed through Jericho (19:1) he met and ate with Zacchaeus, the wealthy chief tax collector of the new Roman Jericho. The city also figures in the parable of the Good Samaritan (10:30-37).<\/p>\n<h5>Postbiblical Record<\/h5>\n<p>While ancient Jericho was of small consequence after its destruction under Joshua, the Jericho of Herod was a city of beauty and importance. But even this city fell into decay with the decline of Roman influence in the Middle East. Most of what we know of the city until modern times comes from the writings of pilgrims to the Holy Land. They usually report seeing certain things of biblical significance, such as the tree that Zacchaeus climbed, but they also report that Jericho was a squalid, wretched Muslim village. And such it has been until relatively recent times, when it grew in size and importance as a major West Bank city.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JERICHO<\/h3>\n<p>Ancient city on the west side of the Jordan River. The name Jericho may be connected to the ancient name of the Canaanite moon god. The Hebrew words for moon, month, new moon, and Jericho are very similar. Others associate it with the word for spirit or smell, assuming that the pleasant fragrances of the fruits and spices that grew in this oasis occasioned the name of the place. The OT occasionally calls it “the city of palm trees” (e.g., Dt 34:3; 2 Chr 28:15).<\/p>\n<p>Jericho was located on the west side of the Jordan River about five miles (8 kilometers) from the southernmost fords and about ten miles (16 kilometers) northwest of the Dead Sea. Being in the broad part of the plain of the Jordan, it lies nearly 1,000 feet (305 meters) below sea level and about 3,500 feet (1,067 meters) below Jerusalem, which was a mere 17 miles (27 kilometers) away. This simple topographical fact explains the incidental words in Jesus’ parable of the good Samaritan, “down from Jerusalem to Jericho” (Lk 10:30).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"History\">History<\/p>\n<h5>Prebiblical Record<\/h5>\n<p>Jericho was a large and thriving city for centuries, even millennia, before the Bible first mentions it in connection with the exodus from Egypt. In fact, Jericho is one of the oldest cities in the world, with remains dating to and before the Neolithic Age 10,000 years ago.<\/p>\n<p>For three reasons primitive people would have chosen this site, first as a settlement and eventually as a key city: (1) It has a copious spring, now called Elisha’s Fountain (cf. 2 Kgs 2:18-22). (2) It has a warm climate in the winter, although “hot” describes it in the summer. (3) It is strategically located at a Jordan ford and at the base of several routes leading westward to the foothills.<\/p>\n<p>The comings and goings of various populations can be reconstructed only sketchily from noninscriptional archaeological data. The civilizations grew more complex over the years, going from a simple food-gathering economy at first to the relatively complex urban society, complete with king, soldiers, and guest houses, that Joshua encountered. The first certain identification of its inhabitants occurs in Numbers 13:29: “The Hittites, the Jebusites, and the Amorites dwell in the hill country; and the Canaanites dwell by the sea, and along the Jordan” (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n\n<h5>In the Old Testament<\/h5>\n<p>The Jericho of the OT is best known as the first city taken by the invading Israelites through the miracle of the falling walls. Having spent some time on the east bank of the Jordan in the plains of Moab (Nm 22:1; 26:3, 63), the Israelites targeted it as the first military objective in the Conquest. Joshua sent spies to reconnoiter the land and the city. Rahab the harlot took them in and later engineered their escape. For her cooperation, she and her family were spared when Israel destroyed the city (Jos 2, 6). The fall of the city itself occurred after the Israelites had marched around it in silence, except for the continual blowing of trumpets, once a day for six days and then seven times on the seventh day. Then, as the priests blew the trumpets, the people shouted and the walls collapsed.<\/p>\n<p>Joshua laid a curse on anyone who might rebuild Jericho (Jos 6:26). The curse was fulfilled about 500 years later when Hiel rebuilt the city at the cost of two of his sons (1 Kgs 16:34).<\/p>\n<p>Jericho was in the territory of Benjamin but right on the border with the territory of Ephraim to the north (Jos 16:1, 7; 18:12, 21) and appears in scattered incidents throughout the rest of the OT. In 2 Samuel 10:5 (see also 1 Chr 19:5) David had his humiliated ambassadors wait there until their beards grew back. It served as a kind of headquarters for Elisha and apparently was where a “company of the prophets” lived (2 Kgs 2:5; cf. 1 Sm 10:5). During the time of Ahaz, a return of prisoners took place there (2 Chr 28:15). When Jerusalem fell in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, the reigning king, Zedekiah, fled to near Jericho but was caught by the Babylonians, who later put out his eyes at Riblah in Syria (2 Kgs 25:5; Jer 39:5; 52:8). The last OT references to Jericho are in the census lists of Ezra (Ezr 2:34) and Nehemiah (Neh 7:36). Men from Jericho also helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall (3:2).<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament<\/h5>\n<p>First, it must be understood that the Jericho of NT times was built by Herod more than a mile to the south of the OT site, at the mouth of the Wadi Qilt. It is possible to sort out the healing of the blind men episodes in the synoptic Gospels by understanding that Jesus was passing from the site of ancient Jericho (Mt 20:29; Mk 10:46) and approaching Herodian Jericho (Lk 18:35). The modern city of Jericho includes both these sites. As Jesus passed through Jericho (19:1) he met and ate with Zacchaeus, the wealthy chief tax collector of the new Roman Jericho. The city also figures in the parable of the Good Samaritan (10:30-37).<\/p>\n<h5>Postbiblical Record<\/h5>\n<p>While ancient Jericho was of small consequence after its destruction under Joshua, the Jericho of Herod was a city of beauty and importance. But even this city fell into decay with the decline of Roman influence in the Middle East. Most of what we know of the city until modern times comes from the writings of pilgrims to the Holy Land. They usually report seeing certain things of biblical significance, such as the tree that Zacchaeus climbed, but they also report that Jericho was a squalid, wretched Muslim village. And such it has been until relatively recent times, when it grew in size and importance as a major West Bank city.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JERICHO Ancient city on the west side of the Jordan River. The name Jericho may be connected to the ancient name of the Canaanite moon god. The Hebrew words for moon, month, new moon, and Jericho are very similar. Others associate it with the word for spirit or smell, assuming that the pleasant fragrances of the fruits and spices that grew in this oasis occasioned the name of the place. The OT occasionally calls it “the city of palm trees” (e.g., Dt 34:3; 2 Chr 28:15). Jericho was located on ...","summary_en":"JERICHO Ancient city on the west side of the Jordan River. The name Jericho may be connected to the ancient name of the Canaanite moon god. The Hebrew words for moon, month, new moon, and Jericho are very similar. Others associate it with the word for spirit or smell, assuming that the pleasant fragrances of the fruits and spices that grew in this oasis occasioned the name of the place. The OT occasionally calls it “the city of palm trees” (e.g., Dt 34:3; 2 Chr 28:15). Jericho was located on ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"35":[{"id":15452,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hassenuah","title_en":"Hassenuah","content_ro":"<h3>HASSENUAH<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a Benjamite family that returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (1 Chr 9:7; Neh 11:9, <span>kjv<\/span> “Senuah”); perhaps alternately called Senaah (Ezr 2:35; Neh 7:38), and Hassenaah (Neh 3:3). <em>See<\/em> Senaah.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HASSENUAH<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a Benjamite family that returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (1 Chr 9:7; Neh 11:9, <span>kjv<\/span> “Senuah”); perhaps alternately called Senaah (Ezr 2:35; Neh 7:38), and Hassenaah (Neh 3:3). <em>See<\/em> Senaah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HASSENUAH Ancestor of a Benjamite family that returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (1 Chr 9:7; Neh 11:9, kjv “Senuah”); perhaps alternately called Senaah (Ezr 2:35; Neh 7:38), and Hassenaah (Neh 3:3). See Senaah.","summary_en":"HASSENUAH Ancestor of a Benjamite family that returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (1 Chr 9:7; Neh 11:9, kjv “Senuah”); perhaps alternately called Senaah (Ezr 2:35; Neh 7:38), and Hassenaah (Neh 3:3). See Senaah.","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34331,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Senaah","title_en":"Senaah","content_ro":"<h3>SENAAH<\/h3>\n<p>Father of a family of Israelites who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the exile (Ezr 2:35; Neh 7:38). They helped Nehemiah rebuild part of the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:3; Hassenaah is an alternate spelling for Senaah). Hassenuah is a possible variant for Senaah (1 Chr 9:7; Neh 11:9, where <span>kjv<\/span> reads “Senuah”).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Hassenuah.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SENAAH<\/h3>\n<p>Father of a family of Israelites who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the exile (Ezr 2:35; Neh 7:38). They helped Nehemiah rebuild part of the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:3; Hassenaah is an alternate spelling for Senaah). Hassenuah is a possible variant for Senaah (1 Chr 9:7; Neh 11:9, where <span>kjv<\/span> reads “Senuah”).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Hassenuah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SENAAH Father of a family of Israelites who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the exile (Ezr 2:35; Neh 7:38). They helped Nehemiah rebuild part of the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:3; Hassenaah is an alternate spelling for Senaah). Hassenuah is a possible variant for Senaah (1 Chr 9:7; Neh 11:9, where kjv reads “Senuah”). See also Hassenuah.","summary_en":"SENAAH Father of a family of Israelites who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the exile (Ezr 2:35; Neh 7:38). They helped Nehemiah rebuild part of the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:3; Hassenaah is an alternate spelling for Senaah). Hassenuah is a possible variant for Senaah (1 Chr 9:7; Neh 11:9, where kjv reads “Senuah”). See also Hassenuah.","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"36":[{"id":18626,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jedaiah","title_en":"Jedaiah","content_ro":"<h3>JEDAIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Shimri’s son and the father of Allon. He is listed in the genealogical tables of the Simeonites who settled in the valley of Gedor in Hezekiah’s time (1 Chr 4:37).<\/li>\n<li>2. Harumaph’s son, who helped repair the Jerusalem wall after the exile (Neh 3:10).<\/li>\n<li>3. Aaron’s descendant and head of the second of the 24 priestly divisions for temple service in David’s time (1 Chr 24:7). His descendants are listed among the returned exiles (1 Chr 9:10; Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39). The individuals and families listed below are probably a part of this priestly line, but their exact relationships are difficult to determine.<\/li>\n<li>4. Provincial priest who agreed to resettle in postexilic Jerusalem (Neh 11:10; cf. v 2).<\/li>\n<li>5. Priest who returned with Zerubbabel after the exile (Neh 12:6-7). In the next generation this was the name of a family (v 21).<\/li>\n<li>6. One of the exiles taken by Zechariah as witness to the symbolic crowning of Joshua (<span>nlt<\/span> “Jeshua”). He may be the same as #4 or #5 above. He came back from captivity bringing gifts for the temple in the days of the high priest Joshua (Zec 6:10-14).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JEDAIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Shimri’s son and the father of Allon. He is listed in the genealogical tables of the Simeonites who settled in the valley of Gedor in Hezekiah’s time (1 Chr 4:37).<\/li>\n<li>2. Harumaph’s son, who helped repair the Jerusalem wall after the exile (Neh 3:10).<\/li>\n<li>3. Aaron’s descendant and head of the second of the 24 priestly divisions for temple service in David’s time (1 Chr 24:7). His descendants are listed among the returned exiles (1 Chr 9:10; Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39). The individuals and families listed below are probably a part of this priestly line, but their exact relationships are difficult to determine.<\/li>\n<li>4. Provincial priest who agreed to resettle in postexilic Jerusalem (Neh 11:10; cf. v 2).<\/li>\n<li>5. Priest who returned with Zerubbabel after the exile (Neh 12:6-7). In the next generation this was the name of a family (v 21).<\/li>\n<li>6. One of the exiles taken by Zechariah as witness to the symbolic crowning of Joshua (<span>nlt<\/span> “Jeshua”). He may be the same as #4 or #5 above. He came back from captivity bringing gifts for the temple in the days of the high priest Joshua (Zec 6:10-14).<\/li>","summary_ro":"JEDAIAH 1. Shimri’s son and the father of Allon. He is listed in the genealogical tables of the Simeonites who settled in the valley of Gedor in Hezekiah’s time (1 Chr 4:37). 2. Harumaph’s son, who helped repair the Jerusalem wall after the exile (Neh 3:10). 3. Aaron’s descendant and head of the second of the 24 priestly divisions for temple service in David’s time (1 Chr 24:7). His descendants are listed among the returned exiles (1 Chr 9:10; Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39). The individuals and families...","summary_en":"JEDAIAH 1. Shimri’s son and the father of Allon. He is listed in the genealogical tables of the Simeonites who settled in the valley of Gedor in Hezekiah’s time (1 Chr 4:37). 2. Harumaph’s son, who helped repair the Jerusalem wall after the exile (Neh 3:10). 3. Aaron’s descendant and head of the second of the 24 priestly divisions for temple service in David’s time (1 Chr 24:7). His descendants are listed among the returned exiles (1 Chr 9:10; Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39). The individuals and families...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":19331,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jeshua (Person)","title_en":"Jeshua (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>JESHUA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Jozadak was deported by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylon (1 Chr 6:14-15). Jeshua, Jozadak’s successor as high priest, returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem after the exile (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7; 12:1). Upon arrival, he led his fellow priests in making the altar of God (Ezr 3:2; 5:2) and eventually headed up a construction program to rebuild the temple (3:8). Confirmed as God’s leader by Haggai and Zechariah (Hg 1:1-14; 2:2, 4; Zec 3:1-9; 6:11), Jeshua (alternately “Joshua” in these passages) resolutely resisted attempts by adversaries to infiltrate his people and hinder the work on the temple (Ezr 4:3). Joiakim was Jeshua’s son and successor as high priest, serving in the days of Nehemiah and Ezra (Neh 12:12, 26).<\/li>\n<li>4. Descendant of Pahath-moab and the forefather of a family of Jews who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:6; Neh 7:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Father of a family of Levites who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:40; Neh 7:43; 12:8). He and his sons were responsible for overseeing the workmen building the temple (Ezr 3:9; this Jeshua may be identical with #3 above).<\/li>\n<li>6. Levite and Jozabad’s father. Jozabad assisted Meremoth, Eleazar, and Noadiah with taking inventory of the temple’s precious metals and vessels during the days of Ezra (Ezr 8:33).<\/li>\n<li>7. Ezer’s father. Ezer was ruler of Mizpah, who repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 3:19).<\/li>\n<li>8. Azaniah’s son and a leader of the Levites in the days of Ezra and Nehemiah. Jeshua assisted Ezra with teaching the people the law (Neh 8:7) and later set his seal on Ezra’s covenant (10:9).<\/li>\n<li>9. Alternate spelling of Joshua, the son of Nun, in Nehemiah 8:17. <em>See<\/em> Joshua (Person) #1.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JESHUA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Jozadak was deported by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylon (1 Chr 6:14-15). Jeshua, Jozadak’s successor as high priest, returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem after the exile (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7; 12:1). Upon arrival, he led his fellow priests in making the altar of God (Ezr 3:2; 5:2) and eventually headed up a construction program to rebuild the temple (3:8). Confirmed as God’s leader by Haggai and Zechariah (Hg 1:1-14; 2:2, 4; Zec 3:1-9; 6:11), Jeshua (alternately “Joshua” in these passages) resolutely resisted attempts by adversaries to infiltrate his people and hinder the work on the temple (Ezr 4:3). Joiakim was Jeshua’s son and successor as high priest, serving in the days of Nehemiah and Ezra (Neh 12:12, 26).<\/li>\n<li>4. Descendant of Pahath-moab and the forefather of a family of Jews who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:6; Neh 7:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Father of a family of Levites who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:40; Neh 7:43; 12:8). He and his sons were responsible for overseeing the workmen building the temple (Ezr 3:9; this Jeshua may be identical with #3 above).<\/li>\n<li>6. Levite and Jozabad’s father. Jozabad assisted Meremoth, Eleazar, and Noadiah with taking inventory of the temple’s precious metals and vessels during the days of Ezra (Ezr 8:33).<\/li>\n<li>7. Ezer’s father. Ezer was ruler of Mizpah, who repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 3:19).<\/li>\n<li>8. Azaniah’s son and a leader of the Levites in the days of Ezra and Nehemiah. Jeshua assisted Ezra with teaching the people the law (Neh 8:7) and later set his seal on Ezra’s covenant (10:9).<\/li>\n<li>9. Alternate spelling of Joshua, the son of Nun, in Nehemiah 8:17. <em>See<\/em> Joshua (Person) #1.<\/li>","summary_ro":"JESHUA (Person) 1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39). 2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15). 3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Joz...","summary_en":"JESHUA (Person) 1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39). 2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15). 3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Joz...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":23023,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tribe of Levi","title_en":"Tribe of Levi","content_ro":"<h3>LEVI, Tribe of<\/h3>\n<p>Israelite tribe taking its name from the third son of Leah and Jacob (Gn 29:34). The meaning of the name (“attached”) is a pun on Leah’s position as an unloved wife: now that she has borne three sons to Jacob, surely he will be “attached” to her. Elsewhere, by a similar pun, the tribe of Levi is described as “attached” to Aaron (Nm 18:2).<\/p>\n<p>Levi appears with Simeon at the treacherous slaughter of the inhabitants of Canaanite Shechem (Gn 34:25-29). This brings Jacob’s rebuke at the time (v 30) and his deathbed curse (49:5-7), foretelling that the descendants of Levi and Simeon will be scattered throughout Israel. This does not seem a likely background for God’s priestly tribe, but so it proved to be, for it was as a priestly tribe that Levi was scattered through Israel, while Simeon merely melted into the desert south of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>At first Levi was apparently a “secular” tribe like any other. True, Moses and Aaron were of Levi (Ex 2:1), but no stress is laid on this. Levi’s later position was God’s reward for its costly faithfulness when Israel rebelled against God (32:25-29); this inaugurated the “covenant with Levi” (Nm 18:19). Henceforth the tribe of Levi would be accepted by God instead of Israel’s firstborn sons, who belonged to him by the law of “firstfruits” (3:11-13). Levi, as a tribe, could therefore own no tribal territory: God himself was their inheritance (18:20). However, they were given 48 villages, with their pasturelands, in which to live (Jos 21:1-42). These included the six cities of refuge (ch 20).<\/p>\n<p>Since Levi could not amass wealth, the tribe was to be supported by gifts and tithes (Nm 18:21); like the widow, orphan, and stranger, they were commended to the care of God’s people (Dt 14:29). Since they were God’s tribe, Joab was unwilling to include Levi in David’s census (1 Chr 21:6; cf. Nm 1:49). Naturally, Levi did not serve in war except in a religious capacity (2 Chr 20:21). Their service pertained to the meeting tent (Nm 1:50-53) and later the temple (1 Chr 23:25-32). Within Levi the Bible makes a clear distinction between (1) the high priest (sometimes merely called “the priest,” 1 Sm 1:9), who came from one branch of Aaron’s family; (2) the rest of the priests, also of particular families; and (3) a mass of subordinate Levites, who had lesser tasks. In early days they packed and moved the portable tent of meeting (Nm 1:50-51), as well as did other duties; in later days they served as porters and choristers (1 Chr 16:42). The duties of Levi are summarized in Deuteronomy 33:8-11, where oracular guidance and theological instruction are just as important as their priestly duties. It is therefore no surprise that Jehoshaphat later used them as teachers of law (2 Chr 17:7-9). Nevertheless, the ordinary Israelite thought of them primarily as priestly (Jgs 17:13).<\/p>\n<p>Later references to the lasting covenant with Levi are found in Jeremiah 33:20-26 and Malachi 3:3-4. Members of the tribe returned from the exile (Ezr 2:36-42), apparently more coming from the priestly than the wider Levitical section. Barnabas, in NT days, belonged to the tribe of Levi (Acts 4:36). Indeed, among modern Jews, wherever the surname Levy is found, a member of the tribe probably lives on.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Priests and Levites.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LEVI, Tribe of<\/h3>\n<p>Israelite tribe taking its name from the third son of Leah and Jacob (Gn 29:34). The meaning of the name (“attached”) is a pun on Leah’s position as an unloved wife: now that she has borne three sons to Jacob, surely he will be “attached” to her. Elsewhere, by a similar pun, the tribe of Levi is described as “attached” to Aaron (Nm 18:2).<\/p>\n<p>Levi appears with Simeon at the treacherous slaughter of the inhabitants of Canaanite Shechem (Gn 34:25-29). This brings Jacob’s rebuke at the time (v 30) and his deathbed curse (49:5-7), foretelling that the descendants of Levi and Simeon will be scattered throughout Israel. This does not seem a likely background for God’s priestly tribe, but so it proved to be, for it was as a priestly tribe that Levi was scattered through Israel, while Simeon merely melted into the desert south of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>At first Levi was apparently a “secular” tribe like any other. True, Moses and Aaron were of Levi (Ex 2:1), but no stress is laid on this. Levi’s later position was God’s reward for its costly faithfulness when Israel rebelled against God (32:25-29); this inaugurated the “covenant with Levi” (Nm 18:19). Henceforth the tribe of Levi would be accepted by God instead of Israel’s firstborn sons, who belonged to him by the law of “firstfruits” (3:11-13). Levi, as a tribe, could therefore own no tribal territory: God himself was their inheritance (18:20). However, they were given 48 villages, with their pasturelands, in which to live (Jos 21:1-42). These included the six cities of refuge (ch 20).<\/p>\n<p>Since Levi could not amass wealth, the tribe was to be supported by gifts and tithes (Nm 18:21); like the widow, orphan, and stranger, they were commended to the care of God’s people (Dt 14:29). Since they were God’s tribe, Joab was unwilling to include Levi in David’s census (1 Chr 21:6; cf. Nm 1:49). Naturally, Levi did not serve in war except in a religious capacity (2 Chr 20:21). Their service pertained to the meeting tent (Nm 1:50-53) and later the temple (1 Chr 23:25-32). Within Levi the Bible makes a clear distinction between (1) the high priest (sometimes merely called “the priest,” 1 Sm 1:9), who came from one branch of Aaron’s family; (2) the rest of the priests, also of particular families; and (3) a mass of subordinate Levites, who had lesser tasks. In early days they packed and moved the portable tent of meeting (Nm 1:50-51), as well as did other duties; in later days they served as porters and choristers (1 Chr 16:42). The duties of Levi are summarized in Deuteronomy 33:8-11, where oracular guidance and theological instruction are just as important as their priestly duties. It is therefore no surprise that Jehoshaphat later used them as teachers of law (2 Chr 17:7-9). Nevertheless, the ordinary Israelite thought of them primarily as priestly (Jgs 17:13).<\/p>\n<p>Later references to the lasting covenant with Levi are found in Jeremiah 33:20-26 and Malachi 3:3-4. Members of the tribe returned from the exile (Ezr 2:36-42), apparently more coming from the priestly than the wider Levitical section. Barnabas, in NT days, belonged to the tribe of Levi (Acts 4:36). Indeed, among modern Jews, wherever the surname Levy is found, a member of the tribe probably lives on.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Priests and Levites.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LEVI, Tribe of Israelite tribe taking its name from the third son of Leah and Jacob (Gn 29:34). The meaning of the name (“attached”) is a pun on Leah’s position as an unloved wife: now that she has borne three sons to Jacob, surely he will be “attached” to her. Elsewhere, by a similar pun, the tribe of Levi is described as “attached” to Aaron (Nm 18:2). Levi appears with Simeon at the treacherous slaughter of the inhabitants of Canaanite Shechem (Gn 34:25-29). This brings Jacob’s rebuke at th...","summary_en":"LEVI, Tribe of Israelite tribe taking its name from the third son of Leah and Jacob (Gn 29:34). The meaning of the name (“attached”) is a pun on Leah’s position as an unloved wife: now that she has borne three sons to Jacob, surely he will be “attached” to her. Elsewhere, by a similar pun, the tribe of Levi is described as “attached” to Aaron (Nm 18:2). Levi appears with Simeon at the treacherous slaughter of the inhabitants of Canaanite Shechem (Gn 34:25-29). This brings Jacob’s rebuke at th...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":31359,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Priests and Levites","title_en":"Priests and Levites","content_ro":"<h3>PRIESTS AND LEVITES<\/h3>\n<p>Servants of God in the OT. There were three basic classes of religious personnel in ancient Israel: prophets, wise men, and priests and Levites. The classical prophets fulfilled a vocation but were not professionals; they were not paid for their task and functioned only in response to the particular call of God. The wise men were involved in government and education; some of their duties were secular, though they were also involved in moral education. The priests and Levites fulfilled a variety of essentially religious duties and were equivalent approximately to the clergy in modern times. They were professional men and were supported for their full-time religious work.<\/p>\n<p>The role of the priesthood may be seen most clearly in the context of Israelite religion as a whole. At the heart of religion was a relationship with God; to be an Israelite or a Jew was to know and maintain a continuous relationship with the living God. This relationship found its outward expression in a variety of contexts: the covenant, the temple, worship, and every facet of daily life. Thus religion, understood as a relationship, had two perspectives: the relationship with God and that with fellow human beings. It had both a personal and a communal dimension to it. The priests were the guardians and servants of this life of relationship, which was at the heart of OT religion; all their functions can best be understood within the context of a relationship between God and Israel. The prophets, too, were servants of the covenant relationship. While the priests functioned as the normal servants of religion, the prophets’ role was more that of calling a delinquent people back to the relationship with God in times of crisis.<\/p>\n<p>In the OT, there are frequent references to both priests and Levites; in a number of biblical texts, however, the distinction is not clear (see, e.g., Dt 18:1-8). From the scholarly point of view, the precise relationship between priests and Levites is a continuing problem that has not yet been fully resolved. In general terms, only the sons of Aaron were to assume the role of priests; all other Levites would have religious functions, though technically they would not be priests. While this distinction is clear in most biblical texts, in others there is lack of certainty and clarity. It is clear, however, that <em>priests<\/em> (Levites descended from Aaron) and <em>Levites<\/em> (other than the descendants of Aaron) all had professional religious duties to perform. The precise nature of those duties varied from time to time in the course of Israel’s history.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Origins of the Priesthood<\/p>\n<p>• The High Priest<\/p>\n<p>• The Priests<\/p>\n<p>• The Levites<\/p>\n<p>• The History of the Institution<\/p>\n<p>• The Priesthood in New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheOriginsofthePriesthood\">The Origins of the Priesthood<\/p>\n<p>The priesthood in Israel began during the time of Moses and Aaron. The exodus from Egypt was not only the liberation of a group of Hebrew slaves but also the birth of the nation of Israel. The nation that was born in the exodus was given its constitution in the covenant of Sinai. The law of this covenant established the foundations and origins of Israelite priesthood. It provides insight into the three basic categories to be considered: the high priest, the priests, and the Levites.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheHighPriest\">The High Priest<\/p>\n<p>Any large and complex organization requires a head or leader, and this was true also of the Hebrew priesthood (though in its early days it was a small organization). The covenant was established through Moses, the prophet, through whom God gave the offer and substance of the covenant relationship; religious life within the covenant was to be the primary responsibility of Aaron, who was the first and chief priest.<\/p>\n<p>In the earliest days of Israel’s priesthood, it is probable that the high priest’s office was relatively informal; he was chief or leader among his fellow priests. The office was significant, nevertheless, and involved a special ritual of investiture, special clothing, and certain special responsibilities. While the high priest’s duties were similar in principle to those of other priests, he had certain exclusive responsibilities. To some extent, his duties were administrative, pertaining to all the priests of whom he had charge. But his position was more weighty than that of an administrator; just as all priests were the servants and guardians of the covenant relationship, so the high priest was chief servant and chief guardian. In his hands rested spiritual responsibility for the entire people of God, and therein lay the true honor and gravity of his position.<\/p>\n\n<p>This spiritual seniority of the high priest is seen most clearly in certain tasks he undertook within Israel’s life of worship. The clearest example may be seen in the annual observation of the Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur). On that day alone, the high priest entered the Holy of Holies and, standing before the “mercy seat,” he sought God’s forgiveness and mercy for the whole nation of Israel (Lv 16:1-19). It is in that ceremony that Israel’s covenant faith is seen most clearly. Israel’s religion was one of relationship with a holy God, and human evil disrupted that relationship. While all worship and sacrifices throughout the year were concerned with the continuation of the relationship, the Day of Atonement was the most solemn day of the year, in which the attention of all the people focused upon the meaning of their existence. Life held meaning only if the relationship with God could be maintained; the high priest had the great honor and heavy burden of seeking God’s mercy for all Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The special clothing worn by the high priest was symbolic of the nature and importance of his office; although all the symbolism cannot be determined, some of it is made clear in the biblical text. There are three particular themes in the symbolism. The first is beauty. The sense of beauty emerges from the quality and design of all the items of clothing, together with the use of color and precious stones. But beauty is dominant in the breastplate; the Hebrew word translated approximately as “breastplate” has as its basic sense “beauty” or “excellence.” The clothing symbolizes beauty, while beauty describes the office; the two other themes associated with the symbolism bring out the excellence of the office.<\/p>\n<p>The second theme is the role of the priest as representative of Israel before God. This essential dimension of the office of the high priest is explicitly identified in the names of the tribes of Israel in the two onyx stones in the ephod, and in the 12 precious stones attached to the breastplate. The high priest entered God’s presence to seek deliverance from God’s judgment (the breastplate is identified with judgment; Ex 28:15) for his people and in order to keep the people constantly in God’s remembrance (v 12), as symbolized by the two onyx stones. The third theme is the role of high priest as the representative of God to Israel. This dimension of the office is seen in the Urim and Thummim, kept in the breastpiece, by means of which God made known his will to Israel. The high priest, Aaron, fully robed, was a splendid figure, and the splendor of his garments indicated the magnificence of the office with which he had been entrusted.<\/p>\n<p>The high priesthood was to be passed on within the family (for the high priest was expected to be a married man), although in later history the practice was not always adhered to. On Aaron’s death, the office passed to Eleazar, one of his four sons.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePriests\">The Priests<\/p>\n<p>Priests took office not as the result of a particular vocation but by virtue of priestly descent. Thus the first priests were the four sons of Aaron: Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar. These four were ordained at the same time that Aaron was ordained high priest (Ex 28:1). Like him, they had special clothing, which was basically similar, though it lacked the distinctive garments of the high priest (the special ephod, the breastpiece, and the crown). The priesthood would be passed down through their sons.<\/p>\n<p>The sanctity of the priestly office was such that it was preserved from degeneration through specific laws. A man must be a descendant of Aaron to be a priest, but he was also required to meet a variety of other qualifications. He would not marry a divorcée or a former prostitute (Lv 21:7). If he was afflicted by certain kinds of disease or congenital defects, he was barred from priestly office (e.g., blindness, lameness, mutilation, being a hunchback or dwarf; vv 16-23). The principle involved was similar to that applying to animals used in sacrifice—only those free from defect or blemish were suitable for divine service.<\/p>\n<p>In the earliest days of the priesthood there is some information provided in the biblical text concerning the specific duties of the priests. Eleazar had overall responsibility for the tabernacle and its offerings (Nm 4:16); assisted Moses in a number of duties, such as numbering the people and dividing the land (26:1-2; 32:2); and later served as an adviser to Joshua. Ithamar was responsible for the construction of the tabernacle (Ex 38:21) and supervised the families of the Gershonites and Merarites (Nm 4:28-33). Nadab and Abihu, however, died soon after their ordination as a result of a sinful act in their priestly duties (Lv 10:1-7), which may have been related in part to drunkenness (vv 8-9).<\/p>\n<p>Priestly duties, in general, fell into three areas (Dt 33:8-10). First, priests were responsible, in conjunction with the high priest, for declaring God’s will to the people. Second, they had responsibilities in religious education; they were to teach to Israel God’s ordinances and law (v 10). Third, they were to be the servants of the tabernacle, participating in Israel’s sacrifices and worship. There were a number of other duties that may have fallen to them, which they would have shared with the Levites in general.<\/p>\n<p>The priests, along with all other Levites, did not own any land, as did the other Israelite tribes. Their task was to be entirely in the direct service to God. The absence of land, however, meant that they could not support and feed themselves as could other men and women. Consequently, the law specified that they could be supported for their services by the people as a whole. They were to receive, from worshipers, portions of animals that were brought to the tabernacle, as well as corn, wine, oil, and wool.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheLevites\">The Levites<\/p>\n<p>This term includes the priests, in a broad sense, for the sons of Aaron belonged to the tribe of Levi. For practical purposes, however, the Levites were those of the tribe other than the priests. The Levites also functioned in the service of the tabernacle, though they had a subordinate position. They, too, were professional men and were paid in money and in kind for their services. Though they did not inherit tribal territory of their own, there were a number of cities set aside for their use (Nm 35:1-8), and pasturelands were designated outside those cities for their livestock.<\/p>\n<p>The Levites were divided into three principal families, the descendants of Kohath, Gershon, and Merari (Nm 4). Each of these families had particular responsibilities with respect to the care and transport of the tabernacle. The sons of Kohath carried the tabernacle furniture (after it had been covered by the priests), the sons of Gershon cared for the coverings and screens, and the sons of Merari carried and erected the tabernacle’s frame. The priests, by contrast, were responsible for the transportation of the ark of the covenant. The role of each Levite, as servant of the tabernacle, was restricted; he undertook his professional duties between the ages of 25 and 50 (8:24-26).<\/p>\n<p>Although many of the duties of the Levites were of a mundane nature, they also had a very significant religious role. The law required that all the firstborn, including firstborn sons, be given to God, recalling the slaying of the firstborn at the exodus from Egypt. The Levites’ role in religion was that of being accepted by God in the place of the firstborn sons of Israel (Nm 3:11-13); their cattle, too, were accepted in place of the Israelites’ firstborn cattle. In the census taken in the time of Moses, the firstborn Israelites exceeded the number of the Levites, and a five-shekel redemption fee had to be paid into the priestly coffers for each person in excess (vv 40-51). The representative and substitutionary nature of the Levites can be seen in Israelite religion. Like the priests, they played a part in the larger activity of mediation between God and Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The law of Deuteronomy specifies a number of duties that may have fallen upon both priests and Levites (though the texts are ambiguous). These duties included participation in the activity of the law courts as judges, perhaps with special reference to religious crimes (Dt 17:8-9), taking care of the Book of the Law (v 18), controlling the lives and health of lepers (24:8), and participating directly in the conduct of covenant renewal ceremonies (27:9).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheHistoryoftheInstitution\">The History of the Institution<\/p>\n<p>In theory, the covenant law of Moses determined the nature and course of the offices of priests and Levites for the future history of Israel. In practice, however, changing historical circumstances and changes in the shape of Israel’s religion and culture altered the shape of the priesthood and the role of the Levites from time to time. And even more significantly, the persons who held the offices shaped them and their effectiveness through their faithfulness or unfaithfulness.<\/p>\n<h5>The Priesthood before the Monarchy<\/h5>\n<p>In the time of Joshua, the priests continued to undertake their important task of carrying the ark of the covenant. The Levites assisted in the division and allocation of the newly acquired land among the Israelite tribes. In Joshua 21, there is a detailed list of the allocation of cities to both priests and Levites, in fulfillment of the earlier legislation. In the days of the settlement, beyond the Conquest, there is some evidence that the Levites took over the priestly duty of transporting the ark (1 Sm 6:15; 2 Sm 15:24).<\/p>\n<p>The writer of the book of Judges has recorded two stories that illuminate the lives of particular Levites. The first, the story of Micah (Jgs 17–18), describes the establishment of a local shrine in which Micah’s son was appointed as a priest (though he was not of Levite or Aaronic descent). Later, Micah hired an itinerant Levite to function as a priest in his shrine, though subsequently that Levite was persuaded to serve the tribe of Dan as a priest. It is difficult to fit the details of this story into the theoretical model of priests and Levites, though the story may illustrate the confused state of Israel’s religion at the time. What is particularly significant is that the role of the Levite-priest was primarily oracular (18:5-6). The second story in Judges is the rather horrifying account of a Levite and his concubine (ch 19). The story illustrates the moral decline and lack of law and order in Israel at the time, but it sheds little light on the role of the Levites.<\/p>\n<p>More information is provided about the priesthood during the 11th century <span>BC<\/span>, immediately before the establishment of the monarchy. The tabernacle (by now probably a semipermanent structure) and the ark of the covenant were located in Shiloh. The priest in charge of the sanctuary in Shiloh was Eli, who may have been a descendant of Aaron’s son Ithamar. His two sons, Hophni and Phinehas, also served as priests, indicating that the principle of family descent was still operative with respect to the priesthood. But although Eli was a faithful priest, his two sons abused the office.<\/p>\n<p>The precise role of Samuel in this period is unclear. He was primarily a judge and a prophet, but it is difficult to determine whether he was also a priest. In the historical narrative, he is not called a priest, though Psalm 99:6 might be interpreted to indicate his priestly office. There are a number of passages, however, that indicate he acted like a priest. For example, he offered sacrifices (1 Sm 7:9-10); as a young man he served in the sanctuary of Shiloh and wore an ephod (ch 2). Furthermore, one of the biblical genealogies implies priestly descent (1 Chr 6:23-30). Nevertheless, he is not normally identified as a priest and the introduction to his story refers to him as an Ephraimite, by descent from his father (1 Sm 1:1), not a Levite. If the priest is perceived as a permanent servant of the sanctuary, as was Eli, then it is clear that Samuel was not a priest. But the priestly role of Samuel may perhaps be related to the fact that his mother “lent” him to God (v 28) while he was still a boy.<\/p>\n<h5>The Priesthood during the Time of David and Solomon<\/h5>\n<p>Several radical changes took place during the reign of David and Solomon. These were a result, primarily, of the establishment of a permanent temple in Jerusalem and the installation of the ark of the covenant there. During the time of Saul, the first king of Israel, the social structure was essentially the same as it had been in the time of the judges. Saul, as king, was a military leader, but his relationship to religion and the priesthood was not clearly determined.<\/p>\n<p>David changed the situation in many important respects. After his capture of the city of Jerusalem, he made that place the political and religious capital of his nation. The religious centrality of Jerusalem was assured by moving the ark of the covenant there, together with the tabernacle. Jerusalem now became the permanent location of the ark, and therefore the permanent center of religion; at the same time, the various regional shrines, which had developed in the premonarchical period, were gradually eliminated.<\/p>\n<p>These changes had numerous implications for the priesthood and the Levites. During David’s reign, there were two principal priests, Abiathar and Zadok. Abiathar, a former priest of Nob, had joined David before his rise to power; he appears to have been a descendant of Eli, and through him of Ithamar, one of Aaron’s sons. Zadok’s background is less clear, though his lineage appears to go back to Aaron’s other son, Eleazar. These two priests are always named together in the texts describing David’s reign, and Zadok is always mentioned before Abiathar. Although neither is explicitly identified as high priest in the ancient texts, there is some evidence to suggest that Abiathar functioned as high priest (1 Kgs 2:35); in NT times, he is identified as such (Mk 2:26). Zadok, during David’s reign, may have been particularly responsible for the care of the ark of the covenant (2 Sm 15:24-25). These two priests had a significant position in David’s royal establishment; they may also have shared overall responsibility for the priests, whose lives were now centered on the Jerusalem temple.<\/p>\n<p>Much of David’s time was focused upon the preparations for building a permanent temple for God. In the preparation for the temple, and in its completion during the reign of King Solomon, the new activities of the Levites may be seen. (The construction of a permanent temple automatically removed their former responsibilities related to the care and transportation of the tabernacle.) Large numbers of Levites were employed as laborers in the actual building of the temple. Others found new tasks in the worship of God in the tabernacle during David’s reign and in the temple upon its completion. To the Levites, and especially to Heman, Asaph, and Ethan, was given primary responsibility for the music of worship; this involved not only singing but also the playing of a variety of instruments in the temple’s orchestra or band. The Levites had also a variety of other tasks; they worked as gatekeepers at the sanctuary, assisted the priests in the preparation of sacrifices, kept the sanctuary clean, and functioned as general administrative and legal officers (1 Chr 23:1-32). Other Levites functioned as bankers, with primary responsibility for the temple treasuries (26:20-28).<\/p>\n<p>Following David’s death, there was a dispute over the royal succession, from which Solomon emerged as the new king. During his reign, the temple was brought to its completion and the regular worship of the nation was conducted there. In the matter of succession, however, Abiathar had supported a losing candidate, and when Solomon was made king, he lost his important office in the royal court. During Solomon’s reign, the control of the priesthood passed into the hands of Zadok.<\/p>\n<h5>The Priesthood during the Divided Monarchy<\/h5>\n<p>The great empire, which had been built by David and maintained by Solomon, collapsed after Solomon’s death. From the ruins, two new and relatively insignificant states emerged. The southern kingdom, Judah, retained Jerusalem as its capital and the temple as its center of worship. The northern kingdom, Israel, located its first capital at Shechem, from where it was later moved to Tirzah.<\/p>\n<p>In the southern state of Judah, the priests and Levites continued to function normally within the Jerusalem temple. The office of high priest continued to be passed on by descent within the family of Zadok, who had held office in Solomon’s reign. The continuity of office in this family was to be retained down into the time of the second temple, when the Zadokite succession was interrupted about 171 <span>BC<\/span>. Nevertheless, for all the continuity of religion in Jerusalem, all was not well with religion in Judah, neither during the reign of its first king, Rehoboam, nor during the reigns of his successors. During Rehoboam’s reign, there was a decline in religion and also in the priesthood, when popular forms of religion were introduced as a result of foreign influence (1 Kgs 14:22-24). The history of the southern kingdom was marked by periods of religious decline followed by reform, often as a result of the activities of the prophets. The role of the priesthood was all too rarely one of spiritual leadership, and the priests themselves were often the subject of criticism by the prophets (e.g., Jer 2:8, 26).<\/p>\n<p>The northern kingdom, whose first king was Jeroboam I, inevitably had to introduce some radical changes in religion. Jeroboam could not recognize the temple of Jerusalem, partly because it lay outside his state and partly because it was intimately associated with the royal line of David. Jeroboam established two principal shrines in his kingdom, both of which were to retain importance during the relatively short life of the northern kingdom (200 years). The first was at Bethel, in the southern part of his kingdom near the border of Judah (it was only about 12 miles, or 19.3 kilometers, north of Jerusalem). The second shrine, or sanctuary, was at Dan, in the far northern part of his kingdom.<\/p>\n<p>Both these sanctuaries had ancient associations with the Hebrew traditions. Bethel is referred to as early as the time of Abram (Gn 12:8), and the sanctuary at Dan is known from the history of the judges (Jgs 18). There may indeed have been priests and Levites still residing in these two places, descendants of the former servants of the sanctuaries. But Jeroboam established a non-Levitical priesthood to serve in these sanctuaries and in various smaller shrines or “high places,” thereby cutting off the religious tradition of the northern state even more radically from that of Judah. The royal sanctuary at Bethel, so close to the Jerusalem temple, may have been set up in deliberate competition with the Judean sanctuary.<\/p>\n<p>The history of the priesthood in the northern kingdom is no more impressive than that of Judah. Many of the prophets, including Amos, Hosea, and Jeremiah, condemned the northern sanctuaries and their priests. Hosea was forceful in his condemnation: “As marauders lie in ambush for a man, so do bands of priests; they murder on the road to Shechem, committing shameful crimes” (Hos 6:9, <span>niv<\/span>). Those to whom the spiritual lives of the chosen people had been entrusted only rarely lived up to their responsibilities.<\/p>\n<h5>Priests and Levites during and after the Exile<\/h5>\n<p>The northern kingdom came to its end in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, defeated by the armies of Assyria, but religious life continued in Judah for a while longer. Eventually, the end of the southern state came about 586 <span>BC<\/span>; the defeat of the state by the Babylonians was accompanied by the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple (Lam 2:20). The Babylonian commander took Seraiah, the high priest, and Zephaniah, his assistant, to Riblah, where, along with other officials, they were executed (2 Kgs 25:18-21). Then a policy of exile was established by the Babylonians; the most important and influential people of Judah were deported to Babylon, while the less significant were allowed to remain, for they were unlikely to cause trouble. Of those exiled from Judah, many may have been priests (Jer 29:1), for they were men of influence. By way of contrast, it seems likely that a much smaller number of Levites was exiled, reflecting perhaps their inferior social position.<\/p>\n<p>In the city of Jerusalem there was little normal religious life during the years of the exile; the altar had been destroyed and was not restored until after the exile. No doubt some kind of activity continued, but it was an impoverished form of religion. Most of the priests were in exile in Babylon, but they could not function, for there was no temple or sanctuary. Ezekiel implies that God himself was the only “sanctuary” for the exiles (Ez 11:16). Not until the return from exile and the restoration of Jerusalem and its temple could the normal functions of priests and Levites resume.<\/p>\n<p>When the Babylonian Empire was defeated, the new Persian conquerors instituted a policy whereby the Hebrew exiles could return to their homeland. Of those returning, 4,289 are designated as priests and members of priestly families, while only 341 were Levites (Ezr 2:36-42); the imbalance probably reflects the imbalance in the number of those exiled initially. Under Joshua (Jeshua), the priest, and Zerubbabel, work began on the restoration. The priests played a significant role in the first year of the return, in the restoration of the altar in Jerusalem, so that sacrifice and worship to God could resume. Once the altar had been restored, the work began on the temple itself in the second year of the return. In this work, both the priests and the Levites were involved, and the laying of new foundations for the temple began. When the foundation had been laid, both priests, in their vestments, and Levites, in their role as singers and musicians, participated in the ceremony of dedication (3:8-13). Again, when the temple had been rebuilt, both priests and Levites participated in the ceremony of dedication (6:16-18). The restoration, however, was concerned with more than buildings; it also involved a moral and religious component. Though priests and Levites helped in this task, they were also affected by it. Many, for example, had married foreign wives (9:1), and thus had to conform to Ezra’s reform laws.<\/p>\n<p>To some extent, the priests and Levites resumed their normal duties in the worship of the postexilic period. The priests were engaged in the conduct of the temple worship. The Levites assisted, as temple servants (Neh 11:3), as treasurers and collectors of tithes (10:37-39), and as instructors or teachers of the law of God (8:7-9). Nevertheless, the history of the priesthood after the exile is not free of blemish. Condemnation of the abuses of the priestly office was delivered by the prophet Malachi (Mal 1:6–2:9). Malachi catalogues a list of priestly evils reminiscent of the evil priests who lived during the time of the monarchy.<\/p>\n<p>The office of high priest continued after the exile among the descendants of Zadok, being held first by Joshua (Hg 1:1). The different political circumstances, however, changed the nature of the high priestly office. Whereas in the days of the monarchy the high priest was subservient to the king, there was no king, in the proper sense, after the exile. From a political perspective, the Jews were members of a province or colony; for practical purposes, they were a community based upon a common religion. The high priest was no longer subject to the secular authority of a Jewish king, but his religious authority was considerable, and in some ways his functions were similar to those of a king in preexilic times.<\/p>\n<h5>The Priesthood in the Maccabean Period<\/h5>\n<p>During the second century <span>BC<\/span>, some changes took place in the priesthood, particularly with respect to the office of high priest, which marked the end of the OT era and set the background for the NT period. Judea, in the second century, was ruled by the Seleucid kings, who had inherited a portion of the massive Greek Empire established by Alexander the Great. The Judean province was controlled internally under the high priesthood, whose authority was received from the Seleucid kings.<\/p>\n<p>For the first three decades of the second century <span>BC<\/span>, the high priesthood remained with the Zadokite line of descent. The high priests were members of the (Zadokite) Oniad family: first, Onias III (198–174 <span>BC<\/span>); then Jason, brother of Onias III (174–171 <span>BC<\/span>). It was in the period of Jason that there began a series of events that would terminate the Zadokite tradition.<\/p>\n<p>Onias III had opposed the Hellenization policy of Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), which threatened to undermine the Jewish faith. Antiochus replaced Onias by Jason, who in effect purchased the high priesthood from the Seleucid king. In purchasing the priestly office, Jason had set a dangerous precedent; although he was of Zadokite descent, his act implied that the office could be bought and that descent was not vital. The opponents of Jason, the Tobiads, were able to remove him from office and have their own candidate, Menelaus (who was not a Zadokite), appointed in his place. This act resulted in a civil war between those supporting Jason and those supporting Menelaus, and the war in turn culminated in ruthless repressive measures by Antiochus Epiphanes; there were massacres in Jerusalem, and the temple was desecrated (167 <span>BC<\/span>). The desecration of the temple led to the Maccabean revolt, as a result of which the Jews regained their independence for a short time. Menelaus retained the office of high priest until 161 <span>BC<\/span> and was succeeded by Alcimus (161–159 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>There then followed a period during which there was no high priest for seven years. The political climate, however, was such that it became unlikely that the Zadokite line would ever regain the high priesthood, which had been established in the time of King Solomon. The Maccabean Jonathan gained control of Jerusalem, and in 152 <span>BC<\/span>, with the approval of the Seleucid king, he was formally invested with the high priest’s robes of office. He was succeeded as high priest and ruler by his brother Simon in 143 <span>BC<\/span>, who also held the office with the approval of the Seleucids (Demetrius II). But in the third year of his reign (140 <span>BC<\/span>), the high priesthood of Simon received public approval in a great religious assembly, and the family of Simon became “high priest forever” (1 Macc 14:41-47). That event marked the real termination of the Zadokite tradition and the foundation of the Hasmonean line.<\/p>\n<p>The establishment of the high priestly office outside the Zadokite line did not go without challenge. It is probable that a sect within Judaism, now known as the Essenes, was born in reaction to the high priesthood of Simon. The Essenes (better known for the Dead Sea Scrolls) appear to have been founded by a Zadokite priest who rejected the authenticity and authority of Simon. Thus, in a limited sense, the Zadokite priests continued to survive.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePriesthoodinNewTestamentTimes\">The Priesthood in New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>In the early NT period, both priests and Levites continued to function within the Jewish religion. Zechariah, father of John the Baptist, was a priest belonging to the division of Abijah (Lk 1:5), and his wife was also of priestly descent. When Zechariah was visited by an angel, he was engaged at the time in priestly duties in the Jerusalem temple—various divisions of priests took responsibility for the temple services for a period of time and then returned to their homes (v 23), as another division took over. The distinction between priests and Levites is also maintained in the NT (Jn 1:19) and appears in Jesus’ parable concerning the Good Samaritan (Lk 10:31-32). Both priests and Levites were among the earliest converts to Christianity; Barnabas was a Levite from Cyprus (Acts 4:36), and several priests responded to the proclamation of the gospel (6:7).<\/p>\n<p>The office of high priest is frequently referred to in the NT. Several high priests are named, the plurality of current and former holders of the office reflecting the nature of the position as an essentially political appointment (as distinct from its oldest definition, that of an office passing from father to son on the death of the father). The two most significant high priests in the NT are those who held office during the lifetime of Jesus. Annas was high priest about <span>AD<\/span> 6 to 15, but even after he ceased to hold the office formally, he continued to exert considerable influence through his son-in-law, the high priest Caiaphas (c. <span>AD<\/span> 18–36). Both were significant figures in the trial of Jesus. At a later date, Ananias, son of Nedebaeus, was high priest (c. <span>AD<\/span> 47–58) and president of the Sanhedrin during the time in which Paul was brought to trial.<\/p>\n<p>The priesthood held considerable authority in NT times. Most internal and religious matters in the Roman province of Judea were within the authority of the Sanhedrin, which functioned as a kind of provincial government, though its powers were limited in certain matters by Rome. Its membership included the ruling and former high priests and a large number of Sadducees, many of whom belonged to influential priestly families. This priestly influence in the Sanhedrin was indicative of the important role of the temple in Jewish life during the first century <span>AD<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>In <span>AD<\/span> 70, following the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem, a radical change came about in the significance of the priesthood in Judaism. The end of the temple removed in effect the purpose for the existence of the priesthood. Although the priesthood continued after a fashion until the Bar-Kochba rebellion in <span>AD<\/span> 135, its days were numbered after <span>AD<\/span> 70. Since the end of the first century <span>AD<\/span>, Judaism has developed without priests, and its course down to the present century has been charted by the rabbis, the spiritual descendants of the Pharisees.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Priesthood.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PRIESTS AND LEVITES<\/h3>\n<p>Servants of God in the OT. There were three basic classes of religious personnel in ancient Israel: prophets, wise men, and priests and Levites. The classical prophets fulfilled a vocation but were not professionals; they were not paid for their task and functioned only in response to the particular call of God. The wise men were involved in government and education; some of their duties were secular, though they were also involved in moral education. The priests and Levites fulfilled a variety of essentially religious duties and were equivalent approximately to the clergy in modern times. They were professional men and were supported for their full-time religious work.<\/p>\n<p>The role of the priesthood may be seen most clearly in the context of Israelite religion as a whole. At the heart of religion was a relationship with God; to be an Israelite or a Jew was to know and maintain a continuous relationship with the living God. This relationship found its outward expression in a variety of contexts: the covenant, the temple, worship, and every facet of daily life. Thus religion, understood as a relationship, had two perspectives: the relationship with God and that with fellow human beings. It had both a personal and a communal dimension to it. The priests were the guardians and servants of this life of relationship, which was at the heart of OT religion; all their functions can best be understood within the context of a relationship between God and Israel. The prophets, too, were servants of the covenant relationship. While the priests functioned as the normal servants of religion, the prophets’ role was more that of calling a delinquent people back to the relationship with God in times of crisis.<\/p>\n<p>In the OT, there are frequent references to both priests and Levites; in a number of biblical texts, however, the distinction is not clear (see, e.g., Dt 18:1-8). From the scholarly point of view, the precise relationship between priests and Levites is a continuing problem that has not yet been fully resolved. In general terms, only the sons of Aaron were to assume the role of priests; all other Levites would have religious functions, though technically they would not be priests. While this distinction is clear in most biblical texts, in others there is lack of certainty and clarity. It is clear, however, that <em>priests<\/em> (Levites descended from Aaron) and <em>Levites<\/em> (other than the descendants of Aaron) all had professional religious duties to perform. The precise nature of those duties varied from time to time in the course of Israel’s history.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Origins of the Priesthood<\/p>\n<p>• The High Priest<\/p>\n<p>• The Priests<\/p>\n<p>• The Levites<\/p>\n<p>• The History of the Institution<\/p>\n<p>• The Priesthood in New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheOriginsofthePriesthood\">The Origins of the Priesthood<\/p>\n<p>The priesthood in Israel began during the time of Moses and Aaron. The exodus from Egypt was not only the liberation of a group of Hebrew slaves but also the birth of the nation of Israel. The nation that was born in the exodus was given its constitution in the covenant of Sinai. The law of this covenant established the foundations and origins of Israelite priesthood. It provides insight into the three basic categories to be considered: the high priest, the priests, and the Levites.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheHighPriest\">The High Priest<\/p>\n<p>Any large and complex organization requires a head or leader, and this was true also of the Hebrew priesthood (though in its early days it was a small organization). The covenant was established through Moses, the prophet, through whom God gave the offer and substance of the covenant relationship; religious life within the covenant was to be the primary responsibility of Aaron, who was the first and chief priest.<\/p>\n<p>In the earliest days of Israel’s priesthood, it is probable that the high priest’s office was relatively informal; he was chief or leader among his fellow priests. The office was significant, nevertheless, and involved a special ritual of investiture, special clothing, and certain special responsibilities. While the high priest’s duties were similar in principle to those of other priests, he had certain exclusive responsibilities. To some extent, his duties were administrative, pertaining to all the priests of whom he had charge. But his position was more weighty than that of an administrator; just as all priests were the servants and guardians of the covenant relationship, so the high priest was chief servant and chief guardian. In his hands rested spiritual responsibility for the entire people of God, and therein lay the true honor and gravity of his position.<\/p>\n\n<p>This spiritual seniority of the high priest is seen most clearly in certain tasks he undertook within Israel’s life of worship. The clearest example may be seen in the annual observation of the Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur). On that day alone, the high priest entered the Holy of Holies and, standing before the “mercy seat,” he sought God’s forgiveness and mercy for the whole nation of Israel (Lv 16:1-19). It is in that ceremony that Israel’s covenant faith is seen most clearly. Israel’s religion was one of relationship with a holy God, and human evil disrupted that relationship. While all worship and sacrifices throughout the year were concerned with the continuation of the relationship, the Day of Atonement was the most solemn day of the year, in which the attention of all the people focused upon the meaning of their existence. Life held meaning only if the relationship with God could be maintained; the high priest had the great honor and heavy burden of seeking God’s mercy for all Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The special clothing worn by the high priest was symbolic of the nature and importance of his office; although all the symbolism cannot be determined, some of it is made clear in the biblical text. There are three particular themes in the symbolism. The first is beauty. The sense of beauty emerges from the quality and design of all the items of clothing, together with the use of color and precious stones. But beauty is dominant in the breastplate; the Hebrew word translated approximately as “breastplate” has as its basic sense “beauty” or “excellence.” The clothing symbolizes beauty, while beauty describes the office; the two other themes associated with the symbolism bring out the excellence of the office.<\/p>\n<p>The second theme is the role of the priest as representative of Israel before God. This essential dimension of the office of the high priest is explicitly identified in the names of the tribes of Israel in the two onyx stones in the ephod, and in the 12 precious stones attached to the breastplate. The high priest entered God’s presence to seek deliverance from God’s judgment (the breastplate is identified with judgment; Ex 28:15) for his people and in order to keep the people constantly in God’s remembrance (v 12), as symbolized by the two onyx stones. The third theme is the role of high priest as the representative of God to Israel. This dimension of the office is seen in the Urim and Thummim, kept in the breastpiece, by means of which God made known his will to Israel. The high priest, Aaron, fully robed, was a splendid figure, and the splendor of his garments indicated the magnificence of the office with which he had been entrusted.<\/p>\n<p>The high priesthood was to be passed on within the family (for the high priest was expected to be a married man), although in later history the practice was not always adhered to. On Aaron’s death, the office passed to Eleazar, one of his four sons.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePriests\">The Priests<\/p>\n<p>Priests took office not as the result of a particular vocation but by virtue of priestly descent. Thus the first priests were the four sons of Aaron: Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar. These four were ordained at the same time that Aaron was ordained high priest (Ex 28:1). Like him, they had special clothing, which was basically similar, though it lacked the distinctive garments of the high priest (the special ephod, the breastpiece, and the crown). The priesthood would be passed down through their sons.<\/p>\n<p>The sanctity of the priestly office was such that it was preserved from degeneration through specific laws. A man must be a descendant of Aaron to be a priest, but he was also required to meet a variety of other qualifications. He would not marry a divorcée or a former prostitute (Lv 21:7). If he was afflicted by certain kinds of disease or congenital defects, he was barred from priestly office (e.g., blindness, lameness, mutilation, being a hunchback or dwarf; vv 16-23). The principle involved was similar to that applying to animals used in sacrifice—only those free from defect or blemish were suitable for divine service.<\/p>\n<p>In the earliest days of the priesthood there is some information provided in the biblical text concerning the specific duties of the priests. Eleazar had overall responsibility for the tabernacle and its offerings (Nm 4:16); assisted Moses in a number of duties, such as numbering the people and dividing the land (26:1-2; 32:2); and later served as an adviser to Joshua. Ithamar was responsible for the construction of the tabernacle (Ex 38:21) and supervised the families of the Gershonites and Merarites (Nm 4:28-33). Nadab and Abihu, however, died soon after their ordination as a result of a sinful act in their priestly duties (Lv 10:1-7), which may have been related in part to drunkenness (vv 8-9).<\/p>\n<p>Priestly duties, in general, fell into three areas (Dt 33:8-10). First, priests were responsible, in conjunction with the high priest, for declaring God’s will to the people. Second, they had responsibilities in religious education; they were to teach to Israel God’s ordinances and law (v 10). Third, they were to be the servants of the tabernacle, participating in Israel’s sacrifices and worship. There were a number of other duties that may have fallen to them, which they would have shared with the Levites in general.<\/p>\n<p>The priests, along with all other Levites, did not own any land, as did the other Israelite tribes. Their task was to be entirely in the direct service to God. The absence of land, however, meant that they could not support and feed themselves as could other men and women. Consequently, the law specified that they could be supported for their services by the people as a whole. They were to receive, from worshipers, portions of animals that were brought to the tabernacle, as well as corn, wine, oil, and wool.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheLevites\">The Levites<\/p>\n<p>This term includes the priests, in a broad sense, for the sons of Aaron belonged to the tribe of Levi. For practical purposes, however, the Levites were those of the tribe other than the priests. The Levites also functioned in the service of the tabernacle, though they had a subordinate position. They, too, were professional men and were paid in money and in kind for their services. Though they did not inherit tribal territory of their own, there were a number of cities set aside for their use (Nm 35:1-8), and pasturelands were designated outside those cities for their livestock.<\/p>\n<p>The Levites were divided into three principal families, the descendants of Kohath, Gershon, and Merari (Nm 4). Each of these families had particular responsibilities with respect to the care and transport of the tabernacle. The sons of Kohath carried the tabernacle furniture (after it had been covered by the priests), the sons of Gershon cared for the coverings and screens, and the sons of Merari carried and erected the tabernacle’s frame. The priests, by contrast, were responsible for the transportation of the ark of the covenant. The role of each Levite, as servant of the tabernacle, was restricted; he undertook his professional duties between the ages of 25 and 50 (8:24-26).<\/p>\n<p>Although many of the duties of the Levites were of a mundane nature, they also had a very significant religious role. The law required that all the firstborn, including firstborn sons, be given to God, recalling the slaying of the firstborn at the exodus from Egypt. The Levites’ role in religion was that of being accepted by God in the place of the firstborn sons of Israel (Nm 3:11-13); their cattle, too, were accepted in place of the Israelites’ firstborn cattle. In the census taken in the time of Moses, the firstborn Israelites exceeded the number of the Levites, and a five-shekel redemption fee had to be paid into the priestly coffers for each person in excess (vv 40-51). The representative and substitutionary nature of the Levites can be seen in Israelite religion. Like the priests, they played a part in the larger activity of mediation between God and Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The law of Deuteronomy specifies a number of duties that may have fallen upon both priests and Levites (though the texts are ambiguous). These duties included participation in the activity of the law courts as judges, perhaps with special reference to religious crimes (Dt 17:8-9), taking care of the Book of the Law (v 18), controlling the lives and health of lepers (24:8), and participating directly in the conduct of covenant renewal ceremonies (27:9).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheHistoryoftheInstitution\">The History of the Institution<\/p>\n<p>In theory, the covenant law of Moses determined the nature and course of the offices of priests and Levites for the future history of Israel. In practice, however, changing historical circumstances and changes in the shape of Israel’s religion and culture altered the shape of the priesthood and the role of the Levites from time to time. And even more significantly, the persons who held the offices shaped them and their effectiveness through their faithfulness or unfaithfulness.<\/p>\n<h5>The Priesthood before the Monarchy<\/h5>\n<p>In the time of Joshua, the priests continued to undertake their important task of carrying the ark of the covenant. The Levites assisted in the division and allocation of the newly acquired land among the Israelite tribes. In Joshua 21, there is a detailed list of the allocation of cities to both priests and Levites, in fulfillment of the earlier legislation. In the days of the settlement, beyond the Conquest, there is some evidence that the Levites took over the priestly duty of transporting the ark (1 Sm 6:15; 2 Sm 15:24).<\/p>\n<p>The writer of the book of Judges has recorded two stories that illuminate the lives of particular Levites. The first, the story of Micah (Jgs 17–18), describes the establishment of a local shrine in which Micah’s son was appointed as a priest (though he was not of Levite or Aaronic descent). Later, Micah hired an itinerant Levite to function as a priest in his shrine, though subsequently that Levite was persuaded to serve the tribe of Dan as a priest. It is difficult to fit the details of this story into the theoretical model of priests and Levites, though the story may illustrate the confused state of Israel’s religion at the time. What is particularly significant is that the role of the Levite-priest was primarily oracular (18:5-6). The second story in Judges is the rather horrifying account of a Levite and his concubine (ch 19). The story illustrates the moral decline and lack of law and order in Israel at the time, but it sheds little light on the role of the Levites.<\/p>\n<p>More information is provided about the priesthood during the 11th century <span>BC<\/span>, immediately before the establishment of the monarchy. The tabernacle (by now probably a semipermanent structure) and the ark of the covenant were located in Shiloh. The priest in charge of the sanctuary in Shiloh was Eli, who may have been a descendant of Aaron’s son Ithamar. His two sons, Hophni and Phinehas, also served as priests, indicating that the principle of family descent was still operative with respect to the priesthood. But although Eli was a faithful priest, his two sons abused the office.<\/p>\n<p>The precise role of Samuel in this period is unclear. He was primarily a judge and a prophet, but it is difficult to determine whether he was also a priest. In the historical narrative, he is not called a priest, though Psalm 99:6 might be interpreted to indicate his priestly office. There are a number of passages, however, that indicate he acted like a priest. For example, he offered sacrifices (1 Sm 7:9-10); as a young man he served in the sanctuary of Shiloh and wore an ephod (ch 2). Furthermore, one of the biblical genealogies implies priestly descent (1 Chr 6:23-30). Nevertheless, he is not normally identified as a priest and the introduction to his story refers to him as an Ephraimite, by descent from his father (1 Sm 1:1), not a Levite. If the priest is perceived as a permanent servant of the sanctuary, as was Eli, then it is clear that Samuel was not a priest. But the priestly role of Samuel may perhaps be related to the fact that his mother “lent” him to God (v 28) while he was still a boy.<\/p>\n<h5>The Priesthood during the Time of David and Solomon<\/h5>\n<p>Several radical changes took place during the reign of David and Solomon. These were a result, primarily, of the establishment of a permanent temple in Jerusalem and the installation of the ark of the covenant there. During the time of Saul, the first king of Israel, the social structure was essentially the same as it had been in the time of the judges. Saul, as king, was a military leader, but his relationship to religion and the priesthood was not clearly determined.<\/p>\n<p>David changed the situation in many important respects. After his capture of the city of Jerusalem, he made that place the political and religious capital of his nation. The religious centrality of Jerusalem was assured by moving the ark of the covenant there, together with the tabernacle. Jerusalem now became the permanent location of the ark, and therefore the permanent center of religion; at the same time, the various regional shrines, which had developed in the premonarchical period, were gradually eliminated.<\/p>\n<p>These changes had numerous implications for the priesthood and the Levites. During David’s reign, there were two principal priests, Abiathar and Zadok. Abiathar, a former priest of Nob, had joined David before his rise to power; he appears to have been a descendant of Eli, and through him of Ithamar, one of Aaron’s sons. Zadok’s background is less clear, though his lineage appears to go back to Aaron’s other son, Eleazar. These two priests are always named together in the texts describing David’s reign, and Zadok is always mentioned before Abiathar. Although neither is explicitly identified as high priest in the ancient texts, there is some evidence to suggest that Abiathar functioned as high priest (1 Kgs 2:35); in NT times, he is identified as such (Mk 2:26). Zadok, during David’s reign, may have been particularly responsible for the care of the ark of the covenant (2 Sm 15:24-25). These two priests had a significant position in David’s royal establishment; they may also have shared overall responsibility for the priests, whose lives were now centered on the Jerusalem temple.<\/p>\n<p>Much of David’s time was focused upon the preparations for building a permanent temple for God. In the preparation for the temple, and in its completion during the reign of King Solomon, the new activities of the Levites may be seen. (The construction of a permanent temple automatically removed their former responsibilities related to the care and transportation of the tabernacle.) Large numbers of Levites were employed as laborers in the actual building of the temple. Others found new tasks in the worship of God in the tabernacle during David’s reign and in the temple upon its completion. To the Levites, and especially to Heman, Asaph, and Ethan, was given primary responsibility for the music of worship; this involved not only singing but also the playing of a variety of instruments in the temple’s orchestra or band. The Levites had also a variety of other tasks; they worked as gatekeepers at the sanctuary, assisted the priests in the preparation of sacrifices, kept the sanctuary clean, and functioned as general administrative and legal officers (1 Chr 23:1-32). Other Levites functioned as bankers, with primary responsibility for the temple treasuries (26:20-28).<\/p>\n<p>Following David’s death, there was a dispute over the royal succession, from which Solomon emerged as the new king. During his reign, the temple was brought to its completion and the regular worship of the nation was conducted there. In the matter of succession, however, Abiathar had supported a losing candidate, and when Solomon was made king, he lost his important office in the royal court. During Solomon’s reign, the control of the priesthood passed into the hands of Zadok.<\/p>\n<h5>The Priesthood during the Divided Monarchy<\/h5>\n<p>The great empire, which had been built by David and maintained by Solomon, collapsed after Solomon’s death. From the ruins, two new and relatively insignificant states emerged. The southern kingdom, Judah, retained Jerusalem as its capital and the temple as its center of worship. The northern kingdom, Israel, located its first capital at Shechem, from where it was later moved to Tirzah.<\/p>\n<p>In the southern state of Judah, the priests and Levites continued to function normally within the Jerusalem temple. The office of high priest continued to be passed on by descent within the family of Zadok, who had held office in Solomon’s reign. The continuity of office in this family was to be retained down into the time of the second temple, when the Zadokite succession was interrupted about 171 <span>BC<\/span>. Nevertheless, for all the continuity of religion in Jerusalem, all was not well with religion in Judah, neither during the reign of its first king, Rehoboam, nor during the reigns of his successors. During Rehoboam’s reign, there was a decline in religion and also in the priesthood, when popular forms of religion were introduced as a result of foreign influence (1 Kgs 14:22-24). The history of the southern kingdom was marked by periods of religious decline followed by reform, often as a result of the activities of the prophets. The role of the priesthood was all too rarely one of spiritual leadership, and the priests themselves were often the subject of criticism by the prophets (e.g., Jer 2:8, 26).<\/p>\n<p>The northern kingdom, whose first king was Jeroboam I, inevitably had to introduce some radical changes in religion. Jeroboam could not recognize the temple of Jerusalem, partly because it lay outside his state and partly because it was intimately associated with the royal line of David. Jeroboam established two principal shrines in his kingdom, both of which were to retain importance during the relatively short life of the northern kingdom (200 years). The first was at Bethel, in the southern part of his kingdom near the border of Judah (it was only about 12 miles, or 19.3 kilometers, north of Jerusalem). The second shrine, or sanctuary, was at Dan, in the far northern part of his kingdom.<\/p>\n<p>Both these sanctuaries had ancient associations with the Hebrew traditions. Bethel is referred to as early as the time of Abram (Gn 12:8), and the sanctuary at Dan is known from the history of the judges (Jgs 18). There may indeed have been priests and Levites still residing in these two places, descendants of the former servants of the sanctuaries. But Jeroboam established a non-Levitical priesthood to serve in these sanctuaries and in various smaller shrines or “high places,” thereby cutting off the religious tradition of the northern state even more radically from that of Judah. The royal sanctuary at Bethel, so close to the Jerusalem temple, may have been set up in deliberate competition with the Judean sanctuary.<\/p>\n<p>The history of the priesthood in the northern kingdom is no more impressive than that of Judah. Many of the prophets, including Amos, Hosea, and Jeremiah, condemned the northern sanctuaries and their priests. Hosea was forceful in his condemnation: “As marauders lie in ambush for a man, so do bands of priests; they murder on the road to Shechem, committing shameful crimes” (Hos 6:9, <span>niv<\/span>). Those to whom the spiritual lives of the chosen people had been entrusted only rarely lived up to their responsibilities.<\/p>\n<h5>Priests and Levites during and after the Exile<\/h5>\n<p>The northern kingdom came to its end in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, defeated by the armies of Assyria, but religious life continued in Judah for a while longer. Eventually, the end of the southern state came about 586 <span>BC<\/span>; the defeat of the state by the Babylonians was accompanied by the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple (Lam 2:20). The Babylonian commander took Seraiah, the high priest, and Zephaniah, his assistant, to Riblah, where, along with other officials, they were executed (2 Kgs 25:18-21). Then a policy of exile was established by the Babylonians; the most important and influential people of Judah were deported to Babylon, while the less significant were allowed to remain, for they were unlikely to cause trouble. Of those exiled from Judah, many may have been priests (Jer 29:1), for they were men of influence. By way of contrast, it seems likely that a much smaller number of Levites was exiled, reflecting perhaps their inferior social position.<\/p>\n<p>In the city of Jerusalem there was little normal religious life during the years of the exile; the altar had been destroyed and was not restored until after the exile. No doubt some kind of activity continued, but it was an impoverished form of religion. Most of the priests were in exile in Babylon, but they could not function, for there was no temple or sanctuary. Ezekiel implies that God himself was the only “sanctuary” for the exiles (Ez 11:16). Not until the return from exile and the restoration of Jerusalem and its temple could the normal functions of priests and Levites resume.<\/p>\n<p>When the Babylonian Empire was defeated, the new Persian conquerors instituted a policy whereby the Hebrew exiles could return to their homeland. Of those returning, 4,289 are designated as priests and members of priestly families, while only 341 were Levites (Ezr 2:36-42); the imbalance probably reflects the imbalance in the number of those exiled initially. Under Joshua (Jeshua), the priest, and Zerubbabel, work began on the restoration. The priests played a significant role in the first year of the return, in the restoration of the altar in Jerusalem, so that sacrifice and worship to God could resume. Once the altar had been restored, the work began on the temple itself in the second year of the return. In this work, both the priests and the Levites were involved, and the laying of new foundations for the temple began. When the foundation had been laid, both priests, in their vestments, and Levites, in their role as singers and musicians, participated in the ceremony of dedication (3:8-13). Again, when the temple had been rebuilt, both priests and Levites participated in the ceremony of dedication (6:16-18). The restoration, however, was concerned with more than buildings; it also involved a moral and religious component. Though priests and Levites helped in this task, they were also affected by it. Many, for example, had married foreign wives (9:1), and thus had to conform to Ezra’s reform laws.<\/p>\n<p>To some extent, the priests and Levites resumed their normal duties in the worship of the postexilic period. The priests were engaged in the conduct of the temple worship. The Levites assisted, as temple servants (Neh 11:3), as treasurers and collectors of tithes (10:37-39), and as instructors or teachers of the law of God (8:7-9). Nevertheless, the history of the priesthood after the exile is not free of blemish. Condemnation of the abuses of the priestly office was delivered by the prophet Malachi (Mal 1:6–2:9). Malachi catalogues a list of priestly evils reminiscent of the evil priests who lived during the time of the monarchy.<\/p>\n<p>The office of high priest continued after the exile among the descendants of Zadok, being held first by Joshua (Hg 1:1). The different political circumstances, however, changed the nature of the high priestly office. Whereas in the days of the monarchy the high priest was subservient to the king, there was no king, in the proper sense, after the exile. From a political perspective, the Jews were members of a province or colony; for practical purposes, they were a community based upon a common religion. The high priest was no longer subject to the secular authority of a Jewish king, but his religious authority was considerable, and in some ways his functions were similar to those of a king in preexilic times.<\/p>\n<h5>The Priesthood in the Maccabean Period<\/h5>\n<p>During the second century <span>BC<\/span>, some changes took place in the priesthood, particularly with respect to the office of high priest, which marked the end of the OT era and set the background for the NT period. Judea, in the second century, was ruled by the Seleucid kings, who had inherited a portion of the massive Greek Empire established by Alexander the Great. The Judean province was controlled internally under the high priesthood, whose authority was received from the Seleucid kings.<\/p>\n<p>For the first three decades of the second century <span>BC<\/span>, the high priesthood remained with the Zadokite line of descent. The high priests were members of the (Zadokite) Oniad family: first, Onias III (198–174 <span>BC<\/span>); then Jason, brother of Onias III (174–171 <span>BC<\/span>). It was in the period of Jason that there began a series of events that would terminate the Zadokite tradition.<\/p>\n<p>Onias III had opposed the Hellenization policy of Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), which threatened to undermine the Jewish faith. Antiochus replaced Onias by Jason, who in effect purchased the high priesthood from the Seleucid king. In purchasing the priestly office, Jason had set a dangerous precedent; although he was of Zadokite descent, his act implied that the office could be bought and that descent was not vital. The opponents of Jason, the Tobiads, were able to remove him from office and have their own candidate, Menelaus (who was not a Zadokite), appointed in his place. This act resulted in a civil war between those supporting Jason and those supporting Menelaus, and the war in turn culminated in ruthless repressive measures by Antiochus Epiphanes; there were massacres in Jerusalem, and the temple was desecrated (167 <span>BC<\/span>). The desecration of the temple led to the Maccabean revolt, as a result of which the Jews regained their independence for a short time. Menelaus retained the office of high priest until 161 <span>BC<\/span> and was succeeded by Alcimus (161–159 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>There then followed a period during which there was no high priest for seven years. The political climate, however, was such that it became unlikely that the Zadokite line would ever regain the high priesthood, which had been established in the time of King Solomon. The Maccabean Jonathan gained control of Jerusalem, and in 152 <span>BC<\/span>, with the approval of the Seleucid king, he was formally invested with the high priest’s robes of office. He was succeeded as high priest and ruler by his brother Simon in 143 <span>BC<\/span>, who also held the office with the approval of the Seleucids (Demetrius II). But in the third year of his reign (140 <span>BC<\/span>), the high priesthood of Simon received public approval in a great religious assembly, and the family of Simon became “high priest forever” (1 Macc 14:41-47). That event marked the real termination of the Zadokite tradition and the foundation of the Hasmonean line.<\/p>\n<p>The establishment of the high priestly office outside the Zadokite line did not go without challenge. It is probable that a sect within Judaism, now known as the Essenes, was born in reaction to the high priesthood of Simon. The Essenes (better known for the Dead Sea Scrolls) appear to have been founded by a Zadokite priest who rejected the authenticity and authority of Simon. Thus, in a limited sense, the Zadokite priests continued to survive.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePriesthoodinNewTestamentTimes\">The Priesthood in New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>In the early NT period, both priests and Levites continued to function within the Jewish religion. Zechariah, father of John the Baptist, was a priest belonging to the division of Abijah (Lk 1:5), and his wife was also of priestly descent. When Zechariah was visited by an angel, he was engaged at the time in priestly duties in the Jerusalem temple—various divisions of priests took responsibility for the temple services for a period of time and then returned to their homes (v 23), as another division took over. The distinction between priests and Levites is also maintained in the NT (Jn 1:19) and appears in Jesus’ parable concerning the Good Samaritan (Lk 10:31-32). Both priests and Levites were among the earliest converts to Christianity; Barnabas was a Levite from Cyprus (Acts 4:36), and several priests responded to the proclamation of the gospel (6:7).<\/p>\n<p>The office of high priest is frequently referred to in the NT. Several high priests are named, the plurality of current and former holders of the office reflecting the nature of the position as an essentially political appointment (as distinct from its oldest definition, that of an office passing from father to son on the death of the father). The two most significant high priests in the NT are those who held office during the lifetime of Jesus. Annas was high priest about <span>AD<\/span> 6 to 15, but even after he ceased to hold the office formally, he continued to exert considerable influence through his son-in-law, the high priest Caiaphas (c. <span>AD<\/span> 18–36). Both were significant figures in the trial of Jesus. At a later date, Ananias, son of Nedebaeus, was high priest (c. <span>AD<\/span> 47–58) and president of the Sanhedrin during the time in which Paul was brought to trial.<\/p>\n<p>The priesthood held considerable authority in NT times. Most internal and religious matters in the Roman province of Judea were within the authority of the Sanhedrin, which functioned as a kind of provincial government, though its powers were limited in certain matters by Rome. Its membership included the ruling and former high priests and a large number of Sadducees, many of whom belonged to influential priestly families. This priestly influence in the Sanhedrin was indicative of the important role of the temple in Jewish life during the first century <span>AD<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>In <span>AD<\/span> 70, following the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem, a radical change came about in the significance of the priesthood in Judaism. The end of the temple removed in effect the purpose for the existence of the priesthood. Although the priesthood continued after a fashion until the Bar-Kochba rebellion in <span>AD<\/span> 135, its days were numbered after <span>AD<\/span> 70. Since the end of the first century <span>AD<\/span>, Judaism has developed without priests, and its course down to the present century has been charted by the rabbis, the spiritual descendants of the Pharisees.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Priesthood.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PRIESTS AND LEVITES Servants of God in the OT. There were three basic classes of religious personnel in ancient Israel: prophets, wise men, and priests and Levites. The classical prophets fulfilled a vocation but were not professionals; they were not paid for their task and functioned only in response to the particular call of God. The wise men were involved in government and education; some of their duties were secular, though they were also involved in moral education. The priests and Levit...","summary_en":"PRIESTS AND LEVITES Servants of God in the OT. There were three basic classes of religious personnel in ancient Israel: prophets, wise men, and priests and Levites. The classical prophets fulfilled a vocation but were not professionals; they were not paid for their task and functioned only in response to the particular call of God. The wise men were involved in government and education; some of their duties were secular, though they were also involved in moral education. The priests and Levit...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":47995,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:36","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:36","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:36-42<\/strong> <em>the priests . . . the Levites:<\/em> Only seventy-four Levites returned to Jerusalem—a very low number. Ezra later worked hard to get thirty-eight more to come with him (see study note on 8:18).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:36-42<\/strong> <em>the priests . . . the Levites:<\/em> Only seventy-four Levites returned to Jerusalem—a very low number. Ezra later worked hard to get thirty-eight more to come with him (see study note on 8:18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:36-42 the priests . . . the Levites: Only seventy-four Levites returned to Jerusalem—a very low number. Ezra later worked hard to get thirty-eight more to come with him (see study note on 8:18).","summary_en":"2:36-42 the priests . . . the Levites: Only seventy-four Levites returned to Jerusalem—a very low number. Ezra later worked hard to get thirty-eight more to come with him (see study note on 8:18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75621,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:36","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:36","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:36-42<\/strong> <em>the priests . . . the Levites:<\/em> Only seventy-four Levites returned to Jerusalem—a very low number. Ezra later worked hard to get thirty-eight more to come with him (see study note on 8:18).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:36-42<\/strong> <em>the priests . . . the Levites:<\/em> Only seventy-four Levites returned to Jerusalem—a very low number. Ezra later worked hard to get thirty-eight more to come with him (see study note on 8:18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:36-42 the priests . . . the Levites: Only seventy-four Levites returned to Jerusalem—a very low number. Ezra later worked hard to get thirty-eight more to come with him (see study note on 8:18).","summary_en":"2:36-42 the priests . . . the Levites: Only seventy-four Levites returned to Jerusalem—a very low number. Ezra later worked hard to get thirty-eight more to come with him (see study note on 8:18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103247,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:36","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:36","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:36-42<\/strong> <em>the priests . . . the Levites:<\/em> Only seventy-four Levites returned to Jerusalem—a very low number. Ezra later worked hard to get thirty-eight more to come with him (see study note on 8:18).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:36-42<\/strong> <em>the priests . . . the Levites:<\/em> Only seventy-four Levites returned to Jerusalem—a very low number. Ezra later worked hard to get thirty-eight more to come with him (see study note on 8:18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:36-42 the priests . . . the Levites: Only seventy-four Levites returned to Jerusalem—a very low number. Ezra later worked hard to get thirty-eight more to come with him (see study note on 8:18).","summary_en":"2:36-42 the priests . . . the Levites: Only seventy-four Levites returned to Jerusalem—a very low number. Ezra later worked hard to get thirty-eight more to come with him (see study note on 8:18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":130873,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:36","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:36","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:36-42<\/strong> <em>the priests . . . the Levites:<\/em> Only seventy-four Levites returned to Jerusalem—a very low number. Ezra later worked hard to get thirty-eight more to come with him (see study note on 8:18).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:36-42<\/strong> <em>the priests . . . the Levites:<\/em> Only seventy-four Levites returned to Jerusalem—a very low number. Ezra later worked hard to get thirty-eight more to come with him (see study note on 8:18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:36-42 the priests . . . the Levites: Only seventy-four Levites returned to Jerusalem—a very low number. Ezra later worked hard to get thirty-eight more to come with him (see study note on 8:18).","summary_en":"2:36-42 the priests . . . the Levites: Only seventy-four Levites returned to Jerusalem—a very low number. Ezra later worked hard to get thirty-eight more to come with him (see study note on 8:18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"37":[{"id":17253,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Immer (Person)","title_en":"Immer (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>IMMER (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Priest in the time of David. He became the ancestral head of a house of priests: Pashhur, the priest who had Jeremiah arrested and placed in stocks, was a descendant of Immer (Jer 20:1). There were 1,052 priests of the subclan of Immer who returned from the exile (1 Chr 9:12; Ezr 2:37; Neh 7:40). A descendant of Immer helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:29) and 128 priests under Amashsai (also a descendant) helped resettle the city and tend the temple (Neh 11:13-14).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>IMMER (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Priest in the time of David. He became the ancestral head of a house of priests: Pashhur, the priest who had Jeremiah arrested and placed in stocks, was a descendant of Immer (Jer 20:1). There were 1,052 priests of the subclan of Immer who returned from the exile (1 Chr 9:12; Ezr 2:37; Neh 7:40). A descendant of Immer helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:29) and 128 priests under Amashsai (also a descendant) helped resettle the city and tend the temple (Neh 11:13-14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"IMMER (Person) Priest in the time of David. He became the ancestral head of a house of priests: Pashhur, the priest who had Jeremiah arrested and placed in stocks, was a descendant of Immer (Jer 20:1). There were 1,052 priests of the subclan of Immer who returned from the exile (1 Chr 9:12; Ezr 2:37; Neh 7:40). A descendant of Immer helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:29) and 128 priests under Amashsai (also a descendant) helped resettle the city and tend the temple (Neh 11:13-14).","summary_en":"IMMER (Person) Priest in the time of David. He became the ancestral head of a house of priests: Pashhur, the priest who had Jeremiah arrested and placed in stocks, was a descendant of Immer (Jer 20:1). There were 1,052 priests of the subclan of Immer who returned from the exile (1 Chr 9:12; Ezr 2:37; Neh 7:40). A descendant of Immer helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:29) and 128 priests under Amashsai (also a descendant) helped resettle the city and tend the temple (Neh 11:13-14).","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"38":[{"id":28924,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Pashhur, Pashur*","title_en":"Pashhur, Pashur*","content_ro":"<h3>PASHHUR, pashur*<\/h3>\n<li>1. Forefather of a family of priests who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:38; Neh 7:41). He was perhaps also the son of Malkijah and the grandfather of Adaiah the priest. Adaiah served in the sanctuary during the postexilic period (1 Chr 9:12). Six of Pashhur’s sons were encouraged by Ezra to divorce their foreign wives (Ezr 10:22).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the priests who with Nehemiah set his seal on the covenant of Ezra (Neh 10:3).<\/li>\n<li>3. Immer’s son and the priest and chief officer of the sanctuary during the reign of King Zedekiah of Judah (597–586 <span>BC<\/span>). Frustrated with Jeremiah’s predictions of doom for Jerusalem, Pashhur beat him and had him put in stocks at the temple’s Benjamin Gate. Upon his release, Jeremiah exposed Pashhur’s false prophecies and foretold his exile and death in Babylon (Jer 20:1-6).<\/li>\n<li>4. Son of Malkijah and perhaps the grandson of King Zedekiah of Judah (597–586 <span>BC<\/span>; Jer 21:1; 38:1; cf. 38:6). The king sent Pashhur, with Zephaniah the priest, to Jeremiah, requesting that he ask the Lord to deal favorably with Judah. It was in his father’s cistern that Jeremiah was imprisoned (Jer 38:6).<\/li>\n<li>5. Father of Gedaliah. Gedaliah—with Shephatiah, Jucal, and Pashhur—opposed Jeremiah and attempted to kill him by imprisoning him in Malkijah’s cistern (Jer 38:1).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>PASHHUR, pashur*<\/h3>\n<li>1. Forefather of a family of priests who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:38; Neh 7:41). He was perhaps also the son of Malkijah and the grandfather of Adaiah the priest. Adaiah served in the sanctuary during the postexilic period (1 Chr 9:12). Six of Pashhur’s sons were encouraged by Ezra to divorce their foreign wives (Ezr 10:22).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the priests who with Nehemiah set his seal on the covenant of Ezra (Neh 10:3).<\/li>\n<li>3. Immer’s son and the priest and chief officer of the sanctuary during the reign of King Zedekiah of Judah (597–586 <span>BC<\/span>). Frustrated with Jeremiah’s predictions of doom for Jerusalem, Pashhur beat him and had him put in stocks at the temple’s Benjamin Gate. Upon his release, Jeremiah exposed Pashhur’s false prophecies and foretold his exile and death in Babylon (Jer 20:1-6).<\/li>\n<li>4. Son of Malkijah and perhaps the grandson of King Zedekiah of Judah (597–586 <span>BC<\/span>; Jer 21:1; 38:1; cf. 38:6). The king sent Pashhur, with Zephaniah the priest, to Jeremiah, requesting that he ask the Lord to deal favorably with Judah. It was in his father’s cistern that Jeremiah was imprisoned (Jer 38:6).<\/li>\n<li>5. Father of Gedaliah. Gedaliah—with Shephatiah, Jucal, and Pashhur—opposed Jeremiah and attempted to kill him by imprisoning him in Malkijah’s cistern (Jer 38:1).<\/li>","summary_ro":"PASHHUR, pashur* 1. Forefather of a family of priests who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:38; Neh 7:41). He was perhaps also the son of Malkijah and the grandfather of Adaiah the priest. Adaiah served in the sanctuary during the postexilic period (1 Chr 9:12). Six of Pashhur’s sons were encouraged by Ezra to divorce their foreign wives (Ezr 10:22). 2. One of the priests who with Nehemiah set his seal on the covenant of Ezra (Neh 10:3). 3. Immer’s son and the pries...","summary_en":"PASHHUR, pashur* 1. Forefather of a family of priests who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:38; Neh 7:41). He was perhaps also the son of Malkijah and the grandfather of Adaiah the priest. Adaiah served in the sanctuary during the postexilic period (1 Chr 9:12). Six of Pashhur’s sons were encouraged by Ezra to divorce their foreign wives (Ezr 10:22). 2. One of the priests who with Nehemiah set his seal on the covenant of Ezra (Neh 10:3). 3. Immer’s son and the pries...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"39":[{"id":15374,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Harim","title_en":"Harim","content_ro":"<h3>HARIM<\/h3>\n<li>1. Priest whom King David appointed to official duties in the temple (1 Chr 24:8).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of a Jewish family who returned from the Babylonian exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:32; Neh 10:5). Members of this family were guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezr 10:31), but they divorced their wives and a representative of the clan signed Ezra’s covenant (Neh 10:27).<\/li>\n<li>3. Ancestor of a family of priests who returned from the exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:39; Neh 7:42). Some identify him with #1 above. Members of this family were guilty of marrying foreign women.<\/li>\n<li>4. Ancestor of Malkijah. Malkijah repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall during Nehemiah’s time (Neh 3:11). This Harim could be the same as #2 above.<\/li>\n<li>5. Priest who returned from the exile with Zerubbabel (Neh 12:3; Hebrew “Rehum,” see <span>nlt<\/span> mg). His son (or grandson) Adna is listed as a leading priest during the high priesthood of Joiakim (12:15). Later, under Ezra, a representative of the family (probably related to #3 above) signed the covenant of faithfulness to God (10:5).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>HARIM<\/h3>\n<li>1. Priest whom King David appointed to official duties in the temple (1 Chr 24:8).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of a Jewish family who returned from the Babylonian exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:32; Neh 10:5). Members of this family were guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezr 10:31), but they divorced their wives and a representative of the clan signed Ezra’s covenant (Neh 10:27).<\/li>\n<li>3. Ancestor of a family of priests who returned from the exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:39; Neh 7:42). Some identify him with #1 above. Members of this family were guilty of marrying foreign women.<\/li>\n<li>4. Ancestor of Malkijah. Malkijah repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall during Nehemiah’s time (Neh 3:11). This Harim could be the same as #2 above.<\/li>\n<li>5. Priest who returned from the exile with Zerubbabel (Neh 12:3; Hebrew “Rehum,” see <span>nlt<\/span> mg). His son (or grandson) Adna is listed as a leading priest during the high priesthood of Joiakim (12:15). Later, under Ezra, a representative of the family (probably related to #3 above) signed the covenant of faithfulness to God (10:5).<\/li>","summary_ro":"HARIM 1. Priest whom King David appointed to official duties in the temple (1 Chr 24:8). 2. Ancestor of a Jewish family who returned from the Babylonian exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:32; Neh 10:5). Members of this family were guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezr 10:31), but they divorced their wives and a representative of the clan signed Ezra’s covenant (Neh 10:27). 3. Ancestor of a family of priests who returned from the exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:39; Neh 7:42). Some identify him with #1 ...","summary_en":"HARIM 1. Priest whom King David appointed to official duties in the temple (1 Chr 24:8). 2. Ancestor of a Jewish family who returned from the Babylonian exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:32; Neh 10:5). Members of this family were guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezr 10:31), but they divorced their wives and a representative of the clan signed Ezra’s covenant (Neh 10:27). 3. Ancestor of a family of priests who returned from the exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:39; Neh 7:42). Some identify him with #1 ...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"40":[{"id":16501,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hodaviah","title_en":"Hodaviah","content_ro":"<h3>HODAVIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Postexilic descendant of David (1 Chr 3:24).<\/li>\n<li>2. Chieftain of Manasseh’s half-tribe east of the Jordan (1 Chr 5:24).<\/li>\n<li>3. Hassenuah’s son and the father of Meshullam from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 9:7).<\/li>\n<li>4. Progenitor of a family of Levites who returned with the exiles from Babylon (Ezr 2:40); alternately called Judah in Ezra 3:9 and Hodevah in Nehemiah 7:43.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>HODAVIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Postexilic descendant of David (1 Chr 3:24).<\/li>\n<li>2. Chieftain of Manasseh’s half-tribe east of the Jordan (1 Chr 5:24).<\/li>\n<li>3. Hassenuah’s son and the father of Meshullam from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 9:7).<\/li>\n<li>4. Progenitor of a family of Levites who returned with the exiles from Babylon (Ezr 2:40); alternately called Judah in Ezra 3:9 and Hodevah in Nehemiah 7:43.<\/li>","summary_ro":"HODAVIAH 1. Postexilic descendant of David (1 Chr 3:24). 2. Chieftain of Manasseh’s half-tribe east of the Jordan (1 Chr 5:24). 3. Hassenuah’s son and the father of Meshullam from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 9:7). 4. Progenitor of a family of Levites who returned with the exiles from Babylon (Ezr 2:40); alternately called Judah in Ezra 3:9 and Hodevah in Nehemiah 7:43.","summary_en":"HODAVIAH 1. Postexilic descendant of David (1 Chr 3:24). 2. Chieftain of Manasseh’s half-tribe east of the Jordan (1 Chr 5:24). 3. Hassenuah’s son and the father of Meshullam from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 9:7). 4. Progenitor of a family of Levites who returned with the exiles from Babylon (Ezr 2:40); alternately called Judah in Ezra 3:9 and Hodevah in Nehemiah 7:43.","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":19347,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jeshua (Person)","title_en":"Jeshua (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>JESHUA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Jozadak was deported by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylon (1 Chr 6:14-15). Jeshua, Jozadak’s successor as high priest, returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem after the exile (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7; 12:1). Upon arrival, he led his fellow priests in making the altar of God (Ezr 3:2; 5:2) and eventually headed up a construction program to rebuild the temple (3:8). Confirmed as God’s leader by Haggai and Zechariah (Hg 1:1-14; 2:2, 4; Zec 3:1-9; 6:11), Jeshua (alternately “Joshua” in these passages) resolutely resisted attempts by adversaries to infiltrate his people and hinder the work on the temple (Ezr 4:3). Joiakim was Jeshua’s son and successor as high priest, serving in the days of Nehemiah and Ezra (Neh 12:12, 26).<\/li>\n<li>4. Descendant of Pahath-moab and the forefather of a family of Jews who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:6; Neh 7:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Father of a family of Levites who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:40; Neh 7:43; 12:8). He and his sons were responsible for overseeing the workmen building the temple (Ezr 3:9; this Jeshua may be identical with #3 above).<\/li>\n<li>6. Levite and Jozabad’s father. Jozabad assisted Meremoth, Eleazar, and Noadiah with taking inventory of the temple’s precious metals and vessels during the days of Ezra (Ezr 8:33).<\/li>\n<li>7. Ezer’s father. Ezer was ruler of Mizpah, who repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 3:19).<\/li>\n<li>8. Azaniah’s son and a leader of the Levites in the days of Ezra and Nehemiah. Jeshua assisted Ezra with teaching the people the law (Neh 8:7) and later set his seal on Ezra’s covenant (10:9).<\/li>\n<li>9. Alternate spelling of Joshua, the son of Nun, in Nehemiah 8:17. <em>See<\/em> Joshua (Person) #1.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JESHUA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Jozadak was deported by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylon (1 Chr 6:14-15). Jeshua, Jozadak’s successor as high priest, returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem after the exile (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7; 12:1). Upon arrival, he led his fellow priests in making the altar of God (Ezr 3:2; 5:2) and eventually headed up a construction program to rebuild the temple (3:8). Confirmed as God’s leader by Haggai and Zechariah (Hg 1:1-14; 2:2, 4; Zec 3:1-9; 6:11), Jeshua (alternately “Joshua” in these passages) resolutely resisted attempts by adversaries to infiltrate his people and hinder the work on the temple (Ezr 4:3). Joiakim was Jeshua’s son and successor as high priest, serving in the days of Nehemiah and Ezra (Neh 12:12, 26).<\/li>\n<li>4. Descendant of Pahath-moab and the forefather of a family of Jews who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:6; Neh 7:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Father of a family of Levites who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:40; Neh 7:43; 12:8). He and his sons were responsible for overseeing the workmen building the temple (Ezr 3:9; this Jeshua may be identical with #3 above).<\/li>\n<li>6. Levite and Jozabad’s father. Jozabad assisted Meremoth, Eleazar, and Noadiah with taking inventory of the temple’s precious metals and vessels during the days of Ezra (Ezr 8:33).<\/li>\n<li>7. Ezer’s father. Ezer was ruler of Mizpah, who repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 3:19).<\/li>\n<li>8. Azaniah’s son and a leader of the Levites in the days of Ezra and Nehemiah. Jeshua assisted Ezra with teaching the people the law (Neh 8:7) and later set his seal on Ezra’s covenant (10:9).<\/li>\n<li>9. Alternate spelling of Joshua, the son of Nun, in Nehemiah 8:17. <em>See<\/em> Joshua (Person) #1.<\/li>","summary_ro":"JESHUA (Person) 1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39). 2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15). 3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Joz...","summary_en":"JESHUA (Person) 1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39). 2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15). 3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Joz...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21009,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Judah (Person)","title_en":"Judah (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>JUDAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Fourth of Jacob’s 12 sons (Gn 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1) and the fourth son born to Jacob by Leah, who, overjoyed with the thought of bearing Jacob another son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gn 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua the Canaanitess (Gn 38:3-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins Perez and Zerah by Tamar, his daughter-in-law (Gn 38:29-30; 1 Chr 2:4). He eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Ex 1:2), although his first two sons, Er and Onan, were divinely killed in Canaan for their disobedience (Gn 46:12). Judah became the founder of one of Israel’s 12 tribes (Nm 1:26-27).<\/li>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gn 38:6-30), Judah showed firm resolve in taking personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and acting as intercessor for his brothers before Joseph (44:14-18). At the time of Jacob’s blessing, Judah was granted the birthright privileges of the firstborn; the leadership of Jacob’s family would come through Judah’s seed, as would the promised Messiah of Abraham’s covenant (49:8-12). Later, Judah’s family was praised at the time of Ruth’s engagement to Boaz (Ru 4:12), and both the Davidic lines of kings (1 Chr 2:1-15; 3:1-24) and Jesus Christ’s ancestors traced their descent from Judah (Mt 1:2-3; Lk 3:33).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ; Judah, Tribe of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Forefather of a family of Levites who assisted Jeshua, the high priest, with rebuilding the temple during the postexilic era (Ezr 3:9, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). He is alternately called Hodaviah in Ezra 2:40 and Hodevah in Nehemiah 7:43. <em>See<\/em> Hodaviah #4.<\/li>\n<li>3. One of the Levites who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife (Ezr 10:23).<\/li>\n<li>4. Benjamite, son of Hassenuah, who was second in command over the city of Jerusalem during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 11:9).<\/li>\n<li>5. One of the leaders of the Levites who returned with Zerubbabel and Jeshua to Judah after the exile (Neh 12:8).<\/li>\n<li>6. One of the princes of Judah who participated in the dedication of the Jerusalem wall during the postexilic period (Neh 12:34).<\/li>\n<li>7. One of the priests who played a musical instrument at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 12:36). He is perhaps identical with #5 above.<\/li>\n<li>8. Joseph’s son, father of Simeon and an ancestor of Jesus Christ (Lk 3:30). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JUDAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Fourth of Jacob’s 12 sons (Gn 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1) and the fourth son born to Jacob by Leah, who, overjoyed with the thought of bearing Jacob another son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gn 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua the Canaanitess (Gn 38:3-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins Perez and Zerah by Tamar, his daughter-in-law (Gn 38:29-30; 1 Chr 2:4). He eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Ex 1:2), although his first two sons, Er and Onan, were divinely killed in Canaan for their disobedience (Gn 46:12). Judah became the founder of one of Israel’s 12 tribes (Nm 1:26-27).<\/li>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gn 38:6-30), Judah showed firm resolve in taking personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and acting as intercessor for his brothers before Joseph (44:14-18). At the time of Jacob’s blessing, Judah was granted the birthright privileges of the firstborn; the leadership of Jacob’s family would come through Judah’s seed, as would the promised Messiah of Abraham’s covenant (49:8-12). Later, Judah’s family was praised at the time of Ruth’s engagement to Boaz (Ru 4:12), and both the Davidic lines of kings (1 Chr 2:1-15; 3:1-24) and Jesus Christ’s ancestors traced their descent from Judah (Mt 1:2-3; Lk 3:33).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ; Judah, Tribe of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Forefather of a family of Levites who assisted Jeshua, the high priest, with rebuilding the temple during the postexilic era (Ezr 3:9, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). He is alternately called Hodaviah in Ezra 2:40 and Hodevah in Nehemiah 7:43. <em>See<\/em> Hodaviah #4.<\/li>\n<li>3. One of the Levites who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife (Ezr 10:23).<\/li>\n<li>4. Benjamite, son of Hassenuah, who was second in command over the city of Jerusalem during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 11:9).<\/li>\n<li>5. One of the leaders of the Levites who returned with Zerubbabel and Jeshua to Judah after the exile (Neh 12:8).<\/li>\n<li>6. One of the princes of Judah who participated in the dedication of the Jerusalem wall during the postexilic period (Neh 12:34).<\/li>\n<li>7. One of the priests who played a musical instrument at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 12:36). He is perhaps identical with #5 above.<\/li>\n<li>8. Joseph’s son, father of Simeon and an ancestor of Jesus Christ (Lk 3:30). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>","summary_ro":"JUDAH (Person) 1. Fourth of Jacob’s 12 sons (Gn 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1) and the fourth son born to Jacob by Leah, who, overjoyed with the thought of bearing Jacob another son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gn 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua the Canaanitess (Gn 38:3-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins Perez and Zerah by Tamar, his daughter-in-law (Gn 38:29-30; 1 Chr 2:4). He eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Ex 1:2), although his fi...","summary_en":"JUDAH (Person) 1. Fourth of Jacob’s 12 sons (Gn 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1) and the fourth son born to Jacob by Leah, who, overjoyed with the thought of bearing Jacob another son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gn 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua the Canaanitess (Gn 38:3-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins Perez and Zerah by Tamar, his daughter-in-law (Gn 38:29-30; 1 Chr 2:4). He eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Ex 1:2), although his fi...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21489,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kadmiel","title_en":"Kadmiel","content_ro":"<h3>KADMIEL<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a Levite family who returned from the exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:40; Neh 7:43; 12:8). His name appears in the list of those who supervised the temple rebuilding project (Ezr 3:9), participated in sealing the covenant (Neh 10:9), and were prominent in the praise service (9:4-5; 12:24).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KADMIEL<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a Levite family who returned from the exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:40; Neh 7:43; 12:8). His name appears in the list of those who supervised the temple rebuilding project (Ezr 3:9), participated in sealing the covenant (Neh 10:9), and were prominent in the praise service (9:4-5; 12:24).<\/p>","summary_ro":"KADMIEL Head of a Levite family who returned from the exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:40; Neh 7:43; 12:8). His name appears in the list of those who supervised the temple rebuilding project (Ezr 3:9), participated in sealing the covenant (Neh 10:9), and were prominent in the praise service (9:4-5; 12:24).","summary_en":"KADMIEL Head of a Levite family who returned from the exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:40; Neh 7:43; 12:8). His name appears in the list of those who supervised the temple rebuilding project (Ezr 3:9), participated in sealing the covenant (Neh 10:9), and were prominent in the praise service (9:4-5; 12:24).","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"41":[{"id":2847,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Asaph","title_en":"Asaph","content_ro":"<h3>ASAPH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Berechiah’s son, an important tabernacle musician during King David’s reign (1 Chr 6:31-32, 39). Along with Heman, the head singer, and Ethan, Asaph was appointed to sound bronze cymbals during the ceremony when the ark was brought to the new tabernacle (1 Chr 15:1-19). David appointed Asaph to serve “by giving constant praise and thanks to the Lord God of Israel” (1 Chr 16:4-5, <span>tlb<\/span>) and to lead Israel in a special psalm of praise (1 Chr 16:7-36). Along with his relatives he ministered daily before the ark (1 Chr 16:37; 25:6, 9; 1 Esd 1:15; 5:27, 59). He was also described as David’s private prophet (1 Chr 25:1-2). Asaph’s name appears in the superscriptions of Psalms 50 and 73–83 and in the guild he established, “the sons of Asaph” (1 Chr 25:1; 2 Chr 35:15; Ezr 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22).<\/li>\n<li>2. Joah’s father. Joah was the recorder (court historian or royal scribe) in King Hezekiah’s administration (2 Kgs 18:18, 27; Is 36:22).<\/li>\n<li>3. Temple guard or gatekeeper, seemingly the same person as Ebiasaph (1 Chr 9:18).<\/li>\n<li>4. Keeper of the king’s forest in Palestine under Artaxerxes I Longimanus (Neh 2:8). Nehemiah asked this Asaph for timber to rebuild the wall, gates, and structures of Jerusalem.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ASAPH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Berechiah’s son, an important tabernacle musician during King David’s reign (1 Chr 6:31-32, 39). Along with Heman, the head singer, and Ethan, Asaph was appointed to sound bronze cymbals during the ceremony when the ark was brought to the new tabernacle (1 Chr 15:1-19). David appointed Asaph to serve “by giving constant praise and thanks to the Lord God of Israel” (1 Chr 16:4-5, <span>tlb<\/span>) and to lead Israel in a special psalm of praise (1 Chr 16:7-36). Along with his relatives he ministered daily before the ark (1 Chr 16:37; 25:6, 9; 1 Esd 1:15; 5:27, 59). He was also described as David’s private prophet (1 Chr 25:1-2). Asaph’s name appears in the superscriptions of Psalms 50 and 73–83 and in the guild he established, “the sons of Asaph” (1 Chr 25:1; 2 Chr 35:15; Ezr 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22).<\/li>\n<li>2. Joah’s father. Joah was the recorder (court historian or royal scribe) in King Hezekiah’s administration (2 Kgs 18:18, 27; Is 36:22).<\/li>\n<li>3. Temple guard or gatekeeper, seemingly the same person as Ebiasaph (1 Chr 9:18).<\/li>\n<li>4. Keeper of the king’s forest in Palestine under Artaxerxes I Longimanus (Neh 2:8). Nehemiah asked this Asaph for timber to rebuild the wall, gates, and structures of Jerusalem.<\/li>","summary_ro":"ASAPH 1. Berechiah’s son, an important tabernacle musician during King David’s reign (1 Chr 6:31-32, 39). Along with Heman, the head singer, and Ethan, Asaph was appointed to sound bronze cymbals during the ceremony when the ark was brought to the new tabernacle (1 Chr 15:1-19). David appointed Asaph to serve “by giving constant praise and thanks to the Lord God of Israel” (1 Chr 16:4-5, tlb) and to lead Israel in a special psalm of praise (1 Chr 16:7-36). Along with his relatives he minister...","summary_en":"ASAPH 1. Berechiah’s son, an important tabernacle musician during King David’s reign (1 Chr 6:31-32, 39). Along with Heman, the head singer, and Ethan, Asaph was appointed to sound bronze cymbals during the ceremony when the ark was brought to the new tabernacle (1 Chr 15:1-19). David appointed Asaph to serve “by giving constant praise and thanks to the Lord God of Israel” (1 Chr 16:4-5, tlb) and to lead Israel in a special psalm of praise (1 Chr 16:7-36). Along with his relatives he minister...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26556,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Music","title_en":"Music","content_ro":"<h3>MUSIC<\/h3>\n<p>A natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship.<\/p>\n<p>The phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human impulse to sing. The injunction “sing to the Lord” was a signal for the people to pour out their praise in song.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible, however, is limited in its treatment of music in ancient Israel. Since there was no written musical notation, the primary record of songs sung by the Hebrews is the collection of texts, particularly the psalms, and a few enigmatic musical instructions. The biblical writers were writing a history not of their culture but of their relationship with God; hence, their comments about music are not critical. Also, the biblical documents cover a long span of history and are grouped according to category rather than in chronological order, thus making it difficult to order the development of musical style with precision. Finally, there is the problem of understanding the biblical descriptions of music and its performance. Only in this century have scholars been able to interpret the information provided in the Bible in terms of Eastern music systems.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Music in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Music in the Psalms<\/p>\n<p>• Music in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MusicintheOldTestament\">Music in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first musician—the inventor of the harp and flute” (Gn 4:21, <span>nlt<\/span>). The importance of this description of a musician so early in history lies in the equality Jubal is given with his brothers Jabal, the herdsman, and Tubal-cain, the smith. Music making is recognized among the earliest professions of nomadic peoples. The name Jubal is believed to be a derivative from the Hebrew word for “ram.” The ram’s horn <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shophar<\/span><em>)<\/em> was an early instrument of the Jewish people and was significant in signaling important events.<\/p>\n<p>For the most part, the music described in early biblical history was of a functional nature. Music gained special significance as it became an important part of temple worship. Many of the descriptions of music making in ancient Israel, before David’s time, are quite utilitarian. There are accounts of music at times of farewell (Gn 31:27), at times of rejoicing and feasting (Ex 32:17-18; Is 5:12; 24:8-9), at military victories (2 Chr 20:27-28), and for work (Nm 21:17, the song of the well diggers; Is 16:10; Jer 48:33). Most of this music was probably rather crude and primitive in nature, especially the music associated with military advances, which was meant to terrify the enemy (Jgs 7:17-20). The music and dancing that greeted Moses as he descended from the mountain was described as if it sounded like “war in the camp” (Ex 32:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>In the early history of the Jewish people, women played an important part in the performance of music. The image of women dancing and singing for joy accompanied by percussion instruments is repeated several times: Miriam led the women in a hymn of thanksgiving after the deliverance from the Red Sea (Ex 15); Jephthah’s daughter welcomed her father in his victory (Jgs 11:34); Deborah joined with Barak in singing a song of victory (Jgs 5); and women hailed David after his defeat of the Philistines (1 Sm 18:6-7). There is little mention of women as musicians following the establishment of the temple in Jerusalem, but there are a few allusions to the fact that women did participate in singing and dancing. The account of the return from exile in Babylon includes both male and female singers (Neh 7:67), confirming that women still took part in musical performance.<\/p>\n<p>As Jerusalem became the religious center of the Hebrew people (950–850 <span>BC<\/span>), the role of the professional musician became more important. The women’s songs became insignificant compared to the pomp and ceremony associated with the temple and the royal court. While the Levitical singers took most of the musical responsibility at the temple, the development of antiphonal singing allowed the people to join in on responses in the singing of psalms.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Style and Use<\/h5>\n<p>The Jewish people seem to have been especially musical. Of course, they were influenced by other ancient cultures, but there is evidence that they were in demand as musicians by other peoples. According to an Assyrian document, King Hezekiah gave as tribute to King Sennacherib many male and female Jewish musicians. The Babylonians demanded that the captive Jews sing to them and entertain them (cf. Ps 137:3).<\/p>\n<p>Since the OT’s purpose was to narrate the relationship between the Jewish nation and God, most of the references to music deal with its function in worship. However, evidence reveals that there was also a large body of secular musical literature. There may have been guilds of poets and singers early in Jewish history. The kinds of songs recorded in the early part of the OT represent a folklike poetry. The song of thanksgiving to the Lord by Moses and the people of Israel after their escape at the Red Sea is a stirring national song. Many descriptions of the biblical writers reflect the spirit of bardic song. This would be logical, as these stories were meant to be passed on. Marching songs (2 Chr 20:27-28), and songs of triumph (Jgs 5) also indicate a secular body of music.<\/p>\n<h5>Music in Worship<\/h5>\n<p>The singers and musicians for the temple worship were chosen from the tribe of Levi. King David assembled the Levites for a census, and out of the total of 38,000 men over the age of 30, 4,000 were chosen as musicians. These 4,000 were subsequently given specific jobs. “David and the chiefs of the service also set apart for the service certain of the sons of Asaph, and of Heman, and of Jeduthun, who should prophesy with lyres, with harps, and with cymbals. . . . The number of them along with their brethren, who were trained in singing to the <span>Lord<\/span>, all who were skilful, was two hundred and eighty-eight” (1 Chr 25:1, 7, <span>rsv<\/span>). The singers were further divided into 24 groups of 12 singers, who rotated in participating in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\n<p>According to a later source, there were minimum and maximum numbers of singers and instrumentalists required at each service. The minimum number of singers was twelve, the maximum was unlimited. There had to be in attendance at least two harps but no more than six, at least two flutes but no more than twelve, a minimum of two trumpets with no maximum, and a minimum of nine lyres with no maximum. There was only one player with a pair of cymbals.<\/p>\n<p>A singer was admitted to the Levitical choir at the age of thirty following a five-year apprenticeship (1 Chr 23:3). Five years is a relatively short time considering the amount of material these singers had to memorize (for there was no notation) and the liturgical ritual they had to master; it is speculated that they actually were in training from childhood. The Levites lived in villages outside the city wall and may have been actively involved in the musical education of their children (Neh 12:29). The Levites performed other duties connected with the sacred service, but the singers were excused from all other duties because they were on duty day and night (1 Chr 9:33). Their skills were an important part of the temple worship, and they were able to devote their entire life to the development of their musical ability. A singer served in the choir for 20 years, from age 30 to 50, and the music was of a high quality due to strict discipline and continuous practice and performance.<\/p>\n<p>From the beginning of Jewish formal worship connected with the tabernacle, music and sound was important. In Exodus 28:34-35 the descriptions of Aaron’s robe include bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. The first liturgical music mentioned in the OT is found in 2 Samuel 6 in the descriptions of the transfer of the ark: David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord. This music bore little resemblance to the stately ceremony described later in Solomon’s temple. In 2 Chronicles 7:6, David is given recognition for inventing the musical instruments used in the temple. In the postexilic era Levitical singers are mentioned as the descendants of Asaph, the “singing master” appointed by David (Ezr 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). From passages such as these, we have a definite indication that liturgical music and organization stemmed from David’s time.<\/p>\n<p>The ceremonies in the Jewish temple were organized around the sacrifice. Singing formed an integral part of the sacrificial service and was necessary to validate the sacrificial action. There were special musical settings for each sacrifice; thus the daily burnt, expiatory, and laudatory offerings and libations had individual liturgies. Particular psalms became associated with certain sacrifices as well as with certain days of the week. The psalm of the day was intoned as the high priest started to pour out the drink offering. The psalm was divided into three sections, each signaled by the blowing of the trumpets, on which signal the people would prostrate themselves. This is the only time the trumpets were used together with the other instruments in orchestral fashion on solemn occasions (2 Chr 5:12-13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MusicinthePsalms\">Music in the Psalms<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Psalm Titles<\/h5>\n<p>The collection of 150 lyric poems known as the book of Psalms contains the most information on music making in ancient Israel. The Psalter contains not only religious songs but also songs that have their roots in secular or popular songs, such as work songs, love songs, and wedding songs. The majority are songs of praise, thanksgiving, prayer, and repentance. There are also historic odes that relate great national events—for example, Psalm 30, “a song at the dedication of the temple,” and Psalm 137, which portrays the sufferings of the Jews in captivity.<\/p>\n<p>The psalms were an important part of all the services of the temple; the Psalter became the liturgical hymnal of the Israelites. Worship included an appointed psalm for each day of the week. On the first day of the week, Psalm 24 was sung in remembrance of the first day of creation, Psalm 48 was sung on the second day, Psalm 82 on the third, Psalm 94 on the fourth, Psalm 81 on the fifth, Psalm 93 on the sixth, and Psalm 92 on the Sabbath. After the sacrificial offerings, Psalm 105:1-5 was sung at the morning service and Psalm 96 at the evening service. The Hallel psalms (Pss 113–118, 120–136, 146–148) were sung during the offering of the paschal lamb at the Passover feast.<\/p>\n<p>While most of the liturgical music was performed by Levites, texts of the psalms suggest that there was also congregational participation. The forms of music found both in synagogal and ecclesiastical chant had their source in the forms of the poetic text of the psalms. The simplest is the plain psalmody sung by one person (e.g., Pss 3–5, 46). In responsorial psalmody the soloist is answered by the choir (e.g., Ps 67:1-2; the soloist sang verse 1 and the choir answered with verse 2). Antiphonal psalmody involves two groups singing alternately (e.g., Ps 103:20-22). The congregation would chant a refrain such as appears in Psalm 80: “Restore us, O God; let thy face shine, that we may be saved!” recurs throughout the psalm (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Even though the synagogue had no altar for sacrifice, psalm singing retained an important place. After the Romans destroyed the temple, the worship heritage of the Jews could have been lost if the customs, including musical customs, had not become an integral part of synagogue worship.<\/p>\n<p>The most enigmatic part of the psalms is the headings that are not part of the poetic text. The first question is whether these should even be considered as superscripts. Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and other ancient languages were written in such a way that the text ran together without any break between chapters or paragraphs. This means that the verses, and even the division of the psalms themselves, were partially determined by copyists, chiefly the Masoretes. There is some question as to which psalms the extrapoetic texts actually belong with; they may actually be subscripts instead of superscripts. Sumerian and Babylonian poetry had information such as the name of the author, the musical instrument used for accompaniment, the tune, the purpose, and such listed at the end of the poem. Hence, some of the headings may actually be endings.<\/p>\n<p>The indications at the beginning of a psalm fall into three categories. They are either musical terms giving direction for the actual performance, musical cues designating the tune to which the psalm would be sung, or comments indicating the function of the psalm. These terms have been interpreted in various ways.<\/p>\n<p>Originally, these headings may have been marginal notes for the choir leaders. Realizing that these terms were not related to the psalm text proper, early biblical scribes may not have been overly careful with their placement in the text, which may explain some of the discrepancies among the early manuscripts—why certain words are left out in some and why terms assigned to only a few psalms may originally have been indicated on more of them.<\/p>\n<p>All but 50 of the psalms contain a proper name in the heading. These names possibly indicate the author; other commentators, interpreting the preposition appearing before the names to mean “for,” think the names are a dedication. Thus the title would be “A Psalm for David,” not “A Psalm of David.” This may be the case with the names of Asaph, Heman, Ethan, and especially the sons of Korah, where it would make better sense for the psalm to be written for rather than by the family. Seventy-three psalms have David’s name in the heading, hence the common reference to the Psalter as the Psalms of David. Twelve include the name of Asaph, eleven the children of Korah, two Solomon, and one each contains Moses, Heman, and Ethan.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Terms in the Psalm Titles<\/h5>\n<p>Numerous musical terms are included in the superscriptions to cue the kind of instrumental accompaniment, mood, and style of performance for the psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Alamoth<\/span> is one of the most controversial terms found in the psalm headings. It appears at the beginning of Psalm 46 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:20. One meaning for the Hebrew word is “maiden,” and musicologists interpret this as an instruction that the psalm should be sung in the range of the female singing voice. The reference in Chronicles is to harps in the range of women’s voices. This interpretation does not seem to fit Psalm 46, but if we look at the preceding psalm and read the term as a subscript, it becomes logical. Psalm 45 is a song of love, actually a nuptial ode; it would be natural for women to sing the second half (vv 10-17). While there is little mention of women singing in the temple, there is speculation that young boys in training may have sung along with the Levitical singers. Also this may be a case where the term appears only once in the modern text but may have been used more often in the original. Another possible meaning for <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Alamoth<\/span> is “flutes,” perhaps describing the kind of musical accompaniment for the performance of the psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Gittith<\/span> is a term found in the superscriptions of Psalms 8, 81, and 84. It may be a musical cue, indicating a mood for the performance of these psalms, but a more common explanation is that it is a collective term for the stringed instruments that would have accompanied them.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mahalath<\/span> has been left in its original Hebrew form by early translators and is found in the headings of Psalms 53 and 88. It may have roots in the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mahaleh<\/span> “sickness” or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mahot<\/span> “dance,” though neither of these words can be related to the psalm texts. Another explanation is a musical one. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mahalath<\/span> may come from the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halal<\/span> meaning “to pierce,” implying that the psalm was to be accompanied with pipes.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Maskil<\/span> (<span>kjv<\/span> “Maschil”) appears in the headings of 13 psalms (Pss 32, 42, 44–45, 52–55, 74, 78, 88–89, 142). The term is probably derived from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sakal<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to have insight or comprehension,” but there is no agreement among commentators. By looking at the psalms themselves, their didactic nature and the structure of stanzas and refrains, musicologists conclude the term represents a song of praise, possibly sung by a soloist with participation by the choir.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Menazzeah<\/span> appears in the heading of 55 psalms. It appears 52 times in the first three books of Psalms (Pss 1–89), not at all in book four (Pss 90–106), and 3 times in book five (Pss 107–150). The most common modern translations are “to the Choirmaster” (<span>rsv<\/span>), “to the choir director” (<span>nasb<\/span>, <span>nlt<\/span>), “to the director of music” (<span>niv<\/span>), “to the chief Musician” (<span>kjv<\/span>, <span>nkjv<\/span>). The word is derived from the Hebrew verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nazzah<\/span><em>,<\/em> appearing in 1 Chronicles 23:4 and Ezra 3:8-9 in the sense of “administering.” In 1 Chronicles 15:21 the word is found in relation to leading or directing song in the temple. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Menazzeah<\/span> relates to the choirmaster and represents the singer chosen to lead the music who probably was involved in rehearsing and instructing. It is now assumed that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">menazzeah<\/span> indicates the psalm was to be sung partially or entirely by a soloist. This is evidenced by the change in some texts from “I” where the soloist sang, to “we” where the choir or congregation sang. Psalm 5 is an example of a text divided for solo and choral singing: verses 1-3 solo; verses 4-6 choral; verses 7-8 solo; verses 9-10 choral; and verses 11-12 end the psalm with the combined soloist and choir.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Miktam<\/span> (<span>kjv<\/span> “Michtam”) is another term that has no clear musical meaning, due mainly to the fact that its etymology is unknown. It occurs in Psalms 16 and 56–60, all of which have a character of lamentation or supplication. In a musical sense, it probably meant that a certain well-known tune was to be selected as the melody of the psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mizmor<\/span> (Hebrew, meaning a song sung to instrumental accompaniment) is found nowhere else in the Bible; it is included in the superscriptions of 57 psalms. It probably indicated a song accompanied by melodic instruments as opposed to a dance song accompanied by rhythmic instruments.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Neginah<\/span> appears in the superscriptions of Psalms 4, 6, 54–55, 61, 67, and 76. The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">neginah<\/span> and its plural <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">neginoth<\/span> are found in Psalm 77:7, Lamentations 5:14, Isaiah 38:20, and Habakkuk 3:19. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Neginah<\/span><em>,<\/em> from the Hebrew root <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">naggen<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to touch the strings,” instructs that stringed instruments accompany the singing.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Nehiloth<\/span> is found only in the introduction to Psalm 5 (<span>kjv<\/span>). The origin of the word is problematic. It could come from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nahal<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to possess or inherit,” or more feasibly from <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halal<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “to pierce.” The latter implies the idea of a pierced instrument (the flute or pipe) to be used for accompaniment.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Sheminith<\/span> appears in Psalms 6 and 12 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:21. The Hebrew word means literally “over the eighth.” Some scholars feel it had something to do with an octave, but the Hebrew musical language probably did not include a musical unit divided into eight parts. Other scholars interpret <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span> as meaning an eight-stringed instrument. A more logical interpretation comes from examining its use in 1 Chronicles. In 15:20 the instructions are for musicians to play the harps according to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">alamoth<\/span> and in verse 21 to play the lyres according to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span><em>.<\/em> Here the terms <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">alamoth<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span> seem to be used in opposition. If <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">alamoth<\/span> implies a register of the female voice, then <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span> would imply a lower register. Thus, it may have been an instruction to use a lower pitched instrument for accompaniment.<\/p>\n<h5>Psalm Varieties in the Titles<\/h5>\n<p>Some of the notes in the psalm headings are indications of the type or variety of psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Hazkir<\/span> is found in the headings of Psalms 38 and 70. According to the Targum, this is an indication that the psalm was sung at the sacrificial rite called <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">askara<\/span> and is translated “for a memorial offering.”<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Lammed<\/span> appears in the superscription of Psalm 60 in the phrase <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">le-lammed<\/span><em>,<\/em> translated “to teach.” According to tradition, this was a psalm, though undoubtedly not the only one, taught to young people as part of their education. This is another example of a term that may have been omitted from other psalms in later versions of the Psalter.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shiggaion<\/span> is in the heading of Psalm 7 and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably comes from the Hebrew verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shagah<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to wander,” but may also be connected with the Assyrian liturgical term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shigu<\/span><em>,<\/em> which represented a plaintive song in several stanzas. Biblical scholars have assumed <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shiggaion<\/span><em>,<\/em> plural <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shigionoth<\/span><em>,<\/em> was a lament or penitential song.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir<\/span> is the simplest word for “song” and was probably used in the headings at an early stage of the Psalter; it is usually found with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mizmor<\/span> (13 times). Fifteen psalms have this heading. It was probably the term for a specific type of praise song, usually performed by the choir.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir Hamaalot<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir Lamaalot<\/span> occur in the headings of Psalms 120–134, which are often referred to as the Psalms of Ascent (<span>kjv<\/span> “Psalms of Degrees”). Most explanations offered relate to the fact that the temple was situated on high ground. Often these 15 psalms are associated with the 15 steps leading from the Court of the Women to the Court of the Israelites. But most contemporary scholars believe the idea of “going up” referred to the pilgrims’ journey to Jerusalem to worship at the temple. These psalms are short, with popular appeal, making them appropriate for singing during the journey.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir Hanukkat Habayit<\/span> is found only in the heading of Psalm 30. This phrase tells that the psalm was to be used for the dedication or rededication of the house of God.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir-yedidot<\/span> appears only in Psalm 45. It refers to a love song that was probably sung at wedding ceremonies.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Tefillah<\/span> is a common term for “prayer” and appears in the headings of Psalms 17, 86, 90, 102, and 142, and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably refers to a specific form of poetic prayer.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Selah<\/span> is one of the most frequently used, but most enigmatic, terms found in the book of Psalms. It occurs in 39 psalms, appearing a total of 71 times in the Psalter—67 times within the text and 4 times at the end of a psalm. It is most frequent in the first three books. In the first book <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> appears in 9 psalms; in the second book, 17 psalms; in the third book, 11 psalms. In the fourth book it is not found at all and in the fifth book in only two psalms. Thirty-one of these psalms also include the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">menazzeah<\/span> in their superscriptions, which implies that they were sung by a soloist and choir. Most commonly, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> is interpreted as a signal for a break in the singing and possibly for an instrumental interlude. It never appears at the beginning of a psalm but only in the middle of the text or at the end. The regularity of its appearance within a psalm is not consistent, and in only a few instances do these divisions break the psalm into equal sections. Because of the random placement of the term, some scholars believe that, like the headings, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> was not always carefully copied into the text. It may have been a note appearing only in the texts of the musicians, which would explain this inconsistency. An explanation of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> is found in the Talmudic tradition: “Ben Azra clashed the cymbal and the Levites broke forth into singing. When they reached a break in the singing they blew upon the trumpets and the people prostrated themselves; at every break there was a blowing of the trumpet and at every blowing of the trumpet a prostration. This was the rite of the daily whole offering in the service of the House of our God.” <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Selah<\/span><em>,<\/em> then, would be an instruction for the musicians that the singing was to cease and the instrumentalists were to play.<\/p>\n<p>The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">higgaion selah<\/span> appears once, in Psalm 9:16. The word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">higgaiaon<\/span> comes from the root <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hagah<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to murmur, to growl, to produce a low sound.” This may have been an instruction for the interlude to be more subdued than a normal <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>Ancient Melodies in the Titles<\/h5>\n<p>Many psalms contain headings that are not direct musical references but are cue words to suggest well-known tunes. They probably refer either to names or the first words of popular secular songs <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">makams<\/span><em>)<\/em> whose melodic patterns were used in singing the psalm. Many biblical scholars have tried to find hidden meaning in these headings, but most musicologists believe these are simply references or introductions to melodies.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Aijeleth Shahar<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 22 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Hind of the Dawn” (<span>rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune of ‘The Doe of the Morning’ ” (<span>niv<\/span>), “To the tune ‘Doe of the Dawn’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Al-taschith<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalms 57–59 and 75 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Do Not Destroy!’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Jonath-elem-rechokim<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 56 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (<span>rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune ‘Dove on Distant Oaks’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mahalath Leannoth<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 88, is translated “To the tune ‘The Suffering of Affliction’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Muthlabben<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 9, is translated “To the tune ‘Death of the Son’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shoshannim<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalms 45 and 69 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shoshannim-Eduth<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 80 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies of the Covenant’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shushan-eduth<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 60, is translated “To the tune ‘Lily of the Testimony’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>These melody types appear only in the first three books of the Psalter, and this may imply that these popular <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">makams<\/span> had fallen into disuse by the time the final books of the Psalter were written. Other <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">makam<\/span>-types had probably become popular, and the authors, realizing the relatively short life of a popular tune, did not include them in the headings of the Psalms but left the choice up to the performer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MusicintheNewTestament\">Music in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>First-Century Influences<\/h5>\n<h6>The Synagogue<\/h6>\n<p>By the time of Christ, the synagogue had become the chief place of worship for the Jewish people. It began as a place for study of the law but gradually became the center of worship for Jews unable to attend the temple. The liturgical service of the temple could not be duplicated in the synagogue as there was no sacrificial rite, and the music could not be exactly reproduced as there were no trained Levitical singers. Scholars do not agree about the amount of continuity between the music of the temple and the music of the synagogue, but there is evidence that certain musical practices did remain constant between the two places of worship.<\/p>\n<p>Information on the customs and rituals of the synagogue come from Talmudic writings. The musical elements of worship in the synagogue were the chanting of Scripture, psalmody, and spiritual songs. The choral singing of the temple was replaced by a single cantor. The cantor was a layman who, according to tradition, had to have the following qualifications: “He had to be well educated, gifted with a sweet voice, of humble personality, recognized by the community, conversant with Scripture and all the prayers; he must not be a rich man, for his prayers should come from his heart.” His most important job was the cantillation of the Law and the Prophets. A series of accents and punctuations, forerunners of actual musical notation, were indications for the cantor in the musical interpretation of the Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Psalm singing was gradually transplanted from the temple to the synagogue, which in turn influenced the early Christian church. Gregorian psalm tones have their roots in Hebrew psalmody.<\/p>\n<h6>Greek and Roman Cultures<\/h6>\n<p>While both the temple and the synagogue were familiar to the early Christians (Acts 2:46-47; 3:1; 5:42; 9:20; 18:4; etc.), the Greek and Roman cultures also played a major part in shaping the young church. Hellenistic influences by the time of Christ had long been felt in the Middle East, and while it was strongly opposed by some Jewish leaders, the Greek arts had permeated Jewish culture. Greek philosophers considered music a cathartic force that could lead humans into metaphysical knowledge. This understanding led to the belief that music had a moral substance that could influence people to either good or evil. If this philosophy had totally encompassed Judeo-Christian thought, certainly Paul would have encouraged the use of music in the spread of the gospel. However, Paul’s omission of this theory implies that the Judeo-Christian world at that time had rejected the Greek ideal, at least in part.<\/p>\n<p>While the Jewish rabbis considered music an art form for the praise of God, and while the Greek philosophers thought of it as a powerful moral force in creation, the Romans considered music mainly as entertainment. The music of the Roman games was neither religious nor philosophic and, from the accounts of witnesses, it was not technically exceptional. In the Roman Empire musicians were given a lower status and looked on as mere entertainers. One reason the early church did not include instrumental music in their worship was in reaction to the debased secular use of instruments by the Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament Writings<\/h5>\n<p>One of the few mentions of instruments in the NT is the use of flutes at a wake (Mt 9:23). As in the OT, music is associated with feasting and merrymaking (e.g., the return of the prodigal son, Lk 15:25). Five passages mention music metaphorically (Mt 6:2; 11:17; Lk 7:32; 1 Cor 13:1; 14:7-8). The most well known of these is Paul’s celebration of love in 1 Corinthians 13. The denunciation of the gong and cymbals must be understood in light of the attitude of the early Christians toward the music of the Pharisees. Here the signal instruments of the temple were used to represent pompous display of religious pietism.<\/p>\n\n<p>Most references to music are found in the eschatological visions and prophetic passages scattered throughout the NT—most frequently in the book of Revelation (also Mt 24:31; 1 Cor 15:52; 1 Thes 4:16; Heb 12:19). Many of these descriptions have a direct association with musical references in the OT (e.g., the use of harps and trumpets and the singing of the Hallelujah). But the value of many of the passages in Revelation comes from their literary style. These doxological and psalmlike passages were probably spontaneous “spiritual songs” composed by the young church (e.g., Rv 5:9-10).<\/p>\n<p>The passages that mention religious or liturgical music are often more conceptual than literal. Two parallel passages describing the Last Supper (Mt 26:30; Mk 14:26) mention that Christ and his disciples sang a hymn. This is the only direct account of Jesus singing, but it is probable that when he read in the synagogue he did so in the accepted vocal style (Lk 4:16-20). There is much controversy surrounding the actual events at the Last Supper, but we can assume that the hymn sung was a traditional Jewish hymn, probably associated with the Passover.<\/p>\n<p>From the account in Acts 16:25 we know that Paul and Silas sang hymns while in jail. Paul gives instruction for music making in 1 Corinthians 14:15, 26 in terms of a balance between rationalism and emotion. And, as with all the gifts of the Spirit, Paul asks that singing be done for edification.<\/p>\n<p>In two similar passages (Eph 5:19; Col 3:16) Paul groups together three musical terms—psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs. The singing of psalms was an obvious carryover from the synagogue, and we can assume that the early Christian psalm singing followed the Jewish style. The term for “hymns” probably refers to poetic texts, possibly modeled after the psalms, but in praise of Christ. “Spiritual songs” may refer to a spontaneous, ecstatic form of musical prayer, possibly wordless (perhaps related to glossolalia), in a style that was popular in mystical Judaism. These outbursts of song were probably melismatic (sung on one tone) and are perhaps the forerunners of the later Alleluia chant.<\/p>\n<h5>Hymnody in the New Testament<\/h5>\n<p>It can be assumed that the early Christians composed hymns in praise of Christ. Logically, most of the hymns found in the NT are based on Hebrew poetic psalm forms, but there is Greek and Latin influence also. The hymns from the Gospel of Luke have become well-known canticles adopted by the church: the Magnificat (Lk 1:46-55), the Benedictus (1:68-79), the Gloria (2:14) and the Nunc Dimittis (2:29-32). While patterned after the psalms of the OT, these hymns are full of confidence in the salvation of Christ and in his imminent return. Other Christological hymns found in the NT include the prologue to the Gospel of John, Ephesians 2:14-16, Philippians 2:6-11, Colossians 1:15-20, 1 Timothy 3:16, Hebrews 1:3, and 1 Peter 3:18-22.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MUSIC<\/h3>\n<p>A natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship.<\/p>\n<p>The phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human impulse to sing. The injunction “sing to the Lord” was a signal for the people to pour out their praise in song.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible, however, is limited in its treatment of music in ancient Israel. Since there was no written musical notation, the primary record of songs sung by the Hebrews is the collection of texts, particularly the psalms, and a few enigmatic musical instructions. The biblical writers were writing a history not of their culture but of their relationship with God; hence, their comments about music are not critical. Also, the biblical documents cover a long span of history and are grouped according to category rather than in chronological order, thus making it difficult to order the development of musical style with precision. Finally, there is the problem of understanding the biblical descriptions of music and its performance. Only in this century have scholars been able to interpret the information provided in the Bible in terms of Eastern music systems.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Music in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Music in the Psalms<\/p>\n<p>• Music in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MusicintheOldTestament\">Music in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first musician—the inventor of the harp and flute” (Gn 4:21, <span>nlt<\/span>). The importance of this description of a musician so early in history lies in the equality Jubal is given with his brothers Jabal, the herdsman, and Tubal-cain, the smith. Music making is recognized among the earliest professions of nomadic peoples. The name Jubal is believed to be a derivative from the Hebrew word for “ram.” The ram’s horn <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shophar<\/span><em>)<\/em> was an early instrument of the Jewish people and was significant in signaling important events.<\/p>\n<p>For the most part, the music described in early biblical history was of a functional nature. Music gained special significance as it became an important part of temple worship. Many of the descriptions of music making in ancient Israel, before David’s time, are quite utilitarian. There are accounts of music at times of farewell (Gn 31:27), at times of rejoicing and feasting (Ex 32:17-18; Is 5:12; 24:8-9), at military victories (2 Chr 20:27-28), and for work (Nm 21:17, the song of the well diggers; Is 16:10; Jer 48:33). Most of this music was probably rather crude and primitive in nature, especially the music associated with military advances, which was meant to terrify the enemy (Jgs 7:17-20). The music and dancing that greeted Moses as he descended from the mountain was described as if it sounded like “war in the camp” (Ex 32:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>In the early history of the Jewish people, women played an important part in the performance of music. The image of women dancing and singing for joy accompanied by percussion instruments is repeated several times: Miriam led the women in a hymn of thanksgiving after the deliverance from the Red Sea (Ex 15); Jephthah’s daughter welcomed her father in his victory (Jgs 11:34); Deborah joined with Barak in singing a song of victory (Jgs 5); and women hailed David after his defeat of the Philistines (1 Sm 18:6-7). There is little mention of women as musicians following the establishment of the temple in Jerusalem, but there are a few allusions to the fact that women did participate in singing and dancing. The account of the return from exile in Babylon includes both male and female singers (Neh 7:67), confirming that women still took part in musical performance.<\/p>\n<p>As Jerusalem became the religious center of the Hebrew people (950–850 <span>BC<\/span>), the role of the professional musician became more important. The women’s songs became insignificant compared to the pomp and ceremony associated with the temple and the royal court. While the Levitical singers took most of the musical responsibility at the temple, the development of antiphonal singing allowed the people to join in on responses in the singing of psalms.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Style and Use<\/h5>\n<p>The Jewish people seem to have been especially musical. Of course, they were influenced by other ancient cultures, but there is evidence that they were in demand as musicians by other peoples. According to an Assyrian document, King Hezekiah gave as tribute to King Sennacherib many male and female Jewish musicians. The Babylonians demanded that the captive Jews sing to them and entertain them (cf. Ps 137:3).<\/p>\n<p>Since the OT’s purpose was to narrate the relationship between the Jewish nation and God, most of the references to music deal with its function in worship. However, evidence reveals that there was also a large body of secular musical literature. There may have been guilds of poets and singers early in Jewish history. The kinds of songs recorded in the early part of the OT represent a folklike poetry. The song of thanksgiving to the Lord by Moses and the people of Israel after their escape at the Red Sea is a stirring national song. Many descriptions of the biblical writers reflect the spirit of bardic song. This would be logical, as these stories were meant to be passed on. Marching songs (2 Chr 20:27-28), and songs of triumph (Jgs 5) also indicate a secular body of music.<\/p>\n<h5>Music in Worship<\/h5>\n<p>The singers and musicians for the temple worship were chosen from the tribe of Levi. King David assembled the Levites for a census, and out of the total of 38,000 men over the age of 30, 4,000 were chosen as musicians. These 4,000 were subsequently given specific jobs. “David and the chiefs of the service also set apart for the service certain of the sons of Asaph, and of Heman, and of Jeduthun, who should prophesy with lyres, with harps, and with cymbals. . . . The number of them along with their brethren, who were trained in singing to the <span>Lord<\/span>, all who were skilful, was two hundred and eighty-eight” (1 Chr 25:1, 7, <span>rsv<\/span>). The singers were further divided into 24 groups of 12 singers, who rotated in participating in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\n<p>According to a later source, there were minimum and maximum numbers of singers and instrumentalists required at each service. The minimum number of singers was twelve, the maximum was unlimited. There had to be in attendance at least two harps but no more than six, at least two flutes but no more than twelve, a minimum of two trumpets with no maximum, and a minimum of nine lyres with no maximum. There was only one player with a pair of cymbals.<\/p>\n<p>A singer was admitted to the Levitical choir at the age of thirty following a five-year apprenticeship (1 Chr 23:3). Five years is a relatively short time considering the amount of material these singers had to memorize (for there was no notation) and the liturgical ritual they had to master; it is speculated that they actually were in training from childhood. The Levites lived in villages outside the city wall and may have been actively involved in the musical education of their children (Neh 12:29). The Levites performed other duties connected with the sacred service, but the singers were excused from all other duties because they were on duty day and night (1 Chr 9:33). Their skills were an important part of the temple worship, and they were able to devote their entire life to the development of their musical ability. A singer served in the choir for 20 years, from age 30 to 50, and the music was of a high quality due to strict discipline and continuous practice and performance.<\/p>\n<p>From the beginning of Jewish formal worship connected with the tabernacle, music and sound was important. In Exodus 28:34-35 the descriptions of Aaron’s robe include bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. The first liturgical music mentioned in the OT is found in 2 Samuel 6 in the descriptions of the transfer of the ark: David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord. This music bore little resemblance to the stately ceremony described later in Solomon’s temple. In 2 Chronicles 7:6, David is given recognition for inventing the musical instruments used in the temple. In the postexilic era Levitical singers are mentioned as the descendants of Asaph, the “singing master” appointed by David (Ezr 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). From passages such as these, we have a definite indication that liturgical music and organization stemmed from David’s time.<\/p>\n<p>The ceremonies in the Jewish temple were organized around the sacrifice. Singing formed an integral part of the sacrificial service and was necessary to validate the sacrificial action. There were special musical settings for each sacrifice; thus the daily burnt, expiatory, and laudatory offerings and libations had individual liturgies. Particular psalms became associated with certain sacrifices as well as with certain days of the week. The psalm of the day was intoned as the high priest started to pour out the drink offering. The psalm was divided into three sections, each signaled by the blowing of the trumpets, on which signal the people would prostrate themselves. This is the only time the trumpets were used together with the other instruments in orchestral fashion on solemn occasions (2 Chr 5:12-13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MusicinthePsalms\">Music in the Psalms<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Psalm Titles<\/h5>\n<p>The collection of 150 lyric poems known as the book of Psalms contains the most information on music making in ancient Israel. The Psalter contains not only religious songs but also songs that have their roots in secular or popular songs, such as work songs, love songs, and wedding songs. The majority are songs of praise, thanksgiving, prayer, and repentance. There are also historic odes that relate great national events—for example, Psalm 30, “a song at the dedication of the temple,” and Psalm 137, which portrays the sufferings of the Jews in captivity.<\/p>\n<p>The psalms were an important part of all the services of the temple; the Psalter became the liturgical hymnal of the Israelites. Worship included an appointed psalm for each day of the week. On the first day of the week, Psalm 24 was sung in remembrance of the first day of creation, Psalm 48 was sung on the second day, Psalm 82 on the third, Psalm 94 on the fourth, Psalm 81 on the fifth, Psalm 93 on the sixth, and Psalm 92 on the Sabbath. After the sacrificial offerings, Psalm 105:1-5 was sung at the morning service and Psalm 96 at the evening service. The Hallel psalms (Pss 113–118, 120–136, 146–148) were sung during the offering of the paschal lamb at the Passover feast.<\/p>\n<p>While most of the liturgical music was performed by Levites, texts of the psalms suggest that there was also congregational participation. The forms of music found both in synagogal and ecclesiastical chant had their source in the forms of the poetic text of the psalms. The simplest is the plain psalmody sung by one person (e.g., Pss 3–5, 46). In responsorial psalmody the soloist is answered by the choir (e.g., Ps 67:1-2; the soloist sang verse 1 and the choir answered with verse 2). Antiphonal psalmody involves two groups singing alternately (e.g., Ps 103:20-22). The congregation would chant a refrain such as appears in Psalm 80: “Restore us, O God; let thy face shine, that we may be saved!” recurs throughout the psalm (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Even though the synagogue had no altar for sacrifice, psalm singing retained an important place. After the Romans destroyed the temple, the worship heritage of the Jews could have been lost if the customs, including musical customs, had not become an integral part of synagogue worship.<\/p>\n<p>The most enigmatic part of the psalms is the headings that are not part of the poetic text. The first question is whether these should even be considered as superscripts. Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and other ancient languages were written in such a way that the text ran together without any break between chapters or paragraphs. This means that the verses, and even the division of the psalms themselves, were partially determined by copyists, chiefly the Masoretes. There is some question as to which psalms the extrapoetic texts actually belong with; they may actually be subscripts instead of superscripts. Sumerian and Babylonian poetry had information such as the name of the author, the musical instrument used for accompaniment, the tune, the purpose, and such listed at the end of the poem. Hence, some of the headings may actually be endings.<\/p>\n<p>The indications at the beginning of a psalm fall into three categories. They are either musical terms giving direction for the actual performance, musical cues designating the tune to which the psalm would be sung, or comments indicating the function of the psalm. These terms have been interpreted in various ways.<\/p>\n<p>Originally, these headings may have been marginal notes for the choir leaders. Realizing that these terms were not related to the psalm text proper, early biblical scribes may not have been overly careful with their placement in the text, which may explain some of the discrepancies among the early manuscripts—why certain words are left out in some and why terms assigned to only a few psalms may originally have been indicated on more of them.<\/p>\n<p>All but 50 of the psalms contain a proper name in the heading. These names possibly indicate the author; other commentators, interpreting the preposition appearing before the names to mean “for,” think the names are a dedication. Thus the title would be “A Psalm for David,” not “A Psalm of David.” This may be the case with the names of Asaph, Heman, Ethan, and especially the sons of Korah, where it would make better sense for the psalm to be written for rather than by the family. Seventy-three psalms have David’s name in the heading, hence the common reference to the Psalter as the Psalms of David. Twelve include the name of Asaph, eleven the children of Korah, two Solomon, and one each contains Moses, Heman, and Ethan.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Terms in the Psalm Titles<\/h5>\n<p>Numerous musical terms are included in the superscriptions to cue the kind of instrumental accompaniment, mood, and style of performance for the psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Alamoth<\/span> is one of the most controversial terms found in the psalm headings. It appears at the beginning of Psalm 46 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:20. One meaning for the Hebrew word is “maiden,” and musicologists interpret this as an instruction that the psalm should be sung in the range of the female singing voice. The reference in Chronicles is to harps in the range of women’s voices. This interpretation does not seem to fit Psalm 46, but if we look at the preceding psalm and read the term as a subscript, it becomes logical. Psalm 45 is a song of love, actually a nuptial ode; it would be natural for women to sing the second half (vv 10-17). While there is little mention of women singing in the temple, there is speculation that young boys in training may have sung along with the Levitical singers. Also this may be a case where the term appears only once in the modern text but may have been used more often in the original. Another possible meaning for <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Alamoth<\/span> is “flutes,” perhaps describing the kind of musical accompaniment for the performance of the psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Gittith<\/span> is a term found in the superscriptions of Psalms 8, 81, and 84. It may be a musical cue, indicating a mood for the performance of these psalms, but a more common explanation is that it is a collective term for the stringed instruments that would have accompanied them.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mahalath<\/span> has been left in its original Hebrew form by early translators and is found in the headings of Psalms 53 and 88. It may have roots in the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mahaleh<\/span> “sickness” or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mahot<\/span> “dance,” though neither of these words can be related to the psalm texts. Another explanation is a musical one. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mahalath<\/span> may come from the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halal<\/span> meaning “to pierce,” implying that the psalm was to be accompanied with pipes.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Maskil<\/span> (<span>kjv<\/span> “Maschil”) appears in the headings of 13 psalms (Pss 32, 42, 44–45, 52–55, 74, 78, 88–89, 142). The term is probably derived from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sakal<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to have insight or comprehension,” but there is no agreement among commentators. By looking at the psalms themselves, their didactic nature and the structure of stanzas and refrains, musicologists conclude the term represents a song of praise, possibly sung by a soloist with participation by the choir.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Menazzeah<\/span> appears in the heading of 55 psalms. It appears 52 times in the first three books of Psalms (Pss 1–89), not at all in book four (Pss 90–106), and 3 times in book five (Pss 107–150). The most common modern translations are “to the Choirmaster” (<span>rsv<\/span>), “to the choir director” (<span>nasb<\/span>, <span>nlt<\/span>), “to the director of music” (<span>niv<\/span>), “to the chief Musician” (<span>kjv<\/span>, <span>nkjv<\/span>). The word is derived from the Hebrew verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nazzah<\/span><em>,<\/em> appearing in 1 Chronicles 23:4 and Ezra 3:8-9 in the sense of “administering.” In 1 Chronicles 15:21 the word is found in relation to leading or directing song in the temple. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Menazzeah<\/span> relates to the choirmaster and represents the singer chosen to lead the music who probably was involved in rehearsing and instructing. It is now assumed that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">menazzeah<\/span> indicates the psalm was to be sung partially or entirely by a soloist. This is evidenced by the change in some texts from “I” where the soloist sang, to “we” where the choir or congregation sang. Psalm 5 is an example of a text divided for solo and choral singing: verses 1-3 solo; verses 4-6 choral; verses 7-8 solo; verses 9-10 choral; and verses 11-12 end the psalm with the combined soloist and choir.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Miktam<\/span> (<span>kjv<\/span> “Michtam”) is another term that has no clear musical meaning, due mainly to the fact that its etymology is unknown. It occurs in Psalms 16 and 56–60, all of which have a character of lamentation or supplication. In a musical sense, it probably meant that a certain well-known tune was to be selected as the melody of the psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mizmor<\/span> (Hebrew, meaning a song sung to instrumental accompaniment) is found nowhere else in the Bible; it is included in the superscriptions of 57 psalms. It probably indicated a song accompanied by melodic instruments as opposed to a dance song accompanied by rhythmic instruments.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Neginah<\/span> appears in the superscriptions of Psalms 4, 6, 54–55, 61, 67, and 76. The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">neginah<\/span> and its plural <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">neginoth<\/span> are found in Psalm 77:7, Lamentations 5:14, Isaiah 38:20, and Habakkuk 3:19. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Neginah<\/span><em>,<\/em> from the Hebrew root <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">naggen<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to touch the strings,” instructs that stringed instruments accompany the singing.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Nehiloth<\/span> is found only in the introduction to Psalm 5 (<span>kjv<\/span>). The origin of the word is problematic. It could come from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nahal<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to possess or inherit,” or more feasibly from <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halal<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “to pierce.” The latter implies the idea of a pierced instrument (the flute or pipe) to be used for accompaniment.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Sheminith<\/span> appears in Psalms 6 and 12 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:21. The Hebrew word means literally “over the eighth.” Some scholars feel it had something to do with an octave, but the Hebrew musical language probably did not include a musical unit divided into eight parts. Other scholars interpret <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span> as meaning an eight-stringed instrument. A more logical interpretation comes from examining its use in 1 Chronicles. In 15:20 the instructions are for musicians to play the harps according to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">alamoth<\/span> and in verse 21 to play the lyres according to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span><em>.<\/em> Here the terms <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">alamoth<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span> seem to be used in opposition. If <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">alamoth<\/span> implies a register of the female voice, then <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span> would imply a lower register. Thus, it may have been an instruction to use a lower pitched instrument for accompaniment.<\/p>\n<h5>Psalm Varieties in the Titles<\/h5>\n<p>Some of the notes in the psalm headings are indications of the type or variety of psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Hazkir<\/span> is found in the headings of Psalms 38 and 70. According to the Targum, this is an indication that the psalm was sung at the sacrificial rite called <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">askara<\/span> and is translated “for a memorial offering.”<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Lammed<\/span> appears in the superscription of Psalm 60 in the phrase <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">le-lammed<\/span><em>,<\/em> translated “to teach.” According to tradition, this was a psalm, though undoubtedly not the only one, taught to young people as part of their education. This is another example of a term that may have been omitted from other psalms in later versions of the Psalter.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shiggaion<\/span> is in the heading of Psalm 7 and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably comes from the Hebrew verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shagah<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to wander,” but may also be connected with the Assyrian liturgical term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shigu<\/span><em>,<\/em> which represented a plaintive song in several stanzas. Biblical scholars have assumed <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shiggaion<\/span><em>,<\/em> plural <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shigionoth<\/span><em>,<\/em> was a lament or penitential song.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir<\/span> is the simplest word for “song” and was probably used in the headings at an early stage of the Psalter; it is usually found with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mizmor<\/span> (13 times). Fifteen psalms have this heading. It was probably the term for a specific type of praise song, usually performed by the choir.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir Hamaalot<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir Lamaalot<\/span> occur in the headings of Psalms 120–134, which are often referred to as the Psalms of Ascent (<span>kjv<\/span> “Psalms of Degrees”). Most explanations offered relate to the fact that the temple was situated on high ground. Often these 15 psalms are associated with the 15 steps leading from the Court of the Women to the Court of the Israelites. But most contemporary scholars believe the idea of “going up” referred to the pilgrims’ journey to Jerusalem to worship at the temple. These psalms are short, with popular appeal, making them appropriate for singing during the journey.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir Hanukkat Habayit<\/span> is found only in the heading of Psalm 30. This phrase tells that the psalm was to be used for the dedication or rededication of the house of God.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir-yedidot<\/span> appears only in Psalm 45. It refers to a love song that was probably sung at wedding ceremonies.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Tefillah<\/span> is a common term for “prayer” and appears in the headings of Psalms 17, 86, 90, 102, and 142, and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably refers to a specific form of poetic prayer.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Selah<\/span> is one of the most frequently used, but most enigmatic, terms found in the book of Psalms. It occurs in 39 psalms, appearing a total of 71 times in the Psalter—67 times within the text and 4 times at the end of a psalm. It is most frequent in the first three books. In the first book <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> appears in 9 psalms; in the second book, 17 psalms; in the third book, 11 psalms. In the fourth book it is not found at all and in the fifth book in only two psalms. Thirty-one of these psalms also include the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">menazzeah<\/span> in their superscriptions, which implies that they were sung by a soloist and choir. Most commonly, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> is interpreted as a signal for a break in the singing and possibly for an instrumental interlude. It never appears at the beginning of a psalm but only in the middle of the text or at the end. The regularity of its appearance within a psalm is not consistent, and in only a few instances do these divisions break the psalm into equal sections. Because of the random placement of the term, some scholars believe that, like the headings, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> was not always carefully copied into the text. It may have been a note appearing only in the texts of the musicians, which would explain this inconsistency. An explanation of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> is found in the Talmudic tradition: “Ben Azra clashed the cymbal and the Levites broke forth into singing. When they reached a break in the singing they blew upon the trumpets and the people prostrated themselves; at every break there was a blowing of the trumpet and at every blowing of the trumpet a prostration. This was the rite of the daily whole offering in the service of the House of our God.” <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Selah<\/span><em>,<\/em> then, would be an instruction for the musicians that the singing was to cease and the instrumentalists were to play.<\/p>\n<p>The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">higgaion selah<\/span> appears once, in Psalm 9:16. The word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">higgaiaon<\/span> comes from the root <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hagah<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to murmur, to growl, to produce a low sound.” This may have been an instruction for the interlude to be more subdued than a normal <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>Ancient Melodies in the Titles<\/h5>\n<p>Many psalms contain headings that are not direct musical references but are cue words to suggest well-known tunes. They probably refer either to names or the first words of popular secular songs <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">makams<\/span><em>)<\/em> whose melodic patterns were used in singing the psalm. Many biblical scholars have tried to find hidden meaning in these headings, but most musicologists believe these are simply references or introductions to melodies.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Aijeleth Shahar<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 22 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Hind of the Dawn” (<span>rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune of ‘The Doe of the Morning’ ” (<span>niv<\/span>), “To the tune ‘Doe of the Dawn’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Al-taschith<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalms 57–59 and 75 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Do Not Destroy!’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Jonath-elem-rechokim<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 56 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (<span>rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune ‘Dove on Distant Oaks’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mahalath Leannoth<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 88, is translated “To the tune ‘The Suffering of Affliction’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Muthlabben<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 9, is translated “To the tune ‘Death of the Son’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shoshannim<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalms 45 and 69 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shoshannim-Eduth<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 80 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies of the Covenant’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shushan-eduth<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 60, is translated “To the tune ‘Lily of the Testimony’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>These melody types appear only in the first three books of the Psalter, and this may imply that these popular <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">makams<\/span> had fallen into disuse by the time the final books of the Psalter were written. Other <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">makam<\/span>-types had probably become popular, and the authors, realizing the relatively short life of a popular tune, did not include them in the headings of the Psalms but left the choice up to the performer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MusicintheNewTestament\">Music in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>First-Century Influences<\/h5>\n<h6>The Synagogue<\/h6>\n<p>By the time of Christ, the synagogue had become the chief place of worship for the Jewish people. It began as a place for study of the law but gradually became the center of worship for Jews unable to attend the temple. The liturgical service of the temple could not be duplicated in the synagogue as there was no sacrificial rite, and the music could not be exactly reproduced as there were no trained Levitical singers. Scholars do not agree about the amount of continuity between the music of the temple and the music of the synagogue, but there is evidence that certain musical practices did remain constant between the two places of worship.<\/p>\n<p>Information on the customs and rituals of the synagogue come from Talmudic writings. The musical elements of worship in the synagogue were the chanting of Scripture, psalmody, and spiritual songs. The choral singing of the temple was replaced by a single cantor. The cantor was a layman who, according to tradition, had to have the following qualifications: “He had to be well educated, gifted with a sweet voice, of humble personality, recognized by the community, conversant with Scripture and all the prayers; he must not be a rich man, for his prayers should come from his heart.” His most important job was the cantillation of the Law and the Prophets. A series of accents and punctuations, forerunners of actual musical notation, were indications for the cantor in the musical interpretation of the Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Psalm singing was gradually transplanted from the temple to the synagogue, which in turn influenced the early Christian church. Gregorian psalm tones have their roots in Hebrew psalmody.<\/p>\n<h6>Greek and Roman Cultures<\/h6>\n<p>While both the temple and the synagogue were familiar to the early Christians (Acts 2:46-47; 3:1; 5:42; 9:20; 18:4; etc.), the Greek and Roman cultures also played a major part in shaping the young church. Hellenistic influences by the time of Christ had long been felt in the Middle East, and while it was strongly opposed by some Jewish leaders, the Greek arts had permeated Jewish culture. Greek philosophers considered music a cathartic force that could lead humans into metaphysical knowledge. This understanding led to the belief that music had a moral substance that could influence people to either good or evil. If this philosophy had totally encompassed Judeo-Christian thought, certainly Paul would have encouraged the use of music in the spread of the gospel. However, Paul’s omission of this theory implies that the Judeo-Christian world at that time had rejected the Greek ideal, at least in part.<\/p>\n<p>While the Jewish rabbis considered music an art form for the praise of God, and while the Greek philosophers thought of it as a powerful moral force in creation, the Romans considered music mainly as entertainment. The music of the Roman games was neither religious nor philosophic and, from the accounts of witnesses, it was not technically exceptional. In the Roman Empire musicians were given a lower status and looked on as mere entertainers. One reason the early church did not include instrumental music in their worship was in reaction to the debased secular use of instruments by the Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament Writings<\/h5>\n<p>One of the few mentions of instruments in the NT is the use of flutes at a wake (Mt 9:23). As in the OT, music is associated with feasting and merrymaking (e.g., the return of the prodigal son, Lk 15:25). Five passages mention music metaphorically (Mt 6:2; 11:17; Lk 7:32; 1 Cor 13:1; 14:7-8). The most well known of these is Paul’s celebration of love in 1 Corinthians 13. The denunciation of the gong and cymbals must be understood in light of the attitude of the early Christians toward the music of the Pharisees. Here the signal instruments of the temple were used to represent pompous display of religious pietism.<\/p>\n\n<p>Most references to music are found in the eschatological visions and prophetic passages scattered throughout the NT—most frequently in the book of Revelation (also Mt 24:31; 1 Cor 15:52; 1 Thes 4:16; Heb 12:19). Many of these descriptions have a direct association with musical references in the OT (e.g., the use of harps and trumpets and the singing of the Hallelujah). But the value of many of the passages in Revelation comes from their literary style. These doxological and psalmlike passages were probably spontaneous “spiritual songs” composed by the young church (e.g., Rv 5:9-10).<\/p>\n<p>The passages that mention religious or liturgical music are often more conceptual than literal. Two parallel passages describing the Last Supper (Mt 26:30; Mk 14:26) mention that Christ and his disciples sang a hymn. This is the only direct account of Jesus singing, but it is probable that when he read in the synagogue he did so in the accepted vocal style (Lk 4:16-20). There is much controversy surrounding the actual events at the Last Supper, but we can assume that the hymn sung was a traditional Jewish hymn, probably associated with the Passover.<\/p>\n<p>From the account in Acts 16:25 we know that Paul and Silas sang hymns while in jail. Paul gives instruction for music making in 1 Corinthians 14:15, 26 in terms of a balance between rationalism and emotion. And, as with all the gifts of the Spirit, Paul asks that singing be done for edification.<\/p>\n<p>In two similar passages (Eph 5:19; Col 3:16) Paul groups together three musical terms—psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs. The singing of psalms was an obvious carryover from the synagogue, and we can assume that the early Christian psalm singing followed the Jewish style. The term for “hymns” probably refers to poetic texts, possibly modeled after the psalms, but in praise of Christ. “Spiritual songs” may refer to a spontaneous, ecstatic form of musical prayer, possibly wordless (perhaps related to glossolalia), in a style that was popular in mystical Judaism. These outbursts of song were probably melismatic (sung on one tone) and are perhaps the forerunners of the later Alleluia chant.<\/p>\n<h5>Hymnody in the New Testament<\/h5>\n<p>It can be assumed that the early Christians composed hymns in praise of Christ. Logically, most of the hymns found in the NT are based on Hebrew poetic psalm forms, but there is Greek and Latin influence also. The hymns from the Gospel of Luke have become well-known canticles adopted by the church: the Magnificat (Lk 1:46-55), the Benedictus (1:68-79), the Gloria (2:14) and the Nunc Dimittis (2:29-32). While patterned after the psalms of the OT, these hymns are full of confidence in the salvation of Christ and in his imminent return. Other Christological hymns found in the NT include the prologue to the Gospel of John, Ephesians 2:14-16, Philippians 2:6-11, Colossians 1:15-20, 1 Timothy 3:16, Hebrews 1:3, and 1 Peter 3:18-22.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MUSIC A natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship. The phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human ...","summary_en":"MUSIC A natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship. The phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human ...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35550,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Singer","title_en":"Singer","content_ro":"<h3>SINGER<\/h3>\n<p>The professional singer was important in temple worship. David first organized singers for worship in the tabernacle (1 Chr 9:33; 15:16, 19, 27). Later, they ministered in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 5:12-13) and for other kings (20:21; 23:13; 35:15). After the exile, the singers were again active (Ezr 2:41, 70; Neh 7:1, 44, 73; 10:28, 39). They sang psalms for temple worship (Pss 68:25; 87:7). Some were appointed “chief singers” (Hb 3:19). The sons of Asaph were prominent among them.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Music.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SINGER<\/h3>\n<p>The professional singer was important in temple worship. David first organized singers for worship in the tabernacle (1 Chr 9:33; 15:16, 19, 27). Later, they ministered in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 5:12-13) and for other kings (20:21; 23:13; 35:15). After the exile, the singers were again active (Ezr 2:41, 70; Neh 7:1, 44, 73; 10:28, 39). They sang psalms for temple worship (Pss 68:25; 87:7). Some were appointed “chief singers” (Hb 3:19). The sons of Asaph were prominent among them.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Music.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SINGER The professional singer was important in temple worship. David first organized singers for worship in the tabernacle (1 Chr 9:33; 15:16, 19, 27). Later, they ministered in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 5:12-13) and for other kings (20:21; 23:13; 35:15). After the exile, the singers were again active (Ezr 2:41, 70; Neh 7:1, 44, 73; 10:28, 39). They sang psalms for temple worship (Pss 68:25; 87:7). Some were appointed “chief singers” (Hb 3:19). The sons of Asaph were prominent among them. See ...","summary_en":"SINGER The professional singer was important in temple worship. David first organized singers for worship in the tabernacle (1 Chr 9:33; 15:16, 19, 27). Later, they ministered in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 5:12-13) and for other kings (20:21; 23:13; 35:15). After the exile, the singers were again active (Ezr 2:41, 70; Neh 7:1, 44, 73; 10:28, 39). They sang psalms for temple worship (Pss 68:25; 87:7). Some were appointed “chief singers” (Hb 3:19). The sons of Asaph were prominent among them. See ...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":47996,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:41","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:41","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:41-42<\/strong> The <em>singers<\/em> played instruments and sang for worship at the Temple (1 Chr 25:1-31; Pss 73–83) while the <em>gatekeepers<\/em> regulated the Temple gates and storehouses (1 Chr 9:26-27; 2 Chr 23:19; Neh 12:25). • <em>Asaph<\/em> was one of the three Levites David had appointed to conduct music at the Temple (1 Chr 16:5, 7), and he wrote a collection of psalms (Pss 50, 73–83). His <em>family<\/em> carried on his work (1 Chr 25:1-7).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:41-42<\/strong> The <em>singers<\/em> played instruments and sang for worship at the Temple (1 Chr 25:1-31; Pss 73–83) while the <em>gatekeepers<\/em> regulated the Temple gates and storehouses (1 Chr 9:26-27; 2 Chr 23:19; Neh 12:25). • <em>Asaph<\/em> was one of the three Levites David had appointed to conduct music at the Temple (1 Chr 16:5, 7), and he wrote a collection of psalms (Pss 50, 73–83). His <em>family<\/em> carried on his work (1 Chr 25:1-7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:41-42 The singers played instruments and sang for worship at the Temple (1 Chr 25:1-31; Pss 73–83) while the gatekeepers regulated the Temple gates and storehouses (1 Chr 9:26-27; 2 Chr 23:19; Neh 12:25). • Asaph was one of the three Levites David had appointed to conduct music at the Temple (1 Chr 16:5, 7), and he wrote a collection of psalms (Pss 50, 73–83). His family carried on his work (1 Chr 25:1-7).","summary_en":"2:41-42 The singers played instruments and sang for worship at the Temple (1 Chr 25:1-31; Pss 73–83) while the gatekeepers regulated the Temple gates and storehouses (1 Chr 9:26-27; 2 Chr 23:19; Neh 12:25). • Asaph was one of the three Levites David had appointed to conduct music at the Temple (1 Chr 16:5, 7), and he wrote a collection of psalms (Pss 50, 73–83). His family carried on his work (1 Chr 25:1-7).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75622,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:41","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:41","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:41-42<\/strong> The <em>singers<\/em> played instruments and sang for worship at the Temple (1 Chr 25:1-31; Pss 73–83) while the <em>gatekeepers<\/em> regulated the Temple gates and storehouses (1 Chr 9:26-27; 2 Chr 23:19; Neh 12:25). • <em>Asaph<\/em> was one of the three Levites David had appointed to conduct music at the Temple (1 Chr 16:5, 7), and he wrote a collection of psalms (Pss 50, 73–83). His <em>family<\/em> carried on his work (1 Chr 25:1-7).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:41-42<\/strong> The <em>singers<\/em> played instruments and sang for worship at the Temple (1 Chr 25:1-31; Pss 73–83) while the <em>gatekeepers<\/em> regulated the Temple gates and storehouses (1 Chr 9:26-27; 2 Chr 23:19; Neh 12:25). • <em>Asaph<\/em> was one of the three Levites David had appointed to conduct music at the Temple (1 Chr 16:5, 7), and he wrote a collection of psalms (Pss 50, 73–83). His <em>family<\/em> carried on his work (1 Chr 25:1-7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:41-42 The singers played instruments and sang for worship at the Temple (1 Chr 25:1-31; Pss 73–83) while the gatekeepers regulated the Temple gates and storehouses (1 Chr 9:26-27; 2 Chr 23:19; Neh 12:25). • Asaph was one of the three Levites David had appointed to conduct music at the Temple (1 Chr 16:5, 7), and he wrote a collection of psalms (Pss 50, 73–83). His family carried on his work (1 Chr 25:1-7).","summary_en":"2:41-42 The singers played instruments and sang for worship at the Temple (1 Chr 25:1-31; Pss 73–83) while the gatekeepers regulated the Temple gates and storehouses (1 Chr 9:26-27; 2 Chr 23:19; Neh 12:25). • Asaph was one of the three Levites David had appointed to conduct music at the Temple (1 Chr 16:5, 7), and he wrote a collection of psalms (Pss 50, 73–83). His family carried on his work (1 Chr 25:1-7).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103248,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:41","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:41","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:41-42<\/strong> The <em>singers<\/em> played instruments and sang for worship at the Temple (1 Chr 25:1-31; Pss 73–83) while the <em>gatekeepers<\/em> regulated the Temple gates and storehouses (1 Chr 9:26-27; 2 Chr 23:19; Neh 12:25). • <em>Asaph<\/em> was one of the three Levites David had appointed to conduct music at the Temple (1 Chr 16:5, 7), and he wrote a collection of psalms (Pss 50, 73–83). His <em>family<\/em> carried on his work (1 Chr 25:1-7).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:41-42<\/strong> The <em>singers<\/em> played instruments and sang for worship at the Temple (1 Chr 25:1-31; Pss 73–83) while the <em>gatekeepers<\/em> regulated the Temple gates and storehouses (1 Chr 9:26-27; 2 Chr 23:19; Neh 12:25). • <em>Asaph<\/em> was one of the three Levites David had appointed to conduct music at the Temple (1 Chr 16:5, 7), and he wrote a collection of psalms (Pss 50, 73–83). His <em>family<\/em> carried on his work (1 Chr 25:1-7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:41-42 The singers played instruments and sang for worship at the Temple (1 Chr 25:1-31; Pss 73–83) while the gatekeepers regulated the Temple gates and storehouses (1 Chr 9:26-27; 2 Chr 23:19; Neh 12:25). • Asaph was one of the three Levites David had appointed to conduct music at the Temple (1 Chr 16:5, 7), and he wrote a collection of psalms (Pss 50, 73–83). His family carried on his work (1 Chr 25:1-7).","summary_en":"2:41-42 The singers played instruments and sang for worship at the Temple (1 Chr 25:1-31; Pss 73–83) while the gatekeepers regulated the Temple gates and storehouses (1 Chr 9:26-27; 2 Chr 23:19; Neh 12:25). • Asaph was one of the three Levites David had appointed to conduct music at the Temple (1 Chr 16:5, 7), and he wrote a collection of psalms (Pss 50, 73–83). His family carried on his work (1 Chr 25:1-7).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":130874,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:41","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:41","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:41-42<\/strong> The <em>singers<\/em> played instruments and sang for worship at the Temple (1 Chr 25:1-31; Pss 73–83) while the <em>gatekeepers<\/em> regulated the Temple gates and storehouses (1 Chr 9:26-27; 2 Chr 23:19; Neh 12:25). • <em>Asaph<\/em> was one of the three Levites David had appointed to conduct music at the Temple (1 Chr 16:5, 7), and he wrote a collection of psalms (Pss 50, 73–83). His <em>family<\/em> carried on his work (1 Chr 25:1-7).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:41-42<\/strong> The <em>singers<\/em> played instruments and sang for worship at the Temple (1 Chr 25:1-31; Pss 73–83) while the <em>gatekeepers<\/em> regulated the Temple gates and storehouses (1 Chr 9:26-27; 2 Chr 23:19; Neh 12:25). • <em>Asaph<\/em> was one of the three Levites David had appointed to conduct music at the Temple (1 Chr 16:5, 7), and he wrote a collection of psalms (Pss 50, 73–83). His <em>family<\/em> carried on his work (1 Chr 25:1-7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:41-42 The singers played instruments and sang for worship at the Temple (1 Chr 25:1-31; Pss 73–83) while the gatekeepers regulated the Temple gates and storehouses (1 Chr 9:26-27; 2 Chr 23:19; Neh 12:25). • Asaph was one of the three Levites David had appointed to conduct music at the Temple (1 Chr 16:5, 7), and he wrote a collection of psalms (Pss 50, 73–83). His family carried on his work (1 Chr 25:1-7).","summary_en":"2:41-42 The singers played instruments and sang for worship at the Temple (1 Chr 25:1-31; Pss 73–83) while the gatekeepers regulated the Temple gates and storehouses (1 Chr 9:26-27; 2 Chr 23:19; Neh 12:25). • Asaph was one of the three Levites David had appointed to conduct music at the Temple (1 Chr 16:5, 7), and he wrote a collection of psalms (Pss 50, 73–83). His family carried on his work (1 Chr 25:1-7).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":63056,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Music in Ancient Israel","title_en":"Music in Ancient Israel","content_ro":"<h3>Music in Ancient Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>The first liturgical music mentioned in the Old Testament is in the narrative of the transfer of the Ark—David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord (2 Sam 6:5). David is recognized as making the musical instruments used in the Temple (2 Chr 7:6). In the postexilic era, the Levitical singers that are mentioned were the descendants of Asaph, the chief musician appointed by David (Ezra 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). In short, Israel’s liturgical music and organization originated in the time of David.<\/p>\n<p>The stately ceremony of the later services in Solomon’s Temple contrasts with the enthusiasm and spontaneity of David’s worship (2 Chr 7:1-6). Singers and musicians for worship at the Temple were chosen from the tribe of Levi (1 Chr 25:1, 7). They rotated their participation in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:21; Exod 28:34-35; 2 Sam 6:5; 2 Chr 7:6; Ps 71:22-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Music in Ancient Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>The first liturgical music mentioned in the Old Testament is in the narrative of the transfer of the Ark—David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord (2 Sam 6:5). David is recognized as making the musical instruments used in the Temple (2 Chr 7:6). In the postexilic era, the Levitical singers that are mentioned were the descendants of Asaph, the chief musician appointed by David (Ezra 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). In short, Israel’s liturgical music and organization originated in the time of David.<\/p>\n<p>The stately ceremony of the later services in Solomon’s Temple contrasts with the enthusiasm and spontaneity of David’s worship (2 Chr 7:1-6). Singers and musicians for worship at the Temple were chosen from the tribe of Levi (1 Chr 25:1, 7). They rotated their participation in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:21; Exod 28:34-35; 2 Sam 6:5; 2 Chr 7:6; Ps 71:22-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Music in Ancient Israel The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-3...","summary_en":"Music in Ancient Israel The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-3...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90682,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Music in Ancient Israel","title_en":"Music in Ancient Israel","content_ro":"<h3>Music in Ancient Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>The first liturgical music mentioned in the Old Testament is in the narrative of the transfer of the Ark—David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord (2 Sam 6:5). David is recognized as making the musical instruments used in the Temple (2 Chr 7:6). In the postexilic era, the Levitical singers that are mentioned were the descendants of Asaph, the chief musician appointed by David (Ezra 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). In short, Israel’s liturgical music and organization originated in the time of David.<\/p>\n<p>The stately ceremony of the later services in Solomon’s Temple contrasts with the enthusiasm and spontaneity of David’s worship (2 Chr 7:1-6). Singers and musicians for worship at the Temple were chosen from the tribe of Levi (1 Chr 25:1, 7). They rotated their participation in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:21; Exod 28:34-35; 2 Sam 6:5; 2 Chr 7:6; Ps 71:22-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Music in Ancient Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>The first liturgical music mentioned in the Old Testament is in the narrative of the transfer of the Ark—David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord (2 Sam 6:5). David is recognized as making the musical instruments used in the Temple (2 Chr 7:6). In the postexilic era, the Levitical singers that are mentioned were the descendants of Asaph, the chief musician appointed by David (Ezra 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). In short, Israel’s liturgical music and organization originated in the time of David.<\/p>\n<p>The stately ceremony of the later services in Solomon’s Temple contrasts with the enthusiasm and spontaneity of David’s worship (2 Chr 7:1-6). Singers and musicians for worship at the Temple were chosen from the tribe of Levi (1 Chr 25:1, 7). They rotated their participation in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:21; Exod 28:34-35; 2 Sam 6:5; 2 Chr 7:6; Ps 71:22-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Music in Ancient Israel The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-3...","summary_en":"Music in Ancient Israel The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-3...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":118308,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Music in Ancient Israel","title_en":"Music in Ancient Israel","content_ro":"<h3>Music in Ancient Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>The first liturgical music mentioned in the Old Testament is in the narrative of the transfer of the Ark—David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord (2 Sam 6:5). David is recognized as making the musical instruments used in the Temple (2 Chr 7:6). In the postexilic era, the Levitical singers that are mentioned were the descendants of Asaph, the chief musician appointed by David (Ezra 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). In short, Israel’s liturgical music and organization originated in the time of David.<\/p>\n<p>The stately ceremony of the later services in Solomon’s Temple contrasts with the enthusiasm and spontaneity of David’s worship (2 Chr 7:1-6). Singers and musicians for worship at the Temple were chosen from the tribe of Levi (1 Chr 25:1, 7). They rotated their participation in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:21; Exod 28:34-35; 2 Sam 6:5; 2 Chr 7:6; Ps 71:22-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Music in Ancient Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>The first liturgical music mentioned in the Old Testament is in the narrative of the transfer of the Ark—David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord (2 Sam 6:5). David is recognized as making the musical instruments used in the Temple (2 Chr 7:6). In the postexilic era, the Levitical singers that are mentioned were the descendants of Asaph, the chief musician appointed by David (Ezra 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). In short, Israel’s liturgical music and organization originated in the time of David.<\/p>\n<p>The stately ceremony of the later services in Solomon’s Temple contrasts with the enthusiasm and spontaneity of David’s worship (2 Chr 7:1-6). Singers and musicians for worship at the Temple were chosen from the tribe of Levi (1 Chr 25:1, 7). They rotated their participation in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:21; Exod 28:34-35; 2 Sam 6:5; 2 Chr 7:6; Ps 71:22-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Music in Ancient Israel The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-3...","summary_en":"Music in Ancient Israel The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-3...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145934,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Music in Ancient Israel","title_en":"Music in Ancient Israel","content_ro":"<h3>Music in Ancient Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>The first liturgical music mentioned in the Old Testament is in the narrative of the transfer of the Ark—David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord (2 Sam 6:5). David is recognized as making the musical instruments used in the Temple (2 Chr 7:6). In the postexilic era, the Levitical singers that are mentioned were the descendants of Asaph, the chief musician appointed by David (Ezra 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). In short, Israel’s liturgical music and organization originated in the time of David.<\/p>\n<p>The stately ceremony of the later services in Solomon’s Temple contrasts with the enthusiasm and spontaneity of David’s worship (2 Chr 7:1-6). Singers and musicians for worship at the Temple were chosen from the tribe of Levi (1 Chr 25:1, 7). They rotated their participation in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:21; Exod 28:34-35; 2 Sam 6:5; 2 Chr 7:6; Ps 71:22-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Music in Ancient Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>The first liturgical music mentioned in the Old Testament is in the narrative of the transfer of the Ark—David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord (2 Sam 6:5). David is recognized as making the musical instruments used in the Temple (2 Chr 7:6). In the postexilic era, the Levitical singers that are mentioned were the descendants of Asaph, the chief musician appointed by David (Ezra 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). In short, Israel’s liturgical music and organization originated in the time of David.<\/p>\n<p>The stately ceremony of the later services in Solomon’s Temple contrasts with the enthusiasm and spontaneity of David’s worship (2 Chr 7:1-6). Singers and musicians for worship at the Temple were chosen from the tribe of Levi (1 Chr 25:1, 7). They rotated their participation in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:21; Exod 28:34-35; 2 Sam 6:5; 2 Chr 7:6; Ps 71:22-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Music in Ancient Israel The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-3...","summary_en":"Music in Ancient Israel The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-3...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"42":[{"id":1018,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Akkub","title_en":"Akkub","content_ro":"<h3>AKKUB<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of Elioenai’s seven sons and a distant descendant of David (1 Chr 3:24).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of a family of Levite gatekeepers who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45). This family name was borne by two of his descendants (#3 and #6 below).<\/li>\n<li>3. Descendant of #2 and head of a family of Levite gatekeepers who were among the first to return to Jerusalem after the Babylonian exile (1 Chr 9:17).<\/li>\n<li>4. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:45).<\/li>\n<li>5. Ezra’s assistant who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7).<\/li>\n<li>6. Descendant of #2 above and head of a family of Levite gatekeepers who lived in Jerusalem during the time of Ezra and Nehemiah (Neh 11:19; 12:25-26). He is perhaps the same as #5 above.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>AKKUB<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of Elioenai’s seven sons and a distant descendant of David (1 Chr 3:24).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of a family of Levite gatekeepers who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45). This family name was borne by two of his descendants (#3 and #6 below).<\/li>\n<li>3. Descendant of #2 and head of a family of Levite gatekeepers who were among the first to return to Jerusalem after the Babylonian exile (1 Chr 9:17).<\/li>\n<li>4. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:45).<\/li>\n<li>5. Ezra’s assistant who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7).<\/li>\n<li>6. Descendant of #2 above and head of a family of Levite gatekeepers who lived in Jerusalem during the time of Ezra and Nehemiah (Neh 11:19; 12:25-26). He is perhaps the same as #5 above.<\/li>","summary_ro":"AKKUB 1. One of Elioenai’s seven sons and a distant descendant of David (1 Chr 3:24). 2. Ancestor of a family of Levite gatekeepers who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45). This family name was borne by two of his descendants (#3 and #6 below). 3. Descendant of #2 and head of a family of Levite gatekeepers who were among the first to return to Jerusalem after the Babylonian exile (1 Chr 9:17). 4. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to J...","summary_en":"AKKUB 1. One of Elioenai’s seven sons and a distant descendant of David (1 Chr 3:24). 2. Ancestor of a family of Levite gatekeepers who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45). This family name was borne by two of his descendants (#3 and #6 below). 3. Descendant of #2 and head of a family of Levite gatekeepers who were among the first to return to Jerusalem after the Babylonian exile (1 Chr 9:17). 4. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to J...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":3139,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ater","title_en":"Ater","content_ro":"<h3>ATER<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:16; Neh 7:21).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of a family of gatekeepers who also returned to Judah with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45).<\/li>\n<li>3. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:17).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ATER<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:16; Neh 7:21).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of a family of gatekeepers who also returned to Judah with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45).<\/li>\n<li>3. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:17).<\/li>","summary_ro":"ATER 1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:16; Neh 7:21). 2. Ancestor of a family of gatekeepers who also returned to Judah with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45). 3. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:17).","summary_en":"ATER 1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:16; Neh 7:21). 2. Ancestor of a family of gatekeepers who also returned to Judah with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45). 3. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:17).","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15469,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hatita","title_en":"Hatita","content_ro":"<h3>HATITA<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a family of gatekeepers who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HATITA<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a family of gatekeepers who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HATITA Ancestor of a family of gatekeepers who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45).","summary_en":"HATITA Ancestor of a family of gatekeepers who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22304,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kohathites Kohath","title_en":"Kohathites Kohath","content_ro":"<h3>KOHATH, KOHATHITES<\/h3>\n<p>Son of Levi (Gn 46:11; Ex 6:16), father of Amram, Izhar, Hebron, and Uzziel (Ex 6:18; Nm 3:19, 27; 1 Chr 6:2), and progenitor of the Kohathite branch of Levitical families who were responsible for the tabernacle service (Nm 3:31-32). Moses, Aaron, and Miriam were descendants of Kohath (Ex 6:18-20; Nm 26:59; 1 Chr 6:3; 23:13-17).<\/p>\n<p>The three main divisions of the tribe of Levi bore the names of Gershon, Kohath, and Merari, who were traditionally the original sons of Levi (Gn 46:11; Ex 6:16; Nm 3:17; 1 Chr 6:1, 16; 23:6). The Kohathites, therefore, were a prominent Levitical family. The order of their names in Numbers 4, Joshua 21, 1 Chronicles 6:16, and 2 Chronicles 29:12 indicates that they were assigned a more honorable office than either Gershon or Merari. Their position and responsibilities—whether referred to as “the Kohathites,” or “the sons of Kohath”—are noted throughout the early writings of the Hebrews (Ex 6:18; Nm 3:19, 27-30; 4:2-4, 15, 18, 34, 37; 7:9; 10:21; 26:57; Jos 21:4-5, 10, 20, 26; 1 Chr 6:2, 18, 22, 33, 54, 61, 66, 70; 15:5; 23:12; 2 Chr 20:19; 29:12; 34:12).<\/p>\n<p>During the wandering of the Israelites in the desert following their exodus from Egypt, the Kohathites were assigned a position on the southern side of the tabernacle (Nm 3:29). When the tabernacle was moved, they were to carry the ark and other sacred things on their shoulders (7:9). At the time of the building of the tabernacle, a census was taken to determine the number of male Kohathites who would be involved in the service of the Lord (3:27-28; 4:1-4, 34-37).<\/p>\n<p>After the settlement of the tribes in the land of Canaan, the service of the Kohathites appeared to have ended. God, however, specifically stated that they should be cared for in the same manner as the other Levitical families. The Kohathites were given numerous cities (Jos 21:4-5, 20-26; 1 Chr 6:66-70).<\/p>\n<p>When David became king, he organized the Levites into three divisions (1 Chr 23:6). Heman, who represented the Kohathites, was charged with the musical service in the house of the Lord (6:31), and another group of Kohathites was made responsible for the “bread of the presence” each Sabbath (9:32). When David brought the ark of the covenant to Jerusalem, Uriel, a Kohathite, was commissioned to supervise its transportation (15:3-5).<\/p>\n<p>During the period of the divided kingdom, the combined forces of the Moabites and Ammonites attacked Judah. King Jehoshaphat admitted his inability to repulse the aggressors and sought the aid of the Lord. The Kohathites led the people in a song of praise and probably led the army when, the next morning, the king and the fighting men of Judah went out against the invaders (2 Chr 20:19-22).<\/p>\n<p>Two important reform movements characterized the declining years of the kingdom of Judah. The first took place during the reign of Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>; 2 Kgs 18; 2 Chr 29–30); the second in the reign of Josiah (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>; 2 Kgs 22–23; 2 Chr 34). The climax of Josiah’s reform came in 621 <span>BC<\/span> with the discovery of the Book of the Law. In both these movements the Kohathites played an important role. In the reign of Hezekiah they were numbered among those who cleansed the house of the Lord (2 Chr 29:12-16), and in Josiah’s time two notable Kohathites were among those appointed to supervise the work of the temple (34:12).<\/p>\n<p>Following the exile, mention is again made of the Kohathites. The paucity of evidence precludes any judgment of the significance of their ministry. In all probability they were numbered among those who attempted to serve the Lord faithfully in the midst of general spiritual decline. The few whose names are forever enshrined in Scripture were appointed to humble offices. In the absence of evidence to the contrary, it may be assumed that they discharged their duties faithfully (1 Chr 9:19, 31-32; Ezr 2:42; Neh 12:25).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Levi, Tribe of; Priests and Levites; Tabernacle; Temple.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KOHATH, KOHATHITES<\/h3>\n<p>Son of Levi (Gn 46:11; Ex 6:16), father of Amram, Izhar, Hebron, and Uzziel (Ex 6:18; Nm 3:19, 27; 1 Chr 6:2), and progenitor of the Kohathite branch of Levitical families who were responsible for the tabernacle service (Nm 3:31-32). Moses, Aaron, and Miriam were descendants of Kohath (Ex 6:18-20; Nm 26:59; 1 Chr 6:3; 23:13-17).<\/p>\n<p>The three main divisions of the tribe of Levi bore the names of Gershon, Kohath, and Merari, who were traditionally the original sons of Levi (Gn 46:11; Ex 6:16; Nm 3:17; 1 Chr 6:1, 16; 23:6). The Kohathites, therefore, were a prominent Levitical family. The order of their names in Numbers 4, Joshua 21, 1 Chronicles 6:16, and 2 Chronicles 29:12 indicates that they were assigned a more honorable office than either Gershon or Merari. Their position and responsibilities—whether referred to as “the Kohathites,” or “the sons of Kohath”—are noted throughout the early writings of the Hebrews (Ex 6:18; Nm 3:19, 27-30; 4:2-4, 15, 18, 34, 37; 7:9; 10:21; 26:57; Jos 21:4-5, 10, 20, 26; 1 Chr 6:2, 18, 22, 33, 54, 61, 66, 70; 15:5; 23:12; 2 Chr 20:19; 29:12; 34:12).<\/p>\n<p>During the wandering of the Israelites in the desert following their exodus from Egypt, the Kohathites were assigned a position on the southern side of the tabernacle (Nm 3:29). When the tabernacle was moved, they were to carry the ark and other sacred things on their shoulders (7:9). At the time of the building of the tabernacle, a census was taken to determine the number of male Kohathites who would be involved in the service of the Lord (3:27-28; 4:1-4, 34-37).<\/p>\n<p>After the settlement of the tribes in the land of Canaan, the service of the Kohathites appeared to have ended. God, however, specifically stated that they should be cared for in the same manner as the other Levitical families. The Kohathites were given numerous cities (Jos 21:4-5, 20-26; 1 Chr 6:66-70).<\/p>\n<p>When David became king, he organized the Levites into three divisions (1 Chr 23:6). Heman, who represented the Kohathites, was charged with the musical service in the house of the Lord (6:31), and another group of Kohathites was made responsible for the “bread of the presence” each Sabbath (9:32). When David brought the ark of the covenant to Jerusalem, Uriel, a Kohathite, was commissioned to supervise its transportation (15:3-5).<\/p>\n<p>During the period of the divided kingdom, the combined forces of the Moabites and Ammonites attacked Judah. King Jehoshaphat admitted his inability to repulse the aggressors and sought the aid of the Lord. The Kohathites led the people in a song of praise and probably led the army when, the next morning, the king and the fighting men of Judah went out against the invaders (2 Chr 20:19-22).<\/p>\n<p>Two important reform movements characterized the declining years of the kingdom of Judah. The first took place during the reign of Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>; 2 Kgs 18; 2 Chr 29–30); the second in the reign of Josiah (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>; 2 Kgs 22–23; 2 Chr 34). The climax of Josiah’s reform came in 621 <span>BC<\/span> with the discovery of the Book of the Law. In both these movements the Kohathites played an important role. In the reign of Hezekiah they were numbered among those who cleansed the house of the Lord (2 Chr 29:12-16), and in Josiah’s time two notable Kohathites were among those appointed to supervise the work of the temple (34:12).<\/p>\n<p>Following the exile, mention is again made of the Kohathites. The paucity of evidence precludes any judgment of the significance of their ministry. In all probability they were numbered among those who attempted to serve the Lord faithfully in the midst of general spiritual decline. The few whose names are forever enshrined in Scripture were appointed to humble offices. In the absence of evidence to the contrary, it may be assumed that they discharged their duties faithfully (1 Chr 9:19, 31-32; Ezr 2:42; Neh 12:25).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Levi, Tribe of; Priests and Levites; Tabernacle; Temple.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KOHATH, KOHATHITES Son of Levi (Gn 46:11; Ex 6:16), father of Amram, Izhar, Hebron, and Uzziel (Ex 6:18; Nm 3:19, 27; 1 Chr 6:2), and progenitor of the Kohathite branch of Levitical families who were responsible for the tabernacle service (Nm 3:31-32). Moses, Aaron, and Miriam were descendants of Kohath (Ex 6:18-20; Nm 26:59; 1 Chr 6:3; 23:13-17). The three main divisions of the tribe of Levi bore the names of Gershon, Kohath, and Merari, who were traditionally the original sons of Levi (Gn 4...","summary_en":"KOHATH, KOHATHITES Son of Levi (Gn 46:11; Ex 6:16), father of Amram, Izhar, Hebron, and Uzziel (Ex 6:18; Nm 3:19, 27; 1 Chr 6:2), and progenitor of the Kohathite branch of Levitical families who were responsible for the tabernacle service (Nm 3:31-32). Moses, Aaron, and Miriam were descendants of Kohath (Ex 6:18-20; Nm 26:59; 1 Chr 6:3; 23:13-17). The three main divisions of the tribe of Levi bore the names of Gershon, Kohath, and Merari, who were traditionally the original sons of Levi (Gn 4...","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34588,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shallum","title_en":"Shallum","content_ro":"<h3>SHALLUM<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Son of Jabesh and Israel’s 16th king (752 <span>BC<\/span>). In a conspiracy against King Zechariah, Shallum murdered the monarch at Ibleam and declared himself ruler of Israel during the 39th year of King Uzziah’s (Azariah’s) reign in Judah (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>). However, in like manner, he was killed at the hands of Gadi after ruling for only one month (2 Kgs 15:10-15). <em>See<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Israel, History of.<\/li>\n<li> 2. Son of Tikvah (alternately spelled Tokhath, see 2 Chr 34:22), who was keeper of the wardrobe and the husband of Huldah the prophetess, living in Jerusalem during the days of King Josiah (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>; 2 Kgs 22:14).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Sismai’s son and the father of Jekamiah from Judah’s tribe (1 Chr 2:40-41).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Alternate name for Jehoahaz, the youngest of King Josiah’s four sons and later Judah’s 17th king, in 1 Chronicles 3:15 and Jeremiah 22:11. <em>See<\/em> Jehoahaz #2.<\/li>\n<li> 5. Shaul’s son, Simeon’s grandson, and the father of Mibsam (1 Chr 4:25).<\/li>\n<li> 6. Alternate name for Meshullam, Zadok’s son and Ezra’s forefather, in 1 Chronicles 6:12-13 and Ezra 7:2. <em>See<\/em> Meshullam #7.<\/li>\n<li> 7. Alternate name for Shillem, the youngest of Naphtali’s four sons, in 1 Chronicles 7:13. <em>See<\/em> Shillem, Shillemite.<\/li>\n<li> 8. Alternate name for Meshullam, Kore’s son and chief of the gatekeepers (1 Chr 9:17-19, 31; Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45). <em>See<\/em> Meshullam #20.<\/li>\n<li> 9. Ephraimite and the father of Jehizkiah (2 Chr 28:12).<\/li>\n<li>10. One of the Levitical gatekeepers who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife during the postexilic era (Ezr 10:24).<\/li>\n<li>11. One of the descendants of Binnui who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife (Ezr 10:42).<\/li>\n<li>12. Hallohesh’s son and a ruler of Jerusalem who, along with his daughters, repaired the section of city wall next to the Tower of the Ovens (Neh 3:12).<\/li>\n<li>13. Col-hozeh’s son and ruler of the Mizpah district, who rebuilt the Fountain Gate and the wall of the pool of Shelah of the king’s garden (Neh 3:15).<\/li>\n<li>14. Uncle of Hanamel and Jeremiah, who sold to the latter his field at Anathoth during King Zedekiah’s reign (597–586 <span>BC<\/span>; Jer 32:7). He is perhaps identifiable with #2 above.<\/li>\n<li>15. Maaseiah’s father. Maaseiah, keeper of the threshold, owned a chamber in the sanctuary during Jehoiakim’s reign (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>; Jer 35:4, <span>kjv<\/span>; cf. 52:24).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>SHALLUM<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Son of Jabesh and Israel’s 16th king (752 <span>BC<\/span>). In a conspiracy against King Zechariah, Shallum murdered the monarch at Ibleam and declared himself ruler of Israel during the 39th year of King Uzziah’s (Azariah’s) reign in Judah (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>). However, in like manner, he was killed at the hands of Gadi after ruling for only one month (2 Kgs 15:10-15). <em>See<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Israel, History of.<\/li>\n<li> 2. Son of Tikvah (alternately spelled Tokhath, see 2 Chr 34:22), who was keeper of the wardrobe and the husband of Huldah the prophetess, living in Jerusalem during the days of King Josiah (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>; 2 Kgs 22:14).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Sismai’s son and the father of Jekamiah from Judah’s tribe (1 Chr 2:40-41).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Alternate name for Jehoahaz, the youngest of King Josiah’s four sons and later Judah’s 17th king, in 1 Chronicles 3:15 and Jeremiah 22:11. <em>See<\/em> Jehoahaz #2.<\/li>\n<li> 5. Shaul’s son, Simeon’s grandson, and the father of Mibsam (1 Chr 4:25).<\/li>\n<li> 6. Alternate name for Meshullam, Zadok’s son and Ezra’s forefather, in 1 Chronicles 6:12-13 and Ezra 7:2. <em>See<\/em> Meshullam #7.<\/li>\n<li> 7. Alternate name for Shillem, the youngest of Naphtali’s four sons, in 1 Chronicles 7:13. <em>See<\/em> Shillem, Shillemite.<\/li>\n<li> 8. Alternate name for Meshullam, Kore’s son and chief of the gatekeepers (1 Chr 9:17-19, 31; Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45). <em>See<\/em> Meshullam #20.<\/li>\n<li> 9. Ephraimite and the father of Jehizkiah (2 Chr 28:12).<\/li>\n<li>10. One of the Levitical gatekeepers who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife during the postexilic era (Ezr 10:24).<\/li>\n<li>11. One of the descendants of Binnui who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife (Ezr 10:42).<\/li>\n<li>12. Hallohesh’s son and a ruler of Jerusalem who, along with his daughters, repaired the section of city wall next to the Tower of the Ovens (Neh 3:12).<\/li>\n<li>13. Col-hozeh’s son and ruler of the Mizpah district, who rebuilt the Fountain Gate and the wall of the pool of Shelah of the king’s garden (Neh 3:15).<\/li>\n<li>14. Uncle of Hanamel and Jeremiah, who sold to the latter his field at Anathoth during King Zedekiah’s reign (597–586 <span>BC<\/span>; Jer 32:7). He is perhaps identifiable with #2 above.<\/li>\n<li>15. Maaseiah’s father. Maaseiah, keeper of the threshold, owned a chamber in the sanctuary during Jehoiakim’s reign (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>; Jer 35:4, <span>kjv<\/span>; cf. 52:24).<\/li>","summary_ro":"SHALLUM 1. Son of Jabesh and Israel’s 16th king (752 BC). In a conspiracy against King Zechariah, Shallum murdered the monarch at Ibleam and declared himself ruler of Israel during the 39th year of King Uzziah’s (Azariah’s) reign in Judah (792–740 BC). However, in like manner, he was killed at the hands of Gadi after ruling for only one month (2 Kgs 15:10-15). See Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Israel, History of. 2. Son of Tikvah (alternately spelled Tokhath, see 2 Chr 34:22), who ...","summary_en":"SHALLUM 1. Son of Jabesh and Israel’s 16th king (752 BC). In a conspiracy against King Zechariah, Shallum murdered the monarch at Ibleam and declared himself ruler of Israel during the 39th year of King Uzziah’s (Azariah’s) reign in Judah (792–740 BC). However, in like manner, he was killed at the hands of Gadi after ruling for only one month (2 Kgs 15:10-15). See Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Israel, History of. 2. Son of Tikvah (alternately spelled Tokhath, see 2 Chr 34:22), who ...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35187,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shobai","title_en":"Shobai","content_ro":"<h3>SHOBAI<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SHOBAI<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45).<\/p>","summary_ro":"SHOBAI Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45).","summary_en":"SHOBAI Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45).","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36726,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Talmon","title_en":"Talmon","content_ro":"<h3>TALMON<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a Levite family who served as temple gatekeepers (1 Chr 9:17). His descendants returned from the exile with Zerubbabel and served as gatekeepers in the rebuilt temple (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45; 11:19; 12:25).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TALMON<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a Levite family who served as temple gatekeepers (1 Chr 9:17). His descendants returned from the exile with Zerubbabel and served as gatekeepers in the rebuilt temple (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45; 11:19; 12:25).<\/p>","summary_ro":"TALMON Head of a Levite family who served as temple gatekeepers (1 Chr 9:17). His descendants returned from the exile with Zerubbabel and served as gatekeepers in the rebuilt temple (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45; 11:19; 12:25).","summary_en":"TALMON Head of a Levite family who served as temple gatekeepers (1 Chr 9:17). His descendants returned from the exile with Zerubbabel and served as gatekeepers in the rebuilt temple (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45; 11:19; 12:25).","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"43":[{"id":13927,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gishpa, Gispa*","title_en":"Gishpa, Gispa*","content_ro":"<h3>GISHPA, GISPA*<\/h3>\n<p>Overseer of the temple servants in Nehemiah’s time (Neh 11:21, <span>kjv<\/span> “Gispa”); perhaps alternately called Hasupha in Ezra 2:43 and Nehemiah 7:46. <em>See<\/em> Hasupha.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GISHPA, GISPA*<\/h3>\n<p>Overseer of the temple servants in Nehemiah’s time (Neh 11:21, <span>kjv<\/span> “Gispa”); perhaps alternately called Hasupha in Ezra 2:43 and Nehemiah 7:46. <em>See<\/em> Hasupha.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GISHPA, GISPA* Overseer of the temple servants in Nehemiah’s time (Neh 11:21, kjv “Gispa”); perhaps alternately called Hasupha in Ezra 2:43 and Nehemiah 7:46. See Hasupha.","summary_en":"GISHPA, GISPA* Overseer of the temple servants in Nehemiah’s time (Neh 11:21, kjv “Gispa”); perhaps alternately called Hasupha in Ezra 2:43 and Nehemiah 7:46. See Hasupha.","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15462,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hasupha","title_en":"Hasupha","content_ro":"<h3>HASUPHA<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:43; Neh 7:46). He is perhaps the same person as Gishpa in Nehemiah 11:21. <em>See<\/em> Gishpa, Gispa.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HASUPHA<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:43; Neh 7:46). He is perhaps the same person as Gishpa in Nehemiah 11:21. <em>See<\/em> Gishpa, Gispa.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HASUPHA Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:43; Neh 7:46). He is perhaps the same person as Gishpa in Nehemiah 11:21. See Gishpa, Gispa.","summary_en":"HASUPHA Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:43; Neh 7:46). He is perhaps the same person as Gishpa in Nehemiah 11:21. See Gishpa, Gispa.","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27370,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nethinim*","title_en":"Nethinim*","content_ro":"<h3>NETHINIM*<\/h3>\n<p>Term appearing only in the books written after Israel’s return from exile (1 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah). <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Nethinim<\/span> derives from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nathan<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to give, set apart, dedicate,” and means “those given” or “those set apart or dedicated.” The Septuagint translates the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">dedomenoi<\/span><em>.<\/em> Some recent translators have followed Josephus (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 11.5.1) by referring to them as “temple slaves.” The <span>nlt<\/span> reads “Temple assistants.”<\/p>\n<p>Before the exile, the Nethinim were active in temple service. First Chronicles 9:2 lists them with the priests and Levites who took possession of their allotted cities. Their listed order—priests, Levites, and Nethinim—suggests their subordinate role to the Levites (see also Neh 7:73; 11:3, 20-21). They returned from exile as temple personnel (Ezr 2:43, 58; 7:7, 24; 8:17, 20; Neh 7:46, 60). They had their dwelling in Jerusalem (Ezr 7:7; Neh 3:31; 11:21) and joined in the repair of the walls (Neh 3:26).<\/p>\n<p>The identification of the Nethinim is not absolutely certain. Numbers 31:47 records that the Levites received captives who were assigned laborious and menial tasks. When the Gibeonites were accepted within Israel as servants, they too were appointed as water carriers and wood choppers for the entire community and the altar of the Lord (Jos 9:9-27). David augmented the number of tabernacle servants by assigning captives taken in war to these duties (Ezr 8:20). At the completion of the temple, the temple services called for more workers, and Solomon added to their number. This new group became known as “Solomon’s men.” Ezra records that from the Nethinim, 392 returned from exile to Jerusalem (2:58) and performed the work in the rebuilt temple that had been done by their ancestors before the exile. Considered full members of the restored covenant community, the Nethinim devoted themselves to God (Neh 10:28).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NETHINIM*<\/h3>\n<p>Term appearing only in the books written after Israel’s return from exile (1 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah). <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Nethinim<\/span> derives from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nathan<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to give, set apart, dedicate,” and means “those given” or “those set apart or dedicated.” The Septuagint translates the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">dedomenoi<\/span><em>.<\/em> Some recent translators have followed Josephus (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 11.5.1) by referring to them as “temple slaves.” The <span>nlt<\/span> reads “Temple assistants.”<\/p>\n<p>Before the exile, the Nethinim were active in temple service. First Chronicles 9:2 lists them with the priests and Levites who took possession of their allotted cities. Their listed order—priests, Levites, and Nethinim—suggests their subordinate role to the Levites (see also Neh 7:73; 11:3, 20-21). They returned from exile as temple personnel (Ezr 2:43, 58; 7:7, 24; 8:17, 20; Neh 7:46, 60). They had their dwelling in Jerusalem (Ezr 7:7; Neh 3:31; 11:21) and joined in the repair of the walls (Neh 3:26).<\/p>\n<p>The identification of the Nethinim is not absolutely certain. Numbers 31:47 records that the Levites received captives who were assigned laborious and menial tasks. When the Gibeonites were accepted within Israel as servants, they too were appointed as water carriers and wood choppers for the entire community and the altar of the Lord (Jos 9:9-27). David augmented the number of tabernacle servants by assigning captives taken in war to these duties (Ezr 8:20). At the completion of the temple, the temple services called for more workers, and Solomon added to their number. This new group became known as “Solomon’s men.” Ezra records that from the Nethinim, 392 returned from exile to Jerusalem (2:58) and performed the work in the rebuilt temple that had been done by their ancestors before the exile. Considered full members of the restored covenant community, the Nethinim devoted themselves to God (Neh 10:28).<\/p>","summary_ro":"NETHINIM* Term appearing only in the books written after Israel’s return from exile (1 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah). Nethinim derives from the verb nathan, “to give, set apart, dedicate,” and means “those given” or “those set apart or dedicated.” The Septuagint translates the word dedomenoi. Some recent translators have followed Josephus (Antiquities 11.5.1) by referring to them as “temple slaves.” The nlt reads “Temple assistants.” Before the exile, the Nethinim were active in temple service....","summary_en":"NETHINIM* Term appearing only in the books written after Israel’s return from exile (1 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah). Nethinim derives from the verb nathan, “to give, set apart, dedicate,” and means “those given” or “those set apart or dedicated.” The Septuagint translates the word dedomenoi. Some recent translators have followed Josephus (Antiquities 11.5.1) by referring to them as “temple slaves.” The nlt reads “Temple assistants.” Before the exile, the Nethinim were active in temple service....","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36580,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tabbaoth","title_en":"Tabbaoth","content_ro":"<h3>TABBAOTH<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:43; Neh 7:46).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TABBAOTH<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:43; Neh 7:46).<\/p>","summary_ro":"TABBAOTH Ancestor of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:43; Neh 7:46).","summary_en":"TABBAOTH Ancestor of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:43; Neh 7:46).","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39321,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ziha","title_en":"Ziha","content_ro":"<h3>ZIHA<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:43; Neh 7:46).<\/li>\n<li>2. Overseer of the temple servants living at Ophel during the postexilic era (Neh 11:21). If Ziha is simply a family name, then this person is likely the same as #1 above.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ZIHA<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:43; Neh 7:46).<\/li>\n<li>2. Overseer of the temple servants living at Ophel during the postexilic era (Neh 11:21). If Ziha is simply a family name, then this person is likely the same as #1 above.<\/li>","summary_ro":"ZIHA 1. Ancestor of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:43; Neh 7:46). 2. Overseer of the temple servants living at Ophel during the postexilic era (Neh 11:21). If Ziha is simply a family name, then this person is likely the same as #1 above.","summary_en":"ZIHA 1. Ancestor of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:43; Neh 7:46). 2. Overseer of the temple servants living at Ophel during the postexilic era (Neh 11:21). If Ziha is simply a family name, then this person is likely the same as #1 above.","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":47997,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:43","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:43","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:43-54<\/strong> The <em>Temple servants<\/em> were probably descendants of the Gibeonites (Josh 9:23-27). They assisted the Levites (8:20) by carrying water and wood and by sweeping floors.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:43-54<\/strong> The <em>Temple servants<\/em> were probably descendants of the Gibeonites (Josh 9:23-27). They assisted the Levites (8:20) by carrying water and wood and by sweeping floors.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:43-54 The Temple servants were probably descendants of the Gibeonites (Josh 9:23-27). They assisted the Levites (8:20) by carrying water and wood and by sweeping floors.","summary_en":"2:43-54 The Temple servants were probably descendants of the Gibeonites (Josh 9:23-27). They assisted the Levites (8:20) by carrying water and wood and by sweeping floors.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75623,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:43","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:43","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:43-54<\/strong> The <em>Temple servants<\/em> were probably descendants of the Gibeonites (Josh 9:23-27). They assisted the Levites (8:20) by carrying water and wood and by sweeping floors.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:43-54<\/strong> The <em>Temple servants<\/em> were probably descendants of the Gibeonites (Josh 9:23-27). They assisted the Levites (8:20) by carrying water and wood and by sweeping floors.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:43-54 The Temple servants were probably descendants of the Gibeonites (Josh 9:23-27). They assisted the Levites (8:20) by carrying water and wood and by sweeping floors.","summary_en":"2:43-54 The Temple servants were probably descendants of the Gibeonites (Josh 9:23-27). They assisted the Levites (8:20) by carrying water and wood and by sweeping floors.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103249,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:43","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:43","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:43-54<\/strong> The <em>Temple servants<\/em> were probably descendants of the Gibeonites (Josh 9:23-27). They assisted the Levites (8:20) by carrying water and wood and by sweeping floors.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:43-54<\/strong> The <em>Temple servants<\/em> were probably descendants of the Gibeonites (Josh 9:23-27). They assisted the Levites (8:20) by carrying water and wood and by sweeping floors.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:43-54 The Temple servants were probably descendants of the Gibeonites (Josh 9:23-27). They assisted the Levites (8:20) by carrying water and wood and by sweeping floors.","summary_en":"2:43-54 The Temple servants were probably descendants of the Gibeonites (Josh 9:23-27). They assisted the Levites (8:20) by carrying water and wood and by sweeping floors.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":130875,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:43","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:43","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:43-54<\/strong> The <em>Temple servants<\/em> were probably descendants of the Gibeonites (Josh 9:23-27). They assisted the Levites (8:20) by carrying water and wood and by sweeping floors.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:43-54<\/strong> The <em>Temple servants<\/em> were probably descendants of the Gibeonites (Josh 9:23-27). They assisted the Levites (8:20) by carrying water and wood and by sweeping floors.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:43-54 The Temple servants were probably descendants of the Gibeonites (Josh 9:23-27). They assisted the Levites (8:20) by carrying water and wood and by sweeping floors.","summary_en":"2:43-54 The Temple servants were probably descendants of the Gibeonites (Josh 9:23-27). They assisted the Levites (8:20) by carrying water and wood and by sweeping floors.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"44":[{"id":21639,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Keros","title_en":"Keros","content_ro":"<h3>KEROS<\/h3>\n<p>One of the temple servants whose descendants returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:44; Neh 7:47).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KEROS<\/h3>\n<p>One of the temple servants whose descendants returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:44; Neh 7:47).<\/p>","summary_ro":"KEROS One of the temple servants whose descendants returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:44; Neh 7:47).","summary_en":"KEROS One of the temple servants whose descendants returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:44; Neh 7:47).","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":28699,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Padon","title_en":"Padon","content_ro":"<h3>PADON<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:44; Neh 7:47).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PADON<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:44; Neh 7:47).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PADON Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:44; Neh 7:47).","summary_en":"PADON Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:44; Neh 7:47).","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35260,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Sia*, Siaha","title_en":"Sia*, Siaha","content_ro":"<h3>SIA*, SIAHA<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel following the exile (Neh 7:47, <span>nlt<\/span> mg); spelled Siaha in Ezra 2:44.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SIA*, SIAHA<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel following the exile (Neh 7:47, <span>nlt<\/span> mg); spelled Siaha in Ezra 2:44.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SIA*, SIAHA Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel following the exile (Neh 7:47, nlt mg); spelled Siaha in Ezra 2:44.","summary_en":"SIA*, SIAHA Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel following the exile (Neh 7:47, nlt mg); spelled Siaha in Ezra 2:44.","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"45":[{"id":1021,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Akkub","title_en":"Akkub","content_ro":"<h3>AKKUB<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of Elioenai’s seven sons and a distant descendant of David (1 Chr 3:24).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of a family of Levite gatekeepers who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45). This family name was borne by two of his descendants (#3 and #6 below).<\/li>\n<li>3. Descendant of #2 and head of a family of Levite gatekeepers who were among the first to return to Jerusalem after the Babylonian exile (1 Chr 9:17).<\/li>\n<li>4. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:45).<\/li>\n<li>5. Ezra’s assistant who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7).<\/li>\n<li>6. Descendant of #2 above and head of a family of Levite gatekeepers who lived in Jerusalem during the time of Ezra and Nehemiah (Neh 11:19; 12:25-26). He is perhaps the same as #5 above.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>AKKUB<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of Elioenai’s seven sons and a distant descendant of David (1 Chr 3:24).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of a family of Levite gatekeepers who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45). This family name was borne by two of his descendants (#3 and #6 below).<\/li>\n<li>3. Descendant of #2 and head of a family of Levite gatekeepers who were among the first to return to Jerusalem after the Babylonian exile (1 Chr 9:17).<\/li>\n<li>4. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:45).<\/li>\n<li>5. Ezra’s assistant who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7).<\/li>\n<li>6. Descendant of #2 above and head of a family of Levite gatekeepers who lived in Jerusalem during the time of Ezra and Nehemiah (Neh 11:19; 12:25-26). He is perhaps the same as #5 above.<\/li>","summary_ro":"AKKUB 1. One of Elioenai’s seven sons and a distant descendant of David (1 Chr 3:24). 2. Ancestor of a family of Levite gatekeepers who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45). This family name was borne by two of his descendants (#3 and #6 below). 3. Descendant of #2 and head of a family of Levite gatekeepers who were among the first to return to Jerusalem after the Babylonian exile (1 Chr 9:17). 4. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to J...","summary_en":"AKKUB 1. One of Elioenai’s seven sons and a distant descendant of David (1 Chr 3:24). 2. Ancestor of a family of Levite gatekeepers who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45). This family name was borne by two of his descendants (#3 and #6 below). 3. Descendant of #2 and head of a family of Levite gatekeepers who were among the first to return to Jerusalem after the Babylonian exile (1 Chr 9:17). 4. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to J...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":14994,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hagaba*, Hagabah","title_en":"Hagaba*, Hagabah","content_ro":"<h3>HAGABA*, HAGABAH<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Neh 7:48; spelled “Hagabah” in Ezr 2:45).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HAGABA*, HAGABAH<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Neh 7:48; spelled “Hagabah” in Ezr 2:45).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HAGABA*, HAGABAH Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Neh 7:48; spelled “Hagabah” in Ezr 2:45).","summary_en":"HAGABA*, HAGABAH Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Neh 7:48; spelled “Hagabah” in Ezr 2:45).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22895,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Lebana*, Lebanah","title_en":"Lebana*, Lebanah","content_ro":"<h3>LEBANA*, LEBANAH<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel following the exile (Ezr 2:45; Neh 7:48).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LEBANA*, LEBANAH<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel following the exile (Ezr 2:45; Neh 7:48).<\/p>","summary_ro":"LEBANA*, LEBANAH Head of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel following the exile (Ezr 2:45; Neh 7:48).","summary_en":"LEBANA*, LEBANAH Head of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel following the exile (Ezr 2:45; Neh 7:48).","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"46":[{"id":14992,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hagab","title_en":"Hagab","content_ro":"<h3>HAGAB<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a family of temple servants returning with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the exile (Ezr 2:46).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HAGAB<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a family of temple servants returning with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the exile (Ezr 2:46).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HAGAB Ancestor of a family of temple servants returning with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the exile (Ezr 2:46).","summary_en":"HAGAB Ancestor of a family of temple servants returning with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the exile (Ezr 2:46).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15195,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hanan","title_en":"Hanan","content_ro":"<h3>HANAN<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Shashak’s son and one of the chief men of Benjamin (1 Chr 8:23).<\/li>\n<li> 2. Azel’s son from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 8:38; 9:44).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Warrior among David’s mighty men, who were known as “the thirty” (1 Chr 11:43).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:46; Neh 7:49).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Levitical assistant who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7).<\/li>\n<li> 6. Levite who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:10).<\/li>\n<li> 7, 8. Two political leaders who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:22, 26).<\/li>\n<li> 9. One of the Levites whom Nehemiah appointed as treasurer over the storehouses (Neh 13:13).<\/li>\n<li>10. Igdaliah’s son and head of a prophetic guild occupying the room in the temple where Jeremiah offered the Rechabites wine to drink (Jer 35:4).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>HANAN<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Shashak’s son and one of the chief men of Benjamin (1 Chr 8:23).<\/li>\n<li> 2. Azel’s son from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 8:38; 9:44).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Warrior among David’s mighty men, who were known as “the thirty” (1 Chr 11:43).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:46; Neh 7:49).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Levitical assistant who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7).<\/li>\n<li> 6. Levite who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:10).<\/li>\n<li> 7, 8. Two political leaders who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:22, 26).<\/li>\n<li> 9. One of the Levites whom Nehemiah appointed as treasurer over the storehouses (Neh 13:13).<\/li>\n<li>10. Igdaliah’s son and head of a prophetic guild occupying the room in the temple where Jeremiah offered the Rechabites wine to drink (Jer 35:4).<\/li>","summary_ro":"HANAN 1. Shashak’s son and one of the chief men of Benjamin (1 Chr 8:23). 2. Azel’s son from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 8:38; 9:44). 3. Warrior among David’s mighty men, who were known as “the thirty” (1 Chr 11:43). 4. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:46; Neh 7:49). 5. Levitical assistant who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7). 6. Levite who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God wit...","summary_en":"HANAN 1. Shashak’s son and one of the chief men of Benjamin (1 Chr 8:23). 2. Azel’s son from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 8:38; 9:44). 3. Warrior among David’s mighty men, who were known as “the thirty” (1 Chr 11:43). 4. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:46; Neh 7:49). 5. Levitical assistant who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7). 6. Levite who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God wit...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34599,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shalmai","title_en":"Shalmai","content_ro":"<h3>SHALMAI<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate rendering of Shamlai in Ezra 2:46 and Nehemiah 7:48. <em>See<\/em> Shamlai.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SHALMAI<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate rendering of Shamlai in Ezra 2:46 and Nehemiah 7:48. <em>See<\/em> Shamlai.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SHALMAI Alternate rendering of Shamlai in Ezra 2:46 and Nehemiah 7:48. See Shamlai.","summary_en":"SHALMAI Alternate rendering of Shamlai in Ezra 2:46 and Nehemiah 7:48. See Shamlai.","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34616,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shamlai*","title_en":"Shamlai*","content_ro":"<h3>SHAMLAI*<\/h3>\n<p>Father of a family of temple servants returning to the land of Canaan with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian captivity; alternately spelled Shalmai in Ezra 2:46 and Nehemiah 7:48.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SHAMLAI*<\/h3>\n<p>Father of a family of temple servants returning to the land of Canaan with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian captivity; alternately spelled Shalmai in Ezra 2:46 and Nehemiah 7:48.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SHAMLAI* Father of a family of temple servants returning to the land of Canaan with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian captivity; alternately spelled Shalmai in Ezra 2:46 and Nehemiah 7:48.","summary_en":"SHAMLAI* Father of a family of temple servants returning to the land of Canaan with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian captivity; alternately spelled Shalmai in Ezra 2:46 and Nehemiah 7:48.","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"47":[{"id":13070,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gahar","title_en":"Gahar","content_ro":"<h3>GAHAR<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple assistants that returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:47; Neh 7:49).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GAHAR<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple assistants that returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:47; Neh 7:49).<\/p>","summary_ro":"GAHAR Ancestor of a group of temple assistants that returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:47; Neh 7:49).","summary_en":"GAHAR Ancestor of a group of temple assistants that returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:47; Neh 7:49).","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13798,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Giddel","title_en":"Giddel","content_ro":"<h3>GIDDEL<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:47; Neh 7:49).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of a group of King Solomon’s servants who returned with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:56; Neh 7:58).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>GIDDEL<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:47; Neh 7:49).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of a group of King Solomon’s servants who returned with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:56; Neh 7:58).<\/li>","summary_ro":"GIDDEL 1. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:47; Neh 7:49). 2. Ancestor of a group of King Solomon’s servants who returned with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:56; Neh 7:58).","summary_en":"GIDDEL 1. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:47; Neh 7:49). 2. Ancestor of a group of King Solomon’s servants who returned with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:56; Neh 7:58).","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32502,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Reaiah","title_en":"Reaiah","content_ro":"<h3>REAIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Shobal’s son and the father of Jahath from the tribe of Judah (1 Chr 4:2), perhaps identifiable with Haroeh (2:52).<\/li>\n<li>2. Reubenite, Micah’s son and the father of Baal (1 Chr 5:5).<\/li>\n<li>3. Head or founder of a family of temple servants who returned with Zerubbabel from captivity in Babylon (Ezr 2:47; Neh 7:50).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>REAIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Shobal’s son and the father of Jahath from the tribe of Judah (1 Chr 4:2), perhaps identifiable with Haroeh (2:52).<\/li>\n<li>2. Reubenite, Micah’s son and the father of Baal (1 Chr 5:5).<\/li>\n<li>3. Head or founder of a family of temple servants who returned with Zerubbabel from captivity in Babylon (Ezr 2:47; Neh 7:50).<\/li>","summary_ro":"REAIAH 1. Shobal’s son and the father of Jahath from the tribe of Judah (1 Chr 4:2), perhaps identifiable with Haroeh (2:52). 2. Reubenite, Micah’s son and the father of Baal (1 Chr 5:5). 3. Head or founder of a family of temple servants who returned with Zerubbabel from captivity in Babylon (Ezr 2:47; Neh 7:50).","summary_en":"REAIAH 1. Shobal’s son and the father of Jahath from the tribe of Judah (1 Chr 4:2), perhaps identifiable with Haroeh (2:52). 2. Reubenite, Micah’s son and the father of Baal (1 Chr 5:5). 3. Head or founder of a family of temple servants who returned with Zerubbabel from captivity in Babylon (Ezr 2:47; Neh 7:50).","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"48":[{"id":13291,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gazzam","title_en":"Gazzam","content_ro":"<h3>GAZZAM<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:48; Neh 7:51).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GAZZAM<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:48; Neh 7:51).<\/p>","summary_ro":"GAZZAM Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:48; Neh 7:51).","summary_en":"GAZZAM Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:48; Neh 7:51).","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27300,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nekoda","title_en":"Nekoda","content_ro":"<h3>NEKODA<\/h3>\n<li>1. Father of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 2:48; Neh 7:50).<\/li>\n<li>2. Father of a family of returned exiles who could not prove their Israelite descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>NEKODA<\/h3>\n<li>1. Father of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 2:48; Neh 7:50).<\/li>\n<li>2. Father of a family of returned exiles who could not prove their Israelite descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62).<\/li>","summary_ro":"NEKODA 1. Father of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 2:48; Neh 7:50). 2. Father of a family of returned exiles who could not prove their Israelite descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62).","summary_en":"NEKODA 1. Father of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 2:48; Neh 7:50). 2. Father of a family of returned exiles who could not prove their Israelite descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62).","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":33050,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Rezin","title_en":"Rezin","content_ro":"<h3>REZIN<\/h3>\n<p>1. Syrian monarch who ruled in Damascus during the earlier part of Isaiah’s prophetic ministry and during the last years that the northern 10 tribes existed as a nation. Rezin was used by God to humble both Israel and Judah because they had forsaken him and rejected his covenant (2 Chr 28:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>Rezin was born in the town of Bit-hadara near Damascus in the land of Syria (also called Aram). Upon his accession to the throne, the Syrian people (also called Arameans) reasserted their independence from Israel’s domination. During this period, Assyria was strengthening itself and expanding its empire throughout the Near East. Along with King Menahem of Israel, Rezin was forced to pay tribute to the Assyrian monarch Tiglath-pileser III in 738 <span>BC<\/span>. The heavy burden of vassalage to the Assyrians generated anti-Assyrian sentiment among the Syrian and neighboring people. During this time, Rezin seems to have helped Pekah in his successful coup to seize the throne of Israel. Immediately upon his accession to the throne, Pekah formed an anti-Assyrian coalition with Rezin. They soon realized that successful resistance against Assyria required a larger alliance. They invited King Ahaz of Judah to join their coalition, but Ahaz adamantly refused. With the intention of placing an Aramean of Davidic lineage upon the throne of Judah in order to effect a broader Syrian-Israelite alliance, Rezin and Pekah joined in an attack on Judah. In spite of winning most battles, Rezin and Pekah were unsuccessful in their attempt to take Jerusalem and replace Ahaz (2 Chr 28:5-15; Is 7:1-9). During these dark days for Judah, Isaiah brought an encouraging word to the people. He prophesied the imminent destruction of Israel (Ephraim) and Damascus by Assyria (Is 7:1-9; 8:1-8). So certain was the destruction of these kingdoms that he referred to their two kings as “stubs of smoldering firebrands” about to be extinguished (7:4). Disregarding Isaiah’s prophecy, Ahaz sent a large sum of money to Tiglath-pileser III, hoping to induce him to come to Judah’s aid.<\/p>\n<p>Rezin and Pekah moved their forces to the north to prepare for the impending Assyrian invasion. Tiglath-pileser attacked in 733 <span>BC<\/span> and captured much of the area of Galilee. He then turned his attention to Damascus, to which Rezin had fled. Assyrian records refer to Rezin as a “caged bird” in besieged Damascus. When Damascus fell in 732 <span>BC<\/span>, Rezin was executed and many citizens of Damascus were exiled. Samaria, the capital city of Israel, fell to the Assyrians in 722 <span>BC<\/span>. Damascus and the nation of Syria became an Assyrian province. Rezin thus was the last Syrian king to reign in Damascus.<\/p>\n<li>2. Father of some of the temple servants who served in postexilic times (Ezr 2:48; Neh 7:50).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>REZIN<\/h3>\n<p>1. Syrian monarch who ruled in Damascus during the earlier part of Isaiah’s prophetic ministry and during the last years that the northern 10 tribes existed as a nation. Rezin was used by God to humble both Israel and Judah because they had forsaken him and rejected his covenant (2 Chr 28:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>Rezin was born in the town of Bit-hadara near Damascus in the land of Syria (also called Aram). Upon his accession to the throne, the Syrian people (also called Arameans) reasserted their independence from Israel’s domination. During this period, Assyria was strengthening itself and expanding its empire throughout the Near East. Along with King Menahem of Israel, Rezin was forced to pay tribute to the Assyrian monarch Tiglath-pileser III in 738 <span>BC<\/span>. The heavy burden of vassalage to the Assyrians generated anti-Assyrian sentiment among the Syrian and neighboring people. During this time, Rezin seems to have helped Pekah in his successful coup to seize the throne of Israel. Immediately upon his accession to the throne, Pekah formed an anti-Assyrian coalition with Rezin. They soon realized that successful resistance against Assyria required a larger alliance. They invited King Ahaz of Judah to join their coalition, but Ahaz adamantly refused. With the intention of placing an Aramean of Davidic lineage upon the throne of Judah in order to effect a broader Syrian-Israelite alliance, Rezin and Pekah joined in an attack on Judah. In spite of winning most battles, Rezin and Pekah were unsuccessful in their attempt to take Jerusalem and replace Ahaz (2 Chr 28:5-15; Is 7:1-9). During these dark days for Judah, Isaiah brought an encouraging word to the people. He prophesied the imminent destruction of Israel (Ephraim) and Damascus by Assyria (Is 7:1-9; 8:1-8). So certain was the destruction of these kingdoms that he referred to their two kings as “stubs of smoldering firebrands” about to be extinguished (7:4). Disregarding Isaiah’s prophecy, Ahaz sent a large sum of money to Tiglath-pileser III, hoping to induce him to come to Judah’s aid.<\/p>\n<p>Rezin and Pekah moved their forces to the north to prepare for the impending Assyrian invasion. Tiglath-pileser attacked in 733 <span>BC<\/span> and captured much of the area of Galilee. He then turned his attention to Damascus, to which Rezin had fled. Assyrian records refer to Rezin as a “caged bird” in besieged Damascus. When Damascus fell in 732 <span>BC<\/span>, Rezin was executed and many citizens of Damascus were exiled. Samaria, the capital city of Israel, fell to the Assyrians in 722 <span>BC<\/span>. Damascus and the nation of Syria became an Assyrian province. Rezin thus was the last Syrian king to reign in Damascus.<\/p>\n<li>2. Father of some of the temple servants who served in postexilic times (Ezr 2:48; Neh 7:50).<\/li>","summary_ro":"REZIN 1. Syrian monarch who ruled in Damascus during the earlier part of Isaiah’s prophetic ministry and during the last years that the northern 10 tribes existed as a nation. Rezin was used by God to humble both Israel and Judah because they had forsaken him and rejected his covenant (2 Chr 28:5-6). Rezin was born in the town of Bit-hadara near Damascus in the land of Syria (also called Aram). Upon his accession to the throne, the Syrian people (also called Arameans) reasserted their indepen...","summary_en":"REZIN 1. Syrian monarch who ruled in Damascus during the earlier part of Isaiah’s prophetic ministry and during the last years that the northern 10 tribes existed as a nation. Rezin was used by God to humble both Israel and Judah because they had forsaken him and rejected his covenant (2 Chr 28:5-6). Rezin was born in the town of Bit-hadara near Damascus in the land of Syria (also called Aram). Upon his accession to the throne, the Syrian people (also called Arameans) reasserted their indepen...","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"49":[{"id":4385,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Besai","title_en":"Besai","content_ro":"<h3>BESAI<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:49; Neh 7:52).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BESAI<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:49; Neh 7:52).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BESAI Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:49; Neh 7:52).","summary_en":"BESAI Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:49; Neh 7:52).","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":28921,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Paseah","title_en":"Paseah","content_ro":"<h3>PASEAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Eshton’s son, the brother of Beth-rapha and a descendant of Kelub from Judah’s tribe. Paseah was mentioned as one of the men of Recah (1 Chr 4:12).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of a family of temple servants who returned to Palestine with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:49; Neh 7:51).<\/li>\n<li>3. Joiada’s father. Joiada, along with Meshullam, repaired the Old Gate of Jerusalem under Nehemiah’s direction during the postexilic period (Neh 3:6).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>PASEAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Eshton’s son, the brother of Beth-rapha and a descendant of Kelub from Judah’s tribe. Paseah was mentioned as one of the men of Recah (1 Chr 4:12).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of a family of temple servants who returned to Palestine with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:49; Neh 7:51).<\/li>\n<li>3. Joiada’s father. Joiada, along with Meshullam, repaired the Old Gate of Jerusalem under Nehemiah’s direction during the postexilic period (Neh 3:6).<\/li>","summary_ro":"PASEAH 1. Eshton’s son, the brother of Beth-rapha and a descendant of Kelub from Judah’s tribe. Paseah was mentioned as one of the men of Recah (1 Chr 4:12). 2. Ancestor of a family of temple servants who returned to Palestine with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:49; Neh 7:51). 3. Joiada’s father. Joiada, along with Meshullam, repaired the Old Gate of Jerusalem under Nehemiah’s direction during the postexilic period (Neh 3:6).","summary_en":"PASEAH 1. Eshton’s son, the brother of Beth-rapha and a descendant of Kelub from Judah’s tribe. Paseah was mentioned as one of the men of Recah (1 Chr 4:12). 2. Ancestor of a family of temple servants who returned to Palestine with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:49; Neh 7:51). 3. Joiada’s father. Joiada, along with Meshullam, repaired the Old Gate of Jerusalem under Nehemiah’s direction during the postexilic period (Neh 3:6).","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37933,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Uzza","title_en":"Uzza","content_ro":"<h3>UZZA<\/h3>\n<li>1. Owner or initial planter of a garden that served as the burial place for kings Manasseh and Amon of Judah (2 Kgs 21:18, 26). The “garden of Uzza” was apparently adjacent to Manasseh’s royal residence.<\/li>\n<li>2. KJV spelling for Uzzah, Shimei’s son, in 1 Chronicles 6:29. <em>See<\/em> Uzzah #2.<\/li>\n<li>3. Son or descendant of Ehud from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 8:7), listed as an ancestor of Mordecai in extrabiblical texts.<\/li>\n<li>4. KJV spelling for Uzzah, Abinadab’s son, in 1 Chronicles 13:7-11. <em>See<\/em> Uzzah #1.<\/li>\n<li>5. Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel following the exile (Ezr 2:49; Neh 7:51).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>UZZA<\/h3>\n<li>1. Owner or initial planter of a garden that served as the burial place for kings Manasseh and Amon of Judah (2 Kgs 21:18, 26). The “garden of Uzza” was apparently adjacent to Manasseh’s royal residence.<\/li>\n<li>2. KJV spelling for Uzzah, Shimei’s son, in 1 Chronicles 6:29. <em>See<\/em> Uzzah #2.<\/li>\n<li>3. Son or descendant of Ehud from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 8:7), listed as an ancestor of Mordecai in extrabiblical texts.<\/li>\n<li>4. KJV spelling for Uzzah, Abinadab’s son, in 1 Chronicles 13:7-11. <em>See<\/em> Uzzah #1.<\/li>\n<li>5. Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel following the exile (Ezr 2:49; Neh 7:51).<\/li>","summary_ro":"UZZA 1. Owner or initial planter of a garden that served as the burial place for kings Manasseh and Amon of Judah (2 Kgs 21:18, 26). The “garden of Uzza” was apparently adjacent to Manasseh’s royal residence. 2. KJV spelling for Uzzah, Shimei’s son, in 1 Chronicles 6:29. See Uzzah #2. 3. Son or descendant of Ehud from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 8:7), listed as an ancestor of Mordecai in extrabiblical texts. 4. KJV spelling for Uzzah, Abinadab’s son, in 1 Chronicles 13:7-11. See Uzzah #1. 5. Fore...","summary_en":"UZZA 1. Owner or initial planter of a garden that served as the burial place for kings Manasseh and Amon of Judah (2 Kgs 21:18, 26). The “garden of Uzza” was apparently adjacent to Manasseh’s royal residence. 2. KJV spelling for Uzzah, Shimei’s son, in 1 Chronicles 6:29. See Uzzah #2. 3. Son or descendant of Ehud from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 8:7), listed as an ancestor of Mordecai in extrabiblical texts. 4. KJV spelling for Uzzah, Abinadab’s son, in 1 Chronicles 13:7-11. See Uzzah #1. 5. Fore...","source":"Articles\/U.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"50":[{"id":25011,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Mehunim*, Mehunims*","title_en":"Mehunim*, Mehunims*","content_ro":"<h3>MEHUNIM*, MEHUNIMS*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV forms of Meunim and Meunites in Ezra 2:50 and 2 Chronicles 26:7, respectively. <em>See<\/em> Meunim, Meunites.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MEHUNIM*, MEHUNIMS*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV forms of Meunim and Meunites in Ezra 2:50 and 2 Chronicles 26:7, respectively. <em>See<\/em> Meunim, Meunites.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MEHUNIM*, MEHUNIMS* KJV forms of Meunim and Meunites in Ezra 2:50 and 2 Chronicles 26:7, respectively. See Meunim, Meunites.","summary_en":"MEHUNIM*, MEHUNIMS* KJV forms of Meunim and Meunites in Ezra 2:50 and 2 Chronicles 26:7, respectively. See Meunim, Meunites.","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25506,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Meunites Meunim","title_en":"Meunites Meunim","content_ro":"<h3>MEUNIM, MEUNITES<\/h3>\n<p>People living in Edom (Mt Seir, 1 Chr 4:41-42) who were dispossessed of their rich pasturelands by the Simeonites. Later, Meunites from Edom attacked Judah’s King Jehoshaphat (2 Chr 20:1); later still, King Uzziah of Judah defeated them (26:7). Their original land possession, association with Arabs and Ammonites, and prolonged hostility recall Judges 10:11-12, where “Maonites” are named oppressors of Israel. This word, by Hebrew rules of vocalization, could well become “Meunites,” suggesting Maon (Ma’in, Maan) in the Edomite area south of the Dead Sea as their home.<\/p>\n<p>The Meunim are listed among the families of temple servants returning to Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 2:50; Neh 7:52). However, because ancient enemies seem unlikely temple servants, some suggest that these Meunim were descendants of the Caleb clan within Judah to whom another town named Maon, west of the Dead Sea and south of Hebron, was allotted (Jos 15:20, 55). This Maon gave David refuge and another wife (1 Sm 23:24-28; 25).<\/p>\n<p>This reconstruction involving two groups, two Maons, and temple servants with very foreign names, is tentative. An alternate view holds that hostile foreigners, formerly captured to become temple slaves (cf. Jos 9:7; Ez 44:6-8), attained freedom during the exile and temple-guild status on returning.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Maon (Place).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MEUNIM, MEUNITES<\/h3>\n<p>People living in Edom (Mt Seir, 1 Chr 4:41-42) who were dispossessed of their rich pasturelands by the Simeonites. Later, Meunites from Edom attacked Judah’s King Jehoshaphat (2 Chr 20:1); later still, King Uzziah of Judah defeated them (26:7). Their original land possession, association with Arabs and Ammonites, and prolonged hostility recall Judges 10:11-12, where “Maonites” are named oppressors of Israel. This word, by Hebrew rules of vocalization, could well become “Meunites,” suggesting Maon (Ma’in, Maan) in the Edomite area south of the Dead Sea as their home.<\/p>\n<p>The Meunim are listed among the families of temple servants returning to Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 2:50; Neh 7:52). However, because ancient enemies seem unlikely temple servants, some suggest that these Meunim were descendants of the Caleb clan within Judah to whom another town named Maon, west of the Dead Sea and south of Hebron, was allotted (Jos 15:20, 55). This Maon gave David refuge and another wife (1 Sm 23:24-28; 25).<\/p>\n<p>This reconstruction involving two groups, two Maons, and temple servants with very foreign names, is tentative. An alternate view holds that hostile foreigners, formerly captured to become temple slaves (cf. Jos 9:7; Ez 44:6-8), attained freedom during the exile and temple-guild status on returning.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Maon (Place).<\/p>","summary_ro":"MEUNIM, MEUNITES People living in Edom (Mt Seir, 1 Chr 4:41-42) who were dispossessed of their rich pasturelands by the Simeonites. Later, Meunites from Edom attacked Judah’s King Jehoshaphat (2 Chr 20:1); later still, King Uzziah of Judah defeated them (26:7). Their original land possession, association with Arabs and Ammonites, and prolonged hostility recall Judges 10:11-12, where “Maonites” are named oppressors of Israel. This word, by Hebrew rules of vocalization, could well become “Meuni...","summary_en":"MEUNIM, MEUNITES People living in Edom (Mt Seir, 1 Chr 4:41-42) who were dispossessed of their rich pasturelands by the Simeonites. Later, Meunites from Edom attacked Judah’s King Jehoshaphat (2 Chr 20:1); later still, King Uzziah of Judah defeated them (26:7). Their original land possession, association with Arabs and Ammonites, and prolonged hostility recall Judges 10:11-12, where “Maonites” are named oppressors of Israel. This word, by Hebrew rules of vocalization, could well become “Meuni...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27321,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nephishesim*, Nephisim*","title_en":"Nephishesim*, Nephisim*","content_ro":"<h3>NEPHISHESIM*, NEPHISIM*<\/h3>\n<p>A group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile, counted among the temple servants (Ezr 2:50; Neh 7:52).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEPHISHESIM*, NEPHISIM*<\/h3>\n<p>A group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile, counted among the temple servants (Ezr 2:50; Neh 7:52).<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEPHISHESIM*, NEPHISIM* A group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile, counted among the temple servants (Ezr 2:50; Neh 7:52).","summary_en":"NEPHISHESIM*, NEPHISIM* A group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile, counted among the temple servants (Ezr 2:50; Neh 7:52).","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27326,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nephushesim*, Nephusim, Nephussim*","title_en":"Nephushesim*, Nephusim, Nephussim*","content_ro":"<h3>NEPHUSHESIM*, NEPHUSIM, NEPHUSSIM*<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate spellings of Nephisim in Ezra 2:50, Nehemiah 7:52. <em>See<\/em> Nephishesim, Nephisim.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEPHUSHESIM*, NEPHUSIM, NEPHUSSIM*<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate spellings of Nephisim in Ezra 2:50, Nehemiah 7:52. <em>See<\/em> Nephishesim, Nephisim.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEPHUSHESIM*, NEPHUSIM, NEPHUSSIM* Alternate spellings of Nephisim in Ezra 2:50, Nehemiah 7:52. See Nephishesim, Nephisim.","summary_en":"NEPHUSHESIM*, NEPHUSIM, NEPHUSSIM* Alternate spellings of Nephisim in Ezra 2:50, Nehemiah 7:52. See Nephishesim, Nephisim.","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"51":[{"id":3122,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Asur","title_en":"Asur","content_ro":"<h3>ASUR<\/h3>\n<p>One of the temple servants whose descendants were among those who returned with Zerubbabel from the exile (1 Esd 5:31). The name Harhur appears in the parallel lists of Ezra 2:51 and Nehemiah 7:53.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ASUR<\/h3>\n<p>One of the temple servants whose descendants were among those who returned with Zerubbabel from the exile (1 Esd 5:31). The name Harhur appears in the parallel lists of Ezra 2:51 and Nehemiah 7:53.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ASUR One of the temple servants whose descendants were among those who returned with Zerubbabel from the exile (1 Esd 5:31). The name Harhur appears in the parallel lists of Ezra 2:51 and Nehemiah 7:53.","summary_en":"ASUR One of the temple servants whose descendants were among those who returned with Zerubbabel from the exile (1 Esd 5:31). The name Harhur appears in the parallel lists of Ezra 2:51 and Nehemiah 7:53.","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":3492,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bakbuk","title_en":"Bakbuk","content_ro":"<h3>BAKBUK<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:51; Neh 7:53).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BAKBUK<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:51; Neh 7:53).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BAKBUK Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:51; Neh 7:53).","summary_en":"BAKBUK Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:51; Neh 7:53).","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15078,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hakupha","title_en":"Hakupha","content_ro":"<h3>HAKUPHA<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of a family of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:51; Neh 7:53).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HAKUPHA<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of a family of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:51; Neh 7:53).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HAKUPHA Forefather of a family of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:51; Neh 7:53).","summary_en":"HAKUPHA Forefather of a family of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:51; Neh 7:53).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15367,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Harhur","title_en":"Harhur","content_ro":"<h3>HARHUR<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:51; Neh 7:53).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HARHUR<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:51; Neh 7:53).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HARHUR Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:51; Neh 7:53).","summary_en":"HARHUR Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:51; Neh 7:53).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"52":[{"id":3988,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bazlith*, Bazluth","title_en":"Bazlith*, Bazluth","content_ro":"<h3>BAZLITH*, BAZLUTH<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple assistants returning to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:52, “Bazluth”; Neh 7:54).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BAZLITH*, BAZLUTH<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple assistants returning to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:52, “Bazluth”; Neh 7:54).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BAZLITH*, BAZLUTH Ancestor of a group of temple assistants returning to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:52, “Bazluth”; Neh 7:54).","summary_en":"BAZLITH*, BAZLUTH Ancestor of a group of temple assistants returning to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:52, “Bazluth”; Neh 7:54).","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15399,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Harsha","title_en":"Harsha","content_ro":"<h3>HARSHA<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:52; Neh 7:54).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HARSHA<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:52; Neh 7:54).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HARSHA Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:52; Neh 7:54).","summary_en":"HARSHA Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:52; Neh 7:54).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25003,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Mehida","title_en":"Mehida","content_ro":"<h3>MEHIDA<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a family of temple servants in Ezra’s time (Ezr 2:52; Neh 7:54).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MEHIDA<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a family of temple servants in Ezra’s time (Ezr 2:52; Neh 7:54).<\/p>","summary_ro":"MEHIDA Head of a family of temple servants in Ezra’s time (Ezr 2:52; Neh 7:54).","summary_en":"MEHIDA Head of a family of temple servants in Ezra’s time (Ezr 2:52; Neh 7:54).","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"53":[{"id":3819,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Barkos","title_en":"Barkos","content_ro":"<h3>BARKOS<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:53; Neh 7:55).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BARKOS<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:53; Neh 7:55).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BARKOS Ancestor of a group of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:53; Neh 7:55).","summary_en":"BARKOS Ancestor of a group of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:53; Neh 7:55).","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35589,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Sisera","title_en":"Sisera","content_ro":"<h3>SISERA<\/h3>\n<li>1. Commander of the army of Jabin, king of Canaan. Sisera resided in Harosheth-haggoyim, from where he attacked northern Israel for 20 years. His army, strengthened by 900 iron chariots, was routed at the swollen river of Kishon near Megiddo under the leadership of Barak and Deborah. Having fled the battlefield, Sisera was killed by the hand of Jael, the wife of Heber the Kenite, in the hill country overlooking the Jordan Valley (Jgs 4; 1 Sm 12:9). The events of this battle were remembered in the Song of Deborah (Jgs 5:19-30) and Psalm 83:9.<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Judges, Book of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:53; Neh 7:55).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>SISERA<\/h3>\n<li>1. Commander of the army of Jabin, king of Canaan. Sisera resided in Harosheth-haggoyim, from where he attacked northern Israel for 20 years. His army, strengthened by 900 iron chariots, was routed at the swollen river of Kishon near Megiddo under the leadership of Barak and Deborah. Having fled the battlefield, Sisera was killed by the hand of Jael, the wife of Heber the Kenite, in the hill country overlooking the Jordan Valley (Jgs 4; 1 Sm 12:9). The events of this battle were remembered in the Song of Deborah (Jgs 5:19-30) and Psalm 83:9.<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Judges, Book of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:53; Neh 7:55).<\/li>","summary_ro":"SISERA 1. Commander of the army of Jabin, king of Canaan. Sisera resided in Harosheth-haggoyim, from where he attacked northern Israel for 20 years. His army, strengthened by 900 iron chariots, was routed at the swollen river of Kishon near Megiddo under the leadership of Barak and Deborah. Having fled the battlefield, Sisera was killed by the hand of Jael, the wife of Heber the Kenite, in the hill country overlooking the Jordan Valley (Jgs 4; 1 Sm 12:9). The events of this battle were rememb...","summary_en":"SISERA 1. Commander of the army of Jabin, king of Canaan. Sisera resided in Harosheth-haggoyim, from where he attacked northern Israel for 20 years. His army, strengthened by 900 iron chariots, was routed at the swollen river of Kishon near Megiddo under the leadership of Barak and Deborah. Having fled the battlefield, Sisera was killed by the hand of Jael, the wife of Heber the Kenite, in the hill country overlooking the Jordan Valley (Jgs 4; 1 Sm 12:9). The events of this battle were rememb...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36915,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Temah","title_en":"Temah","content_ro":"<h3>TEMAH<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 2:53; Neh 7:55).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TEMAH<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 2:53; Neh 7:55).<\/p>","summary_ro":"TEMAH Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 2:53; Neh 7:55).","summary_en":"TEMAH Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 2:53; Neh 7:55).","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37146,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Thamah*","title_en":"Thamah*","content_ro":"<h3>THAMAH*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV spelling of Temah in Ezra 2:53. <em>See<\/em> Temah.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>THAMAH*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV spelling of Temah in Ezra 2:53. <em>See<\/em> Temah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"THAMAH* KJV spelling of Temah in Ezra 2:53. See Temah.","summary_en":"THAMAH* KJV spelling of Temah in Ezra 2:53. See Temah.","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"54":[{"id":15467,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hatipha","title_en":"Hatipha","content_ro":"<h3>HATIPHA<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the captivity (Ezr 2:54; Neh 7:56).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HATIPHA<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the captivity (Ezr 2:54; Neh 7:56).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HATIPHA Ancestor of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the captivity (Ezr 2:54; Neh 7:56).","summary_en":"HATIPHA Ancestor of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the captivity (Ezr 2:54; Neh 7:56).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27517,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Neziah","title_en":"Neziah","content_ro":"<h3>NEZIAH<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:54; Neh 7:56).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEZIAH<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:54; Neh 7:56).<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEZIAH Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:54; Neh 7:56).","summary_en":"NEZIAH Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:54; Neh 7:56).","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"55":[{"id":3834,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Barodis*","title_en":"Barodis*","content_ro":"<h3>BARODIS*<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (1 Esd 5:34). The name Barodis does not appear in parallel lists of returnees (Ezr 2:55-57; Neh 7:57-59).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BARODIS*<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (1 Esd 5:34). The name Barodis does not appear in parallel lists of returnees (Ezr 2:55-57; Neh 7:57-59).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BARODIS* Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (1 Esd 5:34). The name Barodis does not appear in parallel lists of returnees (Ezr 2:55-57; Neh 7:57-59).","summary_en":"BARODIS* Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (1 Esd 5:34). The name Barodis does not appear in parallel lists of returnees (Ezr 2:55-57; Neh 7:57-59).","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15460,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hassophereth*","title_en":"Hassophereth*","content_ro":"<h3>HASSOPHERETH*<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a family of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:55, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). He is perhaps identifiable with Sophereth in Nehemiah 7:57.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HASSOPHERETH*<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a family of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:55, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). He is perhaps identifiable with Sophereth in Nehemiah 7:57.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HASSOPHERETH* Ancestor of a family of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:55, nlt mg). He is perhaps identifiable with Sophereth in Nehemiah 7:57.","summary_en":"HASSOPHERETH* Ancestor of a family of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:55, nlt mg). He is perhaps identifiable with Sophereth in Nehemiah 7:57.","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29808,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Peruda","title_en":"Peruda","content_ro":"<h3>PERUDA<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a family of Solomon’s servants (Ezr 2:55); alternately called Perida in Nehemiah 7:57. His descendants formed part of the remnant of Israel that returned to Jerusalem after the exile (1 Esd 5:33).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PERUDA<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a family of Solomon’s servants (Ezr 2:55); alternately called Perida in Nehemiah 7:57. His descendants formed part of the remnant of Israel that returned to Jerusalem after the exile (1 Esd 5:33).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PERUDA Head of a family of Solomon’s servants (Ezr 2:55); alternately called Perida in Nehemiah 7:57. His descendants formed part of the remnant of Israel that returned to Jerusalem after the exile (1 Esd 5:33).","summary_en":"PERUDA Head of a family of Solomon’s servants (Ezr 2:55); alternately called Perida in Nehemiah 7:57. His descendants formed part of the remnant of Israel that returned to Jerusalem after the exile (1 Esd 5:33).","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35949,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Sotai","title_en":"Sotai","content_ro":"<h3>SOTAI<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel following the exile (Ezr 2:55; Neh 7:57).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SOTAI<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel following the exile (Ezr 2:55; Neh 7:57).<\/p>","summary_ro":"SOTAI Head of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel following the exile (Ezr 2:55; Neh 7:57).","summary_en":"SOTAI Head of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel following the exile (Ezr 2:55; Neh 7:57).","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":47998,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:55","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:55","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:55-58<\/strong> The <em>descendants<\/em> of the <em>servants of King Solomon<\/em> are connected with the Temple servants (2:43-54). Their names might indicate their responsibilities: e.g., <em>Hassophereth<\/em> (“the scribe”) probably kept inventories, and <em>Pokereth-hazzebaim<\/em> (“gazelle-hunter”) likely hunted game.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:55-58<\/strong> The <em>descendants<\/em> of the <em>servants of King Solomon<\/em> are connected with the Temple servants (2:43-54). Their names might indicate their responsibilities: e.g., <em>Hassophereth<\/em> (“the scribe”) probably kept inventories, and <em>Pokereth-hazzebaim<\/em> (“gazelle-hunter”) likely hunted game.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:55-58 The descendants of the servants of King Solomon are connected with the Temple servants (2:43-54). Their names might indicate their responsibilities: e.g., Hassophereth (“the scribe”) probably kept inventories, and Pokereth-hazzebaim (“gazelle-hunter”) likely hunted game.","summary_en":"2:55-58 The descendants of the servants of King Solomon are connected with the Temple servants (2:43-54). Their names might indicate their responsibilities: e.g., Hassophereth (“the scribe”) probably kept inventories, and Pokereth-hazzebaim (“gazelle-hunter”) likely hunted game.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75624,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:55","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:55","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:55-58<\/strong> The <em>descendants<\/em> of the <em>servants of King Solomon<\/em> are connected with the Temple servants (2:43-54). Their names might indicate their responsibilities: e.g., <em>Hassophereth<\/em> (“the scribe”) probably kept inventories, and <em>Pokereth-hazzebaim<\/em> (“gazelle-hunter”) likely hunted game.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:55-58<\/strong> The <em>descendants<\/em> of the <em>servants of King Solomon<\/em> are connected with the Temple servants (2:43-54). Their names might indicate their responsibilities: e.g., <em>Hassophereth<\/em> (“the scribe”) probably kept inventories, and <em>Pokereth-hazzebaim<\/em> (“gazelle-hunter”) likely hunted game.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:55-58 The descendants of the servants of King Solomon are connected with the Temple servants (2:43-54). Their names might indicate their responsibilities: e.g., Hassophereth (“the scribe”) probably kept inventories, and Pokereth-hazzebaim (“gazelle-hunter”) likely hunted game.","summary_en":"2:55-58 The descendants of the servants of King Solomon are connected with the Temple servants (2:43-54). Their names might indicate their responsibilities: e.g., Hassophereth (“the scribe”) probably kept inventories, and Pokereth-hazzebaim (“gazelle-hunter”) likely hunted game.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103250,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:55","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:55","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:55-58<\/strong> The <em>descendants<\/em> of the <em>servants of King Solomon<\/em> are connected with the Temple servants (2:43-54). Their names might indicate their responsibilities: e.g., <em>Hassophereth<\/em> (“the scribe”) probably kept inventories, and <em>Pokereth-hazzebaim<\/em> (“gazelle-hunter”) likely hunted game.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:55-58<\/strong> The <em>descendants<\/em> of the <em>servants of King Solomon<\/em> are connected with the Temple servants (2:43-54). Their names might indicate their responsibilities: e.g., <em>Hassophereth<\/em> (“the scribe”) probably kept inventories, and <em>Pokereth-hazzebaim<\/em> (“gazelle-hunter”) likely hunted game.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:55-58 The descendants of the servants of King Solomon are connected with the Temple servants (2:43-54). Their names might indicate their responsibilities: e.g., Hassophereth (“the scribe”) probably kept inventories, and Pokereth-hazzebaim (“gazelle-hunter”) likely hunted game.","summary_en":"2:55-58 The descendants of the servants of King Solomon are connected with the Temple servants (2:43-54). Their names might indicate their responsibilities: e.g., Hassophereth (“the scribe”) probably kept inventories, and Pokereth-hazzebaim (“gazelle-hunter”) likely hunted game.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":130876,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:55","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:55","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:55-58<\/strong> The <em>descendants<\/em> of the <em>servants of King Solomon<\/em> are connected with the Temple servants (2:43-54). Their names might indicate their responsibilities: e.g., <em>Hassophereth<\/em> (“the scribe”) probably kept inventories, and <em>Pokereth-hazzebaim<\/em> (“gazelle-hunter”) likely hunted game.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:55-58<\/strong> The <em>descendants<\/em> of the <em>servants of King Solomon<\/em> are connected with the Temple servants (2:43-54). Their names might indicate their responsibilities: e.g., <em>Hassophereth<\/em> (“the scribe”) probably kept inventories, and <em>Pokereth-hazzebaim<\/em> (“gazelle-hunter”) likely hunted game.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:55-58 The descendants of the servants of King Solomon are connected with the Temple servants (2:43-54). Their names might indicate their responsibilities: e.g., Hassophereth (“the scribe”) probably kept inventories, and Pokereth-hazzebaim (“gazelle-hunter”) likely hunted game.","summary_en":"2:55-58 The descendants of the servants of King Solomon are connected with the Temple servants (2:43-54). Their names might indicate their responsibilities: e.g., Hassophereth (“the scribe”) probably kept inventories, and Pokereth-hazzebaim (“gazelle-hunter”) likely hunted game.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"56":[{"id":8689,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Darkon","title_en":"Darkon","content_ro":"<h3>DARKON<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:56; Neh 7:58).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DARKON<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:56; Neh 7:58).<\/p>","summary_ro":"DARKON Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:56; Neh 7:58).","summary_en":"DARKON Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:56; Neh 7:58).","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13800,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Giddel","title_en":"Giddel","content_ro":"<h3>GIDDEL<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:47; Neh 7:49).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of a group of King Solomon’s servants who returned with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:56; Neh 7:58).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>GIDDEL<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:47; Neh 7:49).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of a group of King Solomon’s servants who returned with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:56; Neh 7:58).<\/li>","summary_ro":"GIDDEL 1. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:47; Neh 7:49). 2. Ancestor of a group of King Solomon’s servants who returned with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:56; Neh 7:58).","summary_en":"GIDDEL 1. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:47; Neh 7:49). 2. Ancestor of a group of King Solomon’s servants who returned with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:56; Neh 7:58).","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18153,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jaalah","title_en":"Jaalah","content_ro":"<h3>JAALAH<\/h3>\n<p>Servant of King Solomon and head of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:56; Neh 7:58).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JAALAH<\/h3>\n<p>Servant of King Solomon and head of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:56; Neh 7:58).<\/p>","summary_ro":"JAALAH Servant of King Solomon and head of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:56; Neh 7:58).","summary_en":"JAALAH Servant of King Solomon and head of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:56; Neh 7:58).","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"57":[{"id":1287,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ami","title_en":"Ami","content_ro":"<h3>AMI<\/h3>\n<p>Official in Solomon’s court whose descendants returned to Jerusalem after the exile (Ezr 2:57). Also spelled Amon in Nehemiah 7:59. <em>See<\/em> Amon (Person) #3.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AMI<\/h3>\n<p>Official in Solomon’s court whose descendants returned to Jerusalem after the exile (Ezr 2:57). Also spelled Amon in Nehemiah 7:59. <em>See<\/em> Amon (Person) #3.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AMI Official in Solomon’s court whose descendants returned to Jerusalem after the exile (Ezr 2:57). Also spelled Amon in Nehemiah 7:59. See Amon (Person) #3.","summary_en":"AMI Official in Solomon’s court whose descendants returned to Jerusalem after the exile (Ezr 2:57). Also spelled Amon in Nehemiah 7:59. See Amon (Person) #3.","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":1389,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Amon (Person)","title_en":"Amon (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>AMON (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Governor of the city of Samaria during the reign of Ahab in Israel (1 Kgs 22:26; 2 Chr 18:25). Amon imprisoned the prophet Micaiah while Ahab defied Micaiah’s warning against attacking Ramoth-gilead.<\/li>\n<li>2. King Manasseh’s son, the 15th king of Judah (642–640 <span>BC<\/span>). Amon was 22 years old when he became king. He indulged in idolatry like his father and after a two-year reign was assassinated in a palace coup (2 Kgs 21:19-26; 2 Chr 33:20-25). <em>See<\/em> Israel, History of; Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament).<\/li>\n<li>3. Official of Solomon; his descendants returned to Jerusalem after the exile (Neh 7:59). The spelling Ami (Ezr 2:57) is a variant of this name.<\/li>\n<li>4. Egyptian god, probably a fertility deity (Jer 46:25).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>AMON (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Governor of the city of Samaria during the reign of Ahab in Israel (1 Kgs 22:26; 2 Chr 18:25). Amon imprisoned the prophet Micaiah while Ahab defied Micaiah’s warning against attacking Ramoth-gilead.<\/li>\n<li>2. King Manasseh’s son, the 15th king of Judah (642–640 <span>BC<\/span>). Amon was 22 years old when he became king. He indulged in idolatry like his father and after a two-year reign was assassinated in a palace coup (2 Kgs 21:19-26; 2 Chr 33:20-25). <em>See<\/em> Israel, History of; Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament).<\/li>\n<li>3. Official of Solomon; his descendants returned to Jerusalem after the exile (Neh 7:59). The spelling Ami (Ezr 2:57) is a variant of this name.<\/li>\n<li>4. Egyptian god, probably a fertility deity (Jer 46:25).<\/li>","summary_ro":"AMON (Person) 1. Governor of the city of Samaria during the reign of Ahab in Israel (1 Kgs 22:26; 2 Chr 18:25). Amon imprisoned the prophet Micaiah while Ahab defied Micaiah’s warning against attacking Ramoth-gilead. 2. King Manasseh’s son, the 15th king of Judah (642–640 BC). Amon was 22 years old when he became king. He indulged in idolatry like his father and after a two-year reign was assassinated in a palace coup (2 Kgs 21:19-26; 2 Chr 33:20-25). See Israel, History of; Chronology of the...","summary_en":"AMON (Person) 1. Governor of the city of Samaria during the reign of Ahab in Israel (1 Kgs 22:26; 2 Chr 18:25). Amon imprisoned the prophet Micaiah while Ahab defied Micaiah’s warning against attacking Ramoth-gilead. 2. King Manasseh’s son, the 15th king of Judah (642–640 BC). Amon was 22 years old when he became king. He indulged in idolatry like his father and after a two-year reign was assassinated in a palace coup (2 Kgs 21:19-26; 2 Chr 33:20-25). See Israel, History of; Chronology of the...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15479,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hattil","title_en":"Hattil","content_ro":"<h3>HATTIL<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of a family of King Soloman’s servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:57; Neh 7:59).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HATTIL<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of a family of King Soloman’s servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:57; Neh 7:59).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HATTIL Forefather of a family of King Soloman’s servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:57; Neh 7:59).","summary_en":"HATTIL Forefather of a family of King Soloman’s servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:57; Neh 7:59).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30777,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"of Zebaim* Pochereth-Hazzebaim*, Pochereth","title_en":"of Zebaim* Pochereth-Hazzebaim*, Pochereth","content_ro":"<h3>Pochereth-Hazzebaim*, Pochereth of Zebaim*<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a family of Solomon’s servants who returned from the exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:57; Neh 7:59). The <span>kjv<\/span> renders the name Pochereth of Zebaim, making the latter part a place-name.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Pochereth-Hazzebaim*, Pochereth of Zebaim*<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a family of Solomon’s servants who returned from the exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:57; Neh 7:59). The <span>kjv<\/span> renders the name Pochereth of Zebaim, making the latter part a place-name.<\/p>","summary_ro":"Pochereth-Hazzebaim*, Pochereth of Zebaim* Head of a family of Solomon’s servants who returned from the exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:57; Neh 7:59). The kjv renders the name Pochereth of Zebaim, making the latter part a place-name.","summary_en":"Pochereth-Hazzebaim*, Pochereth of Zebaim* Head of a family of Solomon’s servants who returned from the exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:57; Neh 7:59). The kjv renders the name Pochereth of Zebaim, making the latter part a place-name.","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34965,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shephatiah","title_en":"Shephatiah","content_ro":"<h3>SHEPHATIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of six sons born to David during his seven-year reign at Hebron. Shephatiah’s mother was Abital, one of David’s wives (2 Sm 3:4; 1 Chr 3:3).<\/li>\n<li>2. Benjaminite and the father of Meshullam, a returnee to Jerusalem after the Babylonian captivity (1 Chr 9:8).<\/li>\n<li>3. Haruphite from Benjamin’s tribe and one of the men of military prowess who came to David’s support at Ziklag (1 Chr 12:5).<\/li>\n<li>4. Son of Maacah and chief official of the Simeonites during David’s reign (1 Chr 27:16).<\/li>\n<li>5. One of the seven sons of King Jehoshaphat of Judah (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>) and the brother of Jehoram who became sole regent (853–841 <span>BC<\/span>) after his father’s death (2 Chr 21:1-2).<\/li>\n<li>6. Forefather of 372 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:4; Neh 7:9). Later, 81 members of Shephatiah’s house accompanied Ezra back to Palestine during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 8:8).<\/li>\n<li>7. Founder of a household of Solomon’s servants that returned with Zerubbabel to Judah after the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:57; Neh 7:59).<\/li>\n<li>8. Descendant of Perez and an ancestor of a Judahite family living in Jerusalem during the postexilic period (Neh 11:4).<\/li>\n<li>9. Son of Mattan and a prince of Judah during the reign of King Zedekiah (597–586 <span>BC<\/span>). Annoyed with Jeremiah’s prophecies of doom for Jerusalem, Shephatiah (with Gedaliah, Jucal, and Pashhur) tried to put him to death. With Zedekiah’s permission, they hoped to achieve their ends by imprisoning Jeremiah in a cistern (Jer 38:1).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>SHEPHATIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of six sons born to David during his seven-year reign at Hebron. Shephatiah’s mother was Abital, one of David’s wives (2 Sm 3:4; 1 Chr 3:3).<\/li>\n<li>2. Benjaminite and the father of Meshullam, a returnee to Jerusalem after the Babylonian captivity (1 Chr 9:8).<\/li>\n<li>3. Haruphite from Benjamin’s tribe and one of the men of military prowess who came to David’s support at Ziklag (1 Chr 12:5).<\/li>\n<li>4. Son of Maacah and chief official of the Simeonites during David’s reign (1 Chr 27:16).<\/li>\n<li>5. One of the seven sons of King Jehoshaphat of Judah (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>) and the brother of Jehoram who became sole regent (853–841 <span>BC<\/span>) after his father’s death (2 Chr 21:1-2).<\/li>\n<li>6. Forefather of 372 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:4; Neh 7:9). Later, 81 members of Shephatiah’s house accompanied Ezra back to Palestine during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 8:8).<\/li>\n<li>7. Founder of a household of Solomon’s servants that returned with Zerubbabel to Judah after the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:57; Neh 7:59).<\/li>\n<li>8. Descendant of Perez and an ancestor of a Judahite family living in Jerusalem during the postexilic period (Neh 11:4).<\/li>\n<li>9. Son of Mattan and a prince of Judah during the reign of King Zedekiah (597–586 <span>BC<\/span>). Annoyed with Jeremiah’s prophecies of doom for Jerusalem, Shephatiah (with Gedaliah, Jucal, and Pashhur) tried to put him to death. With Zedekiah’s permission, they hoped to achieve their ends by imprisoning Jeremiah in a cistern (Jer 38:1).<\/li>","summary_ro":"SHEPHATIAH 1. One of six sons born to David during his seven-year reign at Hebron. Shephatiah’s mother was Abital, one of David’s wives (2 Sm 3:4; 1 Chr 3:3). 2. Benjaminite and the father of Meshullam, a returnee to Jerusalem after the Babylonian captivity (1 Chr 9:8). 3. Haruphite from Benjamin’s tribe and one of the men of military prowess who came to David’s support at Ziklag (1 Chr 12:5). 4. Son of Maacah and chief official of the Simeonites during David’s reign (1 Chr 27:16). 5. One of ...","summary_en":"SHEPHATIAH 1. One of six sons born to David during his seven-year reign at Hebron. Shephatiah’s mother was Abital, one of David’s wives (2 Sm 3:4; 1 Chr 3:3). 2. Benjaminite and the father of Meshullam, a returnee to Jerusalem after the Babylonian captivity (1 Chr 9:8). 3. Haruphite from Benjamin’s tribe and one of the men of military prowess who came to David’s support at Ziklag (1 Chr 12:5). 4. Son of Maacah and chief official of the Simeonites during David’s reign (1 Chr 27:16). 5. One of ...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":38968,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Zebaim*","title_en":"Zebaim*","content_ro":"<h3>ZEBAIM*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV rendering of a place mentioned in Ezra 2:57 and Nehemiah 7:59. <em>See<\/em> Pochereth-Hazzebaim, Pochereth of Zebaim.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZEBAIM*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV rendering of a place mentioned in Ezra 2:57 and Nehemiah 7:59. <em>See<\/em> Pochereth-Hazzebaim, Pochereth of Zebaim.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ZEBAIM* KJV rendering of a place mentioned in Ezra 2:57 and Nehemiah 7:59. See Pochereth-Hazzebaim, Pochereth of Zebaim.","summary_en":"ZEBAIM* KJV rendering of a place mentioned in Ezra 2:57 and Nehemiah 7:59. See Pochereth-Hazzebaim, Pochereth of Zebaim.","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"58":[{"id":27380,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nethinim*","title_en":"Nethinim*","content_ro":"<h3>NETHINIM*<\/h3>\n<p>Term appearing only in the books written after Israel’s return from exile (1 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah). <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Nethinim<\/span> derives from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nathan<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to give, set apart, dedicate,” and means “those given” or “those set apart or dedicated.” The Septuagint translates the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">dedomenoi<\/span><em>.<\/em> Some recent translators have followed Josephus (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 11.5.1) by referring to them as “temple slaves.” The <span>nlt<\/span> reads “Temple assistants.”<\/p>\n<p>Before the exile, the Nethinim were active in temple service. First Chronicles 9:2 lists them with the priests and Levites who took possession of their allotted cities. Their listed order—priests, Levites, and Nethinim—suggests their subordinate role to the Levites (see also Neh 7:73; 11:3, 20-21). They returned from exile as temple personnel (Ezr 2:43, 58; 7:7, 24; 8:17, 20; Neh 7:46, 60). They had their dwelling in Jerusalem (Ezr 7:7; Neh 3:31; 11:21) and joined in the repair of the walls (Neh 3:26).<\/p>\n<p>The identification of the Nethinim is not absolutely certain. Numbers 31:47 records that the Levites received captives who were assigned laborious and menial tasks. When the Gibeonites were accepted within Israel as servants, they too were appointed as water carriers and wood choppers for the entire community and the altar of the Lord (Jos 9:9-27). David augmented the number of tabernacle servants by assigning captives taken in war to these duties (Ezr 8:20). At the completion of the temple, the temple services called for more workers, and Solomon added to their number. This new group became known as “Solomon’s men.” Ezra records that from the Nethinim, 392 returned from exile to Jerusalem (2:58) and performed the work in the rebuilt temple that had been done by their ancestors before the exile. Considered full members of the restored covenant community, the Nethinim devoted themselves to God (Neh 10:28).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NETHINIM*<\/h3>\n<p>Term appearing only in the books written after Israel’s return from exile (1 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah). <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Nethinim<\/span> derives from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nathan<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to give, set apart, dedicate,” and means “those given” or “those set apart or dedicated.” The Septuagint translates the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">dedomenoi<\/span><em>.<\/em> Some recent translators have followed Josephus (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 11.5.1) by referring to them as “temple slaves.” The <span>nlt<\/span> reads “Temple assistants.”<\/p>\n<p>Before the exile, the Nethinim were active in temple service. First Chronicles 9:2 lists them with the priests and Levites who took possession of their allotted cities. Their listed order—priests, Levites, and Nethinim—suggests their subordinate role to the Levites (see also Neh 7:73; 11:3, 20-21). They returned from exile as temple personnel (Ezr 2:43, 58; 7:7, 24; 8:17, 20; Neh 7:46, 60). They had their dwelling in Jerusalem (Ezr 7:7; Neh 3:31; 11:21) and joined in the repair of the walls (Neh 3:26).<\/p>\n<p>The identification of the Nethinim is not absolutely certain. Numbers 31:47 records that the Levites received captives who were assigned laborious and menial tasks. When the Gibeonites were accepted within Israel as servants, they too were appointed as water carriers and wood choppers for the entire community and the altar of the Lord (Jos 9:9-27). David augmented the number of tabernacle servants by assigning captives taken in war to these duties (Ezr 8:20). At the completion of the temple, the temple services called for more workers, and Solomon added to their number. This new group became known as “Solomon’s men.” Ezra records that from the Nethinim, 392 returned from exile to Jerusalem (2:58) and performed the work in the rebuilt temple that had been done by their ancestors before the exile. Considered full members of the restored covenant community, the Nethinim devoted themselves to God (Neh 10:28).<\/p>","summary_ro":"NETHINIM* Term appearing only in the books written after Israel’s return from exile (1 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah). Nethinim derives from the verb nathan, “to give, set apart, dedicate,” and means “those given” or “those set apart or dedicated.” The Septuagint translates the word dedomenoi. Some recent translators have followed Josephus (Antiquities 11.5.1) by referring to them as “temple slaves.” The nlt reads “Temple assistants.” Before the exile, the Nethinim were active in temple service....","summary_en":"NETHINIM* Term appearing only in the books written after Israel’s return from exile (1 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah). Nethinim derives from the verb nathan, “to give, set apart, dedicate,” and means “those given” or “those set apart or dedicated.” The Septuagint translates the word dedomenoi. Some recent translators have followed Josephus (Antiquities 11.5.1) by referring to them as “temple slaves.” The nlt reads “Temple assistants.” Before the exile, the Nethinim were active in temple service....","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35628,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Slavery Slave","title_en":"Slavery Slave","content_ro":"<h3>SLAVE, SLAVERY<\/h3>\n<p>Person owned as property by another, and the relationship that bound the owner and the slave. Slavery was widespread in the ancient Near East, although the economy was not dependent upon it. By Roman times, slavery was so extensive that in the early Christian period one out of every two people was a slave. From at least 3000 <span>BC<\/span>, captives in war were the primary source of slaves (Gn 14:21; Nm 31:9; Dt 20:14; Jgs 5:30; 1 Sm 4:9; 2 Kgs 5:2; 2 Chr 28:8).<\/p>\n<p>Slaves could be purchased locally from other owners or from foreign traveling merchants who sold slaves along with cloth, bronzeware, and other goods (Jl 3:4-8). Joseph was sold by Midianites and Ishmaelites to an Egyptian (Gn 37:36; 39:1) in this manner. Debt was the basic cause for many families being reduced to slavery; an entire family could be subject to slavery (2 Kgs 4:1; Neh 5:5-8). The law code of Hammurabi stipulated a maximum of three years of slavery for the family (Section 117), as opposed to a maximum of six years under Hebrew law (Dt 15:18). Voluntary slavery was widespread as a means of escape from abject poverty and starvation (Lv 25:47-48). Selling a kidnapped person into slavery, the crime of Joseph’s brothers (Gn 37:27-28), was a capital offense under the law code of Hammurabi (Section 14) and the Mosaic law (Ex 21:11; Dt 24:7).<\/p>\n<p>In Sumerian society, slaves had legal rights, could borrow money, and could engage in business. As the normal price for a slave was probably less than that for a strong donkey, the slave always had the hope that he could save sufficient money to purchase his freedom. Slaves performed tedious labor on farms and in households, though some gifted individuals occupied executive positions in households. Despite provisions in ancient law, the release of slaves was not always honored on schedule. A Hebrew who voluntarily entered slavery was normally released the next jubilee year, and theoretically no Hebrew could be enslaved for life (Ex 21:2; Lv 25:10-13; Dt 15:12-14).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites made a deliberate attempt to safeguard the slave from brutality by a master or overseer. By law, a maimed slave had to be released (Ex 21:26-27). The few Hebrew slaves in a household frequently toiled alongside their masters in the fields, and they and household slaves often had a reasonable and secure existence, compared with the threat of starvation and destitution of the poorest free men.<\/p>\n<p>In Greek and especially in Roman times, when the number of slaves increased dramatically, household slaves remained the best treated. Many became servants and confidants; some even established good businesses to their own and their masters’ benefit.<\/p>\n<p>Information from Ur, Nuzi, and the book of Genesis shows that where a wife was childless, the female slave could bear the master’s child (Gn 16:2-4). Legally a Hebrew master could agree to marry a young female slave, have his own son marry her, or establish her as a concubine. If subsequently she was discarded, or if the agreement was not fulfilled, she would be released from her slavery (Ex 21:7-11). Conquered people were required to perform forced labor for the state (2 Sm 12:31; 1 Kgs 9:15, 21-23), including the Israelites themselves in Lebanon (1 Kgs 5:13-18). Captured in war, the Midianites (Nm 31:28-30, 47) and Gibeonites (Jos 9:23-25) were made slaves to serve the temple. The practice continued through the reigns of David and Solomon (Ezr 2:58; 8:20). Nehemiah records that foreign slaves helped make repairs on the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 3:26, 31).<\/p>\n<p>The NT attitude toward slavery indicates that the status of a slave was more like that of a servant and that the institution of slavery generally was declining. There was no strong opposition to slavery from Jesus or the apostles, but an admonition that slaves and servants should serve their masters faithfully and that masters should treat their slaves humanely and fairly (Eph 6:9; Col 4:1; 1 Tm 6:2; Phlm 1:16). Paul never preached against slavery, but he personally tried to attain freedom for the slave Onesimus from his Christian master, Philemon (see the discussion on this in Philemon, Letter to).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bond, Bondage; Liberty.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SLAVE, SLAVERY<\/h3>\n<p>Person owned as property by another, and the relationship that bound the owner and the slave. Slavery was widespread in the ancient Near East, although the economy was not dependent upon it. By Roman times, slavery was so extensive that in the early Christian period one out of every two people was a slave. From at least 3000 <span>BC<\/span>, captives in war were the primary source of slaves (Gn 14:21; Nm 31:9; Dt 20:14; Jgs 5:30; 1 Sm 4:9; 2 Kgs 5:2; 2 Chr 28:8).<\/p>\n<p>Slaves could be purchased locally from other owners or from foreign traveling merchants who sold slaves along with cloth, bronzeware, and other goods (Jl 3:4-8). Joseph was sold by Midianites and Ishmaelites to an Egyptian (Gn 37:36; 39:1) in this manner. Debt was the basic cause for many families being reduced to slavery; an entire family could be subject to slavery (2 Kgs 4:1; Neh 5:5-8). The law code of Hammurabi stipulated a maximum of three years of slavery for the family (Section 117), as opposed to a maximum of six years under Hebrew law (Dt 15:18). Voluntary slavery was widespread as a means of escape from abject poverty and starvation (Lv 25:47-48). Selling a kidnapped person into slavery, the crime of Joseph’s brothers (Gn 37:27-28), was a capital offense under the law code of Hammurabi (Section 14) and the Mosaic law (Ex 21:11; Dt 24:7).<\/p>\n<p>In Sumerian society, slaves had legal rights, could borrow money, and could engage in business. As the normal price for a slave was probably less than that for a strong donkey, the slave always had the hope that he could save sufficient money to purchase his freedom. Slaves performed tedious labor on farms and in households, though some gifted individuals occupied executive positions in households. Despite provisions in ancient law, the release of slaves was not always honored on schedule. A Hebrew who voluntarily entered slavery was normally released the next jubilee year, and theoretically no Hebrew could be enslaved for life (Ex 21:2; Lv 25:10-13; Dt 15:12-14).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites made a deliberate attempt to safeguard the slave from brutality by a master or overseer. By law, a maimed slave had to be released (Ex 21:26-27). The few Hebrew slaves in a household frequently toiled alongside their masters in the fields, and they and household slaves often had a reasonable and secure existence, compared with the threat of starvation and destitution of the poorest free men.<\/p>\n<p>In Greek and especially in Roman times, when the number of slaves increased dramatically, household slaves remained the best treated. Many became servants and confidants; some even established good businesses to their own and their masters’ benefit.<\/p>\n<p>Information from Ur, Nuzi, and the book of Genesis shows that where a wife was childless, the female slave could bear the master’s child (Gn 16:2-4). Legally a Hebrew master could agree to marry a young female slave, have his own son marry her, or establish her as a concubine. If subsequently she was discarded, or if the agreement was not fulfilled, she would be released from her slavery (Ex 21:7-11). Conquered people were required to perform forced labor for the state (2 Sm 12:31; 1 Kgs 9:15, 21-23), including the Israelites themselves in Lebanon (1 Kgs 5:13-18). Captured in war, the Midianites (Nm 31:28-30, 47) and Gibeonites (Jos 9:23-25) were made slaves to serve the temple. The practice continued through the reigns of David and Solomon (Ezr 2:58; 8:20). Nehemiah records that foreign slaves helped make repairs on the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 3:26, 31).<\/p>\n<p>The NT attitude toward slavery indicates that the status of a slave was more like that of a servant and that the institution of slavery generally was declining. There was no strong opposition to slavery from Jesus or the apostles, but an admonition that slaves and servants should serve their masters faithfully and that masters should treat their slaves humanely and fairly (Eph 6:9; Col 4:1; 1 Tm 6:2; Phlm 1:16). Paul never preached against slavery, but he personally tried to attain freedom for the slave Onesimus from his Christian master, Philemon (see the discussion on this in Philemon, Letter to).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bond, Bondage; Liberty.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SLAVE, SLAVERY Person owned as property by another, and the relationship that bound the owner and the slave. Slavery was widespread in the ancient Near East, although the economy was not dependent upon it. By Roman times, slavery was so extensive that in the early Christian period one out of every two people was a slave. From at least 3000 BC, captives in war were the primary source of slaves (Gn 14:21; Nm 31:9; Dt 20:14; Jgs 5:30; 1 Sm 4:9; 2 Kgs 5:2; 2 Chr 28:8). Slaves could be purchased l...","summary_en":"SLAVE, SLAVERY Person owned as property by another, and the relationship that bound the owner and the slave. Slavery was widespread in the ancient Near East, although the economy was not dependent upon it. By Roman times, slavery was so extensive that in the early Christian period one out of every two people was a slave. From at least 3000 BC, captives in war were the primary source of slaves (Gn 14:21; Nm 31:9; Dt 20:14; Jgs 5:30; 1 Sm 4:9; 2 Kgs 5:2; 2 Chr 28:8). Slaves could be purchased l...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"59":[{"id":569,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Addan","title_en":"Addan","content_ro":"<h3>ADDAN<\/h3>\n<p>Persian city from which Israelite exiles returned with Ezra to Jerusalem (Ezr 2:59), probably named after a Babylonian god called Addu. The exiles returning from this city were unable to give evidence of their Jewish descent, having lost their genealogical credentials. Also spelled Addon (Neh 7:61).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ADDAN<\/h3>\n<p>Persian city from which Israelite exiles returned with Ezra to Jerusalem (Ezr 2:59), probably named after a Babylonian god called Addu. The exiles returning from this city were unable to give evidence of their Jewish descent, having lost their genealogical credentials. Also spelled Addon (Neh 7:61).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ADDAN Persian city from which Israelite exiles returned with Ezra to Jerusalem (Ezr 2:59), probably named after a Babylonian god called Addu. The exiles returning from this city were unable to give evidence of their Jewish descent, having lost their genealogical credentials. Also spelled Addon (Neh 7:61).","summary_en":"ADDAN Persian city from which Israelite exiles returned with Ezra to Jerusalem (Ezr 2:59), probably named after a Babylonian god called Addu. The exiles returning from this city were unable to give evidence of their Jewish descent, having lost their genealogical credentials. Also spelled Addon (Neh 7:61).","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13399,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Genealogy","title_en":"Genealogy","content_ro":"<h3>GENEALOGY<\/h3>\n<p>Record or study of descent involving a tracing backward or forward of the ancestry of a nation, tribe, family, or individual. The Hebrews were not the only people in the ancient world to take an interest in maintaining genealogical records. The Sumerian king list of the third millennium <span>BC<\/span> contains records of the early rulers of Mesopotamia. In Babylonian records the word “son” was frequently used in the sense of “descendant of.” King Tirhakah of Egypt (c. 685 <span>BC<\/span>) referred to his “father,” Sesostris III, who lived some 1,200 years before him. Greeks and Romans also kept genealogical records. However, the biblical genealogies, especially those in Genesis and 1 Chronicles 1–9, are unique in the literature of the ancient Near East. Only at the beginning of the Islamic age are such broad genealogical records found. Even today among tribal Semites, such as Arab nomads, there is an intense interest in genealogy, and it is not unusual for an Arab to be able to recite accurately the names of his ancestors for 10 or 15 generations back, covering a period of several hundred years.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TermsUsed\">Terms Used<\/p>\n<p>The word “genealogy” occurs only once as a noun in the Hebrew OT (Neh 7:5), where it refers to a register of those who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel at the end of the exile. The verbal form of the same word is found a total of 20 times in 1—2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. The terms “generations” and “book of the generations,” used in Genesis and elsewhere in the OT, convey the same idea. The equivalent NT terms are found in 1 Timothy 1:4 and Titus 3:9 (“genealogies”) and Matthew 1:1, which refers to the “book of the genealogy” of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofGenealogicalRecords\">Purpose of Genealogical Records<\/p>\n<p>The keeping of genealogical records in ancient Israel was an important activity and served a number of useful purposes. God’s promise of a land to Abraham and his descendants made such records necessary to establish and preserve the allotment of the land; a genealogical record served as evidence of a legitimate title to the ancestral property. Genealogies were essential for the preservation of the exclusive priesthood that had been established by the Mosaic law. In the time of Josephus every priest was supposed to be able to prove his descent.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most important reasons for keeping genealogical records was to establish and maintain the right of royal succession in Judah through the family of David. The belief that the Messiah would come from the Davidic house made such records even more important.<\/p>\n<p>Other purposes served by these family records included the imposition of military duty according to families (Nm 1:2-3). Position in camp and on the march from Egypt was determined by tribes and families (2:2, 17; 10:11-28). Also, God’s blessings were passed from one member of the family to his descendants (Gn 27). The stress placed on the purity of the congregation (Dt 7:1-4; 23:1-8) required complete family records, particularly in the postexilic period. With the insistence of Ezra and Nehemiah upon racial purity, and with the purging of foreign elements from among the people (Ezr 2:59-63; 10:9-44; Neh 13:23-28), written evidence of purity of descent became essential; interest in the compilation of genealogies became intense after the exile.<\/p>\n<p>Lineage was ordinarily traced through the male members of the family, with females being mentioned only rarely (e.g., Gn 11:29, Sarah and Milcah; 22:23, Rebekah; and Nm 26:33–27:11, where the property inheritance of the daughters of Zelophehad was involved). Matthew mentions three women: Tamar, Rahab, and Ruth; and in the second group alludes to Bathsheba (see discussion below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PrincipalGenealogicalListsintheBible\">Principal Genealogical Lists in the Bible<\/p>\n<p>The principal sources of genealogical material in the OT are found in Genesis, Numbers, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 1—2 Chronicles (which contain the greatest amount of genealogical material in the Bible), Ezra, and Nehemiah. The genealogies of Jesus Christ in Matthew 1 and Luke 3 are the only NT records. Together they contain a genealogical record from Adam to Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Grouped together by historical periods, the following are the principal genealogical lists found in the Bible:<\/p>\n<h5>Before the Flood<\/h5>\n<p>Three lists are from this period. The first, found in Genesis 4:17-22, traces the descendants of Cain through seven generations and explains the hereditary origin of certain occupations and crafts. The second, Genesis 4:25-26, begins the account of the descendants of Seth, the posterity of Adam whose faithfulness to God is contrasted with the ungodly posterity of Cain. The third list, Genesis 5:1-32 (cf. 1 Chr 1:1-4), traces the descendants of Adam through Seth down to Noah and his sons at the time of the Flood.<\/p>\n<h5>From Noah to Abraham<\/h5>\n<p>Genesis 10:1-32 (cf. 1 Chr 1:4-23), frequently called the “table of nations,” contains a list of the nations descended from the sons of Noah (Shem, Ham, and Japheth). Genesis 11:10-26 (cf. 1 Chr 1:24-27) traces the descendants of Shem to the time of Abraham, and Genesis 11:27-30 (see also Gn 22:20-24) lists the descendants of Nahor, Abraham’s brother.<\/p>\n<h5>From Abraham to the Descent into Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>The descendants of Abraham by Hagar, Sarah, and Keturah are found in Genesis 16:15, 21:1-3, and 25:1-4 (introducing the Arabs as descendants of Abraham; cf. 1 Chr 1:28-34). Genesis 19:37-38 links the Moabites and Ammonites to Abraham through his nephew Lot. A very important genealogical list during this period is that of the descendants of Jacob, giving the account of the parentage, birth, and naming of the founders of the 12 tribes of Israel (Gn 29:31–30:24; 35:16-26). Esau is acknowledged as the ancestor of the Edomites; his Edomite descendants are traced through his three wives (Gn 26:34; 36:1-43; 1 Chr 1:35-54). The list of Jacob’s family at the time he entered Egypt, numbering 70, is found in Genesis 46:1-27 (cf. Ex 6:14-16; Nm 26:1-51; 1 Chr 2–8). A partial list of the heads of the fathers’ houses of Reuben, Simeon, and Levi is found in Exodus 6:14-25; the chief purpose of this genealogy is to establish Aaron and Moses as members of Levi’s tribe.<\/p>\n<h5>From the Exodus to the Conquest of Canaan<\/h5>\n<p>While the tribes were still in the desert after leaving Egypt, a census was taken to determine the total number of Israelites (Nm 1:4-54; 2:2-33). During this same period, a genealogy of the family of Aaron was compiled, and a separate census was taken of the Levites (3:1-39). A list of the 12 spies who searched out the land and the tribes they represented is given in Numbers 13:4-16; the most important names on this list are Caleb and Joshua. Near the end of the wilderness wanderings, another census of the people was ordered; the total number was approximately the same as that of the first census almost 40 years earlier (26:4-51, 57-62). As the tribes neared the Promised Land, a list was prepared of the tribal representatives who would take part in the division of the land (34:16-29).<\/p>\n<h5>Period of the Kings<\/h5>\n<p>During the entire period of the monarchy, over 400 years, the only genealogical records of any consequence are those that pertain to David. His descendants are traced through 20 rulers who sat upon the throne of Judah until the nation fell to the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (1—2 Kgs; cf. 1 Chr 11:1—2 Chr 36:21). A list of David’s children is found in 2 Samuel 3:2-5 and 5:14-16 (cf. 1 Chr 3:1-9; 14:4-7). His mighty men, an elite group of soldiers, are named in 2 Samuel 23:8-39 (cf. 1 Chr 11:10-47). His recruits at Ziklag are recorded in 1 Chronicles 12:1-22. Those who were his musicians and doorkeepers when the ark was brought to Jerusalem are named in 1 Chronicles 15:1-24 (cf. 1 Chr 16:5-6, 37-43). David’s political and religious organization of the kingdom—including the Levites, priests, singers, porters and other administrative officials, and military officers—is found in 1 Chronicles 23–27. In spite of the literary activity associated with the reign of Solomon, the only genealogical record preserved from this period is that of Solomon’s princes and 12 officers (1 Kgs 4:1-19). The genealogy of one prophet is traced back four generations (Zep 1:1).<\/p>\n<h5>The Postexilic Period<\/h5>\n<p>During the postexilic period, the keeping of genealogical records probably received its greatest impetus through the activity of Ezra and Nehemiah, primarily because of their insistence upon racial purity and the purging of foreign elements from the community. A list of the exiles who returned with Zerubbabel is found in Ezra 2:1-70 (cf. Neh 7:6-73, where the same list is found). A list of those who returned with Ezra is included in 8:1-20. Ezra’s own genealogy is also recorded (Ezr 7:5). There is a list of the Jews who married foreign women that included priests, Levites, singers, porters, and other Israelites (Ezr 10:18-44). Nehemiah 8:4-7 names the Levites and others who assisted Ezra when he read the law publicly. Nehemiah also contains a list of those who participated in the ceremony of sealing the covenant (Neh 10:1-27) and a list of those who lived in Jerusalem and other cities (11:3-36). His interest in the priesthood is reflected in the list of priests and Levites who returned with Zerubbabel (12:1-9), of the high priests from Jeshua to Jaddua (vv 10-11), of the heads of the priestly families (vv 12-21), of the Levites and porters who served under the high priest (vv 22-26), and of the princes and priests who were present at the dedication of the rebuilt wall of Jerusalem (vv 31-42).<\/p>\n<p>The final genealogical record that must be mentioned is the genealogy from Adam to Saul (1 Chr 1–8), the longest section of genealogical material in the Bible. It is properly included with the genealogies compiled during the postexilic period, as the unknown chronicler (some think he was Ezra) prepared this list around 400 <span>BC<\/span> from extant records and documents available to him. His purpose seems to have been to conserve the purity of blood in the restored nation and to insist that the nation’s well-being depended on its faithfulness to God’s law.<\/p>\n<h5>The New Testament Period<\/h5>\n<p>The only genealogies of consequence in the NT are those concerning Jesus Christ in Matthew 1:1-17 and Luke 3:23-38. <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GENEALOGY<\/h3>\n<p>Record or study of descent involving a tracing backward or forward of the ancestry of a nation, tribe, family, or individual. The Hebrews were not the only people in the ancient world to take an interest in maintaining genealogical records. The Sumerian king list of the third millennium <span>BC<\/span> contains records of the early rulers of Mesopotamia. In Babylonian records the word “son” was frequently used in the sense of “descendant of.” King Tirhakah of Egypt (c. 685 <span>BC<\/span>) referred to his “father,” Sesostris III, who lived some 1,200 years before him. Greeks and Romans also kept genealogical records. However, the biblical genealogies, especially those in Genesis and 1 Chronicles 1–9, are unique in the literature of the ancient Near East. Only at the beginning of the Islamic age are such broad genealogical records found. Even today among tribal Semites, such as Arab nomads, there is an intense interest in genealogy, and it is not unusual for an Arab to be able to recite accurately the names of his ancestors for 10 or 15 generations back, covering a period of several hundred years.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TermsUsed\">Terms Used<\/p>\n<p>The word “genealogy” occurs only once as a noun in the Hebrew OT (Neh 7:5), where it refers to a register of those who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel at the end of the exile. The verbal form of the same word is found a total of 20 times in 1—2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. The terms “generations” and “book of the generations,” used in Genesis and elsewhere in the OT, convey the same idea. The equivalent NT terms are found in 1 Timothy 1:4 and Titus 3:9 (“genealogies”) and Matthew 1:1, which refers to the “book of the genealogy” of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofGenealogicalRecords\">Purpose of Genealogical Records<\/p>\n<p>The keeping of genealogical records in ancient Israel was an important activity and served a number of useful purposes. God’s promise of a land to Abraham and his descendants made such records necessary to establish and preserve the allotment of the land; a genealogical record served as evidence of a legitimate title to the ancestral property. Genealogies were essential for the preservation of the exclusive priesthood that had been established by the Mosaic law. In the time of Josephus every priest was supposed to be able to prove his descent.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most important reasons for keeping genealogical records was to establish and maintain the right of royal succession in Judah through the family of David. The belief that the Messiah would come from the Davidic house made such records even more important.<\/p>\n<p>Other purposes served by these family records included the imposition of military duty according to families (Nm 1:2-3). Position in camp and on the march from Egypt was determined by tribes and families (2:2, 17; 10:11-28). Also, God’s blessings were passed from one member of the family to his descendants (Gn 27). The stress placed on the purity of the congregation (Dt 7:1-4; 23:1-8) required complete family records, particularly in the postexilic period. With the insistence of Ezra and Nehemiah upon racial purity, and with the purging of foreign elements from among the people (Ezr 2:59-63; 10:9-44; Neh 13:23-28), written evidence of purity of descent became essential; interest in the compilation of genealogies became intense after the exile.<\/p>\n<p>Lineage was ordinarily traced through the male members of the family, with females being mentioned only rarely (e.g., Gn 11:29, Sarah and Milcah; 22:23, Rebekah; and Nm 26:33–27:11, where the property inheritance of the daughters of Zelophehad was involved). Matthew mentions three women: Tamar, Rahab, and Ruth; and in the second group alludes to Bathsheba (see discussion below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PrincipalGenealogicalListsintheBible\">Principal Genealogical Lists in the Bible<\/p>\n<p>The principal sources of genealogical material in the OT are found in Genesis, Numbers, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 1—2 Chronicles (which contain the greatest amount of genealogical material in the Bible), Ezra, and Nehemiah. The genealogies of Jesus Christ in Matthew 1 and Luke 3 are the only NT records. Together they contain a genealogical record from Adam to Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Grouped together by historical periods, the following are the principal genealogical lists found in the Bible:<\/p>\n<h5>Before the Flood<\/h5>\n<p>Three lists are from this period. The first, found in Genesis 4:17-22, traces the descendants of Cain through seven generations and explains the hereditary origin of certain occupations and crafts. The second, Genesis 4:25-26, begins the account of the descendants of Seth, the posterity of Adam whose faithfulness to God is contrasted with the ungodly posterity of Cain. The third list, Genesis 5:1-32 (cf. 1 Chr 1:1-4), traces the descendants of Adam through Seth down to Noah and his sons at the time of the Flood.<\/p>\n<h5>From Noah to Abraham<\/h5>\n<p>Genesis 10:1-32 (cf. 1 Chr 1:4-23), frequently called the “table of nations,” contains a list of the nations descended from the sons of Noah (Shem, Ham, and Japheth). Genesis 11:10-26 (cf. 1 Chr 1:24-27) traces the descendants of Shem to the time of Abraham, and Genesis 11:27-30 (see also Gn 22:20-24) lists the descendants of Nahor, Abraham’s brother.<\/p>\n<h5>From Abraham to the Descent into Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>The descendants of Abraham by Hagar, Sarah, and Keturah are found in Genesis 16:15, 21:1-3, and 25:1-4 (introducing the Arabs as descendants of Abraham; cf. 1 Chr 1:28-34). Genesis 19:37-38 links the Moabites and Ammonites to Abraham through his nephew Lot. A very important genealogical list during this period is that of the descendants of Jacob, giving the account of the parentage, birth, and naming of the founders of the 12 tribes of Israel (Gn 29:31–30:24; 35:16-26). Esau is acknowledged as the ancestor of the Edomites; his Edomite descendants are traced through his three wives (Gn 26:34; 36:1-43; 1 Chr 1:35-54). The list of Jacob’s family at the time he entered Egypt, numbering 70, is found in Genesis 46:1-27 (cf. Ex 6:14-16; Nm 26:1-51; 1 Chr 2–8). A partial list of the heads of the fathers’ houses of Reuben, Simeon, and Levi is found in Exodus 6:14-25; the chief purpose of this genealogy is to establish Aaron and Moses as members of Levi’s tribe.<\/p>\n<h5>From the Exodus to the Conquest of Canaan<\/h5>\n<p>While the tribes were still in the desert after leaving Egypt, a census was taken to determine the total number of Israelites (Nm 1:4-54; 2:2-33). During this same period, a genealogy of the family of Aaron was compiled, and a separate census was taken of the Levites (3:1-39). A list of the 12 spies who searched out the land and the tribes they represented is given in Numbers 13:4-16; the most important names on this list are Caleb and Joshua. Near the end of the wilderness wanderings, another census of the people was ordered; the total number was approximately the same as that of the first census almost 40 years earlier (26:4-51, 57-62). As the tribes neared the Promised Land, a list was prepared of the tribal representatives who would take part in the division of the land (34:16-29).<\/p>\n<h5>Period of the Kings<\/h5>\n<p>During the entire period of the monarchy, over 400 years, the only genealogical records of any consequence are those that pertain to David. His descendants are traced through 20 rulers who sat upon the throne of Judah until the nation fell to the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (1—2 Kgs; cf. 1 Chr 11:1—2 Chr 36:21). A list of David’s children is found in 2 Samuel 3:2-5 and 5:14-16 (cf. 1 Chr 3:1-9; 14:4-7). His mighty men, an elite group of soldiers, are named in 2 Samuel 23:8-39 (cf. 1 Chr 11:10-47). His recruits at Ziklag are recorded in 1 Chronicles 12:1-22. Those who were his musicians and doorkeepers when the ark was brought to Jerusalem are named in 1 Chronicles 15:1-24 (cf. 1 Chr 16:5-6, 37-43). David’s political and religious organization of the kingdom—including the Levites, priests, singers, porters and other administrative officials, and military officers—is found in 1 Chronicles 23–27. In spite of the literary activity associated with the reign of Solomon, the only genealogical record preserved from this period is that of Solomon’s princes and 12 officers (1 Kgs 4:1-19). The genealogy of one prophet is traced back four generations (Zep 1:1).<\/p>\n<h5>The Postexilic Period<\/h5>\n<p>During the postexilic period, the keeping of genealogical records probably received its greatest impetus through the activity of Ezra and Nehemiah, primarily because of their insistence upon racial purity and the purging of foreign elements from the community. A list of the exiles who returned with Zerubbabel is found in Ezra 2:1-70 (cf. Neh 7:6-73, where the same list is found). A list of those who returned with Ezra is included in 8:1-20. Ezra’s own genealogy is also recorded (Ezr 7:5). There is a list of the Jews who married foreign women that included priests, Levites, singers, porters, and other Israelites (Ezr 10:18-44). Nehemiah 8:4-7 names the Levites and others who assisted Ezra when he read the law publicly. Nehemiah also contains a list of those who participated in the ceremony of sealing the covenant (Neh 10:1-27) and a list of those who lived in Jerusalem and other cities (11:3-36). His interest in the priesthood is reflected in the list of priests and Levites who returned with Zerubbabel (12:1-9), of the high priests from Jeshua to Jaddua (vv 10-11), of the heads of the priestly families (vv 12-21), of the Levites and porters who served under the high priest (vv 22-26), and of the princes and priests who were present at the dedication of the rebuilt wall of Jerusalem (vv 31-42).<\/p>\n<p>The final genealogical record that must be mentioned is the genealogy from Adam to Saul (1 Chr 1–8), the longest section of genealogical material in the Bible. It is properly included with the genealogies compiled during the postexilic period, as the unknown chronicler (some think he was Ezra) prepared this list around 400 <span>BC<\/span> from extant records and documents available to him. His purpose seems to have been to conserve the purity of blood in the restored nation and to insist that the nation’s well-being depended on its faithfulness to God’s law.<\/p>\n<h5>The New Testament Period<\/h5>\n<p>The only genealogies of consequence in the NT are those concerning Jesus Christ in Matthew 1:1-17 and Luke 3:23-38. <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GENEALOGY Record or study of descent involving a tracing backward or forward of the ancestry of a nation, tribe, family, or individual. The Hebrews were not the only people in the ancient world to take an interest in maintaining genealogical records. The Sumerian king list of the third millennium BC contains records of the early rulers of Mesopotamia. In Babylonian records the word “son” was frequently used in the sense of “descendant of.” King Tirhakah of Egypt (c. 685 BC) referred to his “f...","summary_en":"GENEALOGY Record or study of descent involving a tracing backward or forward of the ancestry of a nation, tribe, family, or individual. The Hebrews were not the only people in the ancient world to take an interest in maintaining genealogical records. The Sumerian king list of the third millennium BC contains records of the early rulers of Mesopotamia. In Babylonian records the word “son” was frequently used in the sense of “descendant of.” King Tirhakah of Egypt (c. 685 BC) referred to his “f...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":17257,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Immer (Place)","title_en":"Immer (Place)","content_ro":"<h3>IMMER (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Place in Babylon. The Jews who returned from Immer had lost the record of their ancestry and could not prove their Jewish lineage (Ezr 2:59; Neh 7:61).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>IMMER (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Place in Babylon. The Jews who returned from Immer had lost the record of their ancestry and could not prove their Jewish lineage (Ezr 2:59; Neh 7:61).<\/p>","summary_ro":"IMMER (Place) Place in Babylon. The Jews who returned from Immer had lost the record of their ancestry and could not prove their Jewish lineage (Ezr 2:59; Neh 7:61).","summary_en":"IMMER (Place) Place in Babylon. The Jews who returned from Immer had lost the record of their ancestry and could not prove their Jewish lineage (Ezr 2:59; Neh 7:61).","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21641,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kerub","title_en":"Kerub","content_ro":"<h3>KERUB<\/h3>\n<p>One of five Babylonian cities from which Israelites who could not trace their ancestry returned after the exile (Ezr 2:59; Neh 7:61).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KERUB<\/h3>\n<p>One of five Babylonian cities from which Israelites who could not trace their ancestry returned after the exile (Ezr 2:59; Neh 7:61).<\/p>","summary_ro":"KERUB One of five Babylonian cities from which Israelites who could not trace their ancestry returned after the exile (Ezr 2:59; Neh 7:61).","summary_en":"KERUB One of five Babylonian cities from which Israelites who could not trace their ancestry returned after the exile (Ezr 2:59; Neh 7:61).","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36900,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tel-Harsha","title_en":"Tel-Harsha","content_ro":"<h3>TEL-HARSHA<\/h3>\n<p>One of the Babylonian villages from which some returning exiles could not establish their genealogy (Ezr 2:59; Neh 7:61). Its precise location is uncertain, though it is likely near the Persian Gulf in the lowland region of Babylonia.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TEL-HARSHA<\/h3>\n<p>One of the Babylonian villages from which some returning exiles could not establish their genealogy (Ezr 2:59; Neh 7:61). Its precise location is uncertain, though it is likely near the Persian Gulf in the lowland region of Babylonia.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TEL-HARSHA One of the Babylonian villages from which some returning exiles could not establish their genealogy (Ezr 2:59; Neh 7:61). Its precise location is uncertain, though it is likely near the Persian Gulf in the lowland region of Babylonia.","summary_en":"TEL-HARSHA One of the Babylonian villages from which some returning exiles could not establish their genealogy (Ezr 2:59; Neh 7:61). Its precise location is uncertain, though it is likely near the Persian Gulf in the lowland region of Babylonia.","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36906,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tel-Melah","title_en":"Tel-Melah","content_ro":"<h3>TEL-MELAH<\/h3>\n<p>One of the Babylonian towns situated in the vicinity of the Kebar River near the city of Nippur from which exiles, who were unable to establish their Israelite descent, returned to Palestine with Zerubbabel following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:59; Neh 7:61).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TEL-MELAH<\/h3>\n<p>One of the Babylonian towns situated in the vicinity of the Kebar River near the city of Nippur from which exiles, who were unable to establish their Israelite descent, returned to Palestine with Zerubbabel following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:59; Neh 7:61).<\/p>","summary_ro":"TEL-MELAH One of the Babylonian towns situated in the vicinity of the Kebar River near the city of Nippur from which exiles, who were unable to establish their Israelite descent, returned to Palestine with Zerubbabel following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:59; Neh 7:61).","summary_en":"TEL-MELAH One of the Babylonian towns situated in the vicinity of the Kebar River near the city of Nippur from which exiles, who were unable to establish their Israelite descent, returned to Palestine with Zerubbabel following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:59; Neh 7:61).","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":47999,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:59","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:59","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:59-60<\/strong> Some returnees believed in Israel’s God but had no genealogical records to <em>prove<\/em> that they were Israelites. Without this information, the other Israelites did not know whether to treat them as brothers and intermarry with them or to treat them as outsiders. The genealogies in 1 Chr 1–9 illustrate how carefully many family histories were kept.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:59-60<\/strong> Some returnees believed in Israel’s God but had no genealogical records to <em>prove<\/em> that they were Israelites. Without this information, the other Israelites did not know whether to treat them as brothers and intermarry with them or to treat them as outsiders. The genealogies in 1 Chr 1–9 illustrate how carefully many family histories were kept.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:59-60 Some returnees believed in Israel’s God but had no genealogical records to prove that they were Israelites. Without this information, the other Israelites did not know whether to treat them as brothers and intermarry with them or to treat them as outsiders. The genealogies in 1 Chr 1–9 illustrate how carefully many family histories were kept.","summary_en":"2:59-60 Some returnees believed in Israel’s God but had no genealogical records to prove that they were Israelites. Without this information, the other Israelites did not know whether to treat them as brothers and intermarry with them or to treat them as outsiders. The genealogies in 1 Chr 1–9 illustrate how carefully many family histories were kept.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75625,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:59","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:59","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:59-60<\/strong> Some returnees believed in Israel’s God but had no genealogical records to <em>prove<\/em> that they were Israelites. Without this information, the other Israelites did not know whether to treat them as brothers and intermarry with them or to treat them as outsiders. The genealogies in 1 Chr 1–9 illustrate how carefully many family histories were kept.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:59-60<\/strong> Some returnees believed in Israel’s God but had no genealogical records to <em>prove<\/em> that they were Israelites. Without this information, the other Israelites did not know whether to treat them as brothers and intermarry with them or to treat them as outsiders. The genealogies in 1 Chr 1–9 illustrate how carefully many family histories were kept.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:59-60 Some returnees believed in Israel’s God but had no genealogical records to prove that they were Israelites. Without this information, the other Israelites did not know whether to treat them as brothers and intermarry with them or to treat them as outsiders. The genealogies in 1 Chr 1–9 illustrate how carefully many family histories were kept.","summary_en":"2:59-60 Some returnees believed in Israel’s God but had no genealogical records to prove that they were Israelites. Without this information, the other Israelites did not know whether to treat them as brothers and intermarry with them or to treat them as outsiders. The genealogies in 1 Chr 1–9 illustrate how carefully many family histories were kept.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103251,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:59","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:59","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:59-60<\/strong> Some returnees believed in Israel’s God but had no genealogical records to <em>prove<\/em> that they were Israelites. Without this information, the other Israelites did not know whether to treat them as brothers and intermarry with them or to treat them as outsiders. The genealogies in 1 Chr 1–9 illustrate how carefully many family histories were kept.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:59-60<\/strong> Some returnees believed in Israel’s God but had no genealogical records to <em>prove<\/em> that they were Israelites. Without this information, the other Israelites did not know whether to treat them as brothers and intermarry with them or to treat them as outsiders. The genealogies in 1 Chr 1–9 illustrate how carefully many family histories were kept.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:59-60 Some returnees believed in Israel’s God but had no genealogical records to prove that they were Israelites. Without this information, the other Israelites did not know whether to treat them as brothers and intermarry with them or to treat them as outsiders. The genealogies in 1 Chr 1–9 illustrate how carefully many family histories were kept.","summary_en":"2:59-60 Some returnees believed in Israel’s God but had no genealogical records to prove that they were Israelites. Without this information, the other Israelites did not know whether to treat them as brothers and intermarry with them or to treat them as outsiders. The genealogies in 1 Chr 1–9 illustrate how carefully many family histories were kept.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":130877,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:59","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:59","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:59-60<\/strong> Some returnees believed in Israel’s God but had no genealogical records to <em>prove<\/em> that they were Israelites. Without this information, the other Israelites did not know whether to treat them as brothers and intermarry with them or to treat them as outsiders. The genealogies in 1 Chr 1–9 illustrate how carefully many family histories were kept.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:59-60<\/strong> Some returnees believed in Israel’s God but had no genealogical records to <em>prove<\/em> that they were Israelites. Without this information, the other Israelites did not know whether to treat them as brothers and intermarry with them or to treat them as outsiders. The genealogies in 1 Chr 1–9 illustrate how carefully many family histories were kept.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:59-60 Some returnees believed in Israel’s God but had no genealogical records to prove that they were Israelites. Without this information, the other Israelites did not know whether to treat them as brothers and intermarry with them or to treat them as outsiders. The genealogies in 1 Chr 1–9 illustrate how carefully many family histories were kept.","summary_en":"2:59-60 Some returnees believed in Israel’s God but had no genealogical records to prove that they were Israelites. Without this information, the other Israelites did not know whether to treat them as brothers and intermarry with them or to treat them as outsiders. The genealogies in 1 Chr 1–9 illustrate how carefully many family histories were kept.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"60":[{"id":9220,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Delaiah","title_en":"Delaiah","content_ro":"<h3>DELAIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Elioenai who traced his line of descent through Zerubbabel to David (1 Chr 3:24, <span>kjv<\/span> “Dalaiah”).<\/li>\n<li>2. Priest in the time of David (1 Chr 24:18).<\/li>\n<li>3. Head of a postexilic family that returned with Zerubbabel to Judea. The group was unable to prove true Israelite descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62).<\/li>\n<li>4. Father of a fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> man named Shemaiah. Shemaiah opposed Nehemiah (Neh 6:10).<\/li>\n<li>5. Counselor in the reign of Jehoiakim (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>) who urged the king not to destroy Jeremiah’s scroll, which Baruch had just read (Jer 36:12, 25).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>DELAIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Elioenai who traced his line of descent through Zerubbabel to David (1 Chr 3:24, <span>kjv<\/span> “Dalaiah”).<\/li>\n<li>2. Priest in the time of David (1 Chr 24:18).<\/li>\n<li>3. Head of a postexilic family that returned with Zerubbabel to Judea. The group was unable to prove true Israelite descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62).<\/li>\n<li>4. Father of a fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> man named Shemaiah. Shemaiah opposed Nehemiah (Neh 6:10).<\/li>\n<li>5. Counselor in the reign of Jehoiakim (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>) who urged the king not to destroy Jeremiah’s scroll, which Baruch had just read (Jer 36:12, 25).<\/li>","summary_ro":"DELAIAH 1. Son of Elioenai who traced his line of descent through Zerubbabel to David (1 Chr 3:24, kjv “Dalaiah”). 2. Priest in the time of David (1 Chr 24:18). 3. Head of a postexilic family that returned with Zerubbabel to Judea. The group was unable to prove true Israelite descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62). 4. Father of a fifth-century BC man named Shemaiah. Shemaiah opposed Nehemiah (Neh 6:10). 5. Counselor in the reign of Jehoiakim (609–598 BC) who urged the king not to destroy Jeremiah’s scr...","summary_en":"DELAIAH 1. Son of Elioenai who traced his line of descent through Zerubbabel to David (1 Chr 3:24, kjv “Dalaiah”). 2. Priest in the time of David (1 Chr 24:18). 3. Head of a postexilic family that returned with Zerubbabel to Judea. The group was unable to prove true Israelite descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62). 4. Father of a fifth-century BC man named Shemaiah. Shemaiah opposed Nehemiah (Neh 6:10). 5. Counselor in the reign of Jehoiakim (609–598 BC) who urged the king not to destroy Jeremiah’s scr...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27302,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nekoda","title_en":"Nekoda","content_ro":"<h3>NEKODA<\/h3>\n<li>1. Father of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 2:48; Neh 7:50).<\/li>\n<li>2. Father of a family of returned exiles who could not prove their Israelite descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>NEKODA<\/h3>\n<li>1. Father of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 2:48; Neh 7:50).<\/li>\n<li>2. Father of a family of returned exiles who could not prove their Israelite descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62).<\/li>","summary_ro":"NEKODA 1. Father of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 2:48; Neh 7:50). 2. Father of a family of returned exiles who could not prove their Israelite descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62).","summary_en":"NEKODA 1. Father of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 2:48; Neh 7:50). 2. Father of a family of returned exiles who could not prove their Israelite descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62).","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37477,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tobiah","title_en":"Tobiah","content_ro":"<h3>TOBIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Forefather of a family of people who returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem following the exile. This family was not able to prove their Jewish descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ammonite who opposed Nehemiah when he arrived in Jerusalem about 445 <span>BC<\/span>. Tobiah was known as “the Ammonite official” (Neh 2:10, 19), a designation associated with a person of high office, such as a governor. He, together with Sanballat and Geshem, the other leading opponents of the reconstruction of the walls, were high-ranking officers in the Persian Empire. He was connected by marriage with the Jews in two ways. He married the daughter of Shecaniah, the son of Arah, and his son Jehohanan married the daughter of Meshullam son of Berekiah (6:18). These marriage relations to a prominent Jerusalem family gave him strong ties with the Jerusalem aristocracy (v 17).<\/li>\n<p>Nehemiah had to face the threat posed by Tobiah and his influential allies. Nehemiah was charged with the intent of leading the Jerusalem population in a revolt against King Artaxerxes (Neh 2:19). As the work of rebuilding the wall progressed, Tobiah joined in the conspiracy of besieging Jerusalem (4:8). Nehemiah ordered the Jews to defend themselves. They continued their labors of repairing the wall with the protection of armed guards, and when the enemy forces came closer, every worker held a weapon in addition to his trowel (vv 17-19). They were encouraged by the belief that “our God will fight for us” (v 20). Tobiah also joined in the plot to assassinate Nehemiah after the walls were rebuilt (6:2-4). Nehemiah was further tested by libelous reports of insurrection and by a Jerusalemite hired by the allies to tempt Nehemiah into entering the temple proper and thereby discredit his standing among the faithful (vv 5-13).<\/p>\n<p>After Nehemiah left Jerusalem in order to report to Artaxerxes, Tobiah succeeded in reestablishing himself with those who had remained faithful to him. The priest Eliashib was also related to Tobiah and gave in to Tobiah by preparing a large room previously used for offerings in the temple (Neh 13:4-5). Tobiah used these quarters when visiting Jerusalem. One of Nehemiah’s first actions, upon his return, was to evict Tobiah from the temple (vv 8-9) and then restore the room for its proper use.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TOBIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Forefather of a family of people who returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem following the exile. This family was not able to prove their Jewish descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ammonite who opposed Nehemiah when he arrived in Jerusalem about 445 <span>BC<\/span>. Tobiah was known as “the Ammonite official” (Neh 2:10, 19), a designation associated with a person of high office, such as a governor. He, together with Sanballat and Geshem, the other leading opponents of the reconstruction of the walls, were high-ranking officers in the Persian Empire. He was connected by marriage with the Jews in two ways. He married the daughter of Shecaniah, the son of Arah, and his son Jehohanan married the daughter of Meshullam son of Berekiah (6:18). These marriage relations to a prominent Jerusalem family gave him strong ties with the Jerusalem aristocracy (v 17).<\/li>\n<p>Nehemiah had to face the threat posed by Tobiah and his influential allies. Nehemiah was charged with the intent of leading the Jerusalem population in a revolt against King Artaxerxes (Neh 2:19). As the work of rebuilding the wall progressed, Tobiah joined in the conspiracy of besieging Jerusalem (4:8). Nehemiah ordered the Jews to defend themselves. They continued their labors of repairing the wall with the protection of armed guards, and when the enemy forces came closer, every worker held a weapon in addition to his trowel (vv 17-19). They were encouraged by the belief that “our God will fight for us” (v 20). Tobiah also joined in the plot to assassinate Nehemiah after the walls were rebuilt (6:2-4). Nehemiah was further tested by libelous reports of insurrection and by a Jerusalemite hired by the allies to tempt Nehemiah into entering the temple proper and thereby discredit his standing among the faithful (vv 5-13).<\/p>\n<p>After Nehemiah left Jerusalem in order to report to Artaxerxes, Tobiah succeeded in reestablishing himself with those who had remained faithful to him. The priest Eliashib was also related to Tobiah and gave in to Tobiah by preparing a large room previously used for offerings in the temple (Neh 13:4-5). Tobiah used these quarters when visiting Jerusalem. One of Nehemiah’s first actions, upon his return, was to evict Tobiah from the temple (vv 8-9) and then restore the room for its proper use.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TOBIAH 1. Forefather of a family of people who returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem following the exile. This family was not able to prove their Jewish descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62). 2. Ammonite who opposed Nehemiah when he arrived in Jerusalem about 445 BC. Tobiah was known as “the Ammonite official” (Neh 2:10, 19), a designation associated with a person of high office, such as a governor. He, together with Sanballat and Geshem, the other leading opponents of the reconstruction of the walls,...","summary_en":"TOBIAH 1. Forefather of a family of people who returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem following the exile. This family was not able to prove their Jewish descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62). 2. Ammonite who opposed Nehemiah when he arrived in Jerusalem about 445 BC. Tobiah was known as “the Ammonite official” (Neh 2:10, 19), a designation associated with a person of high office, such as a governor. He, together with Sanballat and Geshem, the other leading opponents of the reconstruction of the walls,...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"61":[{"id":744,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Agia","title_en":"Agia","content_ro":"<h3>AGIA<\/h3>\n<p>Jaddus’s wife, mentioned in the Apocrypha (1 Esd 5:38-39) as a descendant of Barzillai the Gileadite (2 Sm 19:31-40). Her sons, who had assumed the priesthood, were excluded from serving as priests when the Jews returned from Babylon and demanded verification of priestly ancestry (Ezr 2:61-63; Neh 7:63-65).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AGIA<\/h3>\n<p>Jaddus’s wife, mentioned in the Apocrypha (1 Esd 5:38-39) as a descendant of Barzillai the Gileadite (2 Sm 19:31-40). Her sons, who had assumed the priesthood, were excluded from serving as priests when the Jews returned from Babylon and demanded verification of priestly ancestry (Ezr 2:61-63; Neh 7:63-65).<\/p>","summary_ro":"AGIA Jaddus’s wife, mentioned in the Apocrypha (1 Esd 5:38-39) as a descendant of Barzillai the Gileadite (2 Sm 19:31-40). Her sons, who had assumed the priesthood, were excluded from serving as priests when the Jews returned from Babylon and demanded verification of priestly ancestry (Ezr 2:61-63; Neh 7:63-65).","summary_en":"AGIA Jaddus’s wife, mentioned in the Apocrypha (1 Esd 5:38-39) as a descendant of Barzillai the Gileadite (2 Sm 19:31-40). Her sons, who had assumed the priesthood, were excluded from serving as priests when the Jews returned from Babylon and demanded verification of priestly ancestry (Ezr 2:61-63; Neh 7:63-65).","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":3885,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Barzillai","title_en":"Barzillai","content_ro":"<h3>BARZILLAI<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of three men who offered hospitality to David and his supporters at Mahanaim during the dangerous time of Absalom’s rebellion (2 Sm 17:27). After Absalom was defeated, Barzillai, a Gileadite, came to the Jordan River as David prepared to cross it in a triumphant return to Jerusalem. The 80-year-old Barzillai declined King David’s invitation to be his permanent guest in Jerusalem but sent his son Chimham in his place (19:31-40; cf. 1 Kgs 2:7).<\/li>\n<li>2. Adriel’s father. Adriel married Saul’s daughter Merab (2 Sm 21:8; cf. 1 Sm 18:19). Barzillai was thus the paternal grandfather of five of the seven men hanged in Gibeon in recompense for Saul’s guilt in trying to wipe out all Gibeonites (2 Sm 21:1-9).<\/li>\n<li>3. Priest who married the daughter (or descendant) of #1 above and adopted the family name. His descendants returned to Jerusalem in 538 <span>BC<\/span> with Zerubbabel after the exile. They were refused priestly status because they had lost the genealogies establishing their heritage and priestly descent (Ezr 2:61; Neh 7:63).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>BARZILLAI<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of three men who offered hospitality to David and his supporters at Mahanaim during the dangerous time of Absalom’s rebellion (2 Sm 17:27). After Absalom was defeated, Barzillai, a Gileadite, came to the Jordan River as David prepared to cross it in a triumphant return to Jerusalem. The 80-year-old Barzillai declined King David’s invitation to be his permanent guest in Jerusalem but sent his son Chimham in his place (19:31-40; cf. 1 Kgs 2:7).<\/li>\n<li>2. Adriel’s father. Adriel married Saul’s daughter Merab (2 Sm 21:8; cf. 1 Sm 18:19). Barzillai was thus the paternal grandfather of five of the seven men hanged in Gibeon in recompense for Saul’s guilt in trying to wipe out all Gibeonites (2 Sm 21:1-9).<\/li>\n<li>3. Priest who married the daughter (or descendant) of #1 above and adopted the family name. His descendants returned to Jerusalem in 538 <span>BC<\/span> with Zerubbabel after the exile. They were refused priestly status because they had lost the genealogies establishing their heritage and priestly descent (Ezr 2:61; Neh 7:63).<\/li>","summary_ro":"BARZILLAI 1. One of three men who offered hospitality to David and his supporters at Mahanaim during the dangerous time of Absalom’s rebellion (2 Sm 17:27). After Absalom was defeated, Barzillai, a Gileadite, came to the Jordan River as David prepared to cross it in a triumphant return to Jerusalem. The 80-year-old Barzillai declined King David’s invitation to be his permanent guest in Jerusalem but sent his son Chimham in his place (19:31-40; cf. 1 Kgs 2:7). 2. Adriel’s father. Adriel marrie...","summary_en":"BARZILLAI 1. One of three men who offered hospitality to David and his supporters at Mahanaim during the dangerous time of Absalom’s rebellion (2 Sm 17:27). After Absalom was defeated, Barzillai, a Gileadite, came to the Jordan River as David prepared to cross it in a triumphant return to Jerusalem. The 80-year-old Barzillai declined King David’s invitation to be his permanent guest in Jerusalem but sent his son Chimham in his place (19:31-40; cf. 1 Kgs 2:7). 2. Adriel’s father. Adriel marrie...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15075,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hakkoz","title_en":"Hakkoz","content_ro":"<h3>HAKKOZ<\/h3>\n<p>Name borne by a priestly family during the monarchy (1 Chr 24:10). In Ezra’s time, the family pedigree could not be documented properly; consequently, the privilege of priestly service was withdrawn (Ezr 2:61; Neh 3:4, 21; 7:63; <span>kjv<\/span> “Koz”).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HAKKOZ<\/h3>\n<p>Name borne by a priestly family during the monarchy (1 Chr 24:10). In Ezra’s time, the family pedigree could not be documented properly; consequently, the privilege of priestly service was withdrawn (Ezr 2:61; Neh 3:4, 21; 7:63; <span>kjv<\/span> “Koz”).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HAKKOZ Name borne by a priestly family during the monarchy (1 Chr 24:10). In Ezra’s time, the family pedigree could not be documented properly; consequently, the privilege of priestly service was withdrawn (Ezr 2:61; Neh 3:4, 21; 7:63; kjv “Koz”).","summary_en":"HAKKOZ Name borne by a priestly family during the monarchy (1 Chr 24:10). In Ezra’s time, the family pedigree could not be documented properly; consequently, the privilege of priestly service was withdrawn (Ezr 2:61; Neh 3:4, 21; 7:63; kjv “Koz”).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":16494,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hobaiah","title_en":"Hobaiah","content_ro":"<h3>HOBAIAH<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a priestly family who returned to Palestine with Zerubbabel after the exile. He was unable to prove his priestly genealogy and so was not allowed to do priestly service (Ezr 2:61; Neh 7:63).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HOBAIAH<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a priestly family who returned to Palestine with Zerubbabel after the exile. He was unable to prove his priestly genealogy and so was not allowed to do priestly service (Ezr 2:61; Neh 7:63).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HOBAIAH Head of a priestly family who returned to Palestine with Zerubbabel after the exile. He was unable to prove his priestly genealogy and so was not allowed to do priestly service (Ezr 2:61; Neh 7:63).","summary_en":"HOBAIAH Head of a priestly family who returned to Palestine with Zerubbabel after the exile. He was unable to prove his priestly genealogy and so was not allowed to do priestly service (Ezr 2:61; Neh 7:63).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22350,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Koz","title_en":"Koz","content_ro":"<h3>KOZ<\/h3>\n<li>1. Descendant of Judah and possibly an ancestor of the priestly house of Hakkoz (1 Chr 4:8).<\/li>\n<li>2. KJV rendering of the priestly family of Hakkoz (Ezr 2:61; Neh 3:4, 21; 7:63); perhaps identifiable with #1 above. <em>See<\/em> Hakkoz.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>KOZ<\/h3>\n<li>1. Descendant of Judah and possibly an ancestor of the priestly house of Hakkoz (1 Chr 4:8).<\/li>\n<li>2. KJV rendering of the priestly family of Hakkoz (Ezr 2:61; Neh 3:4, 21; 7:63); perhaps identifiable with #1 above. <em>See<\/em> Hakkoz.<\/li>","summary_ro":"KOZ 1. Descendant of Judah and possibly an ancestor of the priestly house of Hakkoz (1 Chr 4:8). 2. KJV rendering of the priestly family of Hakkoz (Ezr 2:61; Neh 3:4, 21; 7:63); perhaps identifiable with #1 above. See Hakkoz.","summary_en":"KOZ 1. Descendant of Judah and possibly an ancestor of the priestly house of Hakkoz (1 Chr 4:8). 2. KJV rendering of the priestly family of Hakkoz (Ezr 2:61; Neh 3:4, 21; 7:63); perhaps identifiable with #1 above. See Hakkoz.","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48000,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:61","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:61","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:61-63<\/strong> <em>were not found:<\/em> The lack of a genealogy was problematic for three families (2:61-62). They were excluded from priestly privileges or responsibilities until the high priest received divine direction through the use of the <em>Urim and Thummim<\/em> to determine the will of God (see Exod 28:30; Num 27:21). Although using the <em>Urim and Thummim<\/em> resembled throwing dice or drawing straws, when done by the priest, the result was a divine decision rather than blind chance.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:61-63<\/strong> <em>were not found:<\/em> The lack of a genealogy was problematic for three families (2:61-62). They were excluded from priestly privileges or responsibilities until the high priest received divine direction through the use of the <em>Urim and Thummim<\/em> to determine the will of God (see Exod 28:30; Num 27:21). Although using the <em>Urim and Thummim<\/em> resembled throwing dice or drawing straws, when done by the priest, the result was a divine decision rather than blind chance.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:61-63 were not found: The lack of a genealogy was problematic for three families (2:61-62). They were excluded from priestly privileges or responsibilities until the high priest received divine direction through the use of the Urim and Thummim to determine the will of God (see Exod 28:30; Num 27:21). Although using the Urim and Thummim resembled throwing dice or drawing straws, when done by the priest, the result was a divine decision rather than blind chance.","summary_en":"2:61-63 were not found: The lack of a genealogy was problematic for three families (2:61-62). They were excluded from priestly privileges or responsibilities until the high priest received divine direction through the use of the Urim and Thummim to determine the will of God (see Exod 28:30; Num 27:21). Although using the Urim and Thummim resembled throwing dice or drawing straws, when done by the priest, the result was a divine decision rather than blind chance.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75626,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:61","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:61","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:61-63<\/strong> <em>were not found:<\/em> The lack of a genealogy was problematic for three families (2:61-62). They were excluded from priestly privileges or responsibilities until the high priest received divine direction through the use of the <em>Urim and Thummim<\/em> to determine the will of God (see Exod 28:30; Num 27:21). Although using the <em>Urim and Thummim<\/em> resembled throwing dice or drawing straws, when done by the priest, the result was a divine decision rather than blind chance.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:61-63<\/strong> <em>were not found:<\/em> The lack of a genealogy was problematic for three families (2:61-62). They were excluded from priestly privileges or responsibilities until the high priest received divine direction through the use of the <em>Urim and Thummim<\/em> to determine the will of God (see Exod 28:30; Num 27:21). Although using the <em>Urim and Thummim<\/em> resembled throwing dice or drawing straws, when done by the priest, the result was a divine decision rather than blind chance.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:61-63 were not found: The lack of a genealogy was problematic for three families (2:61-62). They were excluded from priestly privileges or responsibilities until the high priest received divine direction through the use of the Urim and Thummim to determine the will of God (see Exod 28:30; Num 27:21). Although using the Urim and Thummim resembled throwing dice or drawing straws, when done by the priest, the result was a divine decision rather than blind chance.","summary_en":"2:61-63 were not found: The lack of a genealogy was problematic for three families (2:61-62). They were excluded from priestly privileges or responsibilities until the high priest received divine direction through the use of the Urim and Thummim to determine the will of God (see Exod 28:30; Num 27:21). Although using the Urim and Thummim resembled throwing dice or drawing straws, when done by the priest, the result was a divine decision rather than blind chance.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103252,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:61","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:61","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:61-63<\/strong> <em>were not found:<\/em> The lack of a genealogy was problematic for three families (2:61-62). They were excluded from priestly privileges or responsibilities until the high priest received divine direction through the use of the <em>Urim and Thummim<\/em> to determine the will of God (see Exod 28:30; Num 27:21). Although using the <em>Urim and Thummim<\/em> resembled throwing dice or drawing straws, when done by the priest, the result was a divine decision rather than blind chance.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:61-63<\/strong> <em>were not found:<\/em> The lack of a genealogy was problematic for three families (2:61-62). They were excluded from priestly privileges or responsibilities until the high priest received divine direction through the use of the <em>Urim and Thummim<\/em> to determine the will of God (see Exod 28:30; Num 27:21). Although using the <em>Urim and Thummim<\/em> resembled throwing dice or drawing straws, when done by the priest, the result was a divine decision rather than blind chance.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:61-63 were not found: The lack of a genealogy was problematic for three families (2:61-62). They were excluded from priestly privileges or responsibilities until the high priest received divine direction through the use of the Urim and Thummim to determine the will of God (see Exod 28:30; Num 27:21). Although using the Urim and Thummim resembled throwing dice or drawing straws, when done by the priest, the result was a divine decision rather than blind chance.","summary_en":"2:61-63 were not found: The lack of a genealogy was problematic for three families (2:61-62). They were excluded from priestly privileges or responsibilities until the high priest received divine direction through the use of the Urim and Thummim to determine the will of God (see Exod 28:30; Num 27:21). Although using the Urim and Thummim resembled throwing dice or drawing straws, when done by the priest, the result was a divine decision rather than blind chance.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":130878,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:61","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:61","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:61-63<\/strong> <em>were not found:<\/em> The lack of a genealogy was problematic for three families (2:61-62). They were excluded from priestly privileges or responsibilities until the high priest received divine direction through the use of the <em>Urim and Thummim<\/em> to determine the will of God (see Exod 28:30; Num 27:21). Although using the <em>Urim and Thummim<\/em> resembled throwing dice or drawing straws, when done by the priest, the result was a divine decision rather than blind chance.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:61-63<\/strong> <em>were not found:<\/em> The lack of a genealogy was problematic for three families (2:61-62). They were excluded from priestly privileges or responsibilities until the high priest received divine direction through the use of the <em>Urim and Thummim<\/em> to determine the will of God (see Exod 28:30; Num 27:21). Although using the <em>Urim and Thummim<\/em> resembled throwing dice or drawing straws, when done by the priest, the result was a divine decision rather than blind chance.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:61-63 were not found: The lack of a genealogy was problematic for three families (2:61-62). They were excluded from priestly privileges or responsibilities until the high priest received divine direction through the use of the Urim and Thummim to determine the will of God (see Exod 28:30; Num 27:21). Although using the Urim and Thummim resembled throwing dice or drawing straws, when done by the priest, the result was a divine decision rather than blind chance.","summary_en":"2:61-63 were not found: The lack of a genealogy was problematic for three families (2:61-62). They were excluded from priestly privileges or responsibilities until the high priest received divine direction through the use of the Urim and Thummim to determine the will of God (see Exod 28:30; Num 27:21). Although using the Urim and Thummim resembled throwing dice or drawing straws, when done by the priest, the result was a divine decision rather than blind chance.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"63":[{"id":3212,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Attharias","title_en":"Attharias","content_ro":"<h3>ATTHARIAS<\/h3>\n<p>Greek transliteration of the Persian title, Tirshatha, meaning “governor” (1 Esd 5:40; cf. Ezr 2:63).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ATTHARIAS<\/h3>\n<p>Greek transliteration of the Persian title, Tirshatha, meaning “governor” (1 Esd 5:40; cf. Ezr 2:63).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ATTHARIAS Greek transliteration of the Persian title, Tirshatha, meaning “governor” (1 Esd 5:40; cf. Ezr 2:63).","summary_en":"ATTHARIAS Greek transliteration of the Persian title, Tirshatha, meaning “governor” (1 Esd 5:40; cf. Ezr 2:63).","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10952,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ephod (Garment)","title_en":"Ephod (Garment)","content_ro":"<h3>EPHOD (Garment)<\/h3>\n<p>Upper garment worn during religious services associated with the tabernacle or temple. “Ephod” generally referred to the ornamented vest that the high priest wore over a blue robe (Ex 28:31). Included with the ephod were the Urim and Thummim, the sacred lots. Sometimes “ephod” meant the complete dress of the high priest (1 Sm 2:28; 23:6, 9; 30:7) or similar garments worn by lesser priests.<\/p>\n<p>Made of dyed material and fine linen, the garment was embroidered in blue, purple, scarlet, and gold. At the upper end were attached two shoulder straps, each having an onyx stone inscribed with the names of Israel’s 12 tribes. The breastplate, also containing the tribal names, was bound to the ephod by an elaborate series of cords and chains (Ex 28:22-29).<\/p>\n<p>Jewish writers suggest various appearances for the ephod: (1) apronlike, covering the body from the chest to the heels; (2) enveloping the body only from the waist down, the upper body being covered by the breastplate; or (3) sleeved and jacketlike, with the middle of the breast uncovered so the breastplate could be inserted easily.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the Babylonian exile, the ephod served as a means of revelation from God, especially concerning military operations. Abiathar the priest brought the ephod into David’s camp on one occasion for consulting the Lord (1 Sm 23:6-9; 30:7). It is uncertain whether the priest donned or held the ephod whole, seeking counsel from the Lord by means of the Urim and Thummim.<\/p>\n<p>During the period of the judges, the ephod was often misused, as by Gideon (Jgs 8:27), Micah (17:5), and Jonathan, grandson of Moses (18:30; cf. vv 14, 17, 20). Either the garment itself or an image that represented God, on which the garment was placed, was worshiped as the people sought revelation in a manner condemned by God. Household idols (teraphim) were also associated with this ungodly practice (17:5; Hos 3:4).<\/p>\n<p>Besides the high priest, other priests wore an ephod for certain religious services (1 Sm 22:18), and even Samuel (2:18) and David (2 Sm 6:14) wore one. By the postexilic period, and perhaps as early as Solomon, the ephod was no longer consulted (Ezr 2:63; Neh 7:65). There was no need for ephod or Urim revelation once there was the more complete revelation of the prophetic ministry promised by Moses (Dt 18:15-22). However, the high priest continued to wear this vestment until the destruction of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Priests and Levites.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EPHOD (Garment)<\/h3>\n<p>Upper garment worn during religious services associated with the tabernacle or temple. “Ephod” generally referred to the ornamented vest that the high priest wore over a blue robe (Ex 28:31). Included with the ephod were the Urim and Thummim, the sacred lots. Sometimes “ephod” meant the complete dress of the high priest (1 Sm 2:28; 23:6, 9; 30:7) or similar garments worn by lesser priests.<\/p>\n<p>Made of dyed material and fine linen, the garment was embroidered in blue, purple, scarlet, and gold. At the upper end were attached two shoulder straps, each having an onyx stone inscribed with the names of Israel’s 12 tribes. The breastplate, also containing the tribal names, was bound to the ephod by an elaborate series of cords and chains (Ex 28:22-29).<\/p>\n<p>Jewish writers suggest various appearances for the ephod: (1) apronlike, covering the body from the chest to the heels; (2) enveloping the body only from the waist down, the upper body being covered by the breastplate; or (3) sleeved and jacketlike, with the middle of the breast uncovered so the breastplate could be inserted easily.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the Babylonian exile, the ephod served as a means of revelation from God, especially concerning military operations. Abiathar the priest brought the ephod into David’s camp on one occasion for consulting the Lord (1 Sm 23:6-9; 30:7). It is uncertain whether the priest donned or held the ephod whole, seeking counsel from the Lord by means of the Urim and Thummim.<\/p>\n<p>During the period of the judges, the ephod was often misused, as by Gideon (Jgs 8:27), Micah (17:5), and Jonathan, grandson of Moses (18:30; cf. vv 14, 17, 20). Either the garment itself or an image that represented God, on which the garment was placed, was worshiped as the people sought revelation in a manner condemned by God. Household idols (teraphim) were also associated with this ungodly practice (17:5; Hos 3:4).<\/p>\n<p>Besides the high priest, other priests wore an ephod for certain religious services (1 Sm 22:18), and even Samuel (2:18) and David (2 Sm 6:14) wore one. By the postexilic period, and perhaps as early as Solomon, the ephod was no longer consulted (Ezr 2:63; Neh 7:65). There was no need for ephod or Urim revelation once there was the more complete revelation of the prophetic ministry promised by Moses (Dt 18:15-22). However, the high priest continued to wear this vestment until the destruction of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Priests and Levites.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EPHOD (Garment) Upper garment worn during religious services associated with the tabernacle or temple. “Ephod” generally referred to the ornamented vest that the high priest wore over a blue robe (Ex 28:31). Included with the ephod were the Urim and Thummim, the sacred lots. Sometimes “ephod” meant the complete dress of the high priest (1 Sm 2:28; 23:6, 9; 30:7) or similar garments worn by lesser priests. Made of dyed material and fine linen, the garment was embroidered in blue, purple, scarl...","summary_en":"EPHOD (Garment) Upper garment worn during religious services associated with the tabernacle or temple. “Ephod” generally referred to the ornamented vest that the high priest wore over a blue robe (Ex 28:31). Included with the ephod were the Urim and Thummim, the sacred lots. Sometimes “ephod” meant the complete dress of the high priest (1 Sm 2:28; 23:6, 9; 30:7) or similar garments worn by lesser priests. Made of dyed material and fine linen, the garment was embroidered in blue, purple, scarl...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":14695,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Governor","title_en":"Governor","content_ro":"<h3>GOVERNOR<\/h3>\n<p>Biblical term translated from at least ten different Hebrew root words and five Greek roots. English versions do not render these words consistently; they use a variety of titles, such as “overseer,” “officer,” “leader,” “judge,” and “deputy,” to translate the same Hebrew word. The situation is similar in the Septuagint (Greek OT).<\/p>\n<p>A governor was someone of superior rank who exercised authority over persons, territory, or both. Sometimes rank and power were his by virtue of the office; other times accession to office was based on noble lineage, wealth, and public attainment. A governor normally received authority from a king; therefore, he was a deputy in the territory he governed. Such was the case with Joseph (Gn 42:6), Gedaliah (Jer 40:5), Daniel (Dn 2:48), and Zerubbabel (Hg 1:1). One Hebrew term for “governor,” however, could mean “absolute ruler” (Jos 12:2) as well as a person who acted under authority.<\/p>\n<p>The term most frequently used in the OT is evidently from an Akkadian expression meaning “lord of a district.” Such governors normally relied on military power to maintain their rule (2 Kgs 18:24; Neh 2:7; Jer 51:23, 28). The satrap of the Persian and Greek periods was most probably a civil governor. The leader of a city-state was often known as “governor” in the preexilic period (1 Kgs 22:26; 2 Chr 34:8). The writer of Psalm 22:28 used that title to describe God as the ruler of his people. A temple official who imprisoned the prophet Jeremiah in the stocks (Jer 20:1) was described as a “governor” (<span>rsv<\/span> “officer”). One who governed an army probably commanded one or more military units. What appears to be a special title is rendered “governor” in Ezra 2:63 and Nehemiah 7:65.<\/p>\n<p>Translation problems from the Greek are also numerous. Different levels and functions in leadership were obviously intended by the various words used. This is most clearly indicated by the use of such terms as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ethnarch<\/span> (1 Macc 14:47, <span>rsv<\/span>; 2 Cor 11:32, <span>nasb<\/span>), one who governed as a deputy of a king, and by another word referring to Roman provincial officials. Such governors were mentioned in NT writings (cf. Mt 10:18; Lk 2:2; 3:1; Acts 23:24; 1 Pt 2:14) and were responsible for maintaining law and order in their assigned territory. In NT times Judea was under the control of the governor of Syria. Archaic uses of “governor” occasionally appear in the <span>kjv<\/span>. The “governor” mentioned in James 3:4 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is the ship’s pilot.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GOVERNOR<\/h3>\n<p>Biblical term translated from at least ten different Hebrew root words and five Greek roots. English versions do not render these words consistently; they use a variety of titles, such as “overseer,” “officer,” “leader,” “judge,” and “deputy,” to translate the same Hebrew word. The situation is similar in the Septuagint (Greek OT).<\/p>\n<p>A governor was someone of superior rank who exercised authority over persons, territory, or both. Sometimes rank and power were his by virtue of the office; other times accession to office was based on noble lineage, wealth, and public attainment. A governor normally received authority from a king; therefore, he was a deputy in the territory he governed. Such was the case with Joseph (Gn 42:6), Gedaliah (Jer 40:5), Daniel (Dn 2:48), and Zerubbabel (Hg 1:1). One Hebrew term for “governor,” however, could mean “absolute ruler” (Jos 12:2) as well as a person who acted under authority.<\/p>\n<p>The term most frequently used in the OT is evidently from an Akkadian expression meaning “lord of a district.” Such governors normally relied on military power to maintain their rule (2 Kgs 18:24; Neh 2:7; Jer 51:23, 28). The satrap of the Persian and Greek periods was most probably a civil governor. The leader of a city-state was often known as “governor” in the preexilic period (1 Kgs 22:26; 2 Chr 34:8). The writer of Psalm 22:28 used that title to describe God as the ruler of his people. A temple official who imprisoned the prophet Jeremiah in the stocks (Jer 20:1) was described as a “governor” (<span>rsv<\/span> “officer”). One who governed an army probably commanded one or more military units. What appears to be a special title is rendered “governor” in Ezra 2:63 and Nehemiah 7:65.<\/p>\n<p>Translation problems from the Greek are also numerous. Different levels and functions in leadership were obviously intended by the various words used. This is most clearly indicated by the use of such terms as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ethnarch<\/span> (1 Macc 14:47, <span>rsv<\/span>; 2 Cor 11:32, <span>nasb<\/span>), one who governed as a deputy of a king, and by another word referring to Roman provincial officials. Such governors were mentioned in NT writings (cf. Mt 10:18; Lk 2:2; 3:1; Acts 23:24; 1 Pt 2:14) and were responsible for maintaining law and order in their assigned territory. In NT times Judea was under the control of the governor of Syria. Archaic uses of “governor” occasionally appear in the <span>kjv<\/span>. The “governor” mentioned in James 3:4 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is the ship’s pilot.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GOVERNOR Biblical term translated from at least ten different Hebrew root words and five Greek roots. English versions do not render these words consistently; they use a variety of titles, such as “overseer,” “officer,” “leader,” “judge,” and “deputy,” to translate the same Hebrew word. The situation is similar in the Septuagint (Greek OT). A governor was someone of superior rank who exercised authority over persons, territory, or both. Sometimes rank and power were his by virtue of the offic...","summary_en":"GOVERNOR Biblical term translated from at least ten different Hebrew root words and five Greek roots. English versions do not render these words consistently; they use a variety of titles, such as “overseer,” “officer,” “leader,” “judge,” and “deputy,” to translate the same Hebrew word. The situation is similar in the Septuagint (Greek OT). A governor was someone of superior rank who exercised authority over persons, territory, or both. Sometimes rank and power were his by virtue of the offic...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37399,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tirshatha*","title_en":"Tirshatha*","content_ro":"<h3>TIRSHATHA*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV translation of a Hebrew word designating a title of authority with the connotation of “governor.” It is appended to Zerubbabel’s name (Ezr 2:63) and Nehemiah’s name (Neh 8:9; 10:1), both of whom held the office in Jerusalem during the postexilic period.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TIRSHATHA*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV translation of a Hebrew word designating a title of authority with the connotation of “governor.” It is appended to Zerubbabel’s name (Ezr 2:63) and Nehemiah’s name (Neh 8:9; 10:1), both of whom held the office in Jerusalem during the postexilic period.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TIRSHATHA* KJV translation of a Hebrew word designating a title of authority with the connotation of “governor.” It is appended to Zerubbabel’s name (Ezr 2:63) and Nehemiah’s name (Neh 8:9; 10:1), both of whom held the office in Jerusalem during the postexilic period.","summary_en":"TIRSHATHA* KJV translation of a Hebrew word designating a title of authority with the connotation of “governor.” It is appended to Zerubbabel’s name (Ezr 2:63) and Nehemiah’s name (Neh 8:9; 10:1), both of whom held the office in Jerusalem during the postexilic period.","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37909,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Urim and Thummim","title_en":"Urim and Thummim","content_ro":"<h3>URIM AND THUMMIM<\/h3>\n<p>Two untranslated Hebrew words that might mean “lights and perfections.” They refer to some kind of stones or tokens that the ancient high priests of Israel used for discovering the will of God (Nm 27:21). They were probably like dice or coins that had to land upright or upside down. According to Exodus 28:30, they were kept on or in the breastpiece of the high priest. They are not mentioned from the time of Saul (1 Sm 28:6) until the time of Ezra and Nehemiah (Ezr 2:63; Neh 7:65), when they were used for reaccrediting returned priests. In 1 Samuel 14:41 (<span>rsv<\/span>, <span>niv<\/span> mg, <span>nlt<\/span> mg), the Greek translation preserves what may have been lost from the Hebrew original, a mention of them in connection with Saul’s effort to determine guilt in his army. That they could give answers to true-false or yes-no questions is evident from this verse. Hence, the system was probably akin to casting lots.<\/p>\n<p>None of the major spiritual leaders (e.g., Abraham, Moses, David, or the prophets) ever used them for determining the will of God, and there is no mention of them in the NT. The Urim and Thummim belonged to the nation Israel in its developing years, not when there were prophets and surely not once the Holy Spirit was available to believers.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lots, Casting of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>URIM AND THUMMIM<\/h3>\n<p>Two untranslated Hebrew words that might mean “lights and perfections.” They refer to some kind of stones or tokens that the ancient high priests of Israel used for discovering the will of God (Nm 27:21). They were probably like dice or coins that had to land upright or upside down. According to Exodus 28:30, they were kept on or in the breastpiece of the high priest. They are not mentioned from the time of Saul (1 Sm 28:6) until the time of Ezra and Nehemiah (Ezr 2:63; Neh 7:65), when they were used for reaccrediting returned priests. In 1 Samuel 14:41 (<span>rsv<\/span>, <span>niv<\/span> mg, <span>nlt<\/span> mg), the Greek translation preserves what may have been lost from the Hebrew original, a mention of them in connection with Saul’s effort to determine guilt in his army. That they could give answers to true-false or yes-no questions is evident from this verse. Hence, the system was probably akin to casting lots.<\/p>\n<p>None of the major spiritual leaders (e.g., Abraham, Moses, David, or the prophets) ever used them for determining the will of God, and there is no mention of them in the NT. The Urim and Thummim belonged to the nation Israel in its developing years, not when there were prophets and surely not once the Holy Spirit was available to believers.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lots, Casting of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"URIM AND THUMMIM Two untranslated Hebrew words that might mean “lights and perfections.” They refer to some kind of stones or tokens that the ancient high priests of Israel used for discovering the will of God (Nm 27:21). They were probably like dice or coins that had to land upright or upside down. According to Exodus 28:30, they were kept on or in the breastpiece of the high priest. They are not mentioned from the time of Saul (1 Sm 28:6) until the time of Ezra and Nehemiah (Ezr 2:63; Neh 7...","summary_en":"URIM AND THUMMIM Two untranslated Hebrew words that might mean “lights and perfections.” They refer to some kind of stones or tokens that the ancient high priests of Israel used for discovering the will of God (Nm 27:21). They were probably like dice or coins that had to land upright or upside down. According to Exodus 28:30, they were kept on or in the breastpiece of the high priest. They are not mentioned from the time of Saul (1 Sm 28:6) until the time of Ezra and Nehemiah (Ezr 2:63; Neh 7...","source":"Articles\/U.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"64":[{"id":18033,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"History of Israel","title_en":"History of Israel","content_ro":"<h3>ISRAEL, History of<\/h3>\n<p>An account of God’s sovereign purpose in calling a people out of paganism and establishing them as witnesses for the true faith among the nations, of God’s sovereign power in protecting them from extinction, of his sovereign justice in dealing with their departure from his ways of holiness, of God’s sovereign grace in forgiving their sins and restoring them to fellowship with himself by providing through them a Savior for the entire world.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Patriarchal Age<\/p>\n<p>• Sojourn in Egypt<\/p>\n<p>• The Exodus<\/p>\n<p>• Wilderness Wanderings<\/p>\n<p>• The Conquest<\/p>\n<p>• The Judges<\/p>\n<p>• The United Monarchy<\/p>\n<p>• The Divided Kingdom<\/p>\n<p>• The Restoration<\/p>\n<p>• The Intertestamental Period<\/p>\n<p>• The Roman Period<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PatriarchalAge\">Patriarchal Age<\/p>\n<p>The story of Israel begins with Abraham, whom God called first at Ur, and perhaps later at Haran (Acts 7:2-4), to leave Mesopotamia and go into a land to which God would direct the way. In calling Abraham, God made with him a covenant (Gn 12:1-3) that promised him a land, special divine favor (“I will bless those who bless you, and the one who curses you I will curse,” <span>nasb<\/span>), and the privilege of being a channel of blessing to the entire world (“In you all the families of the earth shall be blessed,” <span>nasb<\/span>). In Genesis 12:4-8 God confirmed this unconditional covenant, promising Abraham this new land forever, along with innumerable descendants. Subsequently, in Genesis 15:1-21, God again confirmed the covenant but added the significant prediction that the guarantee of holding Canaan in perpetuity did not mean occupation of the land in every generation. God also spelled out the limits of the Promised Land (from the river of Egypt to the Euphrates, some 500 to 600 miles or 804 to 965 kilometers in extent). A final confirmation of the covenant to Abraham appears in Genesis 17:6-8. It guaranteed the land of Canaan to Abraham’s posterity and added that kings (an anticipation of the Davidic dynasty) would arise in his line. The covenant was confirmed to Abraham’s son Isaac (Gn 26:3-5) and his grandson Jacob (ch 28).<\/p>\n<p>This period is known as the patriarchal age in Hebrew history. The patriarchs were Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. They were called patriarchs because they were fathers, not only to their immediate families, but also to the extended family of Hebrews, over which they exercised a fatherly control. They served as political, legal, and spiritual heads of their migratory community, looking after their interests and leading them in worship. Periodically they built altars on which they offered sacrifices. That the patriarchal community was very large can be seen from Genesis 14:14, which says that Abraham had 318 armed men in his camp. If one assumes that most of the men were married and had one or more children each, the total extended family may have numbered in excess of 1,000.<\/p>\n<p>Additional developments in the life of Abraham and Jacob were particularly important for world history. Abraham, frustrated at not having an heir, accepted Sarah’s suggestion to obtain an heir by the slave girl Hagar. (This was also the custom of the land.) The son born was named Ishmael, progenitor of the Arabs. Thus Abraham is revered by Arabs and Muslims as well as by Jews and Christians. He is the father of the Jews through his son Isaac, child of promise. He holds a special place in Christianity as an example of Christ, through whom all Christians obtain their salvation.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob, a scheming scoundrel in his earlier years, wound up in exile in northern Mesopotamia for 20 years in the home of his uncle Laban. There he married Leah and Rachel and fathered the sons who became the progenitors of the 12 tribes of Israel. On his return to Palestine he met God along the banks of the Jabbok River (Gn 32), and God changed his name to Israel (“a prince of God,” <span>kjv<\/span> mg).<\/p>\n<p>The patriarchal period in Canaan lasted for 215 years. One estimate places Abraham’s entry into Canaan at about 2085 <span>BC<\/span>, when he was 75 years of age. Jacob and his sons migrated to Egypt to escape a severe famine in Canaan in about 1870 <span>BC<\/span>. During much of the patriarchal period, Palestine experienced a decline in population and was occupied largely by nomadic or seminomadic tribes. It was relatively easy for the Hebrews to enter such a situation. After 1900 Palestine began to enjoy more settled conditions. Shortly thereafter, the Hebrews made the trek into Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SojourninEgypt\">Sojourn in Egypt<\/p>\n<p>If Jacob and his sons entered Egypt about 1870 <span>BC<\/span>, it was the period of the Middle Kingdom. And by that time other migrants from Asia were coming in increasing numbers. The Hebrews settled in Goshen, in the eastern delta region, under the protecting care of Joseph, who held a position at the Egyptian court roughly equivalent to that of prime minister. As more and more Asiatic Hyksos came into Egypt, they began to take over the country—northern Egypt at least. During this same time the Hebrews became increasingly numerous. Some who hold to a different chronology believe the Hebrews were welcomed into Egypt during the days of Hyksos domination (after 1750 <span>BC<\/span>). At any rate, by about 1580 <span>BC<\/span> native Egyptian princes regained control of the country and expelled many of the Asiatics.<\/p>\n<p>In process of time there arose a king over Egypt who “knew not Joseph” (Ex 1:8, <span>kjv<\/span>). Very possibly this meant that a native Egyptian dynasty had arisen in Egypt and they were apprehensive over the fact that the growing numbers and wealth of the Hebrews might jeopardize their own supremacy. But Egyptian measures to subjugate the Hebrews and reduce their birthrate had a reverse effect (Ex 1:12). Finally, the Egyptians ordered the killing of all male Hebrew infants at birth. Among those who disobeyed were the parents of Moses, who set him afloat in a waterproof basket made of reeds. Found by a daughter of Pharaoh, he was brought up in the Egyptian court, was given a first-class education, and became a high official of the realm.<\/p>\n<p>At the age of 40, Moses identified himself with his own people. He killed an Egyptian in defense of a fellow Hebrew, and immediately fled to the land of Midian in the northeastern part of the Sinai Peninsula. He married and lived there for 40 years, becoming thoroughly familiar with the geography and the ways of the wilderness through which he would later lead the Hebrews. The Egyptians continued to oppress the Hebrew people severely until they cried urgently to God for deliverance. In response, God confronted Moses in the famous burning bush experience and called on him to return to Egypt and lead the people back into the land of Canaan (Ex 3–4). He was to have the help of his brother, Aaron.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheExodus\">The Exodus<\/p>\n<p>Understandably the pharaoh of Egypt was reluctant to permit the Hebrews to leave permanently. The value of this great labor force was incalculable. But finally, after suffering a series of ten plagues, lasting perhaps a year, the Egyptians were persuaded to let the Hebrews go (Ex 7–12).<\/p>\n<p>The plagues had a theological as well as a practical purpose. They discredited the gods of Egypt and exalted the most high God of heaven (Ex 12:12). The plagues clearly discredited specific gods of Egypt (e.g., the Nile was worshiped as Hapi, plague one; the frog, worshiped as Heqt, plague two; the bull, worshiped as Ptah, plague five; the sun, worshiped as Amon-Re\/Aton, plague nine). Taken together, they struck a direct blow at the Egyptian pantheon.<\/p>\n<p>Just before the last plague, which was the night in which the death angel invaded the homes of the Egyptians, the Israelites made the Passover sacrifice according to divine instructions. This involved killing a lamb for each household (unless the household was too small; in that event, households could combine). Anyone who was careless about applying the blood to the doorpost or who rejected this divine provision came under the judgment of God. After the death of the firstborn throughout the land, the Egyptians begged the Hebrews to leave. Their company numbered 600,000 men over 20 years of age, plus women and children, for a total of over 2,500,000. In addition they took their flocks and herds and personal belongings.<\/p>\n<p>The date they left Egypt is a matter of continuing debate. Traditionally a date of about 1446 <span>BC<\/span> is given for the exodus (cf. 1 Kgs 6:1, which places the exodus 480 years before construction of the temple started in 966 <span>BC<\/span>) and 1406 <span>BC<\/span> for the Conquest under Joshua, and there do not seem to be any compelling arguments for rejecting that position. But a great many scholars prefer 1275 <span>BC<\/span> for a variety of reasons.<\/p>\n<p>The early date of the exodus would place the later years of the wilderness wanderings and the subsequent conquest of Palestine during the reigns of Amenhotep III and IV (1412–1366), a time when the pharaohs allowed Egyptian control of Palestine to disintegrate. When the Egyptians did reassert their power, about 1300, they restricted their movements largely to the coastal area, and thus did not come in contact with the Hebrews who were living in the hill country of Judea, Samaria, and Galilee.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WildernessWanderings\">Wilderness Wanderings<\/p>\n<p>The wilderness wanderings were an important interlude in the history of Israel. During those years, significant and basic institutions came into existence at God’s command. At Sinai, Moses delivered to Israel the law, the pattern of the tabernacle (which later became the model for the temple) and orders for its operation, as well as detailed instructions for the priesthood and sacrificial system of worship.<\/p>\n<p>The period of the wanderings was truly a remarkable time. The presence of God was evidenced by a pillar of cloud that hovered over the people by day and a pillar of fire by night. God provided food in the form of manna, periodically provided water by miraculous means, and made sure that clothes did not wear out. In spite of all that, the people murmured and complained continually.<\/p>\n<p>At Sinai, God gave the law (Ex 19:2–24:18), and the people promptly made a commitment to keep it (24:3). Then God gave the pattern for the tabernacle and its furniture (chs 25–27, 30–31, 35–40) and established the priesthood (chs 28–29). While Moses was on the mountain receiving God’s revelation, the people grew restless and clamored for gods they could see. Even Aaron was carried away with the idolatrous wave and supervised the casting of a golden calf and building of an altar before it. The fact that they turned to Egyptian cattle worship so readily indicates that paganism must have made deep inroads among them while in captivity (chs 32–34). Moses’ intercessory response to God’s announcement that he would destroy Israel because of her idolatry led to a divine determination to execute judgment on only the worst offenders (32:9-14).<\/p>\n<p>Subsequently, God revealed the legal and priestly order (Lv 1:1–27:34). Among the divinely appointed institutions described or alluded to in Leviticus are several special days or feasts, including the Sabbath, Passover, Feast of Unleavened Bread, Firstfruits, Pentecost or Feast of Weeks, Feast of Trumpets, Day of Atonement, Feast of Tabernacles, the Year of Sabbath, and the Year of Jubilee.<\/p>\n<p>After camping at Sinai for about a year, the Israelites got their orders to go forward (Nm 10:11-12). Miriam (Moses’ sister) and Aaron criticized Moses’ leadership and suffered divine punishment as a consequence (ch 12). When the people arrived at Kadesh-barnea, the gate to southern Palestine, they were frightened by the report of most of the spies who had been reconnoitering in Canaan and decided that they should not advance into Canaan. They called for a new leader to bring them back to Egypt. God declared that the entire generation would wander in the wilderness until the adults had died. Only Joshua and Caleb (the two spies in favor of invading immediately) would enter the Promised Land (14:26-30). Near the end of the period of wandering, Moses also lost the privilege of entering the land by an act of disobedience.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheConquest\">The Conquest<\/p>\n<p>The latter part of the book of Numbers describes how Moses led the Israelites to victory over the peoples living east of the Jordan River. Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh requested permission to settle there and reluctantly were allowed to do so on the condition that they would join the rest of the Israelites in conquering Canaan before settling down. Prior to victories in Transjordan, a new census of adult males was taken in order to determine the military capabilities of Israel and to provide a basis for equitable division of the land they were about to enter. The number of males above 20 years of age was 601,730 (Nm 26:51). The book of Deuteronomy consists primarily of a series of speeches delivered by Moses in a covenant renewal ceremony on the plains of Moab just before his death and the appointment of Joshua as leader.<\/p>\n<p>Joshua lost no time in moving forward. Spies sent across the Jordan to Jericho to reconnoiter reported a situation quite different from what the Hebrews had experienced at Kadesh-barnea a generation earlier. Now the people of Canaan were terrified because they had heard of the numerical strength and victories of the Hebrews. Apparently the day after the spies returned, Joshua moved the people to the edge of the Jordan and prepared to cross over. The waters parted for them here as the Red Sea had parted earlier.<\/p>\n<p>The narrative of conquest that appears in the book of Joshua is not a detailed battle account. It describes a thrust into the middle of Palestine around Jericho and Ai, a southerly drive to defeat the Amorite league, and a northern campaign against Hazor and other towns. The history of Joshua is extremely telescoped, for Joshua’s major military action must have required about six years. Joshua’s friend Caleb was 79 when the Conquest began and 85 after the last great battle with Jabin, king of Hazor (Jos 14:7-10).<\/p>\n<p>When the war was over, major strongholds (e.g., Jerusalem) still remained in enemy hands, but the land west of the Jordan was allocated to the nine and a half Hebrew tribes. The task of reducing enemy towns was left to the individual tribes in whose land they were located. The Joshua account was not so much a narrative of Israelite battle prowess as of God’s faithfulness and intervention on behalf of his people. For example, at Jericho they did not attack but merely followed divine orders and watched the defenses collapse; at Gibeon hailstones killed more Amorites than Israelite soldiers did (Jos 10:7-11).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheJudges\">The Judges<\/p>\n<p>Joshua died some 30 years after he had led the Hebrews into Canaan, and he was followed by a series of divinely appointed leaders who ruled sometimes over the whole of Israel as a loose confederacy and sometimes over one or more tribes. They were judges, civil functionaries, and military leaders all at the same time.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Judges pictures a series of recurring cycles: apostasy from God, punishment in the form of oppression by neighboring tribes, cries to God for relief, release from bondage under the leadership of a judge, and a period of rest from oppression.<\/p>\n<p>Establishment of the chronology of the judges is one of the thorniest problems of Scripture. Adding up all years of oppression and rest mentioned in the book gives a total of 410. The book of Acts gives a total of 450 years from the days of Joshua to Samuel (Acts 13:19). The difference in Acts may be accounted for by the addition of 40 years of Eli’s ministry (1 Sm 4:18). Allowing 410 years for the period of the judges, about 30 for the Conquest to the judges, and 40 for the wilderness wanderings, means 480 years from 1050 <span>BC<\/span>, the date for Saul’s kingship, and would give a date of about 1530 for the exodus. This is about 100 years more than even the early date for the exodus. The most probable explanation is that there is some overlap in oppressions and judgeships. For instance, the activities of Jephthah were centered on the eastern frontier, those of Samson in the Philistine plain to the southwest, and those of Deborah and Barak in the north.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheUnitedMonarchy\">The United Monarchy<\/p>\n<p>Because of the weakness of Israel resulting from political disunity and the ineptness and corruption of both Eli’s and Samuel’s sons, the people of Israel called for a king to rule over them. This demand was in reality a rejection of the divine plan of theocracy—the rule of God. God granted the Hebrews’ wish but warned them of the disadvantages of monarchy (1 Sm 8:9-21). The concept of kingship was not new to Israel. It had been hinted at in Genesis 49:10 and Numbers 24:17, and Moses had made some very clear statements about it in Deuteronomy 17:14-20.<\/p>\n<p>The first stage of Hebrew monarchy is commonly called the united monarchy because all Israel was ruled by a single king. This period lasted for 120 years—encompassing the 40-year reigns of Saul (Acts 13:21), David (2 Sm 5:5), and Solomon (1 Kgs 11:42).<\/p>\n<p>The people asked for a king, and God granted them one, but not one like those of the surrounding nations. The Hebrew king was to be a man who followed God’s dictates in his public and private life, who did not intrude into the affairs of the priesthood, and who did not fall into idolatry, but exerted all his influence to keep the people faithful to God. If he failed in any of these respects, he ran the risk of being deposed by God, of having his line brought to an end, or even of having the people fall into captivity to a foreign power. All this must be kept in mind when evaluating the reigns of Saul, David, Solomon, and the kings of the divided monarchy.<\/p>\n<p>Saul began well. He won a great victory over the Ammonites at Jabesh-gilead and showed considerable wisdom in administrative matters. But after about two years he intruded into the priest’s office to offer sacrifice, bringing the divine prediction that his kingdom would be taken from him (1 Sm 13:8-14). He would go on to enjoy great military victory and ability as a ruler until about the middle of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>After Saul’s disobedience to God’s command to totally destroy the Amalekites, the Lord repudiated Saul and instructed Samuel to anoint David privately as future king of Israel. David’s rise to prominence was spurred by his victory over Goliath and the accompanying defeat of the Philistines. Saul later made David commander of the army, and the young man soon earned a reputation greater than that of the king himself. Saul, who had become increasingly mentally disturbed after his relationship with God was broken, began to make attempts on David’s life, and for the last years of Saul’s reign David lived as a fugitive. Meanwhile, the Philistines got completely out of control and finally killed Saul and most of his sons in the great battle of Mt Gilboa, which gave the Philistines control over much of Palestine west of the Jordan (1 Sm 31:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>Soon David became king in Judah with his capital in Hebron. A son of Saul, Ishbosheth, established himself at Mahanaim, east of the Jordan. For seven years the two tiny kingdoms existed side by side (2 Sm 2:2-11). But after the Israelite king and his army commander were assassinated, David became ruler of a united Hebrew kingdom.<\/p>\n<p>Not long after the beginning of his reign (1010–970 <span>BC<\/span>) David completely defeated and subjugated the Philistines. Soon thereafter he captured Jerusalem, making it the capital of the united kingdom. During succeeding years, David built up an empire (2 Sm 8:10; 1 Chr 18–19), conquering Moab, Edom, Damascus, Zobah, and Ammon, so he controlled territory from the Gulf of Aqaba (a branch of the Red Sea) and the Sinai in the south almost to the Euphrates in the north. Moreover, he established good relations, if not an alliance, with Tyre. The establishment of David’s empire was possible because of a power vacuum in the Middle East. The Egyptians, Mycenaeans, Hittites, and Assyrians were either decadent or removed from the stage of history. The Phoenicians, a peaceful commercial people, were also free to expand their trade, and they were happy to sell cedar to David for his palace and the temple.<\/p>\n<p>Without doubt, David was Israel’s greatest king. Jerusalem came to be known as the city of David. When the king wanted to build the temple as God’s house, God replied that his son should do it instead. But God would in a very real sense build David’s house; he made a covenant with David, promising him that his house (dynasty, kingdom, throne) would be established forever (2 Sm 7). Christ, the infinite One who came from the line of David, alone was capable of fulfilling this divine promise (see Lk 1:31-33; Acts 2:29-36; 13:32-39; 15:14-17).<\/p>\n<p>Like other Oriental monarchs, David fell into the practice of keeping a harem. Scripture names 8 wives and 21 children and refers to other wives and concubines. Such a situation opened the door to family rivalries and questions about succession to the throne. Two sons, Absalom and Adonijah, made a try for the throne, but both efforts were squelched. Solomon, son of David’s favorite wife, Bathsheba, became the next king.<\/p>\n<p>Solomon (970–930 <span>BC<\/span>) was a man of peace and a builder of palaces, cities, fortifications, and the temple. He fortified cities all over his realm and outfitted cities for his chariot corps and cavalry units. With the help of the Phoenicians, he built a seaport and kept a fleet at Ezion-geber, near modern Eilat on the Gulf of Aqaba. He greatly enlarged Jerusalem by enclosing the temple area to the north of David’s city and the southwestern hill now known as Zion. His best-known project was the temple, which took seven years to build. Twice the size of the tabernacle, it was built on the same basic plan; it measured 90 feet (27.4 meters) long and 30 feet (9.1 meters) wide and had magnificent appointments. But he also constructed a palace complex that took 13 years to complete. This included an armory, a throne room, the king’s private residence, and a house for the daughter of pharaoh.<\/p>\n<p>Apparently much influenced by the spiritual testimony of David and desiring God’s blessing on his rule, Solomon made a great sacrifice to God at Gibeon near the beginning of his reign. God met him there and offered to grant whatever he might request. Solomon asked for understanding and wisdom to govern God’s people (1 Kgs 3:9). His God-given wisdom is apparent in many administrative decisions and official policies and building plans.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, Solomon did not show such wisdom in maintaining a harem of 700 wives and 300 concubines or in excessive expenditures that left the state in serious financial straits. He even erected places of worship for his foreign wives, thus subsidizing their idolatries and incurring the wrath of God. In fact, foreign wives and their idolatry proved to be his downfall; before Solomon died, God informed him that for this reason he would divide the kingdom at his death and give most of it to someone other than Solomon’s son. But for David’s sake, God would keep Judah and Jerusalem in the hands of the Davidic line (1 Kgs 11:9-13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheDividedKingdom\">The Divided Kingdom<\/p>\n<p>After the death of Solomon, the Near East was destined to become a very different place. Israel was no longer in a power vacuum. The Assyrian Empire rose in Mesopotamia, to be followed by the Neo-Babylonian and the Medo-Persian Empires in turn. Egypt was temporarily powerful in the south, but it would later come under control of Assyria and Medo-Persia. These empires exerted great pressure on Israel and dominated one or both of the two Hebrew kingdoms.<\/p>\n\n<p>When Solomon died, his son Rehoboam took the throne and was forced to deal with a rising tide of resentment over the high taxes and economic stagnation of Solomon’s last years. When Rehoboam refused to give relief, all the northern tribes broke away and formed the northern kingdom, Israel, under the leadership of Jeroboam. The southern kingdom, Judah, was left with only the territory of Judah and Benjamin. A total of 20 kings ruled in each of the separate kingdoms. While the north had several dynasties and the reigns of kings were generally short, in the south the dynasty of David continued to rule and the reigns were longer.<\/p>\n<h5>The Northern Kingdom<\/h5>\n<p>The northern kingdom lasted from the division in 930 <span>BC<\/span> until its conquest by Assyria in 722. Jeroboam, fearing that he would lose the loyalty of the people if they continued to go to Jerusalem to worship, set up a new religion of his own. Instituting calf worship, he built shrines at Dan in the north and Bethel in the south. This idolatry drew the condemnation of God and fulfilled the prediction that Jeroboam’s line would be wiped out. All his successors are said to have followed in his idolatrous steps. Israel found itself at war during much of its history—with Judah, Syria, or Assyria. Jeroboam established his capital first at Shechem and later at Tirzah.<\/p>\n<p>Four other kings of the north require special comment: Omri, Ahab, Jehu, and Jeroboam II. Omri (885–874 <span>BC<\/span>) must have been an impressive ruler. Generations later, Assyrians still spoke of Israel as the land of Omri. After he had established himself on the throne, he located the permanent capital of the kingdom at Samaria and began the palace complex there. Early in his reign he was successful in conquering Moab, and later he reestablished the good relations with Tyre that existed in the days of David and Solomon. Apparently he established a full alliance and cemented it with the marriage of his son Ahab to Jezebel, a princess of Tyre.<\/p>\n<p>Ahab (874–853 <span>BC<\/span>) was one of the most significant of Israel’s kings. He and his wife, Jezebel, promoted the vile idolatry of Baal worship with its religious prostitution, arousing the powerful opposition of the prophet Elijah. Ahab was a formidable military man, defeating the Syrians in major campaigns and participating in a coalition that fought the Assyrians to a virtual standstill. He also built extensively at Samaria, Hazor, Megiddo, and other towns, as excavations show.<\/p>\n<p>Jehu (841–814 <span>BC<\/span>) was God’s agent for punishing the house of Omri and destroying Baal worship in Israel. He did eradicate Baal worship and liquidated literally scores of relatives and court officials of Ahab. But he was so ruthless that he killed off the people who knew how to run the government; subsequently, it did not work well. Jehu also was forced to become a vassal to Assyria.<\/p>\n<p>Jeroboam II ruled during most of the first half of the eighth century (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) and brought the kingdom to its greatest extent and prosperity. He, with his contemporary Uzziah in the south, ruled most of the land David had once controlled. This was possible because the Assyrians were in a period of decline during most of the first half of the century.<\/p>\n<p>Prophets who were active during the history of the northern kingdom include the nonwriting prophets Elijah and Elisha and the writing prophets Jonah, Amos, and Hosea.<\/p>\n<h5>The Southern Kingdom<\/h5>\n<p>The history of the southern kingdom of Judah was quite different from that of the northern kingdom. The temple was there and so were large numbers of Levites, many of whom came south after the division of the kingdom to protest the idolatry of the north. In addition to this spiritual strength, there was greater political stability and unity, promoted by the fact that only two tribes—Judah and Benjamin—shared power, and all the kings were of the Davidic dynasty. Moreover, eight of the kings were good monarchs. There were also periodic religious revivals. God granted the southern kingdom about 100 more years of existence than the north. But Judah, too, fell into idolatry and went into captivity for her sins.<\/p>\n<p>Rehoboam, the first king in the south, is especially remembered because he refused to listen to wise counsel about fiscal matters and perpetrated the division of the kingdom. He is also remembered for his religious policies. After a good beginning, he allowed apostasy to get out of control and brought the judgment of God in the form of an invasion in his fifth year (926 <span>BC<\/span>) by Shishak I of Egypt, resulting in extensive plunder and payment of tribute. Thereafter, he launched an extensive program to fortify the realm. Shishak’s invasion did have the effect of producing a partial and temporary spiritual reform, but the general trend of Rehoboam’s reign was downward.<\/p>\n<p>Conditions during the reign of his son, Abijam, were worse, but Asa (910–869 <span>BC<\/span>) initiated a religious reform that was effective for most of his reign. When threatened by the northern kingdom during his latter years, however, Asa turned to Syria for help instead of to God, and he seems to have defied the prophets of God to his dying day.<\/p>\n<p>Asa’s son Jehoshaphat (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>) was apparently influenced by his father’s early religious devotion, and his reign was characterized by faithfulness, winning the favor of God. However, he seems to have made a full alliance with Ahab of Israel, which resulted in the marriage of his son Jehoram to Ahab’s daughter Athaliah. This alliance involved Jehoshaphat in almost ruinous joint ventures with Ahab, and later with two of his sons when they became kings of Israel. It also opened the door for the introduction of Baal worship into Judah when Jehoram came to the throne in the southern kingdom. For his sin Jehoram (853–841 <span>BC<\/span>) suffered internal revolt, invasion, and death from a horrible disease.<\/p>\n<p>After his death, his last remaining son, Ahaziah, ruled less than a year, following the wicked ways of his father. When Ahaziah died in battle, the queen mother, Athaliah, decided to seize the throne for herself and to secure her power by killing off all those in line to the throne. But she missed Ahaziah’s infant son Joash, who was kept hidden in the temple for six years.<\/p>\n<p>When Joash was seven, Jehoiada the high priest arranged his coronation and also the execution of the murderous and idolatrous Athaliah. During his early years when Joash was influenced by good counsel, he did well. But after the middle of his reign (835–796 <span>BC<\/span>), he began to listen to the princes who wanted to restore idolatry, and conditions deteriorated. Military reversals brought on economic decline and ultimately the king’s assassination.<\/p>\n<p>His son Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>) started well with victory over Edom and faithfulness to God. But he, too, fell into idolatry and was totally defeated by the northern kingdom, being held prisoner there. At that point his son Uzziah took over (c. 792 <span>BC<\/span>) and began a long and generally successful reign. During the several decades that followed, Assyria was in decline, and Uzziah and his contemporary in the north, Jeroboam II, were able to expand Hebrew holdings so that between them they controlled most of the territory Solomon had ruled.<\/p>\n<p>Uzziah (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to restore the power of Judah rather quickly after his father’s defeat by Israel. Then he subjugated the Philistines in the southwest and the Ammonites across the Jordan; he strengthened his hold on the Edomites. All during his reign economic conditions improved. But at the height of his power Uzziah foolishly violated the high priest’s prerogatives and offered sacrifice in the temple. For this he was smitten with leprosy; his son Jotham was co-regent during the years 750–740 <span>BC<\/span>, going on to rule alone for about five more years. Meanwhile, Assyrian power became resurgent.<\/p>\n<p>By and large, Jotham merely carried on the policies of Uzziah. But the administration of his son Ahaz (735–715 <span>BC<\/span>) was very much affected by the Assyrian threat. Israel and Syria wanted him to join in war against Assyria, but he refused, being pro-Assyrian in sympathy. When Israel and Syria invaded Judah, King Ahaz sent tribute to Assyria and became her vassal in return for protection. This rash course of action was vainly opposed by Isaiah, who was prophet at court (c. 740–700 <span>BC<\/span>). Contemporaneously, the prophet Micah ministered to the common people of Judah. The pro-Assyrian policy of Ahaz was accompanied by a renewed sympathy for idolatry, and this brought the judgment of God in the form of invasion by Edomites and Philistines and trouble with Assyria. In fact, during this period, Assyria had annexed the northern kingdom (722 <span>BC<\/span>) and removed many of her people into captivity.<\/p>\n<p>The next king of Judah, Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>), was greatly sobered by the fall of Israel because of her sins, and he determined to launch a reform in his realm. He was anti-Assyrian too, but he did not dare to discontinue tribute payments and strike for independence until after Sennacherib came to the throne in Nineveh in 705 <span>BC<\/span>. At first Sennacherib was too preoccupied to attend to Judah, but finally in 701 he invaded. Despite tremendous initial success, he was stopped by a divinely sent plague (Is 36–39). Isaiah stood by the king to reassure and sustain him during this emergency.<\/p>\n<p>Hezekiah’s son Manasseh (697–642 <span>BC<\/span>) ruled longer than any other king of Israel or Judah. Unfortunately, he turned his back on his father’s example and caused the people to fall into gross idolatry (2 Kgs 21:9). Carried away captive by the Assyrians late in his reign, he repented of his evil and God restored him to his throne; thereafter, he led some reforms. But the land was too steeped in iniquity to be rescued. His son Amon (642–640 <span>BC<\/span>) reverted to the idolatry he knew in his youth.<\/p>\n<p>The situation was different with Josiah (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>), however. Throughout his reign he dedicated himself to reform. He sought to root out idolatry and to restore the temple and its worship. In 622 <span>BC<\/span> the Book of the Law was found during repair of the temple, and its demands—which had been forgotten—made a great impression on king and people alike. It is certain that Jeremiah and Zephaniah ministered during Josiah’s reign, as did Nahum and Habakkuk (in all probability).<\/p>\n<p>International conditions were now changing rapidly. Assyria was declining, and Nineveh fell to Babylon and the Medes in 612 <span>BC<\/span>. Three years later Pharaoh Neco of Egypt marched north to aid his Assyrian ally. When Josiah tried to stop him, he was killed in battle.<\/p>\n<p>From this point everything was downhill for Judah. None of the rest of the kings was devout, and political power and economic health rapidly declined. The people put one of Josiah’s sons, Jehoahaz, on the throne. He lasted three months. Pharaoh Neco replaced him with Jehoiakim (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>), another son of Josiah. In 605 Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon defeated Neco, invaded Judah, and took tribute and hostages from Jehoiakim, including Daniel and his friends (Dn 1:1). Jehoiakim revolted in 600 <span>BC<\/span>, but Nebuchadnezzar did not come to deal with him personally until 597 <span>BC<\/span>. He died before the Babylonians arrived, and his son Jehoiachin came to the throne in 598 <span>BC<\/span> to rule for only three months before the Babylonians carried him away into exile. Ezekiel was among the many captives taken on that occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The Babylonians then put Zedekiah, youngest son of Josiah, on the throne in 597 <span>BC<\/span>. When he rebelled, Nebuchadnezzar laid siege to Jerusalem and took the city (587 <span>BC<\/span>), destroying it and the temple and carrying off large numbers of people. The judgment of God had finally fallen on the Jews for their idolatrous ways.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRestoration\">The Restoration<\/p>\n<p>In judgment God remembered mercy. This is evident in individual lives, when faithful ones like Daniel, Esther, or Nehemiah rose to a position of importance in political life, or as numerous other persons became prosperous in the foreign environment. It is evident on the community level as God moved to protect Hebrew enclaves scattered abroad and to restore an organized society in Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>Among the exiles, Judaism as a way of life separated from its own political system or cultic center and began to emerge. Jews finally turned their backs on idolatry. And without a temple, priesthood, king, or land, they turned to the divine Scriptures as their rallying point and the foundation of their community. During this period they developed the synagogue as a place for fellowship, prayer, and study.<\/p>\n<p>God’s restoration of an organized community to Palestine involved particularly the fortunes of his “anointed” Cyrus (Is 44:28; 45:1). Cyrus was a Persian prince who in 559 <span>BC<\/span> revolted against the dominant dynasty controlling the Median Empire. After consolidating his hold on the throne, he proceeded to conquer Asia Minor and the Chaldean or Neo-Babylonian Empire. As a humane man and a wise administrator, he permitted the captive peoples to return to their homes and rebuild their communities. Cyrus’s decree to the Jews appears in Ezra 1 and dates probably to 538 <span>BC<\/span>. A total of almost 50,000 went back to Judah as a result of this edict (Ezr 2:64-65).<\/p>\n<p>Under the stresses and strains of reestablishment, the people built their houses but got no further than laying the foundation of a new temple. Finally, the prophets Haggai and Zechariah stirred the people to build the house of God (Ezr 5:1). They began in the second year of Darius I, the Great (520 <span>BC<\/span>; Hg 1:1; Zec 1:1), and completed the work in his sixth year (515 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 6:15).<\/p>\n<p>During the reign of Darius’s son Xerxes (486–465 <span>BC<\/span>), a plot was hatched to exterminate all the Jews in the Persian Empire, which at that time controlled the lands where Jews lived. Fortunately, Xerxes (Ahasuerus in the book of Esther), in his third year (483 <span>BC<\/span>; Est 1:3), went searching for a new queen and chose Esther, who managed to preserve her people.<\/p>\n<p>Xerxes’ son Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>) also figured significantly in Jewish history. In his seventh year (458 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 7:7), under the leadership of Ezra, a second contingent of Jews returned to Jerusalem. And in Artaxerxes’ 20th year (445 <span>BC<\/span>; Neh 2:1), Nehemiah went to Jerusalem to supervise the rebuilding of the walls of the city. Malachi probably wrote his prophecy to the Jews in Jerusalem during the latter part of Artaxerxes’ reign.<\/p>\n<p>After the fall of Samaria and the captivity of Judah, the Hebrews remaining in the land intermarried with various pagan groups in the area. Their offspring became the Samaritans, a religious and racial admixture. These people had moved into the vacuum left by the destruction of Judah, and naturally they looked with disfavor on an intrusion of Babylonian Jews into an area they had come to call their own. They did all they could to frustrate the efforts of Nehemiah to rebuild the walls. It took all the courage, tact, energy, and persuasiveness Ezra and Nehemiah could muster to prevent the returning Jews from intermarrying with racially mixed people of the land. Such intermarriage would have meant the ultimate absorption and destruction of the Jewish people.<\/p>\n<p>A Samaritan temple was later built on Mt Gerizim (probably during the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>), and it became the center of the Samaritan worship. The hostility between Samaritans and Jews continued on into the NT period (Jn 4) and exists to the present.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheIntertestamentalPeriod\">The Intertestamental Period<\/p>\n<p>Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire with lightning speed. When the people of Jerusalem threw open their gates in 332 <span>BC<\/span> and capitulated without a fight, Alexander treated them well. After his death in 323 <span>BC<\/span>, Palestine passed back and forth among his successors until Ptolemy I of Egypt managed to establish control in 301 <span>BC<\/span>. Thereafter the area remained in Egyptian hands until 198 <span>BC<\/span>. The Ptolemies were tolerant and granted the Jews considerable autonomy, allowing them to develop their unique culture undisturbed as long as they paid their taxes and remained submissive. Many Jews settled in Alexandria and gradually forgot their Hebrew in the Hellenistic environment. As a result, a translation of the OT into Greek (the Septuagint) was produced there. While the Ptolemies did not force Hellenism on the Jews of either Alexandria or Palestine, many were influenced by Hellenistic ideas.<\/p>\n<p>When Ptolemy V came to the throne as a minor in 203 <span>BC<\/span>, Antiochus III of Syria took advantage of the weakened Egypt and conquered Palestine (198 <span>BC<\/span>). Apparently the Jews hoped to gain something from the change and welcomed the Syrians. But their hope was ill-founded. Antiochus III suffered disastrous defeat at the hands of Rome at Magnesia in 190 <span>BC<\/span>. Syria not only lost much territory but also was forced to pay a huge indemnity. Thereafter, the Jews suffered under great financial burdens, along with other peoples of the empire. The next Syrian king, Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175–164 <span>BC<\/span>), decided to launch an effort to achieve greater internal strength and unity within the empire by forcing, among other things, a greater acceptance of Greek culture and the cult of the divine ruler. Naturally this idolatrous requirement weighed heavily on the monotheistic Jews and incited revolution.<\/p>\n<p>But this does not completely explain the Maccabean revolt against Syria. In 168 <span>BC<\/span> armed conflict broke out between Jewish factions in Jerusalem. Antiochus IV chose to interpret this as open rebellion and sent an army against the city. His forces demolished part of the city wall and many houses. After this Antiochus decided to suppress Judaism completely, and he dedicated the temple to Zeus and sacrificed swine on the altar. Circumcision, Sabbath observance, and other religious festivals were no longer permitted, and public worship of heathen gods became compulsory.<\/p>\n<p>Some Jews capitulated to Antiochus’s orders or only resisted passively, but a few decided to resist openly. Chief among them were Mattathias and his five sons. After the early death of Mattathias, his son Judas Maccabeus led his forces to victory over the Syrians, regaining the right to restore Jewish worship. The rededication of the temple on December 25, 164 <span>BC<\/span>, inaugurated the Festival of Hanukkah (1 Macc 4:36-59). Subsequently, Jonathan and Simon (other sons of Mattathias) continued the struggle until independence was gained in 142 <span>BC<\/span>; this was possible in large part because they saw how to take advantage of the increasing weakness of Syrian rulers and the competition for the royal office.<\/p>\n<p>Simon ruled the Jewish state until his assassination in 134 <span>BC<\/span>, when his son John Hyrcanus (134–104 <span>BC<\/span>) took over. John Hyrcanus fought successfully in the east, north, and south, gaining land in Transjordan, capturing Shechem and the Samaritan temple on Mt Gerizim, and subjugating the Idumeans in the south, forcing them to adopt Judaism. His son Aristobulus ruled for only about a year (104–103 <span>BC<\/span>), but he added a portion of Galilee to the kingdom. When he died, his widow married his brother Alexander Janneus (103–76 <span>BC<\/span>). Janneus carried on almost incessant military action during his reign, and by the time of his death had almost recovered the kingdom of Solomon.<\/p>\n<p>When Janneus died, Alexandra, widow of two kings, took the throne (76–67 <span>BC<\/span>) and her eldest son, Hyrcanus II, became high priest. Her reign was peaceful and prosperous, but when she died, her sons fell to squabbling. Their appeals to Pompey, who was campaigning in the eastern Mediterranean area, were responsible for Roman interference in the region and conquest of Palestine in 63 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRomanPeriod\">The Roman Period<\/p>\n<p>After the Romans took over Palestine, Hyrcanus II was confirmed as high priest and was also appointed as ethnarch or political ruler (63–40 <span>BC<\/span>). But Antipater, father of Herod the Great, was the real power behind the throne, and during many of those years Hyrcanus was virtually unable to function because of the confusion of the Roman civil wars. Antipater was loyal to Rome and saw that Roman policies were carried out; he won Julius Caesar’s favor toward Jews of both Palestine and in the Dispersion.<\/p>\n<p>With the support of Mark Antony, Herod managed to get himself appointed king of Judea by the Roman senate in 40 <span>BC<\/span>. But a Parthian invasion of Syria and Jewish hatred for the Romans made it possible for Antigonus II, last king of the Maccabean family, to rule for three years (40–37 <span>BC<\/span>). Finally, Herod ascended his throne in 37 and ruled until 4 <span>BC<\/span>. As an allied king, Herod proved to be an excellent ruler from the Roman point of view and earned the title of “Great.” He brought some order to regions east of the Jordan and made possible organization of the Roman province of Arabia. He also furthered the cultural plans of Augustus for development of a Greco-Roman civilization throughout the whole empire.<\/p>\n<p>Herod admired Greek culture and contributed to building projects in Rhodes, Antioch, Damascus, Athens, and elsewhere outside Palestine. Within Palestine he rebuilt Samaria and named it Sebaste in honor of Augustus (<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Sebastos<\/span> is Greek for “Augustus”) and also constructed the great port of Caesarea. Probably about as large as Manhattan Island, it became the capital of Roman Palestine. Among his many other building projects, remodeling the temple in Jerusalem was the most famous. Begun in 20 <span>BC<\/span>, it was not completed until just a few years before its destruction in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>The material splendor of Herod’s reign did not win the affection or support of the Jews, however. Nor did he achieve peace and harmony in his family, among whom there were periodic eruptions of treason, unfaithfulness, and murder. He worried about any threat to his rule and cracked down hard to destroy such threats, as is evident from his slaughter of the infants in Bethlehem after the birth of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Ultimately, Herod controlled Idumea, Judea, Samaria, Galilee, Perea, and the area northeast of the Sea of Galilee. By his last will, his son Archelaus was to rule Idumea, Judea, and Samaria; Antipas, Galilee and Perea; and Philip, the region northeast of the Sea of Galilee. Archelaus was deposed in <span>AD<\/span> 6, and his territory became a Roman province (<span>AD<\/span> 6–41) to be ruled by direct appointees of Rome. The best-known of these was Pontius Pilate (<span>AD<\/span> 26–36), who ordered the crucifixion of Jesus. Antipas was more successful and built a new capital at Tiberias, but he ran afoul of the emperor’s good pleasure in <span>AD<\/span> 39 and was deposed. Philip was the most effective of the three and ruled until his death in <span>AD<\/span> 34. Philip’s lands were later given to Herod Agrippa I in <span>AD<\/span> 37; the holdings of Antipas were then added in <span>AD<\/span> 39; and in 41 Agrippa also received Samaria, Judea, and Idumea.<\/p>\n<p>Herod Agrippa I (<span>AD<\/span> 37–44) was the heir of the Maccabees (through his grandmother Mariamne, first wife of Herod the Great), and for this reason had the support of patriotic Jews and of the Pharisees for his observance of divine ordinances. But when he built a new north wall for Jerusalem and dabbled in foreign affairs, he aroused the suspicions of the Romans; when he died in <span>AD<\/span> 44, they turned the kingdom into a Roman province.<\/p>\n<p>As is clear from the Gospels, several sects had arisen in Palestine by Roman times and were active during the first century. The Zealots opposed Roman rule and advocated armed rebellion. Herodians supported the Herodian family and Roman power. The Pharisees were fanatically devoted to the law and were supernaturalists in theological orientation. They were somewhat content to support Rome if given religious freedom, and they dominated the synagogues of the land. The Sadducees were antisupernaturalists, tended to collaborate with the ruling regime, and were dominant in the temple. Generally speaking, the literature of the intertestamental period and the popular mentality of the time tended to view the Messiah as a political deliverer who would free his people from foreign domination and set up a new independent kingdom.<\/p>\n<p>Roman prefects ruled Palestine from <span>AD<\/span> 44–66. They had a knack for offending the religious scruples of the Jews and alienating them in other ways. With Felix (<span>AD<\/span> 52–60) there began a constant tension between Jews and Romans that led to the first Jewish revolt (<span>AD<\/span> 66–70). While Paul was imprisoned in Caesarea (Acts 23:23–24:27) about <span>AD<\/span> 58–60, riots broke out there between Jews and Gentiles. Festus (<span>AD<\/span> 60–62; Acts 25) was an able administrator, but the situation was almost out of hand. After he died in office, there was virtual anarchy until his successor, Albinus, arrived (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). Totally incompetent and dishonest, Albinus was recalled in 64 and replaced by Florus (<span>AD<\/span> 64–66). Florus was even worse, resorting to open robbery and bribery until there was no safety or justice in the land. Finally, the Jews could take no more.<\/p>\n<p>The spark that ignited the fires of rebellion was an anti-Semitic act by the Hellenistic population of Caesarea in <span>AD<\/span> 66. Soon riots spread to numerous cities, and Roman garrisons were massacred in several places. But the Jews were not united, and in Jerusalem armed bands of Jews fought with each other for mastery. Vespasian was chosen to command the Roman army of some 60,000 to deal with the insurrection. He had subjugated most of Palestine by the time he was elevated to the imperial chair in <span>AD<\/span> 69 (after the death of Nero), and he left his son Titus in charge of completing the operations. In August of <span>AD<\/span> 70 the walls of Jerusalem were breached, many of the people butchered, and the city and the temple leveled. Masada held out until <span>AD<\/span> 73. Palestine had been flattened by Roman might. Loss of life and property had been incalculable and indescribable.<\/p>\n<p>On two more occasions the Jews were destined to fight disastrously against the Romans. Under Trajan’s rule a rebellion of Jews broke out in Cyrenaica in <span>AD<\/span> 115 and spread rapidly to Cyprus, Egypt, Palestine, and Mesopotamia. In the beginning it was an outgrowth of agitation between the Jews and their Hellenistic neighbors, but it developed into a challenge to Roman authority. This was particularly true after the successes of Parthia on Rome’s eastern frontier when there seemed to be some hope of success in throwing off the Roman yoke. Wherever Jews got the upper hand, they perpetrated massacres, and the non-Semitic population retaliated in kind. Trajan ruthlessly suppressed the rebels and restored order everywhere except Egypt; his successor, Hadrian, was left to accomplish that.<\/p>\n<p>But Hadrian faced a new rebellion of his own, brought on by his law forbidding circumcision (which he considered to be inhumane) and his decision in <span>AD<\/span> 130 to rebuild Jerusalem as Aelia Capitolina and erect a temple to Jupiter on the site of the temple of Yahweh. The latter would not only profane the temple site but also would preclude any rebuilding of the Jewish temple.<\/p>\n<p>Leader of this second Jewish revolt was Simeon, prince of Israel, called Bar-Kochba (“Son of the Star”). Both sides fought with such great ferocity for over three years (<span>AD<\/span> 132–135) that the population of Judea was almost exterminated. Jerusalem was rebuilt as a Roman colony, and Jews were forbidden to enter on pain of death. Even as late as the fourth century they were permitted to enter only once a year, on the anniversary of the destruction of the temple by Nebuchadnezzar. After the Bar-Kochba revolt, Judaism retreated increasingly within the citadel of the written and oral law, thus separating itself from the Gentiles.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham; Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Conquest and Allotment of the Land; David; Diaspora of the Jews; Exodus, The; First Jewish Revolt; Jew; Judaism; Moses; Patriarchs, Period of the; Saul #2; Solomon; Postexilic Period; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ISRAEL, History of<\/h3>\n<p>An account of God’s sovereign purpose in calling a people out of paganism and establishing them as witnesses for the true faith among the nations, of God’s sovereign power in protecting them from extinction, of his sovereign justice in dealing with their departure from his ways of holiness, of God’s sovereign grace in forgiving their sins and restoring them to fellowship with himself by providing through them a Savior for the entire world.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Patriarchal Age<\/p>\n<p>• Sojourn in Egypt<\/p>\n<p>• The Exodus<\/p>\n<p>• Wilderness Wanderings<\/p>\n<p>• The Conquest<\/p>\n<p>• The Judges<\/p>\n<p>• The United Monarchy<\/p>\n<p>• The Divided Kingdom<\/p>\n<p>• The Restoration<\/p>\n<p>• The Intertestamental Period<\/p>\n<p>• The Roman Period<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PatriarchalAge\">Patriarchal Age<\/p>\n<p>The story of Israel begins with Abraham, whom God called first at Ur, and perhaps later at Haran (Acts 7:2-4), to leave Mesopotamia and go into a land to which God would direct the way. In calling Abraham, God made with him a covenant (Gn 12:1-3) that promised him a land, special divine favor (“I will bless those who bless you, and the one who curses you I will curse,” <span>nasb<\/span>), and the privilege of being a channel of blessing to the entire world (“In you all the families of the earth shall be blessed,” <span>nasb<\/span>). In Genesis 12:4-8 God confirmed this unconditional covenant, promising Abraham this new land forever, along with innumerable descendants. Subsequently, in Genesis 15:1-21, God again confirmed the covenant but added the significant prediction that the guarantee of holding Canaan in perpetuity did not mean occupation of the land in every generation. God also spelled out the limits of the Promised Land (from the river of Egypt to the Euphrates, some 500 to 600 miles or 804 to 965 kilometers in extent). A final confirmation of the covenant to Abraham appears in Genesis 17:6-8. It guaranteed the land of Canaan to Abraham’s posterity and added that kings (an anticipation of the Davidic dynasty) would arise in his line. The covenant was confirmed to Abraham’s son Isaac (Gn 26:3-5) and his grandson Jacob (ch 28).<\/p>\n<p>This period is known as the patriarchal age in Hebrew history. The patriarchs were Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. They were called patriarchs because they were fathers, not only to their immediate families, but also to the extended family of Hebrews, over which they exercised a fatherly control. They served as political, legal, and spiritual heads of their migratory community, looking after their interests and leading them in worship. Periodically they built altars on which they offered sacrifices. That the patriarchal community was very large can be seen from Genesis 14:14, which says that Abraham had 318 armed men in his camp. If one assumes that most of the men were married and had one or more children each, the total extended family may have numbered in excess of 1,000.<\/p>\n<p>Additional developments in the life of Abraham and Jacob were particularly important for world history. Abraham, frustrated at not having an heir, accepted Sarah’s suggestion to obtain an heir by the slave girl Hagar. (This was also the custom of the land.) The son born was named Ishmael, progenitor of the Arabs. Thus Abraham is revered by Arabs and Muslims as well as by Jews and Christians. He is the father of the Jews through his son Isaac, child of promise. He holds a special place in Christianity as an example of Christ, through whom all Christians obtain their salvation.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob, a scheming scoundrel in his earlier years, wound up in exile in northern Mesopotamia for 20 years in the home of his uncle Laban. There he married Leah and Rachel and fathered the sons who became the progenitors of the 12 tribes of Israel. On his return to Palestine he met God along the banks of the Jabbok River (Gn 32), and God changed his name to Israel (“a prince of God,” <span>kjv<\/span> mg).<\/p>\n<p>The patriarchal period in Canaan lasted for 215 years. One estimate places Abraham’s entry into Canaan at about 2085 <span>BC<\/span>, when he was 75 years of age. Jacob and his sons migrated to Egypt to escape a severe famine in Canaan in about 1870 <span>BC<\/span>. During much of the patriarchal period, Palestine experienced a decline in population and was occupied largely by nomadic or seminomadic tribes. It was relatively easy for the Hebrews to enter such a situation. After 1900 Palestine began to enjoy more settled conditions. Shortly thereafter, the Hebrews made the trek into Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SojourninEgypt\">Sojourn in Egypt<\/p>\n<p>If Jacob and his sons entered Egypt about 1870 <span>BC<\/span>, it was the period of the Middle Kingdom. And by that time other migrants from Asia were coming in increasing numbers. The Hebrews settled in Goshen, in the eastern delta region, under the protecting care of Joseph, who held a position at the Egyptian court roughly equivalent to that of prime minister. As more and more Asiatic Hyksos came into Egypt, they began to take over the country—northern Egypt at least. During this same time the Hebrews became increasingly numerous. Some who hold to a different chronology believe the Hebrews were welcomed into Egypt during the days of Hyksos domination (after 1750 <span>BC<\/span>). At any rate, by about 1580 <span>BC<\/span> native Egyptian princes regained control of the country and expelled many of the Asiatics.<\/p>\n<p>In process of time there arose a king over Egypt who “knew not Joseph” (Ex 1:8, <span>kjv<\/span>). Very possibly this meant that a native Egyptian dynasty had arisen in Egypt and they were apprehensive over the fact that the growing numbers and wealth of the Hebrews might jeopardize their own supremacy. But Egyptian measures to subjugate the Hebrews and reduce their birthrate had a reverse effect (Ex 1:12). Finally, the Egyptians ordered the killing of all male Hebrew infants at birth. Among those who disobeyed were the parents of Moses, who set him afloat in a waterproof basket made of reeds. Found by a daughter of Pharaoh, he was brought up in the Egyptian court, was given a first-class education, and became a high official of the realm.<\/p>\n<p>At the age of 40, Moses identified himself with his own people. He killed an Egyptian in defense of a fellow Hebrew, and immediately fled to the land of Midian in the northeastern part of the Sinai Peninsula. He married and lived there for 40 years, becoming thoroughly familiar with the geography and the ways of the wilderness through which he would later lead the Hebrews. The Egyptians continued to oppress the Hebrew people severely until they cried urgently to God for deliverance. In response, God confronted Moses in the famous burning bush experience and called on him to return to Egypt and lead the people back into the land of Canaan (Ex 3–4). He was to have the help of his brother, Aaron.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheExodus\">The Exodus<\/p>\n<p>Understandably the pharaoh of Egypt was reluctant to permit the Hebrews to leave permanently. The value of this great labor force was incalculable. But finally, after suffering a series of ten plagues, lasting perhaps a year, the Egyptians were persuaded to let the Hebrews go (Ex 7–12).<\/p>\n<p>The plagues had a theological as well as a practical purpose. They discredited the gods of Egypt and exalted the most high God of heaven (Ex 12:12). The plagues clearly discredited specific gods of Egypt (e.g., the Nile was worshiped as Hapi, plague one; the frog, worshiped as Heqt, plague two; the bull, worshiped as Ptah, plague five; the sun, worshiped as Amon-Re\/Aton, plague nine). Taken together, they struck a direct blow at the Egyptian pantheon.<\/p>\n<p>Just before the last plague, which was the night in which the death angel invaded the homes of the Egyptians, the Israelites made the Passover sacrifice according to divine instructions. This involved killing a lamb for each household (unless the household was too small; in that event, households could combine). Anyone who was careless about applying the blood to the doorpost or who rejected this divine provision came under the judgment of God. After the death of the firstborn throughout the land, the Egyptians begged the Hebrews to leave. Their company numbered 600,000 men over 20 years of age, plus women and children, for a total of over 2,500,000. In addition they took their flocks and herds and personal belongings.<\/p>\n<p>The date they left Egypt is a matter of continuing debate. Traditionally a date of about 1446 <span>BC<\/span> is given for the exodus (cf. 1 Kgs 6:1, which places the exodus 480 years before construction of the temple started in 966 <span>BC<\/span>) and 1406 <span>BC<\/span> for the Conquest under Joshua, and there do not seem to be any compelling arguments for rejecting that position. But a great many scholars prefer 1275 <span>BC<\/span> for a variety of reasons.<\/p>\n<p>The early date of the exodus would place the later years of the wilderness wanderings and the subsequent conquest of Palestine during the reigns of Amenhotep III and IV (1412–1366), a time when the pharaohs allowed Egyptian control of Palestine to disintegrate. When the Egyptians did reassert their power, about 1300, they restricted their movements largely to the coastal area, and thus did not come in contact with the Hebrews who were living in the hill country of Judea, Samaria, and Galilee.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WildernessWanderings\">Wilderness Wanderings<\/p>\n<p>The wilderness wanderings were an important interlude in the history of Israel. During those years, significant and basic institutions came into existence at God’s command. At Sinai, Moses delivered to Israel the law, the pattern of the tabernacle (which later became the model for the temple) and orders for its operation, as well as detailed instructions for the priesthood and sacrificial system of worship.<\/p>\n<p>The period of the wanderings was truly a remarkable time. The presence of God was evidenced by a pillar of cloud that hovered over the people by day and a pillar of fire by night. God provided food in the form of manna, periodically provided water by miraculous means, and made sure that clothes did not wear out. In spite of all that, the people murmured and complained continually.<\/p>\n<p>At Sinai, God gave the law (Ex 19:2–24:18), and the people promptly made a commitment to keep it (24:3). Then God gave the pattern for the tabernacle and its furniture (chs 25–27, 30–31, 35–40) and established the priesthood (chs 28–29). While Moses was on the mountain receiving God’s revelation, the people grew restless and clamored for gods they could see. Even Aaron was carried away with the idolatrous wave and supervised the casting of a golden calf and building of an altar before it. The fact that they turned to Egyptian cattle worship so readily indicates that paganism must have made deep inroads among them while in captivity (chs 32–34). Moses’ intercessory response to God’s announcement that he would destroy Israel because of her idolatry led to a divine determination to execute judgment on only the worst offenders (32:9-14).<\/p>\n<p>Subsequently, God revealed the legal and priestly order (Lv 1:1–27:34). Among the divinely appointed institutions described or alluded to in Leviticus are several special days or feasts, including the Sabbath, Passover, Feast of Unleavened Bread, Firstfruits, Pentecost or Feast of Weeks, Feast of Trumpets, Day of Atonement, Feast of Tabernacles, the Year of Sabbath, and the Year of Jubilee.<\/p>\n<p>After camping at Sinai for about a year, the Israelites got their orders to go forward (Nm 10:11-12). Miriam (Moses’ sister) and Aaron criticized Moses’ leadership and suffered divine punishment as a consequence (ch 12). When the people arrived at Kadesh-barnea, the gate to southern Palestine, they were frightened by the report of most of the spies who had been reconnoitering in Canaan and decided that they should not advance into Canaan. They called for a new leader to bring them back to Egypt. God declared that the entire generation would wander in the wilderness until the adults had died. Only Joshua and Caleb (the two spies in favor of invading immediately) would enter the Promised Land (14:26-30). Near the end of the period of wandering, Moses also lost the privilege of entering the land by an act of disobedience.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheConquest\">The Conquest<\/p>\n<p>The latter part of the book of Numbers describes how Moses led the Israelites to victory over the peoples living east of the Jordan River. Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh requested permission to settle there and reluctantly were allowed to do so on the condition that they would join the rest of the Israelites in conquering Canaan before settling down. Prior to victories in Transjordan, a new census of adult males was taken in order to determine the military capabilities of Israel and to provide a basis for equitable division of the land they were about to enter. The number of males above 20 years of age was 601,730 (Nm 26:51). The book of Deuteronomy consists primarily of a series of speeches delivered by Moses in a covenant renewal ceremony on the plains of Moab just before his death and the appointment of Joshua as leader.<\/p>\n<p>Joshua lost no time in moving forward. Spies sent across the Jordan to Jericho to reconnoiter reported a situation quite different from what the Hebrews had experienced at Kadesh-barnea a generation earlier. Now the people of Canaan were terrified because they had heard of the numerical strength and victories of the Hebrews. Apparently the day after the spies returned, Joshua moved the people to the edge of the Jordan and prepared to cross over. The waters parted for them here as the Red Sea had parted earlier.<\/p>\n<p>The narrative of conquest that appears in the book of Joshua is not a detailed battle account. It describes a thrust into the middle of Palestine around Jericho and Ai, a southerly drive to defeat the Amorite league, and a northern campaign against Hazor and other towns. The history of Joshua is extremely telescoped, for Joshua’s major military action must have required about six years. Joshua’s friend Caleb was 79 when the Conquest began and 85 after the last great battle with Jabin, king of Hazor (Jos 14:7-10).<\/p>\n<p>When the war was over, major strongholds (e.g., Jerusalem) still remained in enemy hands, but the land west of the Jordan was allocated to the nine and a half Hebrew tribes. The task of reducing enemy towns was left to the individual tribes in whose land they were located. The Joshua account was not so much a narrative of Israelite battle prowess as of God’s faithfulness and intervention on behalf of his people. For example, at Jericho they did not attack but merely followed divine orders and watched the defenses collapse; at Gibeon hailstones killed more Amorites than Israelite soldiers did (Jos 10:7-11).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheJudges\">The Judges<\/p>\n<p>Joshua died some 30 years after he had led the Hebrews into Canaan, and he was followed by a series of divinely appointed leaders who ruled sometimes over the whole of Israel as a loose confederacy and sometimes over one or more tribes. They were judges, civil functionaries, and military leaders all at the same time.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Judges pictures a series of recurring cycles: apostasy from God, punishment in the form of oppression by neighboring tribes, cries to God for relief, release from bondage under the leadership of a judge, and a period of rest from oppression.<\/p>\n<p>Establishment of the chronology of the judges is one of the thorniest problems of Scripture. Adding up all years of oppression and rest mentioned in the book gives a total of 410. The book of Acts gives a total of 450 years from the days of Joshua to Samuel (Acts 13:19). The difference in Acts may be accounted for by the addition of 40 years of Eli’s ministry (1 Sm 4:18). Allowing 410 years for the period of the judges, about 30 for the Conquest to the judges, and 40 for the wilderness wanderings, means 480 years from 1050 <span>BC<\/span>, the date for Saul’s kingship, and would give a date of about 1530 for the exodus. This is about 100 years more than even the early date for the exodus. The most probable explanation is that there is some overlap in oppressions and judgeships. For instance, the activities of Jephthah were centered on the eastern frontier, those of Samson in the Philistine plain to the southwest, and those of Deborah and Barak in the north.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheUnitedMonarchy\">The United Monarchy<\/p>\n<p>Because of the weakness of Israel resulting from political disunity and the ineptness and corruption of both Eli’s and Samuel’s sons, the people of Israel called for a king to rule over them. This demand was in reality a rejection of the divine plan of theocracy—the rule of God. God granted the Hebrews’ wish but warned them of the disadvantages of monarchy (1 Sm 8:9-21). The concept of kingship was not new to Israel. It had been hinted at in Genesis 49:10 and Numbers 24:17, and Moses had made some very clear statements about it in Deuteronomy 17:14-20.<\/p>\n<p>The first stage of Hebrew monarchy is commonly called the united monarchy because all Israel was ruled by a single king. This period lasted for 120 years—encompassing the 40-year reigns of Saul (Acts 13:21), David (2 Sm 5:5), and Solomon (1 Kgs 11:42).<\/p>\n<p>The people asked for a king, and God granted them one, but not one like those of the surrounding nations. The Hebrew king was to be a man who followed God’s dictates in his public and private life, who did not intrude into the affairs of the priesthood, and who did not fall into idolatry, but exerted all his influence to keep the people faithful to God. If he failed in any of these respects, he ran the risk of being deposed by God, of having his line brought to an end, or even of having the people fall into captivity to a foreign power. All this must be kept in mind when evaluating the reigns of Saul, David, Solomon, and the kings of the divided monarchy.<\/p>\n<p>Saul began well. He won a great victory over the Ammonites at Jabesh-gilead and showed considerable wisdom in administrative matters. But after about two years he intruded into the priest’s office to offer sacrifice, bringing the divine prediction that his kingdom would be taken from him (1 Sm 13:8-14). He would go on to enjoy great military victory and ability as a ruler until about the middle of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>After Saul’s disobedience to God’s command to totally destroy the Amalekites, the Lord repudiated Saul and instructed Samuel to anoint David privately as future king of Israel. David’s rise to prominence was spurred by his victory over Goliath and the accompanying defeat of the Philistines. Saul later made David commander of the army, and the young man soon earned a reputation greater than that of the king himself. Saul, who had become increasingly mentally disturbed after his relationship with God was broken, began to make attempts on David’s life, and for the last years of Saul’s reign David lived as a fugitive. Meanwhile, the Philistines got completely out of control and finally killed Saul and most of his sons in the great battle of Mt Gilboa, which gave the Philistines control over much of Palestine west of the Jordan (1 Sm 31:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>Soon David became king in Judah with his capital in Hebron. A son of Saul, Ishbosheth, established himself at Mahanaim, east of the Jordan. For seven years the two tiny kingdoms existed side by side (2 Sm 2:2-11). But after the Israelite king and his army commander were assassinated, David became ruler of a united Hebrew kingdom.<\/p>\n<p>Not long after the beginning of his reign (1010–970 <span>BC<\/span>) David completely defeated and subjugated the Philistines. Soon thereafter he captured Jerusalem, making it the capital of the united kingdom. During succeeding years, David built up an empire (2 Sm 8:10; 1 Chr 18–19), conquering Moab, Edom, Damascus, Zobah, and Ammon, so he controlled territory from the Gulf of Aqaba (a branch of the Red Sea) and the Sinai in the south almost to the Euphrates in the north. Moreover, he established good relations, if not an alliance, with Tyre. The establishment of David’s empire was possible because of a power vacuum in the Middle East. The Egyptians, Mycenaeans, Hittites, and Assyrians were either decadent or removed from the stage of history. The Phoenicians, a peaceful commercial people, were also free to expand their trade, and they were happy to sell cedar to David for his palace and the temple.<\/p>\n<p>Without doubt, David was Israel’s greatest king. Jerusalem came to be known as the city of David. When the king wanted to build the temple as God’s house, God replied that his son should do it instead. But God would in a very real sense build David’s house; he made a covenant with David, promising him that his house (dynasty, kingdom, throne) would be established forever (2 Sm 7). Christ, the infinite One who came from the line of David, alone was capable of fulfilling this divine promise (see Lk 1:31-33; Acts 2:29-36; 13:32-39; 15:14-17).<\/p>\n<p>Like other Oriental monarchs, David fell into the practice of keeping a harem. Scripture names 8 wives and 21 children and refers to other wives and concubines. Such a situation opened the door to family rivalries and questions about succession to the throne. Two sons, Absalom and Adonijah, made a try for the throne, but both efforts were squelched. Solomon, son of David’s favorite wife, Bathsheba, became the next king.<\/p>\n<p>Solomon (970–930 <span>BC<\/span>) was a man of peace and a builder of palaces, cities, fortifications, and the temple. He fortified cities all over his realm and outfitted cities for his chariot corps and cavalry units. With the help of the Phoenicians, he built a seaport and kept a fleet at Ezion-geber, near modern Eilat on the Gulf of Aqaba. He greatly enlarged Jerusalem by enclosing the temple area to the north of David’s city and the southwestern hill now known as Zion. His best-known project was the temple, which took seven years to build. Twice the size of the tabernacle, it was built on the same basic plan; it measured 90 feet (27.4 meters) long and 30 feet (9.1 meters) wide and had magnificent appointments. But he also constructed a palace complex that took 13 years to complete. This included an armory, a throne room, the king’s private residence, and a house for the daughter of pharaoh.<\/p>\n<p>Apparently much influenced by the spiritual testimony of David and desiring God’s blessing on his rule, Solomon made a great sacrifice to God at Gibeon near the beginning of his reign. God met him there and offered to grant whatever he might request. Solomon asked for understanding and wisdom to govern God’s people (1 Kgs 3:9). His God-given wisdom is apparent in many administrative decisions and official policies and building plans.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, Solomon did not show such wisdom in maintaining a harem of 700 wives and 300 concubines or in excessive expenditures that left the state in serious financial straits. He even erected places of worship for his foreign wives, thus subsidizing their idolatries and incurring the wrath of God. In fact, foreign wives and their idolatry proved to be his downfall; before Solomon died, God informed him that for this reason he would divide the kingdom at his death and give most of it to someone other than Solomon’s son. But for David’s sake, God would keep Judah and Jerusalem in the hands of the Davidic line (1 Kgs 11:9-13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheDividedKingdom\">The Divided Kingdom<\/p>\n<p>After the death of Solomon, the Near East was destined to become a very different place. Israel was no longer in a power vacuum. The Assyrian Empire rose in Mesopotamia, to be followed by the Neo-Babylonian and the Medo-Persian Empires in turn. Egypt was temporarily powerful in the south, but it would later come under control of Assyria and Medo-Persia. These empires exerted great pressure on Israel and dominated one or both of the two Hebrew kingdoms.<\/p>\n\n<p>When Solomon died, his son Rehoboam took the throne and was forced to deal with a rising tide of resentment over the high taxes and economic stagnation of Solomon’s last years. When Rehoboam refused to give relief, all the northern tribes broke away and formed the northern kingdom, Israel, under the leadership of Jeroboam. The southern kingdom, Judah, was left with only the territory of Judah and Benjamin. A total of 20 kings ruled in each of the separate kingdoms. While the north had several dynasties and the reigns of kings were generally short, in the south the dynasty of David continued to rule and the reigns were longer.<\/p>\n<h5>The Northern Kingdom<\/h5>\n<p>The northern kingdom lasted from the division in 930 <span>BC<\/span> until its conquest by Assyria in 722. Jeroboam, fearing that he would lose the loyalty of the people if they continued to go to Jerusalem to worship, set up a new religion of his own. Instituting calf worship, he built shrines at Dan in the north and Bethel in the south. This idolatry drew the condemnation of God and fulfilled the prediction that Jeroboam’s line would be wiped out. All his successors are said to have followed in his idolatrous steps. Israel found itself at war during much of its history—with Judah, Syria, or Assyria. Jeroboam established his capital first at Shechem and later at Tirzah.<\/p>\n<p>Four other kings of the north require special comment: Omri, Ahab, Jehu, and Jeroboam II. Omri (885–874 <span>BC<\/span>) must have been an impressive ruler. Generations later, Assyrians still spoke of Israel as the land of Omri. After he had established himself on the throne, he located the permanent capital of the kingdom at Samaria and began the palace complex there. Early in his reign he was successful in conquering Moab, and later he reestablished the good relations with Tyre that existed in the days of David and Solomon. Apparently he established a full alliance and cemented it with the marriage of his son Ahab to Jezebel, a princess of Tyre.<\/p>\n<p>Ahab (874–853 <span>BC<\/span>) was one of the most significant of Israel’s kings. He and his wife, Jezebel, promoted the vile idolatry of Baal worship with its religious prostitution, arousing the powerful opposition of the prophet Elijah. Ahab was a formidable military man, defeating the Syrians in major campaigns and participating in a coalition that fought the Assyrians to a virtual standstill. He also built extensively at Samaria, Hazor, Megiddo, and other towns, as excavations show.<\/p>\n<p>Jehu (841–814 <span>BC<\/span>) was God’s agent for punishing the house of Omri and destroying Baal worship in Israel. He did eradicate Baal worship and liquidated literally scores of relatives and court officials of Ahab. But he was so ruthless that he killed off the people who knew how to run the government; subsequently, it did not work well. Jehu also was forced to become a vassal to Assyria.<\/p>\n<p>Jeroboam II ruled during most of the first half of the eighth century (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) and brought the kingdom to its greatest extent and prosperity. He, with his contemporary Uzziah in the south, ruled most of the land David had once controlled. This was possible because the Assyrians were in a period of decline during most of the first half of the century.<\/p>\n<p>Prophets who were active during the history of the northern kingdom include the nonwriting prophets Elijah and Elisha and the writing prophets Jonah, Amos, and Hosea.<\/p>\n<h5>The Southern Kingdom<\/h5>\n<p>The history of the southern kingdom of Judah was quite different from that of the northern kingdom. The temple was there and so were large numbers of Levites, many of whom came south after the division of the kingdom to protest the idolatry of the north. In addition to this spiritual strength, there was greater political stability and unity, promoted by the fact that only two tribes—Judah and Benjamin—shared power, and all the kings were of the Davidic dynasty. Moreover, eight of the kings were good monarchs. There were also periodic religious revivals. God granted the southern kingdom about 100 more years of existence than the north. But Judah, too, fell into idolatry and went into captivity for her sins.<\/p>\n<p>Rehoboam, the first king in the south, is especially remembered because he refused to listen to wise counsel about fiscal matters and perpetrated the division of the kingdom. He is also remembered for his religious policies. After a good beginning, he allowed apostasy to get out of control and brought the judgment of God in the form of an invasion in his fifth year (926 <span>BC<\/span>) by Shishak I of Egypt, resulting in extensive plunder and payment of tribute. Thereafter, he launched an extensive program to fortify the realm. Shishak’s invasion did have the effect of producing a partial and temporary spiritual reform, but the general trend of Rehoboam’s reign was downward.<\/p>\n<p>Conditions during the reign of his son, Abijam, were worse, but Asa (910–869 <span>BC<\/span>) initiated a religious reform that was effective for most of his reign. When threatened by the northern kingdom during his latter years, however, Asa turned to Syria for help instead of to God, and he seems to have defied the prophets of God to his dying day.<\/p>\n<p>Asa’s son Jehoshaphat (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>) was apparently influenced by his father’s early religious devotion, and his reign was characterized by faithfulness, winning the favor of God. However, he seems to have made a full alliance with Ahab of Israel, which resulted in the marriage of his son Jehoram to Ahab’s daughter Athaliah. This alliance involved Jehoshaphat in almost ruinous joint ventures with Ahab, and later with two of his sons when they became kings of Israel. It also opened the door for the introduction of Baal worship into Judah when Jehoram came to the throne in the southern kingdom. For his sin Jehoram (853–841 <span>BC<\/span>) suffered internal revolt, invasion, and death from a horrible disease.<\/p>\n<p>After his death, his last remaining son, Ahaziah, ruled less than a year, following the wicked ways of his father. When Ahaziah died in battle, the queen mother, Athaliah, decided to seize the throne for herself and to secure her power by killing off all those in line to the throne. But she missed Ahaziah’s infant son Joash, who was kept hidden in the temple for six years.<\/p>\n<p>When Joash was seven, Jehoiada the high priest arranged his coronation and also the execution of the murderous and idolatrous Athaliah. During his early years when Joash was influenced by good counsel, he did well. But after the middle of his reign (835–796 <span>BC<\/span>), he began to listen to the princes who wanted to restore idolatry, and conditions deteriorated. Military reversals brought on economic decline and ultimately the king’s assassination.<\/p>\n<p>His son Amaziah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>) started well with victory over Edom and faithfulness to God. But he, too, fell into idolatry and was totally defeated by the northern kingdom, being held prisoner there. At that point his son Uzziah took over (c. 792 <span>BC<\/span>) and began a long and generally successful reign. During the several decades that followed, Assyria was in decline, and Uzziah and his contemporary in the north, Jeroboam II, were able to expand Hebrew holdings so that between them they controlled most of the territory Solomon had ruled.<\/p>\n<p>Uzziah (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to restore the power of Judah rather quickly after his father’s defeat by Israel. Then he subjugated the Philistines in the southwest and the Ammonites across the Jordan; he strengthened his hold on the Edomites. All during his reign economic conditions improved. But at the height of his power Uzziah foolishly violated the high priest’s prerogatives and offered sacrifice in the temple. For this he was smitten with leprosy; his son Jotham was co-regent during the years 750–740 <span>BC<\/span>, going on to rule alone for about five more years. Meanwhile, Assyrian power became resurgent.<\/p>\n<p>By and large, Jotham merely carried on the policies of Uzziah. But the administration of his son Ahaz (735–715 <span>BC<\/span>) was very much affected by the Assyrian threat. Israel and Syria wanted him to join in war against Assyria, but he refused, being pro-Assyrian in sympathy. When Israel and Syria invaded Judah, King Ahaz sent tribute to Assyria and became her vassal in return for protection. This rash course of action was vainly opposed by Isaiah, who was prophet at court (c. 740–700 <span>BC<\/span>). Contemporaneously, the prophet Micah ministered to the common people of Judah. The pro-Assyrian policy of Ahaz was accompanied by a renewed sympathy for idolatry, and this brought the judgment of God in the form of invasion by Edomites and Philistines and trouble with Assyria. In fact, during this period, Assyria had annexed the northern kingdom (722 <span>BC<\/span>) and removed many of her people into captivity.<\/p>\n<p>The next king of Judah, Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>), was greatly sobered by the fall of Israel because of her sins, and he determined to launch a reform in his realm. He was anti-Assyrian too, but he did not dare to discontinue tribute payments and strike for independence until after Sennacherib came to the throne in Nineveh in 705 <span>BC<\/span>. At first Sennacherib was too preoccupied to attend to Judah, but finally in 701 he invaded. Despite tremendous initial success, he was stopped by a divinely sent plague (Is 36–39). Isaiah stood by the king to reassure and sustain him during this emergency.<\/p>\n<p>Hezekiah’s son Manasseh (697–642 <span>BC<\/span>) ruled longer than any other king of Israel or Judah. Unfortunately, he turned his back on his father’s example and caused the people to fall into gross idolatry (2 Kgs 21:9). Carried away captive by the Assyrians late in his reign, he repented of his evil and God restored him to his throne; thereafter, he led some reforms. But the land was too steeped in iniquity to be rescued. His son Amon (642–640 <span>BC<\/span>) reverted to the idolatry he knew in his youth.<\/p>\n<p>The situation was different with Josiah (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>), however. Throughout his reign he dedicated himself to reform. He sought to root out idolatry and to restore the temple and its worship. In 622 <span>BC<\/span> the Book of the Law was found during repair of the temple, and its demands—which had been forgotten—made a great impression on king and people alike. It is certain that Jeremiah and Zephaniah ministered during Josiah’s reign, as did Nahum and Habakkuk (in all probability).<\/p>\n<p>International conditions were now changing rapidly. Assyria was declining, and Nineveh fell to Babylon and the Medes in 612 <span>BC<\/span>. Three years later Pharaoh Neco of Egypt marched north to aid his Assyrian ally. When Josiah tried to stop him, he was killed in battle.<\/p>\n<p>From this point everything was downhill for Judah. None of the rest of the kings was devout, and political power and economic health rapidly declined. The people put one of Josiah’s sons, Jehoahaz, on the throne. He lasted three months. Pharaoh Neco replaced him with Jehoiakim (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>), another son of Josiah. In 605 Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon defeated Neco, invaded Judah, and took tribute and hostages from Jehoiakim, including Daniel and his friends (Dn 1:1). Jehoiakim revolted in 600 <span>BC<\/span>, but Nebuchadnezzar did not come to deal with him personally until 597 <span>BC<\/span>. He died before the Babylonians arrived, and his son Jehoiachin came to the throne in 598 <span>BC<\/span> to rule for only three months before the Babylonians carried him away into exile. Ezekiel was among the many captives taken on that occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The Babylonians then put Zedekiah, youngest son of Josiah, on the throne in 597 <span>BC<\/span>. When he rebelled, Nebuchadnezzar laid siege to Jerusalem and took the city (587 <span>BC<\/span>), destroying it and the temple and carrying off large numbers of people. The judgment of God had finally fallen on the Jews for their idolatrous ways.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRestoration\">The Restoration<\/p>\n<p>In judgment God remembered mercy. This is evident in individual lives, when faithful ones like Daniel, Esther, or Nehemiah rose to a position of importance in political life, or as numerous other persons became prosperous in the foreign environment. It is evident on the community level as God moved to protect Hebrew enclaves scattered abroad and to restore an organized society in Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>Among the exiles, Judaism as a way of life separated from its own political system or cultic center and began to emerge. Jews finally turned their backs on idolatry. And without a temple, priesthood, king, or land, they turned to the divine Scriptures as their rallying point and the foundation of their community. During this period they developed the synagogue as a place for fellowship, prayer, and study.<\/p>\n<p>God’s restoration of an organized community to Palestine involved particularly the fortunes of his “anointed” Cyrus (Is 44:28; 45:1). Cyrus was a Persian prince who in 559 <span>BC<\/span> revolted against the dominant dynasty controlling the Median Empire. After consolidating his hold on the throne, he proceeded to conquer Asia Minor and the Chaldean or Neo-Babylonian Empire. As a humane man and a wise administrator, he permitted the captive peoples to return to their homes and rebuild their communities. Cyrus’s decree to the Jews appears in Ezra 1 and dates probably to 538 <span>BC<\/span>. A total of almost 50,000 went back to Judah as a result of this edict (Ezr 2:64-65).<\/p>\n<p>Under the stresses and strains of reestablishment, the people built their houses but got no further than laying the foundation of a new temple. Finally, the prophets Haggai and Zechariah stirred the people to build the house of God (Ezr 5:1). They began in the second year of Darius I, the Great (520 <span>BC<\/span>; Hg 1:1; Zec 1:1), and completed the work in his sixth year (515 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 6:15).<\/p>\n<p>During the reign of Darius’s son Xerxes (486–465 <span>BC<\/span>), a plot was hatched to exterminate all the Jews in the Persian Empire, which at that time controlled the lands where Jews lived. Fortunately, Xerxes (Ahasuerus in the book of Esther), in his third year (483 <span>BC<\/span>; Est 1:3), went searching for a new queen and chose Esther, who managed to preserve her people.<\/p>\n<p>Xerxes’ son Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>) also figured significantly in Jewish history. In his seventh year (458 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 7:7), under the leadership of Ezra, a second contingent of Jews returned to Jerusalem. And in Artaxerxes’ 20th year (445 <span>BC<\/span>; Neh 2:1), Nehemiah went to Jerusalem to supervise the rebuilding of the walls of the city. Malachi probably wrote his prophecy to the Jews in Jerusalem during the latter part of Artaxerxes’ reign.<\/p>\n<p>After the fall of Samaria and the captivity of Judah, the Hebrews remaining in the land intermarried with various pagan groups in the area. Their offspring became the Samaritans, a religious and racial admixture. These people had moved into the vacuum left by the destruction of Judah, and naturally they looked with disfavor on an intrusion of Babylonian Jews into an area they had come to call their own. They did all they could to frustrate the efforts of Nehemiah to rebuild the walls. It took all the courage, tact, energy, and persuasiveness Ezra and Nehemiah could muster to prevent the returning Jews from intermarrying with racially mixed people of the land. Such intermarriage would have meant the ultimate absorption and destruction of the Jewish people.<\/p>\n<p>A Samaritan temple was later built on Mt Gerizim (probably during the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>), and it became the center of the Samaritan worship. The hostility between Samaritans and Jews continued on into the NT period (Jn 4) and exists to the present.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheIntertestamentalPeriod\">The Intertestamental Period<\/p>\n<p>Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire with lightning speed. When the people of Jerusalem threw open their gates in 332 <span>BC<\/span> and capitulated without a fight, Alexander treated them well. After his death in 323 <span>BC<\/span>, Palestine passed back and forth among his successors until Ptolemy I of Egypt managed to establish control in 301 <span>BC<\/span>. Thereafter the area remained in Egyptian hands until 198 <span>BC<\/span>. The Ptolemies were tolerant and granted the Jews considerable autonomy, allowing them to develop their unique culture undisturbed as long as they paid their taxes and remained submissive. Many Jews settled in Alexandria and gradually forgot their Hebrew in the Hellenistic environment. As a result, a translation of the OT into Greek (the Septuagint) was produced there. While the Ptolemies did not force Hellenism on the Jews of either Alexandria or Palestine, many were influenced by Hellenistic ideas.<\/p>\n<p>When Ptolemy V came to the throne as a minor in 203 <span>BC<\/span>, Antiochus III of Syria took advantage of the weakened Egypt and conquered Palestine (198 <span>BC<\/span>). Apparently the Jews hoped to gain something from the change and welcomed the Syrians. But their hope was ill-founded. Antiochus III suffered disastrous defeat at the hands of Rome at Magnesia in 190 <span>BC<\/span>. Syria not only lost much territory but also was forced to pay a huge indemnity. Thereafter, the Jews suffered under great financial burdens, along with other peoples of the empire. The next Syrian king, Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175–164 <span>BC<\/span>), decided to launch an effort to achieve greater internal strength and unity within the empire by forcing, among other things, a greater acceptance of Greek culture and the cult of the divine ruler. Naturally this idolatrous requirement weighed heavily on the monotheistic Jews and incited revolution.<\/p>\n<p>But this does not completely explain the Maccabean revolt against Syria. In 168 <span>BC<\/span> armed conflict broke out between Jewish factions in Jerusalem. Antiochus IV chose to interpret this as open rebellion and sent an army against the city. His forces demolished part of the city wall and many houses. After this Antiochus decided to suppress Judaism completely, and he dedicated the temple to Zeus and sacrificed swine on the altar. Circumcision, Sabbath observance, and other religious festivals were no longer permitted, and public worship of heathen gods became compulsory.<\/p>\n<p>Some Jews capitulated to Antiochus’s orders or only resisted passively, but a few decided to resist openly. Chief among them were Mattathias and his five sons. After the early death of Mattathias, his son Judas Maccabeus led his forces to victory over the Syrians, regaining the right to restore Jewish worship. The rededication of the temple on December 25, 164 <span>BC<\/span>, inaugurated the Festival of Hanukkah (1 Macc 4:36-59). Subsequently, Jonathan and Simon (other sons of Mattathias) continued the struggle until independence was gained in 142 <span>BC<\/span>; this was possible in large part because they saw how to take advantage of the increasing weakness of Syrian rulers and the competition for the royal office.<\/p>\n<p>Simon ruled the Jewish state until his assassination in 134 <span>BC<\/span>, when his son John Hyrcanus (134–104 <span>BC<\/span>) took over. John Hyrcanus fought successfully in the east, north, and south, gaining land in Transjordan, capturing Shechem and the Samaritan temple on Mt Gerizim, and subjugating the Idumeans in the south, forcing them to adopt Judaism. His son Aristobulus ruled for only about a year (104–103 <span>BC<\/span>), but he added a portion of Galilee to the kingdom. When he died, his widow married his brother Alexander Janneus (103–76 <span>BC<\/span>). Janneus carried on almost incessant military action during his reign, and by the time of his death had almost recovered the kingdom of Solomon.<\/p>\n<p>When Janneus died, Alexandra, widow of two kings, took the throne (76–67 <span>BC<\/span>) and her eldest son, Hyrcanus II, became high priest. Her reign was peaceful and prosperous, but when she died, her sons fell to squabbling. Their appeals to Pompey, who was campaigning in the eastern Mediterranean area, were responsible for Roman interference in the region and conquest of Palestine in 63 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRomanPeriod\">The Roman Period<\/p>\n<p>After the Romans took over Palestine, Hyrcanus II was confirmed as high priest and was also appointed as ethnarch or political ruler (63–40 <span>BC<\/span>). But Antipater, father of Herod the Great, was the real power behind the throne, and during many of those years Hyrcanus was virtually unable to function because of the confusion of the Roman civil wars. Antipater was loyal to Rome and saw that Roman policies were carried out; he won Julius Caesar’s favor toward Jews of both Palestine and in the Dispersion.<\/p>\n<p>With the support of Mark Antony, Herod managed to get himself appointed king of Judea by the Roman senate in 40 <span>BC<\/span>. But a Parthian invasion of Syria and Jewish hatred for the Romans made it possible for Antigonus II, last king of the Maccabean family, to rule for three years (40–37 <span>BC<\/span>). Finally, Herod ascended his throne in 37 and ruled until 4 <span>BC<\/span>. As an allied king, Herod proved to be an excellent ruler from the Roman point of view and earned the title of “Great.” He brought some order to regions east of the Jordan and made possible organization of the Roman province of Arabia. He also furthered the cultural plans of Augustus for development of a Greco-Roman civilization throughout the whole empire.<\/p>\n<p>Herod admired Greek culture and contributed to building projects in Rhodes, Antioch, Damascus, Athens, and elsewhere outside Palestine. Within Palestine he rebuilt Samaria and named it Sebaste in honor of Augustus (<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Sebastos<\/span> is Greek for “Augustus”) and also constructed the great port of Caesarea. Probably about as large as Manhattan Island, it became the capital of Roman Palestine. Among his many other building projects, remodeling the temple in Jerusalem was the most famous. Begun in 20 <span>BC<\/span>, it was not completed until just a few years before its destruction in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>The material splendor of Herod’s reign did not win the affection or support of the Jews, however. Nor did he achieve peace and harmony in his family, among whom there were periodic eruptions of treason, unfaithfulness, and murder. He worried about any threat to his rule and cracked down hard to destroy such threats, as is evident from his slaughter of the infants in Bethlehem after the birth of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Ultimately, Herod controlled Idumea, Judea, Samaria, Galilee, Perea, and the area northeast of the Sea of Galilee. By his last will, his son Archelaus was to rule Idumea, Judea, and Samaria; Antipas, Galilee and Perea; and Philip, the region northeast of the Sea of Galilee. Archelaus was deposed in <span>AD<\/span> 6, and his territory became a Roman province (<span>AD<\/span> 6–41) to be ruled by direct appointees of Rome. The best-known of these was Pontius Pilate (<span>AD<\/span> 26–36), who ordered the crucifixion of Jesus. Antipas was more successful and built a new capital at Tiberias, but he ran afoul of the emperor’s good pleasure in <span>AD<\/span> 39 and was deposed. Philip was the most effective of the three and ruled until his death in <span>AD<\/span> 34. Philip’s lands were later given to Herod Agrippa I in <span>AD<\/span> 37; the holdings of Antipas were then added in <span>AD<\/span> 39; and in 41 Agrippa also received Samaria, Judea, and Idumea.<\/p>\n<p>Herod Agrippa I (<span>AD<\/span> 37–44) was the heir of the Maccabees (through his grandmother Mariamne, first wife of Herod the Great), and for this reason had the support of patriotic Jews and of the Pharisees for his observance of divine ordinances. But when he built a new north wall for Jerusalem and dabbled in foreign affairs, he aroused the suspicions of the Romans; when he died in <span>AD<\/span> 44, they turned the kingdom into a Roman province.<\/p>\n<p>As is clear from the Gospels, several sects had arisen in Palestine by Roman times and were active during the first century. The Zealots opposed Roman rule and advocated armed rebellion. Herodians supported the Herodian family and Roman power. The Pharisees were fanatically devoted to the law and were supernaturalists in theological orientation. They were somewhat content to support Rome if given religious freedom, and they dominated the synagogues of the land. The Sadducees were antisupernaturalists, tended to collaborate with the ruling regime, and were dominant in the temple. Generally speaking, the literature of the intertestamental period and the popular mentality of the time tended to view the Messiah as a political deliverer who would free his people from foreign domination and set up a new independent kingdom.<\/p>\n<p>Roman prefects ruled Palestine from <span>AD<\/span> 44–66. They had a knack for offending the religious scruples of the Jews and alienating them in other ways. With Felix (<span>AD<\/span> 52–60) there began a constant tension between Jews and Romans that led to the first Jewish revolt (<span>AD<\/span> 66–70). While Paul was imprisoned in Caesarea (Acts 23:23–24:27) about <span>AD<\/span> 58–60, riots broke out there between Jews and Gentiles. Festus (<span>AD<\/span> 60–62; Acts 25) was an able administrator, but the situation was almost out of hand. After he died in office, there was virtual anarchy until his successor, Albinus, arrived (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). Totally incompetent and dishonest, Albinus was recalled in 64 and replaced by Florus (<span>AD<\/span> 64–66). Florus was even worse, resorting to open robbery and bribery until there was no safety or justice in the land. Finally, the Jews could take no more.<\/p>\n<p>The spark that ignited the fires of rebellion was an anti-Semitic act by the Hellenistic population of Caesarea in <span>AD<\/span> 66. Soon riots spread to numerous cities, and Roman garrisons were massacred in several places. But the Jews were not united, and in Jerusalem armed bands of Jews fought with each other for mastery. Vespasian was chosen to command the Roman army of some 60,000 to deal with the insurrection. He had subjugated most of Palestine by the time he was elevated to the imperial chair in <span>AD<\/span> 69 (after the death of Nero), and he left his son Titus in charge of completing the operations. In August of <span>AD<\/span> 70 the walls of Jerusalem were breached, many of the people butchered, and the city and the temple leveled. Masada held out until <span>AD<\/span> 73. Palestine had been flattened by Roman might. Loss of life and property had been incalculable and indescribable.<\/p>\n<p>On two more occasions the Jews were destined to fight disastrously against the Romans. Under Trajan’s rule a rebellion of Jews broke out in Cyrenaica in <span>AD<\/span> 115 and spread rapidly to Cyprus, Egypt, Palestine, and Mesopotamia. In the beginning it was an outgrowth of agitation between the Jews and their Hellenistic neighbors, but it developed into a challenge to Roman authority. This was particularly true after the successes of Parthia on Rome’s eastern frontier when there seemed to be some hope of success in throwing off the Roman yoke. Wherever Jews got the upper hand, they perpetrated massacres, and the non-Semitic population retaliated in kind. Trajan ruthlessly suppressed the rebels and restored order everywhere except Egypt; his successor, Hadrian, was left to accomplish that.<\/p>\n<p>But Hadrian faced a new rebellion of his own, brought on by his law forbidding circumcision (which he considered to be inhumane) and his decision in <span>AD<\/span> 130 to rebuild Jerusalem as Aelia Capitolina and erect a temple to Jupiter on the site of the temple of Yahweh. The latter would not only profane the temple site but also would preclude any rebuilding of the Jewish temple.<\/p>\n<p>Leader of this second Jewish revolt was Simeon, prince of Israel, called Bar-Kochba (“Son of the Star”). Both sides fought with such great ferocity for over three years (<span>AD<\/span> 132–135) that the population of Judea was almost exterminated. Jerusalem was rebuilt as a Roman colony, and Jews were forbidden to enter on pain of death. Even as late as the fourth century they were permitted to enter only once a year, on the anniversary of the destruction of the temple by Nebuchadnezzar. After the Bar-Kochba revolt, Judaism retreated increasingly within the citadel of the written and oral law, thus separating itself from the Gentiles.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham; Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Conquest and Allotment of the Land; David; Diaspora of the Jews; Exodus, The; First Jewish Revolt; Jew; Judaism; Moses; Patriarchs, Period of the; Saul #2; Solomon; Postexilic Period; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ISRAEL, History of An account of God’s sovereign purpose in calling a people out of paganism and establishing them as witnesses for the true faith among the nations, of God’s sovereign power in protecting them from extinction, of his sovereign justice in dealing with their departure from his ways of holiness, of God’s sovereign grace in forgiving their sins and restoring them to fellowship with himself by providing through them a Savior for the entire world. Preview • Patriarchal Age • Sojour...","summary_en":"ISRAEL, History of An account of God’s sovereign purpose in calling a people out of paganism and establishing them as witnesses for the true faith among the nations, of God’s sovereign power in protecting them from extinction, of his sovereign justice in dealing with their departure from his ways of holiness, of God’s sovereign grace in forgiving their sins and restoring them to fellowship with himself by providing through them a Savior for the entire world. Preview • Patriarchal Age • Sojour...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30914,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Period*, Postexilic","title_en":"Period*, Postexilic","content_ro":"<h3>POSTEXILIC PERIOD*<\/h3>\n<p>A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>• The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>• The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>• The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>• The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>• Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>• Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheBiblicalPerspective\">The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, and Zechariah. These cover a period of over a century, only a portion of which is dealt with in detail, as the following table shows:<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCollapseoftheBabylonianEmpire\">The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>This occurred with dramatic suddenness, largely because of internal resistance to the policies of the last Babylonian king, Nabonidus (555–539 <span>BC<\/span>). His neglect of the traditional Babylonian deity, Marduk, in favor of the moon god, Sin, was particularly resented. Nabonidus lived in Taima during the last decade of his reign, refusing to enter Babylon, where his son Belshazzar ruled as virtual king, as noted in Daniel 5. Babylon fell to the Persians in October 538 <span>BC<\/span> and the entire empire passed into their control.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePolicyofPersia\">The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>This is well documented through contemporary inscriptions, notably the record of Cyrus, the first king of the Persian Empire (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), in the “Cyrus Cylinder.” A new phase in the relationship of conqueror to conquered peoples opened up, which contrasted with the policy of the Assyrian and Babylonian empires of crushing any opposition by massive force. Cyrus and his successors followed a conciliatory line, allowing exiled groups to return home, encouraging local faiths, posing as the champions of the territorial deities, and allowing local autonomy except where Persian interests were affected adversely. The cost of this operation, although considerable, must have been infinitesimal compared with that of keeping rebellious subjects under constant subjection.<\/p>\n<p>The new enlightened policy is reflected in the decree of Cyrus, dated 538 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 1:1) and preserved in two versions. The first (vv 1-4) is clearly the official proclamation, while the second (6:3-5) is a more prosaic memorandum dealing with building specifications, a record of Cyrus’s commitment stored in the official archives (vv 1-2). The critical tendency to question the narrative in Ezra 1, especially on the score of the favorable references to the God of Israel and the vast financial support promised, has been nullified by the archaeological evidence, which shows an identical policy elsewhere. The Cyrus Cylinder, for example, notes, “The gods who live within them [i.e., the cities] I returned to their places. . . . All of their inhabitants I collected and restored to their dwelling places.”<\/p>\n<p>In Judah itself there is no evidence for any warfare in this period, which suggests that the Persian takeover of the area was nonviolent. Judah was incorporated into the fifth Persian province, which included the entire area west of the Euphrates River (Ezr 7:21). It was no more than a minor subdistrict, governed through Samaria.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnfromExile\">The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>The continuance of a large Jewish community in Babylonia shows that not all the Jews responded to the invitation to return to their homeland, probably because of the prosperity acquired in exile. But 42,360 dedicated Jews (Ezr 2:64) braved the challenge of a four-month 900-mile (1,448-kilometer) journey under Sheshbazzar (1:8), the officially appointed leader, and Zerubbabel his nephew (3:2), who was probably the one to whom the Jews looked as leader. With great enthusiasm the Jews rebuilt the altar of sacrifice and resumed the observance of the traditional feasts (vv 1-6), revealing both a sense of stewardship (2:68-69) and careful attention to the requirements of the Law (3:2-4). Soon after, work on the second temple commenced—the materials and master craftsmen being imported from Tyre and Sidon (Ezr 3:7-9; cf. 1 Kgs 5). When the foundations were laid, the worshipers were doubtless aware that they were fulfilling God’s promise through Jeremiah (Ezr 3:10-11; cf. Jer 33:10-11). But their high hopes were thwarted when there was opposition from neighboring areas (Ezr 4:4-5), selfishness in giving their own accommodations a higher priority than the Lord’s house (Hg 1:2-4, 9), and a series of crop failures that further reduced morale (1:6, 10-11; 2:17).<\/p>\n<p>Work on the temple was not resumed until Haggai and Zechariah appeared in 520 <span>BC<\/span>. They encouraged Zerubbabel and Joshua (Jeshua) the high priest, rebuked the people for their apathy and selfishness, and promised God’s presence and blessing upon the temple project (Hg 1:12–2:9). Zechariah’s preaching went beyond the building of the temple, including the rebuilding of Jerusalem itself (Zec 2:1-5) and its world reputation (2:1-5, 11-12; 8:22). The two leaders were addressed in ways that anticipated the Messiah (Hg 2:21-23; Zec 6:10-14). But the Persian king Darius (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>) was not alarmed when the rebuilding operation was reported to him (Ezr 5:1–6:13) and allowed the work to continue. In February 515 <span>BC<\/span> it was dedicated (6:14-16). The Jewish community again had a focal point for its religion, but the political situation remained difficult, with no real security in a still-shattered city.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnofEzra\">The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>The traditional date of Ezra’s return is 458 <span>BC<\/span> (preceding that of Nehemiah in 445 <span>BC<\/span>). This is based on the premise that the King Artaxerxes noted in Ezra 7:7 was Artaxerxes I Longimanus (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>) and not Artaxerxes II Mnemon (404–359 <span>BC<\/span>). However, some scholars, allowing that the king was Artaxerxes I, but believing that Nehemiah preceded Ezra, suggest that a tens unit has dropped out of “seventh” in Ezra 7:7, and that the date of Ezra’s return should be the 27th (438 <span>BC<\/span>) or 37th year (428 <span>BC<\/span>) of Artaxerxes I, making Ezra’s return a few years after Nehemiah’s. While this is plausible, there remains strong support for the traditional view. It accords with the order of the two books in the OT and requires no textual emendation. It also accounts for the section in Ezra 4:7-23, where, in the reign of Artaxerxes, an abortive effort was made by a recently returned group to rebuild the wall of Jerusalem. Nehemiah 1:1-4 suggests that this was regarded as important and its abrupt termination, by a decree of the king, caused Nehemiah great distress. The probability is that Ezra, recently returned, realized that little could be done in the way of major religious reformation until Jerusalem was secure, but in attempting to rebuild the wall he exceeded his mandate and was not able to function adequately until Nehemiah arrived, when the new security of Jerusalem allowed the great Law-reading ceremony of Nehemiah 8:1-12 to take place.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s ministry concerned the teaching of the Law of Moses, the Pentateuch, which had long been extant in its final form by this time. Ezra 7 shows that Artaxerxes was following the traditional Persian policy of encouraging good relationships with his subject peoples. Ezra’s appointment (Ezr 7:12) was to a state office; it has frequently been paraphrased as “Secretary of State for Jewish Religious Affairs.”<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NehemiahsReturnandMinistry\">Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Hanani and others (Neh 1:1-3) informed Nehemiah of the complete failure of a recent attempt to rebuild the wall, probably that recorded in Ezra 4:7-23, and sought his mediation before the very king who had authorized the decree that compelled work on the wall to cease. A friend in high places was vital, and Nehemiah, a trusted and influential member of the court (Neh 1:11), was approached for this delicate and dangerous task. Nehemiah 1:4–2:8 shows how well he prepared for and seized his opportunity. His appointment as the governor of Judah (5:14) involved the removal of this area from the control of the governor of Samaria, which accounts for the unrelenting hostility of Sanballat (2:19; 4:1). The evidence of Nehemiah 3 suggests that the extent of Judah at this time was limited, probably not reaching as far north as Bethel or as far south as Hebron. Nehemiah was faced with opposition that included ridicule (2:19; 4:1-3), armed force (4:8, 11), discouragement (v 10), internal economic problems (5:1-18), intrigue (6:1-2), intimidation, and blackmail (vv 5-14). In spite of these obstacles, the wall was completed in the incredibly brief period of 52 days (v 15).<\/p>\n<p>In addition to this monumental achievement, Nehemiah completely reorganized the social and economic life of Jerusalem, dealing with alienated mortgages, excessive interest rates (Neh 5:1-13), mixed marriages (10:30; 13:23-30), Sabbath observance (10:31; 13:15-21), and temple supplies (10:32-40; 13:10-13). Almost certainly, it was this political and economic security that allowed Ezra, who probably arrived 13 years earlier, to proceed with his great religious reformation based on the Law. Nehemiah’s book, usually called the “Nehemiah Memoirs,” was probably presented by him in the temple as a “votive offering” (as indicated by the form of 5:19; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRemainderofthePersianPeriod\">The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>Persian control, which probably centered on Lachish, was traditionally mild, except where her interests were directly threatened. There is no evidence of any major discontent in Judah, which enjoyed a considerable degree of autonomy. The Phoenician revolt of 351 <span>BC<\/span>, which took Artaxerxes III (359–338 <span>BC<\/span>) three years to subdue, was the only serious disturbance in the area. While Artaxerxes deported some Jews to Hyrcania, southeast of the Caspian Sea, that was probably a precautionary measure, and Judah does not appear to have been greatly involved in the revolt. The Jerusalem priests were allowed to mint their own coinage and levy a temple tax. Under the wider influence of the Persian Empire, Hebrew gradually fell out of popular usage as a spoken language, being replaced by Aramaic. As the international stature of Greece increased, so the influence of Hellenism began to be felt, even in Judah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ReligiousFeaturesofthePostexilicPeriod\">Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<h5>The Decline of Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>There were three main reasons for this:<\/p>\n<p>1. The prophetic movement as a whole became discredited after Jerusalem fell in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The large number of popular cult prophets who had foretold a sudden end to the Babylonian oppression (e.g., Jer 28:1-4) were proved decisively wrong. The suspicion that henceforth became attached to prophecy was increased further in the Persian period, when large numbers of itinerant “prophets” of various religions traveled widely. Zechariah 13:2-6 shows the stern measures advocated against such false prophets and fortune-tellers.<\/p>\n<li>2. There was a markedly different historical situation. The chastened remnant that survived had turned away from the blatant apostasy that characterized the preexilic period, so that the prophetic condemnation was not required with the same urgency. The temple and the Law had acquired a new prominence, and postexilic prophecy generally was concerned either with the rebuilding of the temple (e.g., Haggai and Zechariah) or the purification of its cult (e.g., Malachi). Once this goal had been realized, the role of the prophet was diminished. Another historical factor was the relatively large number of priests who returned from captivity, doubtless encouraged by the prospect of serving in the rebuilt temple. The main need at this time was for the priest, who revealed God’s will on the basis of the Law.<\/li>\n<li>3. There was an increasing stress on the transcendence of God, caused partly by an emphasis upon priestly mediation and partly by a fear of God that resulted from the recent judgment. The apocalyptic movement, with its emphasis on angelic intermediaries between humans and a transcendent God, encouraged this tendency. Correspondingly, the prophetic appeal for a personal, moral walk with God weakened.<\/li>\n<h5>The Rise of the Synagogue<\/h5>\n<p>Some type of local worship, independent of the temple and its sacrifices, must have developed in the Captivity, with the Law increasingly occupying a dominant position. Later on, the prophetic books were read and expounded, but the primary stress was always on the Law. This mode of worship later took root in the homeland, and the synagogue gradually developed into the focal point of the community for social relationships, education, and worship. It facilitated the worldwide continuance and expansion of the Jewish faith, independent of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Diaspora of the Jews; Ezra, Book of; Haggai, Book of; Israel, History of; Nehemiah, Book of; Zechariah, Book of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>POSTEXILIC PERIOD*<\/h3>\n<p>A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>• The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>• The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>• The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>• The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>• Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>• Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheBiblicalPerspective\">The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, and Zechariah. These cover a period of over a century, only a portion of which is dealt with in detail, as the following table shows:<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCollapseoftheBabylonianEmpire\">The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>This occurred with dramatic suddenness, largely because of internal resistance to the policies of the last Babylonian king, Nabonidus (555–539 <span>BC<\/span>). His neglect of the traditional Babylonian deity, Marduk, in favor of the moon god, Sin, was particularly resented. Nabonidus lived in Taima during the last decade of his reign, refusing to enter Babylon, where his son Belshazzar ruled as virtual king, as noted in Daniel 5. Babylon fell to the Persians in October 538 <span>BC<\/span> and the entire empire passed into their control.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePolicyofPersia\">The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>This is well documented through contemporary inscriptions, notably the record of Cyrus, the first king of the Persian Empire (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), in the “Cyrus Cylinder.” A new phase in the relationship of conqueror to conquered peoples opened up, which contrasted with the policy of the Assyrian and Babylonian empires of crushing any opposition by massive force. Cyrus and his successors followed a conciliatory line, allowing exiled groups to return home, encouraging local faiths, posing as the champions of the territorial deities, and allowing local autonomy except where Persian interests were affected adversely. The cost of this operation, although considerable, must have been infinitesimal compared with that of keeping rebellious subjects under constant subjection.<\/p>\n<p>The new enlightened policy is reflected in the decree of Cyrus, dated 538 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 1:1) and preserved in two versions. The first (vv 1-4) is clearly the official proclamation, while the second (6:3-5) is a more prosaic memorandum dealing with building specifications, a record of Cyrus’s commitment stored in the official archives (vv 1-2). The critical tendency to question the narrative in Ezra 1, especially on the score of the favorable references to the God of Israel and the vast financial support promised, has been nullified by the archaeological evidence, which shows an identical policy elsewhere. The Cyrus Cylinder, for example, notes, “The gods who live within them [i.e., the cities] I returned to their places. . . . All of their inhabitants I collected and restored to their dwelling places.”<\/p>\n<p>In Judah itself there is no evidence for any warfare in this period, which suggests that the Persian takeover of the area was nonviolent. Judah was incorporated into the fifth Persian province, which included the entire area west of the Euphrates River (Ezr 7:21). It was no more than a minor subdistrict, governed through Samaria.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnfromExile\">The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>The continuance of a large Jewish community in Babylonia shows that not all the Jews responded to the invitation to return to their homeland, probably because of the prosperity acquired in exile. But 42,360 dedicated Jews (Ezr 2:64) braved the challenge of a four-month 900-mile (1,448-kilometer) journey under Sheshbazzar (1:8), the officially appointed leader, and Zerubbabel his nephew (3:2), who was probably the one to whom the Jews looked as leader. With great enthusiasm the Jews rebuilt the altar of sacrifice and resumed the observance of the traditional feasts (vv 1-6), revealing both a sense of stewardship (2:68-69) and careful attention to the requirements of the Law (3:2-4). Soon after, work on the second temple commenced—the materials and master craftsmen being imported from Tyre and Sidon (Ezr 3:7-9; cf. 1 Kgs 5). When the foundations were laid, the worshipers were doubtless aware that they were fulfilling God’s promise through Jeremiah (Ezr 3:10-11; cf. Jer 33:10-11). But their high hopes were thwarted when there was opposition from neighboring areas (Ezr 4:4-5), selfishness in giving their own accommodations a higher priority than the Lord’s house (Hg 1:2-4, 9), and a series of crop failures that further reduced morale (1:6, 10-11; 2:17).<\/p>\n<p>Work on the temple was not resumed until Haggai and Zechariah appeared in 520 <span>BC<\/span>. They encouraged Zerubbabel and Joshua (Jeshua) the high priest, rebuked the people for their apathy and selfishness, and promised God’s presence and blessing upon the temple project (Hg 1:12–2:9). Zechariah’s preaching went beyond the building of the temple, including the rebuilding of Jerusalem itself (Zec 2:1-5) and its world reputation (2:1-5, 11-12; 8:22). The two leaders were addressed in ways that anticipated the Messiah (Hg 2:21-23; Zec 6:10-14). But the Persian king Darius (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>) was not alarmed when the rebuilding operation was reported to him (Ezr 5:1–6:13) and allowed the work to continue. In February 515 <span>BC<\/span> it was dedicated (6:14-16). The Jewish community again had a focal point for its religion, but the political situation remained difficult, with no real security in a still-shattered city.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnofEzra\">The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>The traditional date of Ezra’s return is 458 <span>BC<\/span> (preceding that of Nehemiah in 445 <span>BC<\/span>). This is based on the premise that the King Artaxerxes noted in Ezra 7:7 was Artaxerxes I Longimanus (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>) and not Artaxerxes II Mnemon (404–359 <span>BC<\/span>). However, some scholars, allowing that the king was Artaxerxes I, but believing that Nehemiah preceded Ezra, suggest that a tens unit has dropped out of “seventh” in Ezra 7:7, and that the date of Ezra’s return should be the 27th (438 <span>BC<\/span>) or 37th year (428 <span>BC<\/span>) of Artaxerxes I, making Ezra’s return a few years after Nehemiah’s. While this is plausible, there remains strong support for the traditional view. It accords with the order of the two books in the OT and requires no textual emendation. It also accounts for the section in Ezra 4:7-23, where, in the reign of Artaxerxes, an abortive effort was made by a recently returned group to rebuild the wall of Jerusalem. Nehemiah 1:1-4 suggests that this was regarded as important and its abrupt termination, by a decree of the king, caused Nehemiah great distress. The probability is that Ezra, recently returned, realized that little could be done in the way of major religious reformation until Jerusalem was secure, but in attempting to rebuild the wall he exceeded his mandate and was not able to function adequately until Nehemiah arrived, when the new security of Jerusalem allowed the great Law-reading ceremony of Nehemiah 8:1-12 to take place.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s ministry concerned the teaching of the Law of Moses, the Pentateuch, which had long been extant in its final form by this time. Ezra 7 shows that Artaxerxes was following the traditional Persian policy of encouraging good relationships with his subject peoples. Ezra’s appointment (Ezr 7:12) was to a state office; it has frequently been paraphrased as “Secretary of State for Jewish Religious Affairs.”<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NehemiahsReturnandMinistry\">Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Hanani and others (Neh 1:1-3) informed Nehemiah of the complete failure of a recent attempt to rebuild the wall, probably that recorded in Ezra 4:7-23, and sought his mediation before the very king who had authorized the decree that compelled work on the wall to cease. A friend in high places was vital, and Nehemiah, a trusted and influential member of the court (Neh 1:11), was approached for this delicate and dangerous task. Nehemiah 1:4–2:8 shows how well he prepared for and seized his opportunity. His appointment as the governor of Judah (5:14) involved the removal of this area from the control of the governor of Samaria, which accounts for the unrelenting hostility of Sanballat (2:19; 4:1). The evidence of Nehemiah 3 suggests that the extent of Judah at this time was limited, probably not reaching as far north as Bethel or as far south as Hebron. Nehemiah was faced with opposition that included ridicule (2:19; 4:1-3), armed force (4:8, 11), discouragement (v 10), internal economic problems (5:1-18), intrigue (6:1-2), intimidation, and blackmail (vv 5-14). In spite of these obstacles, the wall was completed in the incredibly brief period of 52 days (v 15).<\/p>\n<p>In addition to this monumental achievement, Nehemiah completely reorganized the social and economic life of Jerusalem, dealing with alienated mortgages, excessive interest rates (Neh 5:1-13), mixed marriages (10:30; 13:23-30), Sabbath observance (10:31; 13:15-21), and temple supplies (10:32-40; 13:10-13). Almost certainly, it was this political and economic security that allowed Ezra, who probably arrived 13 years earlier, to proceed with his great religious reformation based on the Law. Nehemiah’s book, usually called the “Nehemiah Memoirs,” was probably presented by him in the temple as a “votive offering” (as indicated by the form of 5:19; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRemainderofthePersianPeriod\">The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>Persian control, which probably centered on Lachish, was traditionally mild, except where her interests were directly threatened. There is no evidence of any major discontent in Judah, which enjoyed a considerable degree of autonomy. The Phoenician revolt of 351 <span>BC<\/span>, which took Artaxerxes III (359–338 <span>BC<\/span>) three years to subdue, was the only serious disturbance in the area. While Artaxerxes deported some Jews to Hyrcania, southeast of the Caspian Sea, that was probably a precautionary measure, and Judah does not appear to have been greatly involved in the revolt. The Jerusalem priests were allowed to mint their own coinage and levy a temple tax. Under the wider influence of the Persian Empire, Hebrew gradually fell out of popular usage as a spoken language, being replaced by Aramaic. As the international stature of Greece increased, so the influence of Hellenism began to be felt, even in Judah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ReligiousFeaturesofthePostexilicPeriod\">Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<h5>The Decline of Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>There were three main reasons for this:<\/p>\n<p>1. The prophetic movement as a whole became discredited after Jerusalem fell in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The large number of popular cult prophets who had foretold a sudden end to the Babylonian oppression (e.g., Jer 28:1-4) were proved decisively wrong. The suspicion that henceforth became attached to prophecy was increased further in the Persian period, when large numbers of itinerant “prophets” of various religions traveled widely. Zechariah 13:2-6 shows the stern measures advocated against such false prophets and fortune-tellers.<\/p>\n<li>2. There was a markedly different historical situation. The chastened remnant that survived had turned away from the blatant apostasy that characterized the preexilic period, so that the prophetic condemnation was not required with the same urgency. The temple and the Law had acquired a new prominence, and postexilic prophecy generally was concerned either with the rebuilding of the temple (e.g., Haggai and Zechariah) or the purification of its cult (e.g., Malachi). Once this goal had been realized, the role of the prophet was diminished. Another historical factor was the relatively large number of priests who returned from captivity, doubtless encouraged by the prospect of serving in the rebuilt temple. The main need at this time was for the priest, who revealed God’s will on the basis of the Law.<\/li>\n<li>3. There was an increasing stress on the transcendence of God, caused partly by an emphasis upon priestly mediation and partly by a fear of God that resulted from the recent judgment. The apocalyptic movement, with its emphasis on angelic intermediaries between humans and a transcendent God, encouraged this tendency. Correspondingly, the prophetic appeal for a personal, moral walk with God weakened.<\/li>\n<h5>The Rise of the Synagogue<\/h5>\n<p>Some type of local worship, independent of the temple and its sacrifices, must have developed in the Captivity, with the Law increasingly occupying a dominant position. Later on, the prophetic books were read and expounded, but the primary stress was always on the Law. This mode of worship later took root in the homeland, and the synagogue gradually developed into the focal point of the community for social relationships, education, and worship. It facilitated the worldwide continuance and expansion of the Jewish faith, independent of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Diaspora of the Jews; Ezra, Book of; Haggai, Book of; Israel, History of; Nehemiah, Book of; Zechariah, Book of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"POSTEXILIC PERIOD* A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 BC. Preview • The Biblical Perspective • The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire • The Policy of Persia • The Return from Exile • The Return of Ezra • Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry • The Remainder of the Persian Period • Religious Features of the Postexilic Period The Biblical Perspective The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, N...","summary_en":"POSTEXILIC PERIOD* A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 BC. Preview • The Biblical Perspective • The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire • The Policy of Persia • The Return from Exile • The Return of Ezra • Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry • The Remainder of the Persian Period • Religious Features of the Postexilic Period The Biblical Perspective The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, N...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37015,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Temple","title_en":"Temple","content_ro":"<h3>TEMPLE<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Solomon’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>• Zerubbabel’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>• Herod’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>• Significance of the Temple in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Significance of the Temple in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>David’s capture of Jerusalem (2 Sm 5:6-9) and his designation of it as the nation’s capital is one of the great masterstrokes of history. Occupied by the Jebusites, it was a pocket of neutral territory between the northern and southern sections of David’s united kingdom and was politically acceptable to both. Jerusalem was then established as the national religious center by the return of the ark, which had been largely neglected since its capture by the Philistines (2 Sm 6:1-17). Henceforth, God’s choices of both David and Jerusalem (“Mount Zion”) were indissolubly linked (Ps 78:67-72).<\/p>\n<p>David’s great impulse was to build an adequate dwelling place for Israel’s God. The idea was initially approved by Nathan the prophet (2 Sm 7:1-3), but God revealed otherwise to him, and he conveyed the divine purpose to David (vv 4-17). In a significant wordplay, David was informed that, while he was not to build a house (temple) for God, God would build a house (dynasty) for him. David was not the one to build a temple because of the numerous wars during his reign; the temple would instead be built by his son (1 Kgs 5:3; 1 Chr 22:7-8; 28:3). Nevertheless, David enthusiastically amassed most of the necessary finances and materials and drew up the blueprints for the temple (1 Chr 22:3-5, 14; 28:2, 11-19). He also purchased the temple site (21:25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SolomonsTemple\">Solomon’s Temple<\/p>\n\n<h5>Date<\/h5>\n<p>Construction commenced in Solomon’s fourth year, about 966 <span>BC<\/span>, and took seven years to complete (1 Kgs 6:1, 38). Everything necessary for the temple, including the workers, had been prepared by David (1 Chr 28:21). The temple evidently had first priority among Solomon’s building schemes, as he built his own palace later (1 Kgs 7:1).<\/p>\n<h5>Superintendents and Workforce<\/h5>\n<p>The principal architect for the bronze furnishings was Huram (Hebrew “Hiram”), whose father was a metal craftsman from Tyre and whose mother was an Israelite (1 Kgs 7:13-14). Cedar for the temple came from Lebanon and was felled and transported by the skilled woodsmen of another Hiram—the king of Tyre, Solomon’s ally (5:5-9). Thirty thousand Israelites, divided into three groups, were drafted to assist at Lebanon. Each group was on duty for one month in three. For the stonework, Solomon conscripted 153,600 foreigners resident in Israel to provide a self-contained group of carriers, stone cutters, and supervisors (vv 15-17; 2 Chr 2:17-18). Possibly the “men of Gebal,” with their specialized skills, formed yet another group (1 Kgs 5:18). Building the temple was obviously a national project of immense size and effort. In order to preserve the sanctity of the site and to eliminate noise, the masonry and carpentry were not done at the temple site (6:7).<\/p>\n<h5>Description<\/h5>\n<p>The details given in the Bible are sufficiently clear for us to make a reasonably accurate description of the temple. The accounts in Kings and Chronicles are supplemented by Ezekiel’s depiction of the temple (see below), which was broadly based on his knowledge of the Jerusalem temple (Ez 40–48).<\/p>\n<p>The side rooms probably rested on a foundation or platform that was separate from the temple itself (1 Kgs 6:5, 10; cf. Ez 41:8-9) and were arranged in three stories, each seven and a half feet (2.3 meters) high, extending around the whole building except for the porch side. Each successive story was one and a half feet (.5 meter) wider than the one below, these dimensions coinciding with the thickness of the side wall of the Holy Place. The ground floor rooms were seven and a half feet (2.3 meters) wide; the first story was nine feet (2.7 meters), and the second was ten and a half feet (3.2 meters). Access to the upper stories was possibly by winding staircases (1 Kgs 6:8). There is some uncertainty concerning the location of the entrances; there may have been one on either side, but only one is mentioned (v 8). As in Ezekiel’s temple (Ez 40:17, 28), there were two adjacent courts, an inner and an outer (1 Kgs 6:36; 7:12), but no dimensions are given for these. The inner court, or “court of the priests,” being next to the temple itself, was also called “the upper court” (2 Chr 4:9; Jer 36:10). The wall of the inner court was made of three layers of hewn stone held together by a layer of cedar beams (1 Kgs 6:36), and the doors of both courts were sheathed in bronze (2 Chr 4:9). The palace buildings were within the outer court area, probably with a private passageway between the palace and the temple that was later closed during the reign of Ahaz (2 Chr 4:9, 12; 2 Kgs 16:18).<\/p>\n<p>The temple itself was 90 feet (27.4 meters) long, 30 feet (9.1 meters) wide, and 45 feet (13.7 meters) high (1 Kgs 6:2), with a porch or vestibule 15 feet (4.6 meters) deep stretching across the width. Probably the vestibule was on the east end of the temple, thus corresponding with the orientation of Ezekiel’s temple (Ez 43:1; 44:1). The larger part of the main sanctuary, next to the porch, formed the Holy Place, which was 60 feet (18.3 meters) long (1 Kgs 6:17). Beyond this was the innermost sanctuary, the Holy of Holies (or the “Most Holy Place“), which was a perfect cube of 30 feet (9.1 meters). All the interior walls were paneled with cedar decorated with flower patterns, cherubim, and palm trees, so that no masonry was visible. The walls of both inner and outer sanctuaries were “overlaid” (v 22) with pure gold. Actually the gold decoration may have been inlaid, on the basis that a solid sheath of gold would spoil the natural beauty of the wood carving. The floor was made of cypress planks (v 15). Narrow windows set high in the walls above the level of the three-storied outer chambers provided light in the Holy Place (v 4). The ceiling was paneled with beams and planks of cedar. No detail is given about the exterior roofing, but probably the contemporary technique was employed, using a wooden, latticelike framework into which a waterproof, limestone plaster was packed and rolled.<\/p>\n<p>The outer porch was apparently an open space, since no doors are mentioned. Access into the Holy Place was by double doors, both hinged to fold back on themselves, made of cypress and decorated in exactly the same way as the interior walls (vv 34-35). The doorposts were made of olive wood. Within the Holy Place was the altar of incense made of cedar overlaid with gold; it was placed centrally before the Holy of Holies. Also in the Holy Place were a table for the bread of the Presence of God, ten lampstands arranged in two groups of five on either side, and various utensils required for maintaining the priestly duties (1 Kgs 7:48-50). All these were made or overlaid with gold. The ten tables, arranged five on each side, were presumably for the utensils and accessories (2 Chr 4:8).<\/p>\n<p>Between the Holy Place and the Holy of Holies was a double door made of olive wood, carved with cherubim, palm trees, and flower patterns and overlaid with gold. Inside these doors, veiling still further the Holy of Holies, was a blue, purple, and crimson curtain, made of the finest fabrics and ornamented with cherubim (2 Chr 3:14).<\/p>\n<p>In the Holy of Holies were two cherubim, each 15 feet (4.6 meters) high and made of olive wood covered with gold (1 Kgs 6:23-28). Each wing measured seven and a half feet (2.3 meters). A wing of each touched the side walls; the other wings met at the center of the room. The divine throne had been considerably less impressive in the tabernacle, where a wing of each cherubim fused into the mercy seat above the ark (Ex 25:17-22). In Solomon’s temple, the ark of the covenant was placed below the forward-facing cherubim, the symbolic protectors. The ark, the only major item surviving from the Mosaic tabernacle, still contained the tablets of the law, but the pot of manna and Aaron’s rod were missing (1 Kgs 8:9).<\/p>\n<p>Immediately outside the temple and on either side of the vestibule were two hollow bronze pillars (1 Kgs 7:15-20; 2 Chr 3:15-17). According to the book of Kings, these pillars were 27 feet (8.2 meters) high, with a circumference of 18 feet (5.5 meters). The metal itself was about four inches (10.2 centimeters) thick. The pillars were surmounted by bronze, lily-shaped capitals seven and a half feet (2.3 meters) high and six feet (1.8 meters) wide, intricately adorned with a chain latticework that supported two rows of pomegranates. The total weight must have been enormous, and their size is attested to by Jeremiah, who notes that the Babylonians had to break them in pieces before transporting them to Babylon (Jer 52:17, 21-23).<\/p>\n<p>The bronze altar of sacrifice in front of the vestibule is not listed in the specifications of 1 Kings 7. However, it is mentioned in the temple dedication and subsequently (1 Kgs 8:22, 54, 64; 9:25) and clearly stood in the inner court. Its dimensions were 30 feet (9.1 meters) square and 15 feet (4.6 meters) high (2 Chr 4:1). In view of its weight, it was probably cast in sections at Solomon’s foundry in the Jordan Rift valley (vv 17-18) and then transported to the temple site for assembly.<\/p>\n<p>Probably the most striking article in the inner court was the “molten (bronze) sea,” a huge, round tank made of bronze 3 inches (8 centimeters) thick, 7½ feet (2.3 meters) high, and 15 feet (4.6 meters) in diameter (1 Kgs 7:23-26). Its rim flared out like a lily (2 Chr 4:2-5). The tank was supported on 12 bronze oxen, four on each side, and had two rows of decoration, possibly gourds or pomegranates, under the brim. Its capacity was between 10,000 and 12,000 gallons (37,850–45,420 liters). The bronze sea was used for priestly ablutions (v 6). Presumably this involved a platform of sorts, for the brim of this vast basin would have been about 15 feet (4.6 meters) above ground level.<\/p>\n<p>Hiram also constructed ten large lavers, mounted on moveable stands and placed in two groups of five, on the north and south sides of the inner court (1 Kgs 7:27-39). Basically the stands were bronze boxes, six feet (1.8 meters) square and four and a half feet (1.4 meters) high with a nine-inch (22.9-centimeter) rim around the top edge. Each corner was attached to braced posts to which the axles were fixed. The four-spoked wheels were 27 inches (68.6 centimeters) high. Into each stand there fitted a laver containing approximately 220 gallons (832.7 liters) of water, used for washing sacrificial animals (2 Chr 4:6). Probably each was adjacent to one of the ten tables that would be used to flay and otherwise prepare the sacrifices (v 8). Supplementary items, such as pots, shovels, and basins, all made of bronze, were also manufactured (1 Kgs 7:40, 45).<\/p>\n<h5>The Dedication<\/h5>\n<p>Eleven months elapsed between the completion of the temple and its dedication (1 Kgs 6:38; 8:2), during which time the major items of furniture were set in place. The dedication itself took place in the seventh month, presumably in connection with the Feast of Tabernacles and the Day of Atonement (Lv 23:23-36). The ark of the covenant was brought into its final resting place (1 Kgs 8:3-4), but the inner court proved inadequate for the vast numbers of beasts sacrificed (1 Kgs 8:62-64; 2 Chr 7:7).<\/p>\n<p>The temple employed the most sophisticated building techniques of the age, and no expense had been spared in construction, ornamentation, or equipment. Yet Solomon readily confessed its utter inadequacy to house the eternal God (1 Kgs 8:27). His prayer also underlined Israel’s propensity to forsake the Lord, contrasting the nation with God, who, though a just judge, was also merciful and faithful. The climax of the proceedings came when fire from heaven consumed the sacrifices and the shekinah glory filled the temple (2 Chr 7:1-3).<\/p>\n<h5>Later History<\/h5>\n<p>Like most ancient shrines, the temple became a treasury for national wealth and as such was often the target for attack. Shishak of Egypt plundered it within five years of Solomon’s death (1 Kgs 14:25-38). Shortly afterward, King Asa (910–869 <span>BC<\/span>) depleted its gold and silver treasures to buy Syrian help against his oppressor, Baasha (908–886 <span>BC<\/span>), king of Israel (15:16-19). Joash, the king of Judah (835–796 <span>BC<\/span>) who was concealed in the temple from the vicious Athaliah during his youth (2 Kgs 11), made provision for its repair after protesting the priests’ embezzlement of gifts (12:4-16). But after the death of Jehoiada, the high priest, Joash himself was adversely influenced by his nobles (2 Chr 24:15-19). As punishment for his apostasy, the Lord allowed the Syrians to attack, and Joash used the temple treasures to buy them off (2 Kgs 12:17-18). Hardly had provision for replacements been made, when Jehoash of Israel (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>), having shattered the arrogant pride of Amaziah of Judah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>), again stripped the temple (14:8-14). Later, King Ahaz (735-715 <span>BC<\/span>) used the remaining resources of the temple to enlist support from the Assyrians (16:7-9), though he eventually became completely subservient to them.<\/p>\n<p> Then Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>), one of the great reforming kings, thoroughly renovated the temple and restored worship after it had fallen into disuse during theclosing years of Ahaz (2 Chr 29:1-19; 31:9-21). Manasseh (696–642 <span>BC<\/span>), however, completely reversed his father’s policy, bringing the practices of Canaanite and Mesopotamian worship into the temple (2 Kgs 21:3-7). His conversion experience, which probably occurred late in his reign and resulted in certain reform measures in the temple (2 Chr 33:12-19), was not far-reaching enough to escape the final judgment that his reign was the dark spot of Judah’s history (2 Kgs 21:10-16).<\/p>\n<p>Manasseh’s grandson Josiah (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>), was the second great reforming king. He organized the repair of the temple in 622 <span>BC<\/span>, during which the lost Book of the Law (almost certainly the book of Deuteronomy) was discovered (2 Kgs 22:3-13). As a result, Josiah’s reformation gained a new dimension and sense of urgency (22:14–23:3). The reformation included a thorough purge of all idolatrous elements from the temple (23:4-12) and the restoration of the traditional festivals. Sadly, however, Josiah’s reformation died with him, and Judah’s downward slide continued under the apostate Jehoiakim (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>). It was probably during this time that Jeremiah preached his famous temple sermon foretelling its destruction (Jer 7:1–8:3; 26:1-19), which alienated him from the religious leaders. In Nebuchadnezzar’s reprisal raid following Jehoiakim’s rebellion in 601 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 24:1-4), Jerusalem was captured (596 <span>BC<\/span>) and many of the temple treasures were transported to Babylon (2 Chr 36:7). The temple itself appears to have escaped damage, but when Judah again rebelled under Zedekiah (597–586 <span>BC<\/span>), the temple was demolished (2 Kgs 25:8-10). The remaining temple treasures were taken away.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ZerubbabelsTemple\">Zerubbabel’s Temple<\/p>\n<h5>Construction<\/h5>\n<p>Although the temple was devastated, the site still remained as a place of pilgrimage during the exile (Jer 41:4-5). In 538 <span>BC<\/span> the Persian king, Cyrus, in pursuance of a liberal policy diametrically opposed to that of the earlier empires, permitted the Jews to return from exile. And he authorized the rebuilding of the temple, financing it from the Persian treasury.<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Ezra, the decree of authorization has been preserved in two forms: the general proclamation (Ezr 1:2-4) and a more prosaic memorandum in the national archives indicating the main temple specifications and the amount of promised Persian help (6:1-5). Probably only a minority of the Jews opted to leave the relative comforts of Mesopotamia for the dangers of a long journey to their desolated homeland. According to the book of Ezra, 42,360 dedicated individuals and their servants (2:64-65) responded under the leadership of Sheshbazzar (1:8-11; 5:14-16) and Zerubbabel (2:2; 3:2, 8; 4:2). With great enthusiasm, the altar was rebuilt on the temple site and the traditional pattern of worship reestablished (3:1-6). Utilizing the grant from Persia as well as their own freewill gifts (2:68-69; 3:7), the Jews began to plan the second temple and lay its foundations (3:7-13). The initial impetus quickly died as a result of local opposition (4:1-4, 24), selfish preoccupation, and crop failures (Hg 1:2-11). In 520 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 4:24; Hg 1:1; Zec 1:1), inspired by the prophets Haggai and Zechariah, the Jews under Zerubbabel and Joshua the high priest commenced rebuilding. Work continued in spite of official suspicion, if not direct opposition, and the temple was completed and dedicated in 515 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 5:1–6:22).<\/p>\n<p>Little is known of the physical features of Zerubbabel’s temple. The inference that it was vastly inferior to Solomon’s temple (Hg 2:3) probably relates to an early stage in the building operation. In fact, the second temple stood for over 500 years. The dimensions noted in Ezra 6:3 are incomplete; the new temple was no doubt about the same size as its predecessor and was probably built on the same foundation. The construction technique appears to have followed the method of the original, with layers of timber providing a framework for sections of masonry (v 4). Clearly, there was auxiliary accommodation, probably like the side rooms of Solomon’s temple (Ezr 8:29; Neh 12:44; 13:4-5). If Persian aid was forthcoming as promised (Ezr 6:8-12), the second temple was a more splendid, substantial structure than is generally supposed.<\/p>\n<h5>Later History<\/h5>\n<p>Several references in the Apocrypha, pseudepigrapha, rabbinic writings, and the historian Josephus help to illumine the history of the temple and give more detail on its structure and furnishings. Josephus, quoting from Hecateus of Abdera (fourth century <span>BC<\/span>), states that the temple was a large building in an enclosure about 500 feet by 150 feet (152.4 meters by 45.7 meters), surrounded by a stone wall, with an altar of unhewn stones the same size as Solomon’s bronze altar (cf. 2 Chr 4:1). Within the sanctuary was a golden altar of incense and a lampstand, the flame of which burned continually. Josephus also notes that Antiochus III (223–187 <span>BC<\/span>) financially supported the temple when the Seleucids displaced the Ptolemies as masters of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Ben Sirach, early in the second century <span>BC<\/span>, commended Simon, the son of Onias the high priest, for his work in fortifying and repairing the temple area. First Maccabees provides valuable evidence of the fate of the temple during the oppression under Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175–164 <span>BC<\/span>). The books of the Maccabees recount the defilement of the altar of burnt offering (1 Macc 1:54) and the plundering of the golden lampstand, altar of incense, table of offering, veil, and other treasures (2 Macc 5:15-16; 6:2-4). When the temple was recaptured and restored, the victorious Maccabees replaced the items taken by the Seleucids, except for the altar of sacrifice, which was considered so polluted that it was dismantled and replaced by a new one constructed of unhewn stone (1 Macc 4:36-61; 2 Macc 10:1-9). Clearly the temple area was used as a fortress, both in opposition to the Seleucid garrison that was maintained in Jerusalem in the Maccabean period and in the conflicts of the later Hasmonean period. When Pompey captured Jerusalem about 63 <span>BC<\/span>, he entered the temple to assert his authority but took no plunder, thus showing respect for it.<\/p>\n<p>The history of Zerubbabel’s temple closed when Herod, having carefully preserved it from any major damage when he gained control of Jerusalem with Roman aid in 37 <span>BC<\/span>, began to dismantle it about 21 <span>BC<\/span> in preparation for the construction of his own grand temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HerodsTemple\">Herod’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>Apart from over 100 references in the NT, our main sources of information about Herod’s temple come from the Jewish historian Josephus and from the Middoth (a section of the Jewish rabbinic writings). There are considerable differences in detail between the two, which rules out any dogmatic interpretation in attempted reconstructions. Since Josephus was contemporary with the temple (he was born about <span>AD<\/span> 37 and died early in the second century), he is probably more reliable than the Middoth, which, dating from about <span>AD<\/span> 150, appears to exaggerate occasionally. Archaeological research has been helpful in determining the positions of the outer walls and gates.<\/p>\n<p>Herod’s motive in building his temple was political rather than religious. As an Idumean, he wished to placate his Jewish subjects by constructing a sanctuary as magnificent as Solomon’s. Possible fears that the site might be profaned, or that the existing temple might be demolished and never rebuilt, were allayed by the training of 1,000 priests as masons and the amassing of materials before the work commenced. Herod’s temple followed the tripartite plan of its predecessors, although its porch was much larger. It was built in the contemporary Greco-Roman architectural style and must therefore be regarded as distinct from Zerubbabel’s temple. Work began in 20 <span>BC<\/span>, and while the main sanctuary was quickly erected (it was in full operation within ten years), the total project was not completed until <span>AD<\/span> 64, only six years before it was destroyed by the Romans.<\/p>\n<p>Herod first prepared the site by clearing and leveling an area approximately 500 yards (457.2 meters) from north to south and about 325 yards (297.2 meters) from east to west. This involved cutting away sections of rock in some areas and building up with rubble in others. Considerable sections of the enclosing wall, constructed on stone blocks averaging about 15 feet (4.6 meters) long by 4 feet (1.2 meters) high, still survive. Some of the stones in the corners of the south wall weigh up to 70 tons (63.5 metric tons).<\/p>\n<p>The sanctuary itself seems to have been based on the same dimensions as Solomon’s temple. It was divided into the Holy Place, which was 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, 30 feet (9.1 meters) wide, and 60 feet high, and the Holy of Holies, which was 30 feet square. There was no furniture within the Holy of Holies, which was separated by a veil from the Holy Place. The Holy Place contained the seven-branch lampstand, the table for the bread of the Presence, and the incense altar. The main divergence from Solomon’s temple was the imposing porch, 150 feet (45.7 meters) in width and height. Outside was a doorway approximately 30 feet (9.1 meters) wide by 40 feet (12.2 meters) high, with an inner doorway about half that size leading into the sanctuary. By allowing empty rooms over the Holy of Holies and the Holy Place, there was a uniform roof height of 150 feet (45.7 meters). Golden spikes on the roof discouraged birds from alighting and defiling the structure. Like its predecessors, the temple was oriented toward the east and was surrounded on the other sides by three stories of rooms rising to a height of 60 feet (18.3 meters). The stone used was the local white stone, cut in huge blocks and highly polished.<\/p>\n<p>Access to the porch was by a flight of 12 steps from the Court of the Priests. Centrally placed before the porch and 33 feet (10.1 meters) away was the altar of sacrifice. Made of unhewn stone, it was a multilevel construction 15 feet (4.6 meters) high and about 48 feet (14.6 meters) square at its base. Male Israelites were allowed into this area once a year, during the Feast of the Tabernacles, to walk around the altar of sacrifice. Otherwise, they were restricted to the Court of Israel. To the east of the Court of Israel, and separated from it by a flight of 15 steps and by the ornate Great Gate, made of Corinthian bronze, was the Court of the Women. Here the offertory chests for temple expenses were located (Mk 12:41-44). The next court was the large, lower, outer Court of the Gentiles, which surrounded the inner courts and was separated from them by a balustrade and a series of warning notices. Two of these have been excavated, written in Latin and Greek and forbidding trespass by Gentiles into the inner areas, on pain of death. This outer court was widely used. Immediately inside its walls was a portico, supported by four rows of columns almost 40 feet (12.2 meters) high on the south side (the Royal Porch), and two rows on the other sides, the eastern portico known as “Solomon’s Porch” or “Solomon’s Colonnade.” Here is the area where the stalls of the money changers and merchants were set up, where the Sanhedrin met, and where Christ and the scribes taught and debated (Mk 11:27; Lk 2:46; 19:47; Jn 10:23). Here, too, the infant church met before it was rejected by a hostile Judaism (Acts 3:11; 5:12). Just to the northwest of the temple enclosure was the Fortress of Antonia, where the Roman governor resided while in Jerusalem, and where a Roman garrison was on hand to deal with disturbances (Acts 21:31-40). Overlooking the temple area, it was separated from it by a wide moat. The high priest’s vestments were stored in the fortress as a symbol of Roman authority. Access to the Court of the Gentiles was by four gates in the west wall; two in the south wall, where the ground fell away steeply into the valley, a site often identified as the pinnacle of the temple (Mt 4:5; Lk 4:9); and one gate in each of the east and north walls.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SignificanceoftheTempleintheOldTestament\">Significance of the Temple in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The temple in Jerusalem functioned as the focal point of the tribal confederation. In spite of the attempt of Jeroboam I, the first king of the northern kingdom, to divert attention from Jerusalem by establishing shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:26-30), Jerusalem never lost its preeminence. Naturally, both Hezekiah and Josiah sought to extend their reformation into the area of the northern tribes (2 Chr 30:1-12; 34:6-7), and Jerusalem was a pilgrimage center for those areas even after its destruction (Jer 41:5). The prophets foretold its destiny as the focal point of universal worship (Is 2:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>The temple was God’s dwelling place among his people. God’s presence, symbolized in the shekinah glory and the pillar of cloud, was associated with the tent of meeting (Ex 33:9-11), with the tabernacle (40:34-38), and finally with the temple (1 Kgs 8:10-11). The paradox is that while God is completely unrestricted, the temple was considered a place for God to live forever (vv 13, 27). God had chosen Zion, as he had chosen David (Pss 68:15-18; 76:2; 78:67-72), so the temple was regarded as God’s house (27:4; 42:4; 84:1-4).<\/p>\n<h5>Ezekiel’s Temple<\/h5>\n<p>Ezekiel’s detailed description of the ideal temple (Ez 40–48) was not used as the blueprint for Zerubbabel’s temple. In fact, since Ezekiel must have been familiar with Solomon’s temple before his deportation in 597 <span>BC<\/span>, his description is of greater help in determining uncertain details of the first temple. Ezekiel’s concern was to show the nature of pure worship, safeguarded from all contamination. This worship would allow the glory of God, which had departed from corrupted Solomon’s temple (9:3; 10:4, 18-19: 11:22-23), to return so that Jerusalem could again be named “the Lord is there” (43:1-5; 48:35). This thought, linked with Ezekiel’s vital concept of God’s Spirit indwelling his faithful worshipers (36:24-28), anticipated the NT teaching of the believers becoming God’s temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SignificanceoftheTempleintheNewTestament\">Significance of the Temple in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>Christ and the Temple<\/h5>\n<p>Christ showed considerable respect for the temple. When he was 12 years old, he entered into the rabbinic discussions in its porticoes and described it as his Father’s house (Lk 2:41-50). To him “the house of God” was indwelt by God (Mt 12:4; 23:21). Although he twice cleansed it in righteous anger (Mt 21:12-13; Jn 2:13-16), he wept over the impending destruction of the city and temple (Lk 19:41-44). He often taught there, but he was “greater than the temple” (Mt 12:6). When his presentation to Jerusalem as the predicted Messiah was rejected, in spite of attendant miracles, he foretold its inevitable destruction (Mt 21:9-15; 24:1-2). For a brief period after Pentecost, the early church used the temple as its meeting place, until mounting opposition drove believers from Jerusalem (Acts 5:12, 21, 42; 8:1).<\/p>\n<h5>The Church as the Temple<\/h5>\n<p>The NT writers used two different Greek words to describe the temple: <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span><em>.<\/em> <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Naos<\/span> refers to the actual sanctuary of the temple, the place of God’s dwelling. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Hieron<\/span> refers to the temple precincts as well as to the sanctuary. Generally speaking, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> was used to designate the inner section of the temple known as the Holy Place and the Holy of Holies, whereas <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span> included the outer court and the temple proper.<\/p>\n<p>In Paul’s epistles the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> appears six times (1 Cor 3:16-17; 6:19; 2 Cor 6:16; Eph 2:21; 2 Thes 2:4) and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span> once (1 Cor 9:13). In these verses Paul maintains the distinction of definition noted above. When speaking of the actual physical temple, he used the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span> to indicate the place where the priests offered up animal sacrifices on the altar (1 Cor 9:13), which was situated in the outer court (see Ex 27–29, 40). And when Paul referred to the abominable act of the lawless one in usurping God’s place in the temple, he used the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span>—the word that designates the place of deity’s presence (2 Thes 2:4).<\/p>\n<p>In all the other Pauline passages, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> is used metaphorically—to depict a human habitation for the divine Spirit. In one instance the sanctuary image is used to describe the individual believer’s body (1 Cor 6:19); in every other instance the sanctuary depicts Christ’s body, the church (1 Cor 3:16-17; 2 Cor 6:16; Eph 2:21). Mistakenly, many readers think 1 Corinthians 3:16-17 speaks of the individual, but according to the Greek text, it is unquestionably clear that Paul was speaking about the collective church (specifically, the church in Corinth).<\/p>\n<p>When Paul told the church in Corinth that it was God’s sanctuary, they would have understood the image from their knowledge of pagan temples. But Paul probably had in mind the one temple in Jerusalem. The Gentiles had many gods with many temples in one city; the Jews had one God with only one temple in all of Israel. This helped to preserve unity among the Israelites. The Corinthians needed spiritual unity; they were fragmented due to their individual preferences (see 1 Cor 1:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>In Ephesians, Paul’s masterpiece on the church, he speaks of the local churches as living, organic entities that are all (compositely speaking) growing into a holy sanctuary in the Lord (Eph 2:21). Paul pictured each local church as providing God with a spiritual habitation in that locality (v 22) and as growing together with all the other churches into one holy, universal sanctuary for the Lord’s indwelling.<\/p>\n<h5>The Temple in John’s Revelation<\/h5>\n<p>In John’s revelation there is no material temple, even though he continues to use the imagery of Jerusalem and Mt Zion (Rv 3:12; 14:1; 21:2, 10, 22). Three interrelated ideas dominate. First is the concept of the church made up of martyrs, whose faithful members are God’s temple (3:12; 14:1). This temple grows gradually as the number of martyrs increases (6:11). Another aspect is the temple as the place of judgment (11:19; 14:15; 15:5–16:1). Finally, any temple in the new age is unnecessary, “for its temple is the Lord God Almighty and the Lamb” (21:22). The ultimate state will be God’s dwelling with his people—the eternal, spritual temple.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Altar; Ark of the Covenant; Bread of the Presence; David; Feasts and Festivals of Israel; First Jewish Revolt; Judaism; Mercy Seat; Offerings and Sacrifices; Priests and Levites; Sanctuary; Singers in the Temple; Solomon (Person).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TEMPLE<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Solomon’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>• Zerubbabel’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>• Herod’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>• Significance of the Temple in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Significance of the Temple in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>David’s capture of Jerusalem (2 Sm 5:6-9) and his designation of it as the nation’s capital is one of the great masterstrokes of history. Occupied by the Jebusites, it was a pocket of neutral territory between the northern and southern sections of David’s united kingdom and was politically acceptable to both. Jerusalem was then established as the national religious center by the return of the ark, which had been largely neglected since its capture by the Philistines (2 Sm 6:1-17). Henceforth, God’s choices of both David and Jerusalem (“Mount Zion”) were indissolubly linked (Ps 78:67-72).<\/p>\n<p>David’s great impulse was to build an adequate dwelling place for Israel’s God. The idea was initially approved by Nathan the prophet (2 Sm 7:1-3), but God revealed otherwise to him, and he conveyed the divine purpose to David (vv 4-17). In a significant wordplay, David was informed that, while he was not to build a house (temple) for God, God would build a house (dynasty) for him. David was not the one to build a temple because of the numerous wars during his reign; the temple would instead be built by his son (1 Kgs 5:3; 1 Chr 22:7-8; 28:3). Nevertheless, David enthusiastically amassed most of the necessary finances and materials and drew up the blueprints for the temple (1 Chr 22:3-5, 14; 28:2, 11-19). He also purchased the temple site (21:25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SolomonsTemple\">Solomon’s Temple<\/p>\n\n<h5>Date<\/h5>\n<p>Construction commenced in Solomon’s fourth year, about 966 <span>BC<\/span>, and took seven years to complete (1 Kgs 6:1, 38). Everything necessary for the temple, including the workers, had been prepared by David (1 Chr 28:21). The temple evidently had first priority among Solomon’s building schemes, as he built his own palace later (1 Kgs 7:1).<\/p>\n<h5>Superintendents and Workforce<\/h5>\n<p>The principal architect for the bronze furnishings was Huram (Hebrew “Hiram”), whose father was a metal craftsman from Tyre and whose mother was an Israelite (1 Kgs 7:13-14). Cedar for the temple came from Lebanon and was felled and transported by the skilled woodsmen of another Hiram—the king of Tyre, Solomon’s ally (5:5-9). Thirty thousand Israelites, divided into three groups, were drafted to assist at Lebanon. Each group was on duty for one month in three. For the stonework, Solomon conscripted 153,600 foreigners resident in Israel to provide a self-contained group of carriers, stone cutters, and supervisors (vv 15-17; 2 Chr 2:17-18). Possibly the “men of Gebal,” with their specialized skills, formed yet another group (1 Kgs 5:18). Building the temple was obviously a national project of immense size and effort. In order to preserve the sanctity of the site and to eliminate noise, the masonry and carpentry were not done at the temple site (6:7).<\/p>\n<h5>Description<\/h5>\n<p>The details given in the Bible are sufficiently clear for us to make a reasonably accurate description of the temple. The accounts in Kings and Chronicles are supplemented by Ezekiel’s depiction of the temple (see below), which was broadly based on his knowledge of the Jerusalem temple (Ez 40–48).<\/p>\n<p>The side rooms probably rested on a foundation or platform that was separate from the temple itself (1 Kgs 6:5, 10; cf. Ez 41:8-9) and were arranged in three stories, each seven and a half feet (2.3 meters) high, extending around the whole building except for the porch side. Each successive story was one and a half feet (.5 meter) wider than the one below, these dimensions coinciding with the thickness of the side wall of the Holy Place. The ground floor rooms were seven and a half feet (2.3 meters) wide; the first story was nine feet (2.7 meters), and the second was ten and a half feet (3.2 meters). Access to the upper stories was possibly by winding staircases (1 Kgs 6:8). There is some uncertainty concerning the location of the entrances; there may have been one on either side, but only one is mentioned (v 8). As in Ezekiel’s temple (Ez 40:17, 28), there were two adjacent courts, an inner and an outer (1 Kgs 6:36; 7:12), but no dimensions are given for these. The inner court, or “court of the priests,” being next to the temple itself, was also called “the upper court” (2 Chr 4:9; Jer 36:10). The wall of the inner court was made of three layers of hewn stone held together by a layer of cedar beams (1 Kgs 6:36), and the doors of both courts were sheathed in bronze (2 Chr 4:9). The palace buildings were within the outer court area, probably with a private passageway between the palace and the temple that was later closed during the reign of Ahaz (2 Chr 4:9, 12; 2 Kgs 16:18).<\/p>\n<p>The temple itself was 90 feet (27.4 meters) long, 30 feet (9.1 meters) wide, and 45 feet (13.7 meters) high (1 Kgs 6:2), with a porch or vestibule 15 feet (4.6 meters) deep stretching across the width. Probably the vestibule was on the east end of the temple, thus corresponding with the orientation of Ezekiel’s temple (Ez 43:1; 44:1). The larger part of the main sanctuary, next to the porch, formed the Holy Place, which was 60 feet (18.3 meters) long (1 Kgs 6:17). Beyond this was the innermost sanctuary, the Holy of Holies (or the “Most Holy Place“), which was a perfect cube of 30 feet (9.1 meters). All the interior walls were paneled with cedar decorated with flower patterns, cherubim, and palm trees, so that no masonry was visible. The walls of both inner and outer sanctuaries were “overlaid” (v 22) with pure gold. Actually the gold decoration may have been inlaid, on the basis that a solid sheath of gold would spoil the natural beauty of the wood carving. The floor was made of cypress planks (v 15). Narrow windows set high in the walls above the level of the three-storied outer chambers provided light in the Holy Place (v 4). The ceiling was paneled with beams and planks of cedar. No detail is given about the exterior roofing, but probably the contemporary technique was employed, using a wooden, latticelike framework into which a waterproof, limestone plaster was packed and rolled.<\/p>\n<p>The outer porch was apparently an open space, since no doors are mentioned. Access into the Holy Place was by double doors, both hinged to fold back on themselves, made of cypress and decorated in exactly the same way as the interior walls (vv 34-35). The doorposts were made of olive wood. Within the Holy Place was the altar of incense made of cedar overlaid with gold; it was placed centrally before the Holy of Holies. Also in the Holy Place were a table for the bread of the Presence of God, ten lampstands arranged in two groups of five on either side, and various utensils required for maintaining the priestly duties (1 Kgs 7:48-50). All these were made or overlaid with gold. The ten tables, arranged five on each side, were presumably for the utensils and accessories (2 Chr 4:8).<\/p>\n<p>Between the Holy Place and the Holy of Holies was a double door made of olive wood, carved with cherubim, palm trees, and flower patterns and overlaid with gold. Inside these doors, veiling still further the Holy of Holies, was a blue, purple, and crimson curtain, made of the finest fabrics and ornamented with cherubim (2 Chr 3:14).<\/p>\n<p>In the Holy of Holies were two cherubim, each 15 feet (4.6 meters) high and made of olive wood covered with gold (1 Kgs 6:23-28). Each wing measured seven and a half feet (2.3 meters). A wing of each touched the side walls; the other wings met at the center of the room. The divine throne had been considerably less impressive in the tabernacle, where a wing of each cherubim fused into the mercy seat above the ark (Ex 25:17-22). In Solomon’s temple, the ark of the covenant was placed below the forward-facing cherubim, the symbolic protectors. The ark, the only major item surviving from the Mosaic tabernacle, still contained the tablets of the law, but the pot of manna and Aaron’s rod were missing (1 Kgs 8:9).<\/p>\n<p>Immediately outside the temple and on either side of the vestibule were two hollow bronze pillars (1 Kgs 7:15-20; 2 Chr 3:15-17). According to the book of Kings, these pillars were 27 feet (8.2 meters) high, with a circumference of 18 feet (5.5 meters). The metal itself was about four inches (10.2 centimeters) thick. The pillars were surmounted by bronze, lily-shaped capitals seven and a half feet (2.3 meters) high and six feet (1.8 meters) wide, intricately adorned with a chain latticework that supported two rows of pomegranates. The total weight must have been enormous, and their size is attested to by Jeremiah, who notes that the Babylonians had to break them in pieces before transporting them to Babylon (Jer 52:17, 21-23).<\/p>\n<p>The bronze altar of sacrifice in front of the vestibule is not listed in the specifications of 1 Kings 7. However, it is mentioned in the temple dedication and subsequently (1 Kgs 8:22, 54, 64; 9:25) and clearly stood in the inner court. Its dimensions were 30 feet (9.1 meters) square and 15 feet (4.6 meters) high (2 Chr 4:1). In view of its weight, it was probably cast in sections at Solomon’s foundry in the Jordan Rift valley (vv 17-18) and then transported to the temple site for assembly.<\/p>\n<p>Probably the most striking article in the inner court was the “molten (bronze) sea,” a huge, round tank made of bronze 3 inches (8 centimeters) thick, 7½ feet (2.3 meters) high, and 15 feet (4.6 meters) in diameter (1 Kgs 7:23-26). Its rim flared out like a lily (2 Chr 4:2-5). The tank was supported on 12 bronze oxen, four on each side, and had two rows of decoration, possibly gourds or pomegranates, under the brim. Its capacity was between 10,000 and 12,000 gallons (37,850–45,420 liters). The bronze sea was used for priestly ablutions (v 6). Presumably this involved a platform of sorts, for the brim of this vast basin would have been about 15 feet (4.6 meters) above ground level.<\/p>\n<p>Hiram also constructed ten large lavers, mounted on moveable stands and placed in two groups of five, on the north and south sides of the inner court (1 Kgs 7:27-39). Basically the stands were bronze boxes, six feet (1.8 meters) square and four and a half feet (1.4 meters) high with a nine-inch (22.9-centimeter) rim around the top edge. Each corner was attached to braced posts to which the axles were fixed. The four-spoked wheels were 27 inches (68.6 centimeters) high. Into each stand there fitted a laver containing approximately 220 gallons (832.7 liters) of water, used for washing sacrificial animals (2 Chr 4:6). Probably each was adjacent to one of the ten tables that would be used to flay and otherwise prepare the sacrifices (v 8). Supplementary items, such as pots, shovels, and basins, all made of bronze, were also manufactured (1 Kgs 7:40, 45).<\/p>\n<h5>The Dedication<\/h5>\n<p>Eleven months elapsed between the completion of the temple and its dedication (1 Kgs 6:38; 8:2), during which time the major items of furniture were set in place. The dedication itself took place in the seventh month, presumably in connection with the Feast of Tabernacles and the Day of Atonement (Lv 23:23-36). The ark of the covenant was brought into its final resting place (1 Kgs 8:3-4), but the inner court proved inadequate for the vast numbers of beasts sacrificed (1 Kgs 8:62-64; 2 Chr 7:7).<\/p>\n<p>The temple employed the most sophisticated building techniques of the age, and no expense had been spared in construction, ornamentation, or equipment. Yet Solomon readily confessed its utter inadequacy to house the eternal God (1 Kgs 8:27). His prayer also underlined Israel’s propensity to forsake the Lord, contrasting the nation with God, who, though a just judge, was also merciful and faithful. The climax of the proceedings came when fire from heaven consumed the sacrifices and the shekinah glory filled the temple (2 Chr 7:1-3).<\/p>\n<h5>Later History<\/h5>\n<p>Like most ancient shrines, the temple became a treasury for national wealth and as such was often the target for attack. Shishak of Egypt plundered it within five years of Solomon’s death (1 Kgs 14:25-38). Shortly afterward, King Asa (910–869 <span>BC<\/span>) depleted its gold and silver treasures to buy Syrian help against his oppressor, Baasha (908–886 <span>BC<\/span>), king of Israel (15:16-19). Joash, the king of Judah (835–796 <span>BC<\/span>) who was concealed in the temple from the vicious Athaliah during his youth (2 Kgs 11), made provision for its repair after protesting the priests’ embezzlement of gifts (12:4-16). But after the death of Jehoiada, the high priest, Joash himself was adversely influenced by his nobles (2 Chr 24:15-19). As punishment for his apostasy, the Lord allowed the Syrians to attack, and Joash used the temple treasures to buy them off (2 Kgs 12:17-18). Hardly had provision for replacements been made, when Jehoash of Israel (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>), having shattered the arrogant pride of Amaziah of Judah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>), again stripped the temple (14:8-14). Later, King Ahaz (735-715 <span>BC<\/span>) used the remaining resources of the temple to enlist support from the Assyrians (16:7-9), though he eventually became completely subservient to them.<\/p>\n<p> Then Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>), one of the great reforming kings, thoroughly renovated the temple and restored worship after it had fallen into disuse during theclosing years of Ahaz (2 Chr 29:1-19; 31:9-21). Manasseh (696–642 <span>BC<\/span>), however, completely reversed his father’s policy, bringing the practices of Canaanite and Mesopotamian worship into the temple (2 Kgs 21:3-7). His conversion experience, which probably occurred late in his reign and resulted in certain reform measures in the temple (2 Chr 33:12-19), was not far-reaching enough to escape the final judgment that his reign was the dark spot of Judah’s history (2 Kgs 21:10-16).<\/p>\n<p>Manasseh’s grandson Josiah (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>), was the second great reforming king. He organized the repair of the temple in 622 <span>BC<\/span>, during which the lost Book of the Law (almost certainly the book of Deuteronomy) was discovered (2 Kgs 22:3-13). As a result, Josiah’s reformation gained a new dimension and sense of urgency (22:14–23:3). The reformation included a thorough purge of all idolatrous elements from the temple (23:4-12) and the restoration of the traditional festivals. Sadly, however, Josiah’s reformation died with him, and Judah’s downward slide continued under the apostate Jehoiakim (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>). It was probably during this time that Jeremiah preached his famous temple sermon foretelling its destruction (Jer 7:1–8:3; 26:1-19), which alienated him from the religious leaders. In Nebuchadnezzar’s reprisal raid following Jehoiakim’s rebellion in 601 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 24:1-4), Jerusalem was captured (596 <span>BC<\/span>) and many of the temple treasures were transported to Babylon (2 Chr 36:7). The temple itself appears to have escaped damage, but when Judah again rebelled under Zedekiah (597–586 <span>BC<\/span>), the temple was demolished (2 Kgs 25:8-10). The remaining temple treasures were taken away.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ZerubbabelsTemple\">Zerubbabel’s Temple<\/p>\n<h5>Construction<\/h5>\n<p>Although the temple was devastated, the site still remained as a place of pilgrimage during the exile (Jer 41:4-5). In 538 <span>BC<\/span> the Persian king, Cyrus, in pursuance of a liberal policy diametrically opposed to that of the earlier empires, permitted the Jews to return from exile. And he authorized the rebuilding of the temple, financing it from the Persian treasury.<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Ezra, the decree of authorization has been preserved in two forms: the general proclamation (Ezr 1:2-4) and a more prosaic memorandum in the national archives indicating the main temple specifications and the amount of promised Persian help (6:1-5). Probably only a minority of the Jews opted to leave the relative comforts of Mesopotamia for the dangers of a long journey to their desolated homeland. According to the book of Ezra, 42,360 dedicated individuals and their servants (2:64-65) responded under the leadership of Sheshbazzar (1:8-11; 5:14-16) and Zerubbabel (2:2; 3:2, 8; 4:2). With great enthusiasm, the altar was rebuilt on the temple site and the traditional pattern of worship reestablished (3:1-6). Utilizing the grant from Persia as well as their own freewill gifts (2:68-69; 3:7), the Jews began to plan the second temple and lay its foundations (3:7-13). The initial impetus quickly died as a result of local opposition (4:1-4, 24), selfish preoccupation, and crop failures (Hg 1:2-11). In 520 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 4:24; Hg 1:1; Zec 1:1), inspired by the prophets Haggai and Zechariah, the Jews under Zerubbabel and Joshua the high priest commenced rebuilding. Work continued in spite of official suspicion, if not direct opposition, and the temple was completed and dedicated in 515 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 5:1–6:22).<\/p>\n<p>Little is known of the physical features of Zerubbabel’s temple. The inference that it was vastly inferior to Solomon’s temple (Hg 2:3) probably relates to an early stage in the building operation. In fact, the second temple stood for over 500 years. The dimensions noted in Ezra 6:3 are incomplete; the new temple was no doubt about the same size as its predecessor and was probably built on the same foundation. The construction technique appears to have followed the method of the original, with layers of timber providing a framework for sections of masonry (v 4). Clearly, there was auxiliary accommodation, probably like the side rooms of Solomon’s temple (Ezr 8:29; Neh 12:44; 13:4-5). If Persian aid was forthcoming as promised (Ezr 6:8-12), the second temple was a more splendid, substantial structure than is generally supposed.<\/p>\n<h5>Later History<\/h5>\n<p>Several references in the Apocrypha, pseudepigrapha, rabbinic writings, and the historian Josephus help to illumine the history of the temple and give more detail on its structure and furnishings. Josephus, quoting from Hecateus of Abdera (fourth century <span>BC<\/span>), states that the temple was a large building in an enclosure about 500 feet by 150 feet (152.4 meters by 45.7 meters), surrounded by a stone wall, with an altar of unhewn stones the same size as Solomon’s bronze altar (cf. 2 Chr 4:1). Within the sanctuary was a golden altar of incense and a lampstand, the flame of which burned continually. Josephus also notes that Antiochus III (223–187 <span>BC<\/span>) financially supported the temple when the Seleucids displaced the Ptolemies as masters of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Ben Sirach, early in the second century <span>BC<\/span>, commended Simon, the son of Onias the high priest, for his work in fortifying and repairing the temple area. First Maccabees provides valuable evidence of the fate of the temple during the oppression under Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175–164 <span>BC<\/span>). The books of the Maccabees recount the defilement of the altar of burnt offering (1 Macc 1:54) and the plundering of the golden lampstand, altar of incense, table of offering, veil, and other treasures (2 Macc 5:15-16; 6:2-4). When the temple was recaptured and restored, the victorious Maccabees replaced the items taken by the Seleucids, except for the altar of sacrifice, which was considered so polluted that it was dismantled and replaced by a new one constructed of unhewn stone (1 Macc 4:36-61; 2 Macc 10:1-9). Clearly the temple area was used as a fortress, both in opposition to the Seleucid garrison that was maintained in Jerusalem in the Maccabean period and in the conflicts of the later Hasmonean period. When Pompey captured Jerusalem about 63 <span>BC<\/span>, he entered the temple to assert his authority but took no plunder, thus showing respect for it.<\/p>\n<p>The history of Zerubbabel’s temple closed when Herod, having carefully preserved it from any major damage when he gained control of Jerusalem with Roman aid in 37 <span>BC<\/span>, began to dismantle it about 21 <span>BC<\/span> in preparation for the construction of his own grand temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HerodsTemple\">Herod’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>Apart from over 100 references in the NT, our main sources of information about Herod’s temple come from the Jewish historian Josephus and from the Middoth (a section of the Jewish rabbinic writings). There are considerable differences in detail between the two, which rules out any dogmatic interpretation in attempted reconstructions. Since Josephus was contemporary with the temple (he was born about <span>AD<\/span> 37 and died early in the second century), he is probably more reliable than the Middoth, which, dating from about <span>AD<\/span> 150, appears to exaggerate occasionally. Archaeological research has been helpful in determining the positions of the outer walls and gates.<\/p>\n<p>Herod’s motive in building his temple was political rather than religious. As an Idumean, he wished to placate his Jewish subjects by constructing a sanctuary as magnificent as Solomon’s. Possible fears that the site might be profaned, or that the existing temple might be demolished and never rebuilt, were allayed by the training of 1,000 priests as masons and the amassing of materials before the work commenced. Herod’s temple followed the tripartite plan of its predecessors, although its porch was much larger. It was built in the contemporary Greco-Roman architectural style and must therefore be regarded as distinct from Zerubbabel’s temple. Work began in 20 <span>BC<\/span>, and while the main sanctuary was quickly erected (it was in full operation within ten years), the total project was not completed until <span>AD<\/span> 64, only six years before it was destroyed by the Romans.<\/p>\n<p>Herod first prepared the site by clearing and leveling an area approximately 500 yards (457.2 meters) from north to south and about 325 yards (297.2 meters) from east to west. This involved cutting away sections of rock in some areas and building up with rubble in others. Considerable sections of the enclosing wall, constructed on stone blocks averaging about 15 feet (4.6 meters) long by 4 feet (1.2 meters) high, still survive. Some of the stones in the corners of the south wall weigh up to 70 tons (63.5 metric tons).<\/p>\n<p>The sanctuary itself seems to have been based on the same dimensions as Solomon’s temple. It was divided into the Holy Place, which was 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, 30 feet (9.1 meters) wide, and 60 feet high, and the Holy of Holies, which was 30 feet square. There was no furniture within the Holy of Holies, which was separated by a veil from the Holy Place. The Holy Place contained the seven-branch lampstand, the table for the bread of the Presence, and the incense altar. The main divergence from Solomon’s temple was the imposing porch, 150 feet (45.7 meters) in width and height. Outside was a doorway approximately 30 feet (9.1 meters) wide by 40 feet (12.2 meters) high, with an inner doorway about half that size leading into the sanctuary. By allowing empty rooms over the Holy of Holies and the Holy Place, there was a uniform roof height of 150 feet (45.7 meters). Golden spikes on the roof discouraged birds from alighting and defiling the structure. Like its predecessors, the temple was oriented toward the east and was surrounded on the other sides by three stories of rooms rising to a height of 60 feet (18.3 meters). The stone used was the local white stone, cut in huge blocks and highly polished.<\/p>\n<p>Access to the porch was by a flight of 12 steps from the Court of the Priests. Centrally placed before the porch and 33 feet (10.1 meters) away was the altar of sacrifice. Made of unhewn stone, it was a multilevel construction 15 feet (4.6 meters) high and about 48 feet (14.6 meters) square at its base. Male Israelites were allowed into this area once a year, during the Feast of the Tabernacles, to walk around the altar of sacrifice. Otherwise, they were restricted to the Court of Israel. To the east of the Court of Israel, and separated from it by a flight of 15 steps and by the ornate Great Gate, made of Corinthian bronze, was the Court of the Women. Here the offertory chests for temple expenses were located (Mk 12:41-44). The next court was the large, lower, outer Court of the Gentiles, which surrounded the inner courts and was separated from them by a balustrade and a series of warning notices. Two of these have been excavated, written in Latin and Greek and forbidding trespass by Gentiles into the inner areas, on pain of death. This outer court was widely used. Immediately inside its walls was a portico, supported by four rows of columns almost 40 feet (12.2 meters) high on the south side (the Royal Porch), and two rows on the other sides, the eastern portico known as “Solomon’s Porch” or “Solomon’s Colonnade.” Here is the area where the stalls of the money changers and merchants were set up, where the Sanhedrin met, and where Christ and the scribes taught and debated (Mk 11:27; Lk 2:46; 19:47; Jn 10:23). Here, too, the infant church met before it was rejected by a hostile Judaism (Acts 3:11; 5:12). Just to the northwest of the temple enclosure was the Fortress of Antonia, where the Roman governor resided while in Jerusalem, and where a Roman garrison was on hand to deal with disturbances (Acts 21:31-40). Overlooking the temple area, it was separated from it by a wide moat. The high priest’s vestments were stored in the fortress as a symbol of Roman authority. Access to the Court of the Gentiles was by four gates in the west wall; two in the south wall, where the ground fell away steeply into the valley, a site often identified as the pinnacle of the temple (Mt 4:5; Lk 4:9); and one gate in each of the east and north walls.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SignificanceoftheTempleintheOldTestament\">Significance of the Temple in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The temple in Jerusalem functioned as the focal point of the tribal confederation. In spite of the attempt of Jeroboam I, the first king of the northern kingdom, to divert attention from Jerusalem by establishing shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:26-30), Jerusalem never lost its preeminence. Naturally, both Hezekiah and Josiah sought to extend their reformation into the area of the northern tribes (2 Chr 30:1-12; 34:6-7), and Jerusalem was a pilgrimage center for those areas even after its destruction (Jer 41:5). The prophets foretold its destiny as the focal point of universal worship (Is 2:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>The temple was God’s dwelling place among his people. God’s presence, symbolized in the shekinah glory and the pillar of cloud, was associated with the tent of meeting (Ex 33:9-11), with the tabernacle (40:34-38), and finally with the temple (1 Kgs 8:10-11). The paradox is that while God is completely unrestricted, the temple was considered a place for God to live forever (vv 13, 27). God had chosen Zion, as he had chosen David (Pss 68:15-18; 76:2; 78:67-72), so the temple was regarded as God’s house (27:4; 42:4; 84:1-4).<\/p>\n<h5>Ezekiel’s Temple<\/h5>\n<p>Ezekiel’s detailed description of the ideal temple (Ez 40–48) was not used as the blueprint for Zerubbabel’s temple. In fact, since Ezekiel must have been familiar with Solomon’s temple before his deportation in 597 <span>BC<\/span>, his description is of greater help in determining uncertain details of the first temple. Ezekiel’s concern was to show the nature of pure worship, safeguarded from all contamination. This worship would allow the glory of God, which had departed from corrupted Solomon’s temple (9:3; 10:4, 18-19: 11:22-23), to return so that Jerusalem could again be named “the Lord is there” (43:1-5; 48:35). This thought, linked with Ezekiel’s vital concept of God’s Spirit indwelling his faithful worshipers (36:24-28), anticipated the NT teaching of the believers becoming God’s temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SignificanceoftheTempleintheNewTestament\">Significance of the Temple in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>Christ and the Temple<\/h5>\n<p>Christ showed considerable respect for the temple. When he was 12 years old, he entered into the rabbinic discussions in its porticoes and described it as his Father’s house (Lk 2:41-50). To him “the house of God” was indwelt by God (Mt 12:4; 23:21). Although he twice cleansed it in righteous anger (Mt 21:12-13; Jn 2:13-16), he wept over the impending destruction of the city and temple (Lk 19:41-44). He often taught there, but he was “greater than the temple” (Mt 12:6). When his presentation to Jerusalem as the predicted Messiah was rejected, in spite of attendant miracles, he foretold its inevitable destruction (Mt 21:9-15; 24:1-2). For a brief period after Pentecost, the early church used the temple as its meeting place, until mounting opposition drove believers from Jerusalem (Acts 5:12, 21, 42; 8:1).<\/p>\n<h5>The Church as the Temple<\/h5>\n<p>The NT writers used two different Greek words to describe the temple: <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span><em>.<\/em> <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Naos<\/span> refers to the actual sanctuary of the temple, the place of God’s dwelling. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Hieron<\/span> refers to the temple precincts as well as to the sanctuary. Generally speaking, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> was used to designate the inner section of the temple known as the Holy Place and the Holy of Holies, whereas <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span> included the outer court and the temple proper.<\/p>\n<p>In Paul’s epistles the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> appears six times (1 Cor 3:16-17; 6:19; 2 Cor 6:16; Eph 2:21; 2 Thes 2:4) and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span> once (1 Cor 9:13). In these verses Paul maintains the distinction of definition noted above. When speaking of the actual physical temple, he used the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span> to indicate the place where the priests offered up animal sacrifices on the altar (1 Cor 9:13), which was situated in the outer court (see Ex 27–29, 40). And when Paul referred to the abominable act of the lawless one in usurping God’s place in the temple, he used the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span>—the word that designates the place of deity’s presence (2 Thes 2:4).<\/p>\n<p>In all the other Pauline passages, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> is used metaphorically—to depict a human habitation for the divine Spirit. In one instance the sanctuary image is used to describe the individual believer’s body (1 Cor 6:19); in every other instance the sanctuary depicts Christ’s body, the church (1 Cor 3:16-17; 2 Cor 6:16; Eph 2:21). Mistakenly, many readers think 1 Corinthians 3:16-17 speaks of the individual, but according to the Greek text, it is unquestionably clear that Paul was speaking about the collective church (specifically, the church in Corinth).<\/p>\n<p>When Paul told the church in Corinth that it was God’s sanctuary, they would have understood the image from their knowledge of pagan temples. But Paul probably had in mind the one temple in Jerusalem. The Gentiles had many gods with many temples in one city; the Jews had one God with only one temple in all of Israel. This helped to preserve unity among the Israelites. The Corinthians needed spiritual unity; they were fragmented due to their individual preferences (see 1 Cor 1:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>In Ephesians, Paul’s masterpiece on the church, he speaks of the local churches as living, organic entities that are all (compositely speaking) growing into a holy sanctuary in the Lord (Eph 2:21). Paul pictured each local church as providing God with a spiritual habitation in that locality (v 22) and as growing together with all the other churches into one holy, universal sanctuary for the Lord’s indwelling.<\/p>\n<h5>The Temple in John’s Revelation<\/h5>\n<p>In John’s revelation there is no material temple, even though he continues to use the imagery of Jerusalem and Mt Zion (Rv 3:12; 14:1; 21:2, 10, 22). Three interrelated ideas dominate. First is the concept of the church made up of martyrs, whose faithful members are God’s temple (3:12; 14:1). This temple grows gradually as the number of martyrs increases (6:11). Another aspect is the temple as the place of judgment (11:19; 14:15; 15:5–16:1). Finally, any temple in the new age is unnecessary, “for its temple is the Lord God Almighty and the Lamb” (21:22). The ultimate state will be God’s dwelling with his people—the eternal, spritual temple.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Altar; Ark of the Covenant; Bread of the Presence; David; Feasts and Festivals of Israel; First Jewish Revolt; Judaism; Mercy Seat; Offerings and Sacrifices; Priests and Levites; Sanctuary; Singers in the Temple; Solomon (Person).<\/p>","summary_ro":"TEMPLE Preview • Background • Solomon’s Temple • Zerubbabel’s Temple • Herod’s Temple • Significance of the Temple in the Old Testament • Significance of the Temple in the New Testament Background David’s capture of Jerusalem (2 Sm 5:6-9) and his designation of it as the nation’s capital is one of the great masterstrokes of history. Occupied by the Jebusites, it was a pocket of neutral territory between the northern and southern sections of David’s united kingdom and was politically acceptabl...","summary_en":"TEMPLE Preview • Background • Solomon’s Temple • Zerubbabel’s Temple • Herod’s Temple • Significance of the Temple in the Old Testament • Significance of the Temple in the New Testament Background David’s capture of Jerusalem (2 Sm 5:6-9) and his designation of it as the nation’s capital is one of the great masterstrokes of history. Occupied by the Jebusites, it was a pocket of neutral territory between the northern and southern sections of David’s united kingdom and was politically acceptabl...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48001,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:64","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:64","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:64-66<\/strong> <em>42,360 people:<\/em> This number, which does not match the total of individuals (28,774) listed in 2:3-42, might include children. • The large number of <em>servants<\/em> and animals shows that some of the Jews who returned were wealthy.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:64-66<\/strong> <em>42,360 people:<\/em> This number, which does not match the total of individuals (28,774) listed in 2:3-42, might include children. • The large number of <em>servants<\/em> and animals shows that some of the Jews who returned were wealthy.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:64-66 42,360 people: This number, which does not match the total of individuals (28,774) listed in 2:3-42, might include children. • The large number of servants and animals shows that some of the Jews who returned were wealthy.","summary_en":"2:64-66 42,360 people: This number, which does not match the total of individuals (28,774) listed in 2:3-42, might include children. • The large number of servants and animals shows that some of the Jews who returned were wealthy.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75627,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:64","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:64","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:64-66<\/strong> <em>42,360 people:<\/em> This number, which does not match the total of individuals (28,774) listed in 2:3-42, might include children. • The large number of <em>servants<\/em> and animals shows that some of the Jews who returned were wealthy.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:64-66<\/strong> <em>42,360 people:<\/em> This number, which does not match the total of individuals (28,774) listed in 2:3-42, might include children. • The large number of <em>servants<\/em> and animals shows that some of the Jews who returned were wealthy.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:64-66 42,360 people: This number, which does not match the total of individuals (28,774) listed in 2:3-42, might include children. • The large number of servants and animals shows that some of the Jews who returned were wealthy.","summary_en":"2:64-66 42,360 people: This number, which does not match the total of individuals (28,774) listed in 2:3-42, might include children. • The large number of servants and animals shows that some of the Jews who returned were wealthy.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103253,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:64","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:64","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:64-66<\/strong> <em>42,360 people:<\/em> This number, which does not match the total of individuals (28,774) listed in 2:3-42, might include children. • The large number of <em>servants<\/em> and animals shows that some of the Jews who returned were wealthy.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:64-66<\/strong> <em>42,360 people:<\/em> This number, which does not match the total of individuals (28,774) listed in 2:3-42, might include children. • The large number of <em>servants<\/em> and animals shows that some of the Jews who returned were wealthy.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:64-66 42,360 people: This number, which does not match the total of individuals (28,774) listed in 2:3-42, might include children. • The large number of servants and animals shows that some of the Jews who returned were wealthy.","summary_en":"2:64-66 42,360 people: This number, which does not match the total of individuals (28,774) listed in 2:3-42, might include children. • The large number of servants and animals shows that some of the Jews who returned were wealthy.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":130879,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:64","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:64","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:64-66<\/strong> <em>42,360 people:<\/em> This number, which does not match the total of individuals (28,774) listed in 2:3-42, might include children. • The large number of <em>servants<\/em> and animals shows that some of the Jews who returned were wealthy.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:64-66<\/strong> <em>42,360 people:<\/em> This number, which does not match the total of individuals (28,774) listed in 2:3-42, might include children. • The large number of <em>servants<\/em> and animals shows that some of the Jews who returned were wealthy.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:64-66 42,360 people: This number, which does not match the total of individuals (28,774) listed in 2:3-42, might include children. • The large number of servants and animals shows that some of the Jews who returned were wealthy.","summary_en":"2:64-66 42,360 people: This number, which does not match the total of individuals (28,774) listed in 2:3-42, might include children. • The large number of servants and animals shows that some of the Jews who returned were wealthy.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"66":[{"id":1848,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Animals","title_en":"Animals","content_ro":"<h3>ANIMALS<\/h3>\n<p>In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals as object lessons.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical approach to classification of animals is somewhat different from the system of classification used by biologists today. The present system of classification, which traces back to Carolus Linnaeus (an 18th-century Swedish botanist), is based on structure, both internal and external. The biblical basis of classification is habitat. Thus Genesis 1 speaks of aquatic organisms (v 20); aerial organisms (v 21); animals that crawl on the ground (v 24); cattle or domesticated animals (animals that live in association with humans) (v 24); and wild animals (v 24). The same system of classification is followed in Leviticus 11 and throughout Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Because of the divergence between systems of classification, the various animals of the Bible will be listed here in alphabetical order—including reptiles, fish, and even invertebrates such as insects, spiders, worms, and sponges. Birds are discussed in a separate article.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Adder<\/p>\n<p>• Ant<\/p>\n<p>• Antelope<\/p>\n<p>• Ape<\/p>\n<p>• Asp<\/p>\n<p>• Ass<\/p>\n<p>• Badger<\/p>\n<p>• Bat<\/p>\n<p>• Bear<\/p>\n<p>• Bee<\/p>\n<p>• Behemoth<\/p>\n<p>• Camel<\/p>\n<p>• Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>• Cattle<\/p>\n<p>• Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>• Coral<\/p>\n<p>• Cricket<\/p>\n<p>• Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>• Deer<\/p>\n<p>• Dog<\/p>\n<p>• Donkey<\/p>\n<p>• Dragon<\/p>\n<p>• Fish<\/p>\n<p>• Flea<\/p>\n<p>• Fly<\/p>\n<p>• Fox<\/p>\n<p>• Frog<\/p>\n<p>• Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>• Gecko<\/p>\n<p>• Gnat<\/p>\n<p>• Goat<\/p>\n<p>• Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>• Hare<\/p>\n<p>• Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>• Horse<\/p>\n<p>• Hyena<\/p>\n<p>• Jackal<\/p>\n<p>• Leech<\/p>\n<p>• Leopard<\/p>\n<p>• Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>• Lion<\/p>\n<p>• Lizard<\/p>\n<p>• Locust<\/p>\n<p>• Mole<\/p>\n<p>• Moth<\/p>\n<p>• Mouse<\/p>\n<p>• Mule<\/p>\n<p>• Pig<\/p>\n<p>• Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>• Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>• Sheep<\/p>\n<p>• Snail<\/p>\n<p>• Snake<\/p>\n<p>• Spider<\/p>\n<p>• Sponge<\/p>\n<p>• Unicorn<\/p>\n<p>• Wasp<\/p>\n<p>• Whale<\/p>\n<p>• Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>• Wolf<\/p>\n<p>• Worm<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Adder\">Adder<\/p>\n<p>One of the 20 poisonous snakes found in Israel and surrounding countries, also referred to as cockatrice and viper. True vipers (genus <em>Cerastes, Echis colorata,<\/em> and <em>Vipera palestina<\/em>) also exist there, poisonous snakes with curved fangs that spring into position when the snake strikes. The horned viper <em>(Cerastes hasselquistii)<\/em> may attack horses. It is 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 centimeters) long and often lies in ambush in the sand with only its eyes and the hornlike protrusions on its head visible.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and John the Baptist referred to the viper several times (Mt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33). The reference in Acts 28:3 is probably to a small viper <em>(Vipera aspis)<\/em> that strikes rapidly and is very pugnacious. It is found in southern Europe and hisses each time it inhales and exhales. The poison of vipers attacks the respiratory system and disintegrates red blood cells.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ant\">Ant<\/p>\n<p>Mentioned only twice in the Bible, both times in the book of Proverbs. For many years Solomon was charged with a biological error when he referred to the ant as providing her meat in the summer and gathering her food in the harvest (Prv 6:8). Critics of the Bible were quick to point out that, so far as was then known, ants do not store up food. They assumed that Solomon had probably kicked open an ant hill and mistaken the pupal cases (pods in which immature ants grow to maturity) for grain or had observed ants carrying bits of grain, leaves, and other matter to their nests.<\/p>\n<p>At least three species of grain-storing ants are now known—two occur in Israel and the other in Mediterranean countries. The particular species referred to by Solomon (Prv 6:6-8; 30:24-25) is probably the harvester ant <em>(Messor semirufus).<\/em> Its granaries are flat chambers connected by galleries irregularly scattered over an area about six feet (1.8 meters) in diameter and about a foot (.3 meter) deep in the ground. Seeds are collected from the ground or picked from plants. The head, or radicle, which is the softest part of the kernel, is bitten off to prevent germination, and the chaff and empty capsules are discarded on kitchen middens (refuse piles) outside the nest. Individual granaries may be 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) in diameter and a half inch (1.2 centimeters) high. Some nests are known to be 40 feet (12 meters) in diameter and 6 to 7 feet (approx. 2 meters) deep with several entrances.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Antelope\">Antelope<\/p>\n<p>Several antelope-like creatures are referred to in the Scriptures. One seems to be the white oryx <em>(Oryx leucoryx),<\/em> referred to in Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild ox”; <span>rsv<\/span> “antelope”) and Isaiah 51:20 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild bull”; <span>RSV <\/span>“antelope”). The oryx was probably the antelope, commonly used for food because its long horns made it relatively easy to catch.<\/p>\n<p>Another antelope mentioned in the Bible is the addax <em>(Addax nasomaculatus),<\/em> probably the “pygarg” of Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span>). It is a native of North Africa with grayish white hinder parts, a white patch on the forehead, and twisted and ringed horns. The word “pygarg” comes from a Greek word meaning “white rump.” The addax is about the size of a donkey. Its body is closely covered with short hair. It has a short mane on the underside of its neck that makes the head look somewhat like that of a goat. The hooves are broad and flat, and the tail resembles that of a donkey. It is common in Africa and in Arabia, where Arabs hunt it with falcons and dogs.<\/p>\n<p>Antelopes are very graceful and run with their heads held high. Both sexes have long, permanent, hollow horns. With the oryx the horns go straight back; addax horns are twisted and ringed. Antelope are alert, wary, and keen sighted. They are usually found in herds of from two to a dozen. If injured or brought to bay, an antelope attacks with its head lowered so that the sharp horns point forward. Antelopes feed on grasses and shrubs, drinking from streams and water holes. When water is scarce, they eat melons and succulent bulbs. Both addax and oryx were ceremonially clean in Jewish law.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ape\">Ape<\/p>\n<p>Primate not native to Palestine. The two references to apes in the OT (1 Kgs 10:22; 2 Chr 9:21) refer to their importation by King Solomon with other treasures on board the ships of his mercantile fleet. There is some question concerning the origin of those primates. Some believe that the mention of “ivory” in the same verses suggests they came from East Africa and that they were indeed apes, that is, tailless primates. Others, believing they came from India or Ceylon, suggest that they were actually monkeys. There the baboon (genus Papeio), a large monkey, was considered sacred to the god Thoth. Males of that genus were kept in temples, and the more docile females were often kept as house pets. Such baboons frequently had some of their teeth removed or ground down to lessen the danger of their biting. A number of mummified baboons have been found in Egypt, indicating the high regard in which they were held.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Asp\">Asp<\/p>\n<p>Poisonous snake. Most biblical references to the asp (Dt 32:33) seem to be to the Egyptian cobra <em>(Naja haje),<\/em> which conceals itself in holes, walls, and rocks and has the ability to expand its neck by raising its anterior ribs so as to enlarge the front of its breast into the shape of a flat disc. Its potent poison can cause death in 30 minutes. It attains a length of about 80 inches (2 meters). The fangs are permanently erect, not movable as in the vipers (the common poisonous snakes of North America; only the coral snake in America has permanently erect fangs). Cobra poison attacks the nervous system, causing muscular paralysis. The Egyptians looked upon it as a sacred creature; they regarded it as a protector since it fed on the rodents that ate their crops. The “fiery serpents” (Nm 21:6; Dt 8:15, both <span>rsv<\/span>) may have been cobras; “fiery” probably refers to the burning fever caused by their venom. Isaiah 14:29 and 30:6 (“flying serpent”) may refer to the hood of the cobra.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ass\">Ass<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Donkey (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Badger\">Badger<\/p>\n<p>Small hoofed mammal. What the <span>kjv<\/span> calls a “coney,” modern translations name “rock badger” (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7; Ps 104:18; Prv 30:26). The rock badger spoken of in the Bible is probably the Syrian rock hyrax <em>(Hyrax syriaca),<\/em> the only species of hyrax found outside Africa. This small ungulate (having hooflike toenails) lives among rocks from the Dead Sea valley to Mt Hermon. It is strictly a herbivorous (plant-eating) animal about the size of a rabbit. It resembles a guinea pig more than a rabbit, having quite inconspicuous ears and a very small tail. It has broad nails with four toes on its forelegs and three on its hind legs, the toes being connected with skin almost like a web. Pads acting as sucking discs under its feet enable it to keep its footing on slippery rocks. With its yellow and brown fur, it is sometimes called the bear rat because of its resemblance to a tailless rat. It is also equipped with black whiskers that may be seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p>These rock badgers, or hyraxes, live together in colonies of from 6 to 50 animals, often sunning themselves on rocks. They are difficult to catch. Guards are posted, and if approaching danger is sighted, the whole group will scurry for cover, warned by the sharp whistles of the guards. Thus they are commended for taking refuge in the rocks (Ps 104:18) and are called wise for making “their houses in the rocks” (Prv 30:24, 26, <span>kjv<\/span>). The badger is not a ruminant (does not chew its cud), but the motion of its jaws may suggest that it chews its cud. That is probably why it was included with other cud-chewing animals in the Jewish food laws (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7). It was forbidden to the Jews as food because it did not have cloven hooves. Some Arabs eat and even prize its meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bat\">Bat<\/p>\n<p>Flying mammals according to modern classification. They have hair and provide milk for their young. The Bible classifies them with other aerial creatures. Bats take shelter in caves, crevices, tree cavities, buildings, and also in exposed places on trees. In colder areas they hibernate or migrate. The normal resting position for a bat is hanging head downward. Bats “swim” through the air rather than fly because they move with their legs as well as with their wings.<\/p>\n<p>The bat’s thumb is free and terminates in a single hook claw used for climbing and hanging. The hind feet have five toes, all pointing the same way. The large chest accommodates the powerful muscles needed for flying. Because they orient themselves by echo location, the sense of hearing is very well developed.<\/p>\n<p>Most bats are insect eaters, seizing insects in flight. Many insectivorous bats also eat some fruit. Other bats feed exclusively, usually in groups, on fruit and green vegetation. Fruit-eating bats generally live in the tropics where fruit is constantly ripening, although some have been found in the Holy Land. These bats tend to be larger than the insectivores, having a wingspread of up to five feet (1.5 meters).<\/p>\n<p>A third group includes flower-eating bats that feed on pollen and nectar. These small bats with long pointed heads and long tongues are found only in tropical and semitropical regions. Three species of vampire bats, which do not occur in the Holy Land, eat blood by making a small incision and lapping it up. Carnivorous (meat-eating) bats prey on birds, lizards, and frogs. Fish-eating bats catch fish at or near the water surface.<\/p>\n<p>Eight varieties of bats are known in the Holy Land. One of them, the little brown bat (genus <em>Myotis<\/em>), is worldwide in its distribution. It is insectivorous and probably has the widest distribution of any nonhuman terrestrial mammal. Brown bats are mostly cave dwellers. The females form maternity colonies that may number in the tens of thousands.<\/p>\n<p>Two species of mouse-tailed bats (genus <em>Rhinopoma<\/em>) are found in the Holy Land. Their tails are nearly as long as the head and body combined. They are colonial, roosting in caves, rock clefts, wells, pyramids, palaces, and houses. Like the brown bat, they are insectivorous. The slit-faced or hollow-faced bats (genus <em>Nycteris<\/em>) are also found in the Holy Land. They are insectivorous and roost in groups from 6 to 20.<\/p>\n<p>The bats found in the Holy Land vary in size from that of a mouse to the size of a rat; the largest species measures more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) across the wings. The bat was unclean to the Jews (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bear\">Bear<\/p>\n<p>Large, heavy, big-headed mammal with short, powerful limbs, a short tail, and small eyes and ears. Bears have a “plantigrade” walk: they walk on both the sole and heel as humans do. The Palestinian bear is a Syrian version of the brown bear <em>(Ursus arctos syriacus).<\/em> It can grow to a height of 6 feet (1.8 meters) and may weigh as much as 500 pounds (227 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>Bears have an excellent sense of smell but less developed senses of sight and hearing. They are omnivorous (eating any kind of food); they subsist largely on vegetation, fruits, insects, and fish.<\/p>\n<p>Bears are usually peaceful and inoffensive, but if they think they must defend themselves (Lam 3:10) or their young (2 Sm 17:8; Prv 17:12; Hos 13:8), they may be formidable and dangerous adversaries. David boasted of his role as a bear killer (1 Sm 17:34-37). Since a blow from a bear’s paw can be fatal, David’s courage and strength as a young shepherd in running after a bear and wrenching one of his father’s sheep from its jaws were noteworthy.<\/p>\n<p>Some biblical passages seem to imply that bears attacked for no apparent reason (e.g., Prv 28:15; Am 5:19). At other times they were God’s instruments of punishment, as in the story of Elisha and the two she-bears (2 Kgs 2:24). The bear and the lion, often mentioned together in the Bible (1 Sm 17:37), were the two largest and strongest beasts of prey in the Holy Land. Thus they symbolized both strength and terror (Am 5:19).<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times bears seem to have roamed all over Palestine. Today they are found only in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and even there they are rare.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bee\">Bee<\/p>\n<p>One of two domesticated insects <em>(Apis mellifica),<\/em> the other being the silkworm. Bees gather nectar from flowers, transferring pollen from one flower to another in the process. It is believed that they convey the location of sources of nectar to other bees through a bee “dance,” which may indicate both distance and direction. Bees are sensitive to four colors: blue-green, yellow-green, blue-violet, and ultra-violet (invisible to humans).<\/p>\n<p>The wild bees of the Holy Land are especially noted for their ferocity in attack. Only the female “worker” bees sting people and animals, the virulence of their venom increasing in warm weather. A number of biblical passages allude to the irritable, vindictive nature of bees and to the painful stings they inflict (Dt 1:44; Ps 118:12; Is 7:18).<\/p>\n<p>One reference calls attention to the fact that in semidesert regions a dead animal’s carcass, stripped to the bone by jackals or vultures and dried in the sun, can provide wild bees an excellent place to start a new colony (Jgs 14:5-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptians considered the bee sacred. In ancient Greece candles were made from beeswax. In the Holy Land, beekeeping was probably not practiced until the Hellenistic period (second century <span>BC<\/span>), although Ezekiel 27:17 suggests that it may have been practiced earlier. If domestic honey was not available to the Hebrews, wild honey certainly was, and travelers would be on the lookout for caches of honey in rocky clefts and other likely places. The Philistines and the Hittites practiced beekeeping in their cities.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible contains many references to bees and bee products. A bee swarm was a valuable asset, though the price of honey itself was low. Honey was sometimes eaten with the honeycomb (Sg 5:1). Honey also had uses other than food, e.g., in embalming.<\/p>\n<p>The land of Israel was described as a land flowing with milk and honey. Honey was a major source of sweetening in the ancient Near East—hence, its importance (cf. Jgs 14:8-9). Actually the Hebrew word for “honey” may include not only bee honey but also the sweet syrup extracted from such fruits as figs, dates, and grapes. Thus “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ex 3:8, <span>rsv<\/span>) does not necessarily stand for a land of bees but for a land rich in sweetness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Honey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Behemoth\">Behemoth<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Hippopotamus (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Camel\">Camel<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of burden. Unintelligent, ill-natured, and quarrelsome, the camel <em>(Camelus dromedarius)<\/em> is nevertheless a blessing to people living in the desert and on its borders because it is especially adapted to that habitat. It has been called the ship of the desert. Having thick elastic pads of fibrous tissue on its feet, it can walk on hot desert sands. It can go without water for long periods and can subsist on vegetation growing on the saline soils. The camel’s nostrils are pinched together and can be closed at will to prevent penetration of sand during violent sandstorms.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are used for transporting both goods and people. A person riding a camel can cover from 60 to 75 miles (96.5 to 121 kilometers) in a day. A camel can carry a load weighing 600 pounds (272 kilograms) or more. Camels were used heavily in the spice trade (Gn 37:25) and traveled regularly in camel trains between Arabia, Egypt, and Assyria. They were also ridden in time of war (Jgs 6:5). A camel can even be hitched to a plow in areas where the land is cultivated.<\/p>\n<p>The hair shed by camels during the early spring is preserved and used in weaving cloth and making tents. As much as 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of hair can be obtained from one camel. A rough cloak of camel’s hair, as worn by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4), is still worn by Bedouins today. A camel’s hair garment was also the sign of the prophetic office (Zec 13:4).<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of camel occur within the one-humped species, the slow burden-bearing camel referred to in Genesis 37:25 and the fast dromedary of 1 Samuel 30:17. The dromedary can stand seven feet (2.1 meters) tall and measure as much as nine feet (2.7 meters) from the muzzle to the tip of the tail. With its three-chambered stomach, which can hold from 15 to 30 quarts (14.2 to 28.4 liters) of liquid, it can go for as long as 5 days during the summer or 25 days in winter without drinking. The camel’s hump is a reserve store of fat, making it possible for the animal to subsist on very little food during a desert journey.<\/p>\n<p>Another species of camel, the Bactrian camel <em>(Camelus bactrianus),<\/em> is also resident in the Holy Land. It has two humps. It is heavier, bigger, and has longer hair than the one-humped camel and is slower than the swift dromedary. Isaiah 21:7 may refer to the Bactrian camel; both kinds of camel are referred to in Esther 8:10 (<span>kjv<\/span>). Camels ranked in importance with sheep, cattle, and asses in OT times. A third of the 66 biblical references to the camel lists it with other animals.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are ruminants (cud-chewing mammals) but do not have cloven hooves. Thus, they were included in the list of unclean beasts, forbidden by the Israelites as food (Lv 11:4; Dt 14:7). They are eaten by Arabs, however, who also drink their milk (cf. Gn 32:15).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham had camels in Egypt (Gn 12:16). At first Job had 3,000 camels (Jb 1:3) and after his recovery, 6,000 (Jb 42:12). Although wide use of camels does not seem to have begun until shortly before 1000 <span>BC<\/span> (Jgs 6:5), Sumerian texts from the Old Babylonian period list camels and indicate that they had been domesticated. Camel bones and figurines have been found at various eastern archaeological sites dating from well before 1200 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Caterpillar\">Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>Larval stage of insects characterized by complete metamorphosis. Such insects pass through four stages: egg, larva or caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Bees, flies, moths, and butterflies all pass through a larval or caterpillar stage.<\/p>\n<p>The word “caterpillar” occurs three times in the <span>nlt<\/span> (1 Kgs 8:37; 2 Chr 6:28; Ps 78:46). In the book of Joel that same Hebrew word is translated “locust” (1:4; 2:25, <span>nlt<\/span>). The locust and grasshopper to which the Hebrew word refers have an incomplete type of metamorphosis with only three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The nymph is a miniature adult in which the wings are not fully developed, though their outline may be present. There are several nymph stages known as instars. The reference is to one of the last instars, in which the wing structures are still folded together and enclosed in a sac but are nevertheless clearly recognizable. That form of the insect is about an inch (2.5 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cattle\">Cattle<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animals of the bovine species <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> The OT often emphasized the beauty of cattle. Egypt was rich in cattle, especially in the Nile River delta area (Goshen), where the Hebrews settled under Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars believe that milk rather than meat was the foremost consideration in the domestication of cattle and that in early civilizations meat supplies came chiefly from wild game. Cattle also supplied strong hides that supplanted wood in the manufacture of shields. Their dung was a source of fuel when wood was scarce (Ez 4:15). They were used as beasts of burden and for plowing. Development of wheeled transportation was associated more closely with cattle than with any other animal.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical term “cattle” often refers to all domesticated animals or livestock (Gn 1:24; 2:20; 7:23; 47:6, 16-17; Ex 9:3-7; Nm 3:41, 45). Occasionally, the term was used to refer to all large domestic animals (Nm 31:9; 32:26), although sometimes the word as used in the <span>kjv<\/span> refers only to sheep and goats (Gn 30:32, 39, 43; 31:8, 10; Is 7:25; 43:23).<\/p>\n<p>Probably several kinds of cattle were domesticated in the Holy Land. Small, short-legged, black or brown shorthorn cattle were found in the southern part of Judah; that type submitted easily to the yoke and was prominent in agricultural operations. Along the coast a larger variety was found, and the wild districts east of the Jordan River were populated with a breed of huge black cattle.<\/p>\n<p>Cattle breeding was widely practiced by the patriarchs (cf. Gn 32:15; Jb 21:10). Strict laws in Mesopotamia, as well as in Israel, penalized the owner of a bull that gored a man or other cattle (Ex 21:28-36). Bulls were sometimes employed figuratively as pictures of strength or violence (Dt 33:17; Pss 22:12; 68:30; Is 10:13). For breeding purposes one bull is normally adequate for about 30 cows, but many more were kept since bulls were widely used in Israel for sacrifices. They might be used as a general sacrifice (Lv 22:23; Nm 23:1) or for special sacrifices (Jgs 6:25; 1 Sm 1:24). Particular sacrifices were offered at the consecration of priests (Ex 29:1), consecration of an altar (Nm 7), purification of the Levites (Nm 8), sin offerings (Lv 16), day of the new moon (Nm 28:11-14), Passover (Nm 28:19), Feast of Weeks (Nm 28:27), Feast of Trumpets (Nm 29:1-2), Day of Atonement (Nm 29:7-9), and the Feast of Tabernacles (Nm 29:12-38). The Feast of Tabernacles required the largest number of bulls for burnt offerings of all the annual feasts, with a total of 71 being slaughtered during the course of eight days.<\/p>\n<p>Calves were sometimes referred to as “sons of the herd” in the original Hebrew (Gn 18:8; 1 Sm 6:7; 14:32). The calf, a symbol of peacefulness (Is 11:6), was also used figuratively to refer to the weak (Ps 68:30). A calf’s head decorated the back of Solomon’s throne (1 Kgs 10:19). Calves were sometimes fattened in stalls to keep them from running off weight in the field (Am 6:4; Mal 4:2; Lk 15:23) or were kept around the house; the witch of Endor kept a calf in her house that she killed and served to Saul and his men (1 Sm 28:24-25). Calves supplied veal (Gn 18:7), considered a delicacy by the wealthy; Amos referred to stall-fattened calves in a denunciation of luxurious and careless living (Am 6:4). Calves also supplied meat for all Saul’s armies at the great slaughter of the Philistines (1 Sm 14:32). The “fatted calf” served roasted or boiled was gourmet fare, suitable for the finest banquet (Gn 18:7; Mt 22:4; Lk 15:23).<\/p>\n<p>Cattle were subject to the law of firstlings (Ex 13:12). They were a mark of wealth (Gn 13:2) and were considered proper booty of war (Jos 8:2). Aaron, the first high priest, made a golden calf as a rival to the ark of the covenant (Ex 32; Dt 9:16, 21). Even though he represented the calf as an image of the invisible God, it was especially offensive because the calf was a fertility symbol related to Egyptian and Canaanite practices. Two calves were later made by Jeroboam I of Israel (930–909 <span>BC<\/span>) for his shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:28-33). Hosea’s prophetic denunciations of calf worship were directed at those shrines (Hos 8:5-6; 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>An ox is an adult castrated bull. A steer is a young ox. Oxen were used to do work (Nm 7:3; Dt 22:10; 25:4), though for moving heavy objects, cows were typically favored over bulls because of their more docile nature. Oxen were also used as pack animals (1 Chr 12:40, although they did not have the endurance of the ass, camel, or mule. They usually fed on grass (Nm 22:4; Ps 106:20), but they also ate straw (Is 11:7) and salted fodder (Is 30:24) and could be kept in a stable (Lk 13:15). Oxen could not be offered as sacrifices because they had been castrated (Lv 22:24). They could be used for food but were rarely eaten. Possession of an ox and an ass was regarded as the bare minimum for existence in the ancient Palestinian agriculture economy (Jb 24:3; cf. Ex 20:17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Agriculture; Food and Food Preparation; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chameleon\">Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>Lizard characterized by its ability to change color according to its surroundings <em>(Chameleon vulgaris).<\/em> To the Israelites the chameleon was ritually unclean (Lv 11:30). The Hebrew word for chameleon is derived from a word meaning “to pant.” A lizard’s lungs are very large, and in ancient times lizards were believed to live on air. A chameleon’s eyes move independently of each other; so at times one eye may be turned upward and the other downward. Chameleons live in trees and bushes, clinging to branches with their long tails.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coral\">Coral<\/p>\n<p>Calcareous (lime-containing) skeletons of relatively simple marine organisms <em>(Corallium rubrum).<\/em> Red coral from the Mediterranean and Red Seas is widely used for jewelry and for medicinal purposes. While the animal is alive, the coral is green in color and shrublike in appearance, looking rather like an underwater plant since the coral animals are immobil. When the coral is removed from the water, it becomes hard and red in color.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient times coral was sometimes used as money, along with precious stones, pearls, and gold. Some believe the biblical reference in Lamentations 4:7 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is to pearls rather than to coral, but it is probable that the references in Job 28:18 and Ezekiel 27:16 are to the red coral (see <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cricket\">Cricket<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the order Orthptera related to grasshoppers and locusts. According to Leviticus 11:22, the cricket was edible. The reference may be to one of the growth stages of the locust.<\/p>\n<p>The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word as “beetle.” Beetles are insects with chewing mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the fore pair being hard and sheathlike and the hind pair being membranous and folded under the fore pair. Some beetles are carnivorous, others are chiefly herbivorous. Some are aquatic, some produce a secretion that blisters the skin, some damage fabrics, some damage crops, and some feed on other insects that are harmful to humans. In ancient Egypt the beetle, or sacred scarab, was a symbol of the sun god Ra. Scarab seals and amulets were extremely popular in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Crocodile\">Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all existing reptiles <em>(Crocodilus vulgaris),<\/em> attaining a length of well over 20 feet (6 meters). Crocodiles are characterized by large lizardlike bodies supported by short legs. The head terminates in a flattened snout armed with strong conical teeth, each of which is implanted in a distinct socket. New teeth growing from beneath continually replace those in use. The toes are webbed. The back and tail are protected by quadrangular horny shields of varying sizes arranged in regular rows and in contact with one another at the edges. The eyes are covered with movable lids that can be closed when the animal enters the water.<\/p>\n<p>The crocodile spends most of its time in the water where it feeds mainly on fish but also on aquatic birds and even small animals that come down to the water’s edge to drink. It is surprisingly fast and agile on dry land, even though its legs are so short that its belly and tail drag across the earth leaving a distinct path.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, the crocodile was found in the marshes and small coastal rivers of western Palestine. A first-century Roman writer, Pliny, referred to a place in the Holy Land called Crocodeilopolis (“crocodile city”) to the south of Mt Carmel, and visitors to the Holy Land as late as the 19th century reported seeing crocodiles in that general region.<\/p>\n<p>The description of “Leviathan” in Job 41 seems to be based on the crocodile (thus the translation of the <span>nlt<\/span>). The “dragon” of Ezekiel 29:3, used figuratively of the Egyptian pharaoh, may be a reference to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Deer\">Deer<\/p>\n<p>Large ruminant (cud-chewing) animals. Only the males have antlers (branching horns). Deer antlers grow annually and are solid, in contrast to those of the antelope and the gazelle. Fully developed antlers are devoid of any covering of skin or horn and, for all practical purposes, may be regarded as a mass of dead bone carried for a certain time by the living animal.<\/p>\n<p>The end of the deer’s muzzle is naked in all species. The stomach is divided into a series of compartments, some of which are used to store partly chewed food. The food is later regurgitated, rechewed, and finally swallowed into a section of the stomach where true digestion takes place.<\/p>\n<p>Three species of deer were known in Palestine: the red deer <em>(Cervus elaphus),<\/em> the Persian fallow deer <em>(Dama mesopotamica),<\/em> and the roe deer <em>(Capreolus capreolus).<\/em> All are now extinct there. The last deer were hunted in the Holy Land in 1914. The red deer referred to in the Bible as “hart” (male), “stag” (male), or “hind” (female) stood about four feet (1.2 meters) high at the shoulder. It was gregarious (living in herds or flocks), each group remaining in a definite territory. Red deer grazed and browsed during the morning and late afternoon (Lam 1:6). The sexes remained in separate herds. The red deer was known for its leaping (Is 35:6) and sure-footedness in the mountains (Ps 18:33; Sg 2:8-9, 17; 8:14; Hb 3:19).<\/p>\n<p>The antlers of the Persian fallow deer (1 Kgs 4:23) were large, flattened, and palmated (shaped like an open palm with fingers extended), and its coat was a yellowbrown. It traveled in small groups, feeding mainly on grass in the morning and evening.<\/p>\n<p>The roe deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23) was a small, graceful animal, dark reddish brown in summer and yellowish gray in winter. Its antlers were about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and had three points. The roe deer preferred sparsely wooded valleys and the lower slopes of mountains, grazing in open grasslands. It usually associated in family groups made up of the doe and her offspring. They were shy, yet very curious. The roe deer barked like a dog when disturbed, and they were excellent swimmers.<\/p>\n<p>There is some question as to whether the roe deer is actually referred to in such passages as 1 Kings 4:23; references may be to the fallow deer, although that animal does not seem to have lived in the southern part of Palestine around the Sinai Desert because of its need for ample amounts of food and water. Fallow deer were found in northern Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The hart (the male red deer) was listed among the clean beasts that Jewish law permitted as food (Dt 12:15, 22; 14:5), but deer were not listed among the animals appropriate for sacrifice. The hind (female red deer) normally gave birth to one calf at a time, though twins were born with some degree of regularity (Jb 39:1; Ps 29:9, <span>kjv<\/span>; Jer 14:5). The gestation period was about 40 weeks. When it was about to give birth, the hind looked for a secure hiding place, preferably in the dense undergrowth of the forest where it could find natural protection for the tiny calf. During the first few days after birth, the mother never went far from her young. The fawn was able to stand on its own legs a few hours after birth. The solicitous care by the hind for her calf during the first days of its life is hinted at in a touching way in Jeremiah 14:4-5, where only a severe drought is said to drive the hind from her calf. Job 39:1-4 describes the calving of the hinds. The hind illustrated grace and charm (Gn 49:21; Prv 5:19), and its dark, gentle eyes and graceful limbs were used to describe the beauty of a woman (Prv 5:18-19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dog\">Dog<\/p>\n<p>Probably the earliest domesticated animal <em>(Canis familiaris),<\/em> used very early in hunting. The modern dog is believed to have come from the Indian wolf <em>(Canis lupus pallipes).<\/em> The dogs of biblical times probably looked like a modern German shepherd, with short pointed ears, a pointed nose, and a long tail.<\/p>\n<p>The dog was generally looked down upon in biblical times (Prv 26:11; 2 Pt 2:22). The biblical writers did not share modern sentiments about dogs being man’s best friends. The dog was pictured as a scavenger, haunting streets and dumps (Ex 22:31; 1 Kgs 22:38; Mt 15:26; Lk 16:21). Human corpses could become the spoil of dogs (2 Kgs 9:35-36). In general, dogs served the same function as vultures and other birds of prey. Most of the 41 references in the Scriptures to dogs show strong disfavor. Dogs were considered cowardly, filthy creatures.<\/p>\n<p>Dogs used in hunting occur in paintings in Egyptian tombs, and there is a reference to dogs herding sheep in Job 30:1. One good quality of dogs highly esteemed by the Israelites was watchfulness (Is 56:10). In general, however, in biblical times “dog” was a term of contempt (1 Sm 17:43; 2 Sm 16:9) and was used of overly submissive persons (2 Sm 9:8; 2 Kgs 8:13) and of evil persons (Is 56:10-11; Mt 7:6; Phil 3:2; Rv 22:15).<\/p>\n<p>Dogs, like pigs, were voracious and omnivorous (eating any kind of food). In response to a Gentile woman’s request that he heal her daughter, Jesus used the metaphor of throwing household food scraps to dogs (Mt 15:22-28; Mk 7:25-30). At the time of Jesus, the word “dog” was a standard Jewish term of contempt for Gentiles who, like dogs, were considered unclean, although the diminutive form of the word, used by Jesus, softened this considerably. Seeing her faith, Jesus granted the woman’s request, giving a non-Jew some of “the children’s bread.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Donkey\">Donkey<\/p>\n<p>Beast of burden. The donkey of the Holy Land <em>(Equus asinus)<\/em> was quite different from the European donkey of today, which is usually a small, stubborn animal. In biblical times the donkey was a beautiful, stately, friendly animal. Its color was usually reddish brown. Three wild races have been described, all from Africa. The race from northwest Africa is extinct; the one from northeast Africa, if not extinct, is close to extinction; the Somalian race, which survives, did not play an important part in domestication. The northeast African race, the Nubian donkey, was evidently domesticated in the Nile River region in early historic times. The donkey was used as a mount from the time of domestication on. It is first mentioned in the Bible among the animals that Abraham acquired in Egypt (Gn 12:16). The donkey was primarily a beast of burden, driven but not bridled. From the time of the Middle Kingdom on (c. 2040 <span>BC<\/span>), it was used for riding in Egypt, but only the Jews and Nubians rode donkeys regularly. The donkey was also used for threshing grain and for pulling the plow. In Arab countries today peasants plow with a donkey and a cow or camel hitched together. In Israel the law forbade plowing with a donkey and an ox hitched together (Dt 22:10). Until the time of Solomon (960 <span>BC<\/span>), horses were not used in Palestine. From that time on, the horse was ridden by warriors; the donkey was used by those who were traveling peaceably.<\/p>\n<p>The donkey was held in high regard by the Jews and was considered an economic asset. An individual had to have a donkey for minimum existence (Jb 24:3), and wealth was frequently counted by the number of donkeys one possessed (Gn 12:16; 24:35). The donkey was considered an acceptable gift (Gn 32:13-15). It was allowed to rest on the Sabbath (Dt 5:14). Women in biblical times often used the donkey as a riding animal (Jos 15:18; 1 Sm 25:23; 2 Kgs 4:24); often a special driver would help a woman guide the animal, running along at its side. If a married couple possessed only one donkey, the husband usually walked alongside while the wife rode (Ex 4:20).<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel returning from Babylon had ten times as many donkeys as horses and camels (Ezr 2:66-67; Neh 7:68-69). Job’s wealth was indicated by the fact that he had 500 she-donkeys before catastrophe hit him (Jb 1:3); after his recovery he had 1,000 donkeys (Jb 42:12). Joseph’s brothers used donkeys to transport the grain they purchased in Egypt (Gn 42:26; 43:24). Abigail transported food on donkeys to David and his troops during their conflict with Saul (1 Sm 25:18). David assigned one of the 12 managers of his royal estates to look after his donkeys exclusively (1 Chr 27:30).<\/p>\n<p>The onager, or Syrian wild donkey <em>(Equus hemionus hemihippus)<\/em>, is an intermediate between the true horse and the true donkey. Its ears are longer than those of a horse but shorter than those of a donkey. The front hooves are narrow; there are chestnuts (callouslike spots on the inside of the knees) on the front legs only, and the tail is short haired for a long distance from its root so that it appears to be tufted.<\/p>\n<p>The Sumerians (ancient Mesopotamians) were able to domesticate the onager, which was eventually replaced by the horse. It was used to draw chariots in Ur; a number of onagers were buried with their vehicles in a royal grave that dates from about 2500 <span>BC<\/span>. Later the wild onager was a favorite hunter’s prize for Babylonian and Assyrian kings.<\/p>\n<p>The onager was very common in the steppe lands near Israel, where it was described as a freedom-loving desert animal (Jb 24:5; 39:5-8; Ps 104:11; Is 32:14; Jer 2:24; Hos 8:9). Ishmael was described as “free and untamed as a wild donkey” (Gn 16:12, <span>nlt<\/span>)—that is, one who could not adjust to domestic life. Drought seems to have been responsible for the population decline of the onager in biblical times (Jer 14:6). The modern onager <em>(Equus hemionus onager)<\/em> is slightly larger than the Syrian wild donkey that is extinct.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dragon\">Dragon<\/p>\n<p>Any one of a number of monstrous land and sea creatures. In biblical usage, “dragon” does not refer to the huge, fire-breathing, winged reptile of European folklore. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> used the term to translate two Hebrew words that are usually rendered more precisely in modern translations. One word referred to desert animals; most scholars agree with the <span>niv<\/span> that “jackals” is its proper meaning (Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; Jer 9:11; Mal 1:3). <em>See<\/em> Jackal (below).<\/p>\n<p>The other Hebrew word translated “dragon” is harder to define. It was frequently used in reference to serpents (so translated in the <span>rsv<\/span>: Ex 7:9-12; Dt 32:33; Ps 91:13). In other <span>rsv<\/span> passages it is translated “sea monster” (Gn 1:21; Jb 7:12; Ps 148:7). The exact identity of such sea monsters is not known. Several <span>rsv<\/span> passages retain the English “dragon.” In two of them (Ps 74:13; Is 27:1), the context indicates that sea monsters are meant. In three others (Is 51:9; Ez 29:3; 32:2) “dragon” seems to refer to the crocodile, a figurative reference to the Egyptian pharaoh at the time of the exodus. Jeremiah 51:34 (translated “monster” in the <span>rsv<\/span>) may also refer to a voracious creature such as a crocodile. <em>See<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p>Babylonian myths described monsters and dragons in primordial conflict with the god Marduk; they represented the principle of evil. In its figurative usages in Scripture, “dragon” has a similar significance, especially in the prophetic books. In the book of Revelation it is a symbol of Satan, the archenemy of God and his people (Rv 12:3-17; 13:2, 4, 11; 16:13; 20:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fish\">Fish<\/p>\n<p>Aquatic animals frequently mentioned in the Bible without names or descriptions that enable us to identify the particular species. Since time immemorial, fish have constituted one of the staple foods of humanity, and they still serve as the chief source of protein in many parts of the world. The trade in fish was highly developed in biblical times. For example, one of the gates in Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3; Zep 1:10). The law in Leviticus 11:9-12 permitted the Jews to eat fish, but only those having both fins and scales. Scaleless fish such as catfish were forbidden, even though they had fins.<\/p>\n<p>Egyptian paintings depict various methods of fishing, and the Philistines fished in the Mediterranean Sea. Since the people of Israel were not a seafaring nation, it is safe to assume that most of their fish came from freshwater lakes and rivers, especially the Sea of Galilee. Some 36 species of fish have been identified in that lake, including varieties of perch, carp, barbel, “sardine,” and catfish.<\/p>\n<p>The method of fishing characteristic of NT times was the dragnet. After a boat had put out into the deep (Lk 5:4), a large net would be thrown out from it and then dragged toward shore by the rowers in the boat, possibly with the help of a crew in another boat. The catch was sorted out on shore (Mt 13:47-48). Fishing was usually carried out at night when the coolness of the water brought fish closer to the surface and when they could not see the approaching nets.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews also fished by hook and line (Mt 17:27), a few by spear (Jb 41:7), and some by the throw net (Ez 47:10). Habakkuk refers to hook-and-line fishing, netting, and seining (1:15).<\/p>\n<p>Very early in the history of the Christian church the fish became a symbol for Christ and the faith. It was scratched on the walls of Roman catacombs and may be seen today decorating walls, altars, pews, and vestments. The symbol came into use because the Greek word for “fish” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ichthus<\/span><em>)<\/em> is composed of the first letter of each word in the Greek phrase “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” <em>See<\/em> Whale (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flea\">Flea<\/p>\n<p>Tiny, irritating insect (1 Sm 24:14; 26:20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many species of fleas occur in Palestine, the most common being <em>Pulex irritans.<\/em> About a thousand species are known around the world. Fleas are wingless parasites that have sharp jaws and suck out blood from the bodies of humans and animals. The body is wedge shaped, enabling the flea to burrow into folds of skin and hide there. The eggs, laid by the female in dust heaps in the corners of rooms, hatch into small, white larvae that pupate (a nonfeeding stage) in a cocoon. Soon adult fleas appear that immediately attach themselves to the body of a host. The female requires blood for the development of her eggs.<\/p>\n<p>A flea bite is painful and causes some swelling and itching. Fleas are attracted by warmth. With favorable moisture and temperature, adult fleas can live a year or longer without food, but they are voracious feeders. The most dangerous fleas are those of the rat that transmit the organism responsible for bubonic plague. There were 41 recorded epidemics of bubonic plague before the Christian era.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fly\">Fly<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the order Diptera, which have one pair of wings. Many winged insects of other orders, however, are also called flies, such as the dragonfly or butterfly.<\/p>\n<p>As in almost all parts of the world, flies are abundant in Palestine. One of the most numerous is the common housefly <em>(Musca domestica),<\/em> found chiefly around dung heaps and garbage. The female lays her eggs, out of which emerge white maggots that feed on refuse. After a few days the maggot develops into a cocoon out of which emerges the adult housefly. In the summer the whole cycle lasts about 12 days, so that a fly can breed about 20 generations a year.<\/p>\n<p>Another fly common to Palestine is the botfly (family Oestridae). It causes much discomfort among livestock by irritating them and spreading diseases. Tabanid flies (family Tabanidae), including the horsefly (genus <em>Tabanus<\/em>) and related species, are also found in Palestine. Both the botfly and horsefly are known as gadflies because of the persistent distress they inflict. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar is spoken of as a gadfly in view of his invasion of Egypt (Jer 46:20).<\/p>\n<p>The fourth plague in Egypt just before the exodus featured “swarms of flies” (Ex 8:21-31, <span>nlt<\/span>; cf. Pss 78:45; 105:31). Those swarms may have been made up of any or all the flies mentioned above. The maggots mentioned in Job 25:6 and Isaiah 14:11 and the worms in Exodus 16:24 and Job 7:5 and 17:14 were probably fly larvae.<\/p>\n<p>A proverb quoted in Ecclesiastes 10:1 probably refers to the housefly, which would be attracted to an open, perfumed ointment bottle. Once inside it would drown and eventually decay, causing the ointment to spoil and stink. The fly is also referred to in Isaiah 7:18 where it symbolizes Egypt. Isaiah may have had in mind a horsefly <em>(Tabanus arenivagus)<\/em> that attacks both humans and animals.<\/p>\n<p>Philistine inhabitants of the city of Ekron worshiped a god named Baal-zebul, meaning “Lord of the high places.” The Hebrews mockingly spoke of Baal-zebub, meaning “Lord of the flies” (2 Kgs 1:2). The NT form is Beelzebub (e.g., Mt 10:25; 12:24, 27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fox\">Fox<\/p>\n<p>Small, doglike carnivore with a bushy tail that is about half its body length. The red fox of the Holy Land <em>(Vulpes palaetinae)<\/em> is similar to the North American red fox; it is smaller than a wolf and is normally a nocturnal solitary animal. The omnivorous fox eats almost any kind of food—fruits, plants, mice, beetles, and birds—but seldom touches carrion. It loves the sweet juice of grapes, but it also burrows underground tunnels that can destroy the vines (Sg 2:15). The fox is intelligent and known for its slyness (Lk 13:32). It has considerable endurance and can run at speeds up to 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour. The Jews rebuilding Jerusalem’s wall were taunted by the wisecrack that even a fox jumping on their wall would knock it over (Neh 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian fox <em>(Vulpes niloticus)<\/em> is found in the central and southern parts of the Holy Land. It is somewhat smaller than the common red fox. Its back is rust colored and its belly light. The Syrian fox <em>(Vulpes flavescens)<\/em> that lives in the northern part of the Holy Land is shiny gold in color.<\/p>\n<p>Some OT references such as Psalm 63:10 and Lamentations 5:18 are translated “fox” in the <span>kjv<\/span> but probably refer to jackals. Jackals, not foxes, hunt in packs and tend to act as scavengers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frog\">Frog<\/p>\n<p>Amphibian (genus <em>Rana<\/em>), living part of its life in the water and part on land.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs and toads are covered with soft, hairless skin and lack a tail in the adult stage. The hind legs are much longer and more powerfully developed than the forelegs so that the animals are able to jump large distances. It has been suggested that the frog referred to in Scripture is an edible one, <em>Rana ridibunda,<\/em> one of the aquatic frogs found in Egypt and in the stagnant waters of the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The female frog lays her eggs in the water; after about a week the eggs hatch into tadpoles. Gradually through metamorphosis the tail is lost and limbs are acquired. Frogs must maintain a moist skin since they take oxygen through the skin as well as through their lungs; thus they must always remain close to water. They feed on insects and worms.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs are found throughout the Palestinian lowlands, where their croaking is heard in the spring and on summer evenings. The Israelites seem to have associated frogs primarily with sliminess and foulness. They fell into the category of creeping or swarming creatures, which in general were ritually unclean (Lv 11:29-31). Since the frog was not specifically listed, however, rabbis did not consider it one of the animals that defiled human beings through contact.<\/p>\n<p>In Revelation 16:13 certain foul spirits are said to look like frogs. The ancient Egyptians made the frog a symbol of life and birth and an image of Heqet, the patron goddess of birth. She is depicted with a frog’s head giving life to the newborn. Thus that deity was discredited when the power of God afflicted Egypt in the second of the ten plagues on the Egyptians with the very animal that was her symbol (Ex 8:1-14; Pss 78:45; 105:30). The frog in question may have been the spotted frog of Egypt <em>(Rana punctata,<\/em> or <em>Rana ridibunda).<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gazelle\">Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>Small, dainty, graceful antelope with hollow recurved horns on both sexes. Two varieties exist in the Holy Land, the dorcas gazelle <em>(Gazella dorcas),<\/em> which is pale fawn in color and up to 22 inches (56 centimeters) tall, and the Arabian gazelle <em>(Gazella arabica),<\/em> which is a dark smoky color and up to 25 inches (63.5 centimeters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Gazelles are still quite common throughout the desert and steppe areas of the Holy Land, especially in the Negev Desert. Herds usually consist of from 5 to 10 animals, but some varieties assemble in large migratory herds in the fall to relocate to lower elevations and new feeding grounds. Gazelles are herbivorous (plant eating). They are very shy and post guards to warn the herd of approaching danger.<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times the gazelle was probably the game animal most hunted by the Jews (Prv 6:5; Is 13:14). Pharaoh Tutankhamen hunted gazelles and ostriches. The gazelle is said to have graced Solomon’s table (1 Kgs 4:23). Gazelles were not easy to catch because of their great speed (2 Sm 2:18; 1 Chr 12:8; Prv 6:5); they surpass the deer in swiftness. They were trapped in various ways—encircled with nets, driven into enclosures with pitfalls, or forced into narrow valleys and shot with arrows. The Bedouin hunt gazelle with falcons and dogs; the falcon annoys the gazelle, striking it on the head and injuring it so that the dogs can overtake it.<\/p>\n<p>The gazelle is referred to in Song of Songs 2:9, 17; 4:5; 7:3; 8:14, where it is an image of feminine beauty.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gecko\">Gecko<\/p>\n<p>Reptile of the family Gekkonidae, referred to in Leviticus 11:30. In Jewish food law it was a ritually unclean lizard. There are seven species of geckos in the Holy Land (including <em>Hemidactylus turcicus<\/em> and <em>Ptyodactylus hasselquistii,<\/em> all insectivorous—insect eating). The gecko makes a low mourning sound by vibrating its tongue rapidly against the roof of its mouth. In legend the gecko was said to cause leprosy by crawling across a person’s body.<\/p>\n<p>Another name for the gecko is the wall lizard, so named because it can walk upside down on ceilings with the aid of the suction discs on its toes—but it often plops down into the middle of the home. Since it was considered unclean, such an intrusion would have been a disgusting nuisance to Jewish households (Lv 11:31-38).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gnat\">Gnat<\/p>\n<p>Any very small fly, in common and biblical usage. According to the <span>nlt<\/span>, the third plague in Egypt before the exodus consisted of gnats (Ex 8:16-18; Ps 105:31). The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word there as “lice,” but the breeding pattern described in Exodus 8—insects rising from the dust—seems to fit gnats better than lice. Since “gnat” is a general term, the small flies of that plague may have included several small species such as mosquitos, harvester gnats, midges, or sand flies.<\/p>\n<p>The sand fly inflicts a far more painful bite than the mosquito. Further, it does not betray itself by a buzzing noise in flight and is so small that it penetrates most mosquito netting.<\/p>\n<p>Gnats were drawn to wine while it was fermenting. The Pharisees in particular would strain their wine to avoid consuming unclean insects (Mt 23:24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Goat\">Goat<\/p>\n<p>Cloven-hooved mammals (genus <em>Capra<\/em>) with large eyes and big, floppy ears that constantly twitch. Both males and females have backward arching horns. The Palestinian goat is a ruminant (cud-chewing animal) of lighter build than the sheep.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was probably the earliest ruminant to be domesticated. Its wild ancestor seems to have been the Gezoar goat <em>(Capra aegagrus).<\/em> Wild goats are believed to have been domesticated very early in Palestine. The goat of Bible times was probably the Syrian or Mamber variety <em>(Capra hircus mambrica).<\/em> Domesticated goats may have as many as four kids in a litter, whereas wild goats bear only one or two.<\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian goat was commonly black. Speckled and spotted goats were a rarity, and for that reason Jacob’s request for those goats in Genesis 30:32 appeared very modest. There may also have been red goats (cf. 1 Sm 16:12; 19:13, where goat’s hair was used to imitate David’s hair, which was “ruddy” or auburn).<\/p>\n<p>Almost every part of the goat was used by the Israelites. The whole goat was used for sacrifice. Its flesh served as meat (Lv 7:23; Dt 14:4), and it was the principal source of milk (Prv 27:27). Goats were sheared in the late spring, and the goat hair was used for weaving tent cloth and for various domestic purposes (Ex 36:14; 1 Sm 19:13, 16). The tabernacle at Mt Sinai was made of goat’s hair blankets (Ex 26:7).<\/p>\n<p>Adult male goats were generally not eaten because of their strong flavor and toughness and also because they were necessary to insure the flock’s increase. Young kids, however, were usually the chief meat for a feast and were offered to visitors as a symbol of hospitality. Goat milk is richer than the milk of cows and sheep and evidently had broader uses. A good goat gives three quarts of milk a day, from which a rich butter and buttermilk can be made. The average Hebrew family could have lived almost entirely on a single goat’s production.<\/p>\n<p>Goatskin was tanned as leather, and the whole hide was turned into a skin bottle by sewing shut leg and neck apertures (Gn 21:14; Jos 9:4). Goatskin had many uses, including the construction of Hebrew musical instruments. The nebal, a large harp, was made with goatskin for its base sound. Drums had goatskin coverings.<\/p>\n<p>Goats were herded with sheep in biblical times, but each group remained separate following its own bell-laden leader. Jesus was evidently referring to their common herding in his description of the Last Judgment (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\n<p>Because of their wool, sheep are valued more than goats. However, where pasture and water are scarce and thorny shrubs dominate over grass, sheep are difficult to keep and goats become important. They can live under conditions that suit neither cows nor sheep, producing large quantities of milk. The goat does not supply fat as the sheep does, and since its hair is coarse its wool is rather scarce. Goat-hair cloth called cilicium was used to make tents.<\/p>\n<p>Goats have voracious appetites. They also were responsible for much damage done to the land of Palestine, breaking down terraces, destroying forests, and bringing about soil erosion by eating off all cover.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was recognized as a form of wealth, subject to the law of firstlings (Nm 18:17). It had to be eight days old before it could be offered as a sacrifice. A year-old male goat was one of the animals offered at the Passover (28:22), and two goats were offered on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:7-10). The goat was also used for other specific sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>The ibex, a type of wild goat <em>(Capra ibex nubiana),<\/em> still lives in small numbers on the cliffs close to the Dead Sea. That it was known in ancient times is evident from rock carvings. It is distinguished from the true wild goat by having a more compact rump and horns that are slender and curved back. Its slender legs and sharp cloven hooves enable it to cling to narrow rock ledges, to jump between them, and to climb steep cliffs.<\/p>\n<p>Usually the ibex is found in rugged mountain country among rocky crags and meadows just below the snow line (Ps 104:18). In Job 39:1 they are referred to as “mountain goats.” They frequently gather in herds of 5 to 20. They graze and browse, being active in the afternoon and sometimes feeding through the night. The large horn of the ibex was at one period made into the shofar that was blown in the second Jerusalem temple to announce the new year and the jubilee year.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was often used in a figurative and symbolic sense by the writers of the Bible: in Song of Songs 4:1 and 6:5 for the bride’s black hair; in Matthew 25:31-46 for the wicked; and in Ezekiel 34:17 and Daniel 8:5-8 for various human leaders.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Grasshopper\">Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>Large insects of the Orthoptera order. They have chewing or biting mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the front pair of which is narrow and somewhat thickened and the hind pair membranous and used for flying. When not in use the flight wings are folded beneath the protective front wings like a fan against the body. By rubbing their wings together, male grasshoppers produce sounds that both males and females can detect. Grasshoppers pass through a partial metamorphosis; the egg hatches into a juvenile nymph that looks like an adult except for its smaller size and undeveloped wings. After several months the nymph becomes a winged adult.<\/p>\n<p>The terms “grasshopper” and “locust” are often used interchangeably. Actually the locust is a kind of grasshopper. Also confusing is the fact that other insects such as cicadas are sometimes called locusts. The difference between grasshoppers and locusts depends more on behavior than appearance. Grasshoppers are individual insects that lead solitary lives and do not migrate. The same insects when migrating in a swarm are called migratory grasshoppers or locusts. Elimination of their food supply by drought, flood, or fire may lead to migration. Climatic factors such as a warm dry winter also stimulate migrations.<\/p>\n<p>Grasshoppers and locusts have been a staple food in the Middle East and also among the Indians of the American Southwest. To the Israelites the grasshopper was considered ritually clean and could be eaten (Lv 11:22).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hare\">Hare<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the genus and species <em>Lepus europaeus judaeus, Lepus capensis,<\/em> and <em>Lepus arabicus.<\/em> It is found in open country, often near or on cultivated lands, and in woods, usually deciduous rather than evergreen. It is an herbivorous rodent and is different from the rabbit, which is not found in Palestine. Although it is not a true ruminant according to modern classification (because it does not have a four-chambered stomach), the hare does rechew its food. It has a process of partial regurgitation of material too hard for the cells in the stomach to absorb initially; thus, the hare actually chews food previously swallowed.<\/p>\n<p>Near Eastern hares have very long ears and large hind feet; their feet are well furred. They are similar to American jackrabbits, which are true hares. Hares do not dig or occupy burrows the way rabbits do. Hares are mainly nocturnal and spend their inactive hours hiding in vegetation. They eat grasses and herbaceous matter as well as twigs and young bark of woody plants. Hares breed with great rapidity—the young attaining sexual maturity at six months after birth.<\/p>\n<p>The hare was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:6; Dt 14:7), evidently because although it appeared to chew its cud, it did not have cloven hooves. Consumption of hares has also been forbidden among the Arabs, Chinese, and Lapps, but the hare was widely hunted by other people in ancient and modern times. Its great speed, prolific breeding, timidity, and caution have saved it from extermination by its many enemies.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hippopotamus\">Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of problematic interpretation. Some early interpreters thought it referred to the elephant, others to the wild ox, the mammoth, or any large animal. It was called “behemoth” by the <span>kjv<\/span> translators. Today it is generally agreed that the reference is to the hippopotamus <em>(Hippopotamus amphibius),<\/em> a large, thick-skinned, amphibious mammal, an ungulate (having hooflike toenails) with a large head, a bulky, hairless body, and short legs.<\/p>\n<p>The description in Job 40:15-24 fits closely the modern hippopotamus (see <span>nlt<\/span>), except for the depiction of the tail. At present the hippopotamus is found only in the rivers of Africa, but there is fossil evidence that it has existed in the Holy Land, perhaps in the swamps of northern Galilee and the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The hippopotamus has highly developed sense organs, placed in such a way that it can see, hear, and smell almost without being seen; its eyes, ears, and nostrils can reach above water while the rest of the animal lies submerged. It has a large mouth, large tusks, and a short, heavy throat. The strong legs are so short that the belly almost reaches the ground when the animal is on the land. The hippopotamus lives on plants and herbs growing in rivers, but if food is scarce there, it forages on land, usually at night. In spite of its heavy body it is surprisingly agile on land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Horse\">Horse<\/p>\n<p>Przewalski’s horse (<em>Equus przewalskii,<\/em> an eastern race that roamed about Mongolia until modern firearms destroyed most of them after World War I) and the tarpan (a western race of southern Russia that became extinct in the Ukraine in 1851). The domesticated horse <em>(Equus caballus)<\/em> seems to have been derived from the tarpan. The original site of domestication is believed to have been Turkestan, a region north of Afghanistan and India, now in Russia. The horse differs from the donkey in that it has shorter ears, a longer mane with a forelock, a long hairy tail, and a soft, sensitive muzzle.<\/p>\n<p>Horses were used in war not only for riding but also for pulling the heavy, springless war chariots. Two kinds of horses were needed for these different purposes, and the Hebrews distinguished between chariot horses and cavalry horses.<\/p>\n\n<p>The Lord warned the early Israelites against unnecessarily amassing military strength in the form of horses and thereby following the oppressive tactics of the powerful Egyptians (Dt 17:14-16), but the demands of war caused both David and Solomon to import horses from Egypt into their kingdoms and to breed them. Solomon greatly increased the number of horses in the Jewish kingdom and maintained large stables at various cities (1 Kgs 10:26) such as the regional defense centers of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer (1 Kgs 9:15-19). Ahab’s horses are mentioned in 1 Kings 18:5, and records of Shalmaneser III state that Ahab furnished 2,000 chariots to a coalition against Assyria.<\/p>\n<p>In early Israel, the horse was opposed as a symbol of pagan luxury and of dependence on physical power for defense (Dt 17:16; 1 Sm 8:11; Ps 20:7; Is 31:1). Horse trading, mentioned as early as Genesis 47:17, was carried on by Solomon between Egypt and the Syro-Hittite principalities (1 Kgs 10:28-29). Most biblical references to horses refer to their use in war, but horses were also used for transportation. Riding seems to have been less popular than the use of chariots. Cavalry units were not introduced until the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> by the Medes. Joseph rode in Pharaoh’s second horse-drawn chariot (Gn 41:43), and Absalom made a display by riding a horse-drawn chariot (2 Sm 15:1). Naaman traveled by horse and chariot (2 Kgs 5:9). Later, horses were so common in Jerusalem that the royal palace had a special horse gate (2 Chr 23:15), and a gate of the city itself was known as the Horse Gate (Neh 3:28; Jer 31:40). Mordecai rode a royal horse of King Xerxes as a sign of honor (Est 6:8-11). Horses are often spoken of figuratively (Ps 32:9; “mare,” Sg 1:9; “stallions,” Jer 5:8; 12:5), especially in the context of judgment (Hb 3:8; Zec 1:8; 6:1-8; Rv 6:2-8; 9:17; 19:11-16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Warfare; Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyena\">Hyena<\/p>\n<p>Stocky carnivore <em>(Hyaena hyaena)<\/em> with coarse hair, an erect mane, and long hairs along the neck and back. Hyenas live in holes among rocks and banks. They are mainly nocturnal but are ordinarily neither noisy nor aggressive. Their cry, however, is a disagreeable, unearthly sound. Hyenas usually feed on carrion, crushing bones with their powerful jaws. If the carrion supply is inadequate, they will kill sheep, goats, or other small animals. When threatened, hyenas growl and erect their mane, but they rarely fight. They are massively built with forelegs longer than the hind legs.<\/p>\n<p>Known as scavengers in Africa, hyenas eat domestic refuse in the villages. In Palestine the striped hyena is a common predator, preferring rocky territory and even rock tombs. Since hyenas were notorious for raiding the graves of the dead, all Israelites who could afford it arranged for burial in tombs protected by massive stone doors. Absalom, King David’s son who was killed by Joab in the wild, was buried under a huge pile of stones to protect his corpse from molestation by hyenas (2 Sm 18:17).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Jackal\">Jackal<\/p>\n<p>Carnivore <em>(Canis aureus)<\/em> smaller than the true wolf and with a shorter tail. It is similar to the fox but has a broader head, shorter ears, and longer legs. The fox is solitary; the jackal tends to be gregarious. Its tail can be drooping or erect, compared with the long horizontal tail of the fox. Jackals usually prowl at night, either singly, in pairs, or in packs through open savannah country. They eat small mammals, poultry, fruit, vegetables, and carrion. They spend their days in thickets and clumps of vegetation. Often they obtain scraps from kills by larger carnivores. Jackals can run at speeds of about 33 miles (53 kilometers) per hour.<\/p>\n<p>The jackal can reach a height of about 20 inches (51 centimeters), roughly the size of a German shepherd dog. Its back is pale yellow with dark, almost black, flanks. Its lips are black and its ears white on the inside. The howl of the jackal sounds like the crying of a child or the heartrending wail of the bereaved (Mi 1:8; cf. Jb 30:29). To other jackals the howl is merely an invitation calling the pack together for its nocturnal hunting.<\/p>\n<p>OT references are chiefly to jackals prowling around ruined cities and wilderness areas (Neh 2:13; Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; Jer 9:11; 14:6; 49:33; 51:37; Lam 4:3; 5:18; Mal 1:3). Many such references are translated “dragon” in the <span>kjv<\/span>, but “jackal” is more appropriate.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leech\">Leech<\/p>\n<p>Segmented worm (class Hirundinea) up to five inches (12.7 centimeters) long with a flat body equipped with suction pads at each end. The mouth, located at the bottom of the front suction pad, has three teeth that the leech uses to pierce the skin of its host. The leech feeds on blood, and its glands secrete an anticoagulant to prevent the blood from clotting. The ordinary medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is abundant in springs and ponds from the Negev Desert to Galilee. It adheres to the bodies of human beings and animals that submerge themselves in water, injects its anticoagulant, and sucks their blood.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Proverbs 30:15 is uncertain (see <span>nlt<\/span>) but may be to the parasitic and greedy nature of the horse leech (genus <em>Haemopis<\/em>). The small horse leech enters its host’s mouth and nostrils from water while the animal is drinking. A leech weighing one-half ounce (14.2 grams) has been known to gorge itself with two and a half ounces (71 grams) of concentrated blood and then to exist for 15 months with no more to eat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leopard\">Leopard<\/p>\n<p>Called <em>Panthera pardus tulliana,<\/em> it is the most widespread of all the large wildcats. In rocky areas it lives in caves, but in forested regions it lives in thick vegetation. In OT times many lived in the vicinity of Mt Hermon (Sg 4:8).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is somewhat smaller than the tiger, measuring up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length with a tail of about 30 inches (.8 meter). Its body is better proportioned than that of the tiger. The leopard takes its victim by surprise from a silent ambush, often concealing itself near villages or watering places and waiting for its prey, remaining in one spot for long spans of time. The leopard is swift on the ground (Hb 1:8), agile in trees, and very graceful in its movements. Its color is yellowish speckled with black spots (Jer 13:23). Daniel and John saw visions in which leopards were symbols of world powers (Dn 7:6; Rv 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is a wary and cunning animal, formidable and ferocious (Jer 5:6; Hos 13:7; cf. Is 11:6). The leopard is dangerous not only to domestic animals but also to humans. With its natural camouflage it can hide on the forest floor, blending into the changing light and shadows. The Israelites were terrified of the leopard because it constantly ravaged their sheep and goats. Several biblical place names suggest that they were known for the leopards in their vicinity: Nimrah, Beth-nimrah, and Nimrim, a district northeast of the Dead Sea. It has survived in the Holy Land into the present century; a few leopards still exist in remote areas near Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leviathan\">Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>Sea monster mentioned several times in the Bible (Pss 74:14; 104:26; Is 27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). It may refer to any of the larger marine animals such as large jellyfish, whales, or sharks, or to a large reptile like the crocodile. Some scholars think “Leviathan” may refer to animals now extinct, such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs (marine reptiles similar to dinosaurs). The scriptural term might also refer to certain dinosaurs that spent part of their lives half-submerged in shallow lakes and oceans. Other scholars believe that most of the references are to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lion\">Lion<\/p>\n<p>Large, tawny-colored carnivore <em>(Panthera leo)<\/em> that preys chiefly on hoofed mammals and charges by a series of leaps and bounds. Within historic times the lion ranged in Africa, Europe, and the Holy Land. In ancient times the territories of the African and Persian lions met in the Middle East. The lion of the Holy Land was the Asiatic or Persian lion <em>(Panthera leo persica).<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The males have heavy manes that stop at the shoulders but cover much of the chest. The Persian lion cannot climb and is mainly nocturnal, returning to its lair or a thicket by day (Jer 4:7; 25:38; Na 2:11-12). This lion is about 5 feet (1.5 meters) long with a tasseled tail 30 inches (.8 meter) or so long; its shoulders may reach a height of 35 inches (.9 meter). It is one of the smallest of the lion breeds.<\/p>\n<p>Lions are usually found in pairs, though sometimes in larger numbers. A small group is known as a pride. They generally prefer open country but in Palestine evidently prowled the subtropical vegetation of the Jordan River valley. Lions, which usually hunt at dusk, kill smaller animals by a blow of the paw, larger ones by a bite in the throat. A lion does not remain in the same place for more than a few days. The animal is in its prime at about seven years of age, when it weighs from 400 to 600 pounds (181.6 to 272.4 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>The lion does not characteristically attack humans, though like other great cats it may become a man-eater (1 Kgs 13:24-28; 20:36; 2 Kgs 17:25-26; Ps 57:4; Dn 6:7-27). Ordinarily, it attacks only out of great hunger or in self-defense. A very young lion that attacks humans can become dangerous if it develops a taste for human flesh. A very old lion, expelled from the pride because it can no longer keep up in the pursuit of antelope or gazelles, may choose humans as a relatively slow-moving prey.<\/p>\n<p>A lion generally roars only on a full stomach—that is, after it has consumed its prey (Ps 22:13; Ez 22:25; Am 3:4). Nevertheless, its roaring arouses fear (Am 3:8; 1 Pt 5:8). The lion is a bold (2 Sm 17:10; Prv 28:1), destructive animal (Ps 7:2; Jer 2:30; Hos 5:14; Mi 5:8), and the enemy of flocks (Am 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>Lions were common in biblical times in all parts of the Holy Land. Hebrew has at least seven words for lion and young lion. The lion is referred to about 130 times in the OT—more than any other wild animal. Lions were evidently much less common in NT times. After gradually declining, they became extinct in Palestine shortly after <span>AD<\/span> 1300. The lion was present in Mesopotamia, however, until the end of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>Lions played an important part in the political and religious symbolism of the Near East (1 Kgs 10:19-20). In Assyria and Babylonia the lion was regarded as a royal beast (Dn 7:4). Oriental monarchs maintained artificial lion pits as places of execution (Ez 19:1-9; Dn 6:7-16). Animals for these were captured in camouflaged nets or pits. To the Jews, the lion was the mightiest of beasts (Prv 30:29-31). Thus, it symbolized leadership (Gn 49:9-10; Nm 24:9) and hence eventually became a title for Christ (Rv 5:5). It was also the ensign of Judah’s tribe and was used by King Solomon in the decoration of his house and the temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lizard\">Lizard<\/p>\n<p>Reptiles of the suborder Lacertilia. Their skin is covered with scales. The lizard is a useful creature because it captures harmful insects and worms. Like other reptiles, it lays eggs with shells softer than those of a bird and with no clear division between the yolk and the white. Lizards are “cold-blooded” organisms without a temperature-maintenance mechanism; hence, they become inactive in cold weather.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards can survive in barren parched countryside. In the Near East they are encountered in great numbers in the Arabian Desert, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Judean wilderness. There may be as many as 44 different species of lizards in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The Dabb lizard (genus <em>Uromastyx<\/em>), which attains a length of about 24 inches (61 centimeters), is found in the Negev Desert. It is omnivorous, an unusual trait since most lizards are insectivorous. It has a hard, rough skin, green with brown spots; a short, rounded head; and a powerful tail encircled with a row of strong spines that it uses as a weapon of defense.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards are listed as ceremonially unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:29-31). The fact that lizards crawl on their bellies made them unclean. Contact with a lizard’s carcass defiled a law-abiding Jew (Lv 11:32-36). The <span>nlt<\/span> translates the “lizards” of Leviticus 11 as “great lizard,” “gecko,” “monitor lizard,” “sand lizard,” and “chameleon.” The monitor lizard is a large lizard that lives in the deserts of southern Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt. It is up to 55 inches (1.4 meters) long with a long snout and sharp teeth. Other translators and commentators render the original Hebrew in a wide variety of ways, including “tortoise,” “ferret,” “lizard,” “snail,” “mole,” and even “water hen.” The fact that most of the original Hebrew words occur only once in Scripture makes it very difficult to be certain about their appropriate translation.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gecko (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Locust\">Locust<\/p>\n<p>An insect of the family <em>Acridiidae.<\/em> It is referred to by at least 12 different names in Scripture. The various Hebrew words may refer to different stages of its development from larva to adult or to the type of damage that it causes. Locusts are characterized by swarming and mass migration. In modern times they have caused extensive and disastrous destruction to vegetation. Grasshoppers do not swarm or migrate en masse, differentiating them from the true locusts.<\/p>\n<p>The OT mentions several different species of locusts. Leviticus 11:22 seems to refer to the slant-faced (bald) locust and also to the katydid, or long-horned grasshopper. The reference in Deuteronomy 28:42 may be to the mole cricket. In Joel 1:4 and 2:25 and in Nahum 3:16-17, successive stages of the insect’s development are described. The cutting locust (<span>kjv<\/span> “palmerworm”) of Joel is probably the first instar (stage of development), the swarming locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “locust”) are middle stages, and the hopping locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “cankerworm”) later instars but not yet fully matured insects. In the adult stage, called destroying locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “caterpillar”), the color of the locust is reddish brown, which turns to yellow with a brownish network on the wings.<\/p>\n<p>Only three of the hundreds of varieties of locusts found in Bible lands are capable of multiplying into great swarms, and only the desert locust <em>(Schistocerca gergaria)<\/em> can be considered widespread in all the Bible lands. The desert locust is native to the Sudan (Africa). It is a little over two inches (5 centimeters) long and has a wingspread of some five inches (12.7 centimeters). It shows two phases, a solitary phase and a gregarious phase, with a possible third phase known as transiens. There are differences in the immature and adult forms of the phases in color and physiology.<\/p>\n<p>The quantity and distribution of rains are important factors in the extent of swarming. Moist soil is needed for depositing the eggs and permitting them to develop. Each female deposits from one to six egg pods, containing 28 to 146 eggs each. The larvae emerge in 15 to 43 days.<\/p>\n<p>In the gregarious phase (from the second stage of metamorphosis onward), the locust is driven by a strong wandering instinct. Masses of them form a random procession of overflowing locust bodies that ignore any obstruction. They swarm over everything (Jl 2:4-9). The only regulator of their activities is temperature; they are immobilized by high or low temperatures. Taking to wing they may move 1,200 miles (1,930.8 kilometers) from their native home. They fly in compact formations large enough to blot out the light of the sun. Their movement seems to be controlled by hormones, but the direction is influenced by the wind. The swarms consume almost every plant in their path, sparing only the carob, sycamore, castor tree, and oleander bush.<\/p>\n<p>A locust plague was one of the most severe evils to come upon the ancient world (Dt 28:38). Joel 2:1-11 describes a locust plague in graphic terms, using it as a symbol of God’s destroying judgment. Special days of prayer, fasting, and trumpet blowing were prescribed to remove locust plagues (1 Kgs 8:37-38; 2 Chr 6:28-29; Jl 2:12-17). Locusts symbolized powerful and merciless enemies that completely destroyed the earnings of human toil (Jgs 6:5; Is 33:4; Jer 46:23; 51:27; Na 3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Bedouins eat locusts raw, roasted, or boiled, preserving them by drying and threading. They are also crushed and ground, and the grist used in cooking or eaten with bread, sometimes mixed with honey and dates. Such was the diet of John the Baptist (Mk 1:6). The Greeks ground locusts in stone mortars to make flour of them.<\/p>\n<p>The ancients considered the two large hind legs, or jumping legs, as separate limbs and had a special name for them. Hence locusts were described as having four legs, a reference to the four smaller walking legs. “Going on all fours” thus referred to creeping or walking as opposed to jumping and did not mean that the unclean insects had only four legs in all. Because of its two hind jumping legs, the locust was exempted from the prohibition against unclean insects (Lv 11:20-23).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mole\">Mole<\/p>\n<p>Rodent <em>(Spalax ehrenbergi)<\/em> from six to nine inches (15 to 23 centimeters) long, which burrows in any area where the soil is suitable for digging; it should be called a mole rat. Common in the Holy Land, large numbers are found in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Isaiah 2:20 refers to the mole, as does Leviticus 11:29-30 (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The mole rat has no tail and is molelike in appearance, but neither true moles nor shrews have ever been found in the Holy Land. The mole rat’s teeth are strong and protruding like those of a squirrel. The neck is short and thick with a plump body shaped like a sausage. The short legs have broad paws with claws adapted for burrowing. The fur is soft, thick, and ashen gray. Its ears and almost sightless eyes, which are no larger than poppyseeds, are hidden in the fur. Folklore taught that touching a mole rat would result in blindness.<\/p>\n<p>In the wet winter season the mole rat builds breeding mounds resembling those of pocket gophers. It builds less complex resting mounds in the summer, although both have rather elaborate tunnel systems. The mole rat feeds on roots, bulbs, tubers, and various other subterranean plant parts, often doing extensive damage to agriculture.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Moth\">Moth<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the genus <em>Tineola<\/em> that lays its eggs on wool or furs, its larvae feeding on those materials. The destructive qualities of moths are referred to in several biblical passages (Jb 13:28; Ps 39:11; Is 50:9; Hos 5:12; Mt 6:19-20; Lk 12:33; Jas 5:2). In Isaiah 51:8 “worm” (<span>nlt<\/span>) refers specifically to the larva of the clothes moth. The moth symbolizes disintegration, decay, and weakening. It is only the larvae that do the damage. The adult is quite harmless and feeds mainly on the nectar of flowers. It is easily crushed (Jb 4:19). The clothes moth reproduces in May or June. It enters human dwellings in the evening. A week after the eggs are laid the larvae appear and immediately begin their work of destruction, eating anything within reach made of animal fibers.<\/p>\n<p>The moth’s destructive activity is done in secret without any sound and without any dramatic appearance, such as a swarm that blots out the sun. In an age when wealth was counted more in possessions than in money, and when among those possessions wool clothing was highly valued, moths could literally cause economic disaster; hence the words of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p>There are hundreds of species of moths other than the clothes moth in the Holy Land; they are harmless to leaves, flowers, fruit, trees, and seeds. As with the clothes moth, the larvae inflict the damage.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mouse\">Mouse<\/p>\n<p>Rodent of the family Muridae, especially genus <em>Mus.<\/em> The mouse was regarded as unclean because, being short legged, it was considered one of the creeping creatures (Lv 11:29). Mice known as commensals live in dwellings and tend to have longer tails and to be darker in color than wild mice, which are active chiefly at night. Mice are good climbers and even good swimmers. Wild mice eat many kinds of vegetation, including seeds, fleshy roots, leaves, and stems. At times they store food.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for “mouse” (Lv 11:29; 1 Sm 6:4-5; Is 66:17) is probably a general term for various rats and mice. The root meaning of the Hebrew word “mouse” is “destruction of corn,” a reference to the damage mice do to field crops. At least 23 varieties of mouselike rodents are known in the Holy Land. They cause food spoilage, damage household articles, and transport the host fleas that spread typhus, spotted fever, and bubonic plague. Plague bacteria may have caused the tumors or swellings among the Philistines (1 Sm 6:5). Isaiah 66:17 refers to a pre-exilic Canaanite cultic practice in which mice were eaten; the reference may actually be to the hamster. A number of rodents are eaten by Arabs of the Near East; the gerbil is considered a special delicacy. <em>See<\/em> Mole (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mule\">Mule<\/p>\n<p>Hybrid offspring of a male ass and a female horse <em>(Equus asinus mulus),<\/em> ordinarily sterile. The offspring of a female donkey and a stallion (male horse) is known as a hinny and is of little value because of its inferior size.<\/p>\n<p>Because crossbreeding was forbidden in the law (Lv 19:19), the Israelites procured mules from the Gentiles, perhaps from the Phoenicians, since Tyre (a Phoenician seaport in what is now southern Lebanon) imported horses and mules (Ez 27:14). Mules did not appear in Israel until David’s reign (2 Sm 13:29), possibly because of the rarity of horses among the Hebrews. Mules were used chiefly by members of the royal court and by other nobles. King David rode on a mule, and Solomon rode to his inaugaration on King David’s mule (1 Kgs 1:33). Absalom met his death riding on a mule (2 Sm 18:9). Mules were less common than horses, camels, and asses in the postexilic community (Ezr 2:66). In antiquity Asia Minor was especially noted for breeding fine mules.<\/p>\n<p>Mules have long enjoyed a reputation for obstinacy, but that trait is not mentioned in the Bible. The mule is prized for riding and for carrying heavy burdens, especially in warm mountainous regions. They are sure-footed and thrive best in hot, dry climates. The mule has the frugality, endurance, and steady gait of an ass along with the size, strength, swiftness, and courage of a horse. Mules are almost never sick. They live longer than horses. They can carry a load of up to 300 pounds (136 kilograms) as far as 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) a day.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pig\">Pig<\/p>\n<p>Most properly, newborn swine. “Swine” is technically the better name for the species, but it is rarely used in common speech today. The domestic pigs of the Middle East derived from the wild pig <em>(Sus scrofa).<\/em> The pig is the most prolific and abundant supplier of meat and fat for food. A thick layer of fat just under the skin is especially pronounced in domestic breeds. Pigs cannot be driven, so they are of value only to the settled farmer. The Hebrews were originally a nomadic people; therefore, they had little use for an animal closely associated with settled life. An Egyptian prince of about 1500 <span>BC<\/span>, however, is recorded as owning a herd of 1,500 swine.<\/p>\n<p>The pig is clumsily built, yet lively and able to move with agility and speed. The most conspicuous characteristic of the pig is a truncated, mobile snout terminating in a disc-shaped surface on which the nostrils are located. Most pigs have large tusks in both jaws which grow continuously in life. The tusks of the upper jaw are unique in that they curve upward instead of pointing downward as in most animals. The excrement of a pig has an almost unbearable odor, which clings not only to the pig itself but also to swineherds, who can be identified a long way off.<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were never raised in the Holy Land by Jews. The great herd into which Jesus drove the unclean spirits was encountered in the land of the Gadarenes, a non-Jewish area east of the Jordan. The Gadarene demons took refuge in a herd of pigs feeding on a bluff overlooking the Sea of Galilee (Mt 8:28-32).<\/p>\n<p>Wild pigs were found in the Holy Land as in many countries today. Psalm 80:13 refers to the destructiveness of a wild boar (the male, or hog) attacking growing crops. A party of wild boars can destroy an entire vineyard or a field of crops in a single night. They devour, trample, and ravage everything within reach.<\/p>\n<p>Boar hunts were common in ancient Mesopotamia. Wild boars do not attack unless molested, but they are dangerous when aroused. They travel in bands of from 6 to 50 and are most active in the evening and early morning hours. The body is covered with stiff bristles and usually some finer hair, but the body covering is often quite scanty. Wild pigs are mainly vegetarian, feeding on roots, nuts, grains, and plant stems. Wild boars were particularly abundant in the mountainous regions of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, in the Jordan River valley, and in wooded sections such as Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Strict Jews would not even mention swine by name but would always substitute the term “the abomination.” Israelites considered themselves polluted if they were even touched by a swine’s bristle. To the Jews, the pig symbolized filth and ugliness. Pigs will eat fecal material, vermin, rodents, carrion, and the like (2 Pt 2:22). Proverbs 11:22 refers to the incongruity of a golden ring in the nose of an animal showing such characteristics. A similar metaphor occurs in Jesus’ statement about casting pearls before swine (Mt 7:6). The prodigal son’s degeneration was shown by his being forced in his poverty to feed pigs and eat their food (Lk 15:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>Eating the flesh of pigs was forbidden to the Jews (Lv 11:7; Dt 14:8). The Canaanites in the Holy Land killed and ate pigs freely. In intertestamental times Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), a Syrian king whose territories included Israel, used the pig to “Hellenize” the Jews. He first tested their loyalty to the Jewish faith by requiring the consumption of pork, considered a delicacy by the Greeks (2 Macc 6:18). The act of desecration that drove the Jews to rebellion, however, was the sprinkling of pig blood on the temple altar in a sacrifice to Zeus (1 Macc 1:47).<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were frequently used in pagan worship (Is 65:4; 66:3, 17), which may account for their being forbidden to the Jews as food. Evidence in the Holy Land shows that pigs were sacrificed long before Hellenistic times. Pig bones were found in a grotto below the rock-cut place of sacrifice at Gezer. A similar underground chamber with vessels containing piglet bones at Tirzah dates to the middle Bronze Age (about 2000 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Alabaster fragments of a statuette of a pig ready to be sacrificed have been unearthed. Swine were sacrificed to Aphrodite (Venus) in Greece and Asia Minor. In addition, pigs were sacrificed in connection with oaths and treaties; in the <em>Iliad,<\/em> Agamemnon sacrificed a boar to Zeus and Helios. So it is not surprising that among the Jews the pig became a symbol of filthiness and paganism.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that eating pork was forbidden primarily because the pig may carry many worm parasites such as trichina, though that is also true of some “clean” animals. Another reason for forbidding their consumption may have been that pigs eat carrion. Some people are allergic to pork in hot weather—another suggested reason behind the Jewish taboo. The same taboo exists among the Muslims and existed in certain social strata in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Porcupine\">Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>Rodent, <em>Hystrix cristata,<\/em> which lives in forested areas, rocky hills, ravines, and valleys. The porcupine is still found in the Holy Land today. It has long quills that can be raised to give the appearance of a crest. It is almost entirely nocturnal. It burrows by day into a natural cavity or crevice. The Old World porcupine rarely climbed trees, although the New World porcupine frequently does. A porcupine may weigh as much as 60 pounds (27.2 kilograms). It eats fruit, bark, roots, and other vegetation, and carrion as well. Although its flesh is edible, the porcupine was not classed among the clean animals for the Israelites. The reference in Isaiah 34:11 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is probably to the porcupine, as is Isaiah 14:23 in the <span>nlt<\/span>. <em>See<\/em> Hedgehog.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Scorpion\">Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>Arthropod of the same group as spiders (arachnids). A dozen species of scorpions (order Scorpionida) are found in the Holy Land, but 90 percent of the scorpions are yellow scorpions, usually three to five inches (7.6 to 12.7 centimeters) long. The rock scorpion, also common to the Holy Land, is as thick as a man’s finger and from five to seven inches (12.7 to 17.8 centimeters) in length. Scorpions are slow, nocturnal invertebrates that rest beneath stones by day and prey on insects and other arachnids by night. At the end of its long tail the scorpion carries a poisonous sting that is fatal to most prey and extremely painful to humans (Rv 9:3, 5, 10; cf. 1 Kgs 12:11, 14). Scorpions symbolize Ezekiel’s evil countrymen (Ez 2:6) and the demonic forces of Satan (Lk 10:19). The scorpion is referred to as frequenting the Sinai Desert (Dt 8:15).<\/p>\n<p>A scorpion has from six to eight eyes. It has eight legs like a spider and two lobsterlike claws with which it catches and holds its prey. It feeds particularly on locusts and beetles. In many species the female scorpion eats the male after mating. Scorpions lay eggs that hatch very shortly after laying. Scorpions prefer warmer climates, and because of their desire for warmth, enter houses, especially at night, hiding in beds, blankets, footwear, and clothing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sheep\">Sheep<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animal, <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> referred to directly or by some term such as ewe, lamb, ram, or by some fact concerning them over 700 times in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Sheep represented the chief wealth and total livelihood of pastoral peoples, providing food to eat, milk to drink, wool for the making of cloth, and hides and bones for other uses. In addition, the sheep was a medium of exchange and a sacrificial animal. The number of sheep raised in ancient times was prodigious. Mesha, king of Moab, paid a tribute annually of 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams (2 Kgs 3:4). The Israelites took 250,000 sheep from the Hagrites (1 Chr 5:21).<\/p>\n<p>Sheep shearing was often done for festivals (2 Sm 13:23). The sheep was held down on its side and its legs were tied together; then it lay docilely while its wool was clipped (Is 53:7). Sheep reserved for burnt offerings were not shorn; nothing could be held back from a sacrifice to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Wool had to be processed before it could be used for clothing. First it was washed, sometimes while still on the sheep, then carded and perhaps weighed for the market. The spinning of wool was regarded as a woman’s work (Prv 31:19), but weaving the spun thread into cloth on a loom was primarily a man’s occupation.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible reports that Abel kept sheep (Gn 4:2). The first sheep to be domesticated was probably the argali <em>(Ovis ammon),<\/em> a variety of the urial <em>(Ovis vignei),<\/em> a mountainous species still existing in Turkestan and Mongolia. Five breeds had reached Mesopotamia by 2000 <span>BC<\/span>; all were of the urial stock.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep known in Israel was the broad-tailed sheep <em>(Ovis orientalis vignei<\/em> or <em>laticaudata),<\/em> of which the tail weighs from 10 to 15 pounds (4.5 to 6.8 kilograms) and has always been considered a delicacy. Thus the Lord asked for this choice part as a sacrifice (Ex 29:22-25).<\/p>\n<p>Only the ram of the broad-tailed sheep has horns, but in other varieties of sheep in the Holy Land the ewe also has horns. The horns, two to three inches (5 to 8 centimeters) in diameter, can be potent weapons. Rams’ horns could be used as trumpets (Jos 6:4) or as oil containers (1 Sm 16:1).<\/p>\n<p>Although the sheep is very similar to the goat, it is differentiated by a lower forehead, its angulated spiral horns marked with transverse wrinkles and curved slightly outward, its covering of wool, and its lack of a “goatee.” Most sheep are white (Ps 147:16; Is 1:18; Dn 7:9; Rv 1:14).<\/p>\n<p>The flesh of sheep was a luxury in the biblical culture. King Solomon required a daily provision of 100 sheep for his table (1 Kgs 4:23), but the common people ate lamb or mutton only on festive occasions. A young ram was usually chosen because the ewes were more important to the future prospects of the herd. The meat was boiled in large caldrons. The milk of the sheep is extremely rich; in biblical times it was usually allowed to curdle before drinking. Possibly some Israelites kept lambs in their houses as pets (2 Sm 12:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>To protect the flock at night against predatory attacks, the shepherd tried to provide a fold. In meadows near villages, folds were built and watchmen were hired to relieve the shepherds. The shepherds of the nativity story were out in the field (Lk 2:8); they had no fold but probably had set up a tent for shelter, consisting simply of goat-hair blankets spread across sapling supports. The scarcity of springs in the Holy Land made the watering of the flock a crucial problem for the shepherd (Gn 13:8-11).<\/p>\n<p>Wild mountain sheep, varieties of <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> are known in the Mediterranean area (Dt 14:5). The Deuteronomy passage (<span>kjv<\/span> “chamois”) might also refer to <em>Ovis traelaphus,<\/em> a sheep about five feet high (1.5 meters) with long, curved horns. Another possibility is the Barbary sheep that lives in small flocks in rugged mountain areas in Barbary, Egypt, and Mt Sinai. The true chamois is unknown in Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep is also used figuratively in Scripture. The ram represented great strength and fittingly symbolized Medo-Persia in Daniel’s vision (Dn 8:3). It is the nature of sheep to be gentle and submissive (Is 53:7; Jer 11:19), defenseless (Mi 5:8; Mt 10:16), and in constant need of guidance and care (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36). Such qualities are regarded as desirable in the lives of believers in Christ; hence the many figurative references to sheep in the NT and to Jesus as shepherd (Mk 6:34; Jn 10:1-30; Rom 8:35-37; Heb 13:20-21; 1 Pt 2:25). The resurrected Christ told the apostle Peter to “feed my lambs” and “tend my sheep” (Jn 21:15-17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snail\">Snail<\/p>\n<p>Invertebrate gastropods (mollusks). Land snails are very numerous in the Near East. Some freshwater forms serve as hosts for the schistosome worm, the fluke parasite causing the dread disease bilharzia (schistosomiasis).<\/p>\n<p>Purple dyes of all shades were highly valued in the ancient world. A royal purple dye was obtained from secretions of a sea snail <em>(Murex trunculus<\/em> and <em>Murex brandaris).<\/em> Evidently, that process was developed by Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Assyrians as early as 1500 <span>BC<\/span>. The “purple” fishermen had their own guild during the time of the Roman Empire. The snails were harvested during the fall and winter seasons; in the spring, when egg laying took place, little dye was available. The snails tended to remain concealed in the summer. They inhabited the waters off Crete and Phoenicia. Tyrian purple, produced in the Phoenician city of Tyre, the center of the purple-dye industry, was obtained by a double dyeing. Large deposits of murex shells from dyeing operations have been found along the Mediterranean shoreline. The Israelites had to import purple goods (Ez 27:16). Lydia was a “seller of purple” or of cloth so dyed (Acts 16:14). Purple was a sign of distinction, royalty, and wealth (cf. Ex 25:4; 28:5-6, 15; Nm 15:38; 2 Chr 2:7; Est 8:15; Prv 31:22; Sg 3:10; Ez 27:7; Dn 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 30:34-35 refers to “onycha,” which was an important ingredient of incense. Onycha is the horny, clawlike operculum (the plate that closes off the opening of its shell when a snail is retracted) of a Near Eastern member of the molluskan family Strombidae. The operculum is sometimes used for offense or locomotion as well as for defense. When burned, the operculum gives off a sharp, strong scent, and when mixed with more fragrant but less powerful substances is even more potent. The name “onycha” is derived from a Greek word <em>(onyx)<\/em> for a fingernail or a claw.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snake\">Snake<\/p>\n<p>Various species of snake, suborder Ophidia (Serpentes). In the Bible nine Hebrew words and four Greek ones refer to snakes. The most common Hebrew word is onomatopoeic—that is, it is an imitation of a snake hissing or of the sound it produces as it scrapes its scales along the ground (cf. Jer 46:22). Many types of snakes lay eggs (Is 59:5), although some retain the eggs in the body until ready to hatch.<\/p>\n<p>Snakes are among the most widespread reptiles and are found on all continents except Antarctica; they decrease in numbers and species toward the poles but increase as one approaches the equator. Thirty-three species of snakes are known in Palestine and neighboring countries, 20 of which are poisonous. Two dangerous characteristics of the snake noted by biblical writers are its inconspicuous way of moving and the ease with which it hides itself.<\/p>\n<p>Many snakes are able to swallow animals several times their own diameter because of their unusually flexible jaw mechanism. They lack not only legs but also movable eyelids. Snakes periodically shed their skins. The tongue is actually a hearing apparatus sensitive to airborne vibrations and probably to heat waves.<\/p>\n<p>The venom of poisonous species is a clear, thin secretion, transmitted to the victim’s bloodstream by means of fangs. Two types of venom are known: that of the vipers, which affects respiration and disintegrates red blood cells, and that of the cobras, which paralyzes the nervous system.<\/p>\n<p>The “asp” referred to in the Bible is probably the cobra; the “adder” is the viper. The “cockatrice” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is probably the adder. Serpents were associated with worship in Canaanite religion and symbolized evil deities among many other peoples. Steles (upright stones bearing inscriptions) have been unearthed at several sites in the Holy Land and Syria depicting a god or worshiper with a snake winding about the legs or body. Because the Israelites were burning incense in pagan worship of Moses’ bronze serpent (Nm 21:8-9), King Hezekiah destroyed it in his religious reform (2 Kgs 18:4).<\/p>\n<p>Although snakes have been an object of veneration in some religions, in the Judeo-Christian tradition snakes represent evil and, more specifically, the devil. That association began in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:1-15) and is also found in the book of Revelation (12:9; 20:2-3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adder (above); Asp (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spider\">Spider<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the order Araneida. Between 600 and 700 different species inhabit the Holy Land. Spiders are different from insects in that, like scorpions, they have four pairs of legs instead of three. Spiders are equipped with poison glands—the effectiveness varying from species to species. A few can kill only insects, but others can also kill birds and mice.<\/p>\n<p>Most spiders have a pair of spinnerets attached to silk glands on the underside of the abdomen; from them a web is extruded. In the Bible the spider’s web is referred to as a symbol of frailty and insecurity (Jb 8:14; Is 59:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sponge\">Sponge<\/p>\n<p>Simple marine animals, phylum Porifera. The term “sponge” also refers to those animals’ skeletal remains. The sponge has a porous body composed of tubules and cells.<\/p>\n<p>Sponge fishing was well known in the Mediterranean area in ancient times. It was practiced particularly along the Anatolian and Syrian coasts. Sponges were harvested by divers. The use of sponges in absorbing liquids is referred to in the Bible (Mt 27:48; Mk 15:36).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Unicorn\">Unicorn<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Wild Ox (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wasp\">Wasp<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the family Vespidae. Hornets are social wasps that build large aerial apartment houses in which 1,000 or more individuals may live. In the Bible the hornet is used as a metaphor for God’s use of military forces (Ex 23:28; Dt 7:20; Jos 24:12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Whale\">Whale<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all living creatures, including those that have become extinct. Whales are air-breathing mammals of the order Cetacea.<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of whales visit the shores of the Holy Land at times. The finback whale <em>(Balaenoptera physalus)<\/em> weighs about 200 tons (181 metric tons) and lives mainly in the Arctic region but sometimes passes through the Straits of Gibraltar to reach the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It feeds on small marine organisms that it strains through its whale bone; it does not have teeth. The finback whale’s esophagus is narrow.<\/p>\n<p>The sperm whale <em>(Physeter catodon),<\/em> about 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, has a curiously shaped head that looks like a battering ram. The teeth in the lower jaw of the male sperm whale are about seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long. It feeds on big fish, even on sharks. It has a large throat opening.<\/p>\n<p>Whales are referred to in Genesis 1:21 and Job 7:12 (<span>kjv<\/span> only). The “great fish” of Jonah 2:1 need not have been a whale but could have been a large shark, such as the whale shark <em>(Rhineodon),<\/em> which grows 70 feet (21.3 meters) long and lacks the terrible teeth of other sharks. Whatever the actual marine organism, Jonah’s deliverance was miraculous. The Greek word for “whale” is sometimes used as a general term for “sea monster” or huge fish and may be used in that sense in Matthew 12:40.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WildOx\">Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>Large, fierce, fleet, intractable animal <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> It had a long, lean rump with a straight back and a long, narrow head. The animal described in Job 39:9-12 is clearly the wild ox. The two horns (Dt 33:17), its outstanding characteristic, were straight and as long as the head (Nm 23:22; 24:8; Ps 22:21). Kings often symbolized their dominion by wearing a helmet with two wild ox horns (cf. Pss 92:10; 132:17-18). The horns were often used as drinking vessels by the Israelites; some were large enough to hold four gallons (15 liters).<\/p>\n<p>Hunting the wild ox was a favorite sport of Assyrian kings. Tiglath-pileser I hunted it in the Lebanon Mountains about 1100 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Ps 29:6). At one time the animal referred to in Job 39:9-12 was thought to be the oryx or antelope because of the similarity between the Hebrew word in Job and the Arabian name for oryx. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> called the wild ox a “unicorn” because of representations found on Babylonian mosaics and Egyptian drawings. Those representations showed it in strict profile, showing only one horn—hence, “unicorn.” Jerome’s Vulgate, a Latin Bible translation (fourth century <span>AD<\/span>) and Martin Luther’s German version translated it similarly.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wolf\">Wolf<\/p>\n<p>Large doglike mammal <em>(Canis lupus)<\/em> that travels in bands of up to 30 animals. From the nose to the rump, the wolf measures about 3 feet (.9 meter); its drooping tail is about 18 inches (.5 meter) long. It looks much like a skinny German shepherd dog. The grayish yellow pelt is coarse and short haired.<\/p>\n<p>Wolves hunt singly or in relays, usually at night (Jer 5:6). Wolves have acute hearing and sight but rely chiefly on scent and usually catch their prey in a swift, open chase. The wolf has a reputation for boldness, fierceness, and voracity (Gn 49:27; Hb 1:8). It commonly kills more than it can eat or drag away and thus is known for its greediness.<\/p>\n<p>The wolf is a restless animal, always on the move; hunger drives it from one place to another in constant search of new hunting grounds. During spring and fall, wolves usually roam singly or in pairs, whereas in summer they may travel in family groups. In winter, several such groups may join to form a large pack. Wolves are intelligent, social creatures, faithful to their own kind. They mate for life. Individually, the wolf is a rather timid animal; it would much rather avoid human beings. But collectively wolves can be among the most dangerous animals alive.<\/p>\n<p>In Egypt, Rome, and Greece the wolf was considered sacred. Wolves were well known in the Holy Land and are still found there and also in many places in Asia Minor. Shepherds continually battled with wolves that plundered their flocks (Jn 10:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible refers to wolves in a literal sense in only three places (Is 11:6; 65:25; Jn 10:12), all other references being figurative. Usually the wolf is a symbol of enemies or the wicked (e.g., Ez 22:27; Zep 3:3; Acts 20:29). Both the wolf’s courage and its cruelty were probably in the mind of the patriarch Jacob when he predicted the fate of Benjamin’s tribe (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Worm\">Worm<\/p>\n<p>Actually insect larvae in most biblical references, usually maggots, the larvae of flies (see Fly, above). For example, maggots are evidently referred to in accounts of worms feeding on spoiled manna (Ex 16:19-20), corpses (Jb 21:26; Is 14:11), or open wounds (Jb 7:5). Mark 9:48 refers to a maggot that eats dead flesh. In Acts 12:23 a fatal, worm-induced abdominal disease of King Herod is mentioned. In other cases, the reference is to the larvae of other insects (Is 51:8). In Deuteronomy 28:39 and Jonah 4:7 the vine weevil <em>(Cochylis ambiguella)<\/em> is probably referred to; it destroys vines by boring into their stems. Comparing a man to a worm is a metaphor for abasement (Jb 25:6; Ps 22:6).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ANIMALS<\/h3>\n<p>In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals as object lessons.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical approach to classification of animals is somewhat different from the system of classification used by biologists today. The present system of classification, which traces back to Carolus Linnaeus (an 18th-century Swedish botanist), is based on structure, both internal and external. The biblical basis of classification is habitat. Thus Genesis 1 speaks of aquatic organisms (v 20); aerial organisms (v 21); animals that crawl on the ground (v 24); cattle or domesticated animals (animals that live in association with humans) (v 24); and wild animals (v 24). The same system of classification is followed in Leviticus 11 and throughout Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Because of the divergence between systems of classification, the various animals of the Bible will be listed here in alphabetical order—including reptiles, fish, and even invertebrates such as insects, spiders, worms, and sponges. Birds are discussed in a separate article.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Adder<\/p>\n<p>• Ant<\/p>\n<p>• Antelope<\/p>\n<p>• Ape<\/p>\n<p>• Asp<\/p>\n<p>• Ass<\/p>\n<p>• Badger<\/p>\n<p>• Bat<\/p>\n<p>• Bear<\/p>\n<p>• Bee<\/p>\n<p>• Behemoth<\/p>\n<p>• Camel<\/p>\n<p>• Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>• Cattle<\/p>\n<p>• Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>• Coral<\/p>\n<p>• Cricket<\/p>\n<p>• Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>• Deer<\/p>\n<p>• Dog<\/p>\n<p>• Donkey<\/p>\n<p>• Dragon<\/p>\n<p>• Fish<\/p>\n<p>• Flea<\/p>\n<p>• Fly<\/p>\n<p>• Fox<\/p>\n<p>• Frog<\/p>\n<p>• Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>• Gecko<\/p>\n<p>• Gnat<\/p>\n<p>• Goat<\/p>\n<p>• Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>• Hare<\/p>\n<p>• Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>• Horse<\/p>\n<p>• Hyena<\/p>\n<p>• Jackal<\/p>\n<p>• Leech<\/p>\n<p>• Leopard<\/p>\n<p>• Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>• Lion<\/p>\n<p>• Lizard<\/p>\n<p>• Locust<\/p>\n<p>• Mole<\/p>\n<p>• Moth<\/p>\n<p>• Mouse<\/p>\n<p>• Mule<\/p>\n<p>• Pig<\/p>\n<p>• Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>• Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>• Sheep<\/p>\n<p>• Snail<\/p>\n<p>• Snake<\/p>\n<p>• Spider<\/p>\n<p>• Sponge<\/p>\n<p>• Unicorn<\/p>\n<p>• Wasp<\/p>\n<p>• Whale<\/p>\n<p>• Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>• Wolf<\/p>\n<p>• Worm<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Adder\">Adder<\/p>\n<p>One of the 20 poisonous snakes found in Israel and surrounding countries, also referred to as cockatrice and viper. True vipers (genus <em>Cerastes, Echis colorata,<\/em> and <em>Vipera palestina<\/em>) also exist there, poisonous snakes with curved fangs that spring into position when the snake strikes. The horned viper <em>(Cerastes hasselquistii)<\/em> may attack horses. It is 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 centimeters) long and often lies in ambush in the sand with only its eyes and the hornlike protrusions on its head visible.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and John the Baptist referred to the viper several times (Mt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33). The reference in Acts 28:3 is probably to a small viper <em>(Vipera aspis)<\/em> that strikes rapidly and is very pugnacious. It is found in southern Europe and hisses each time it inhales and exhales. The poison of vipers attacks the respiratory system and disintegrates red blood cells.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ant\">Ant<\/p>\n<p>Mentioned only twice in the Bible, both times in the book of Proverbs. For many years Solomon was charged with a biological error when he referred to the ant as providing her meat in the summer and gathering her food in the harvest (Prv 6:8). Critics of the Bible were quick to point out that, so far as was then known, ants do not store up food. They assumed that Solomon had probably kicked open an ant hill and mistaken the pupal cases (pods in which immature ants grow to maturity) for grain or had observed ants carrying bits of grain, leaves, and other matter to their nests.<\/p>\n<p>At least three species of grain-storing ants are now known—two occur in Israel and the other in Mediterranean countries. The particular species referred to by Solomon (Prv 6:6-8; 30:24-25) is probably the harvester ant <em>(Messor semirufus).<\/em> Its granaries are flat chambers connected by galleries irregularly scattered over an area about six feet (1.8 meters) in diameter and about a foot (.3 meter) deep in the ground. Seeds are collected from the ground or picked from plants. The head, or radicle, which is the softest part of the kernel, is bitten off to prevent germination, and the chaff and empty capsules are discarded on kitchen middens (refuse piles) outside the nest. Individual granaries may be 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) in diameter and a half inch (1.2 centimeters) high. Some nests are known to be 40 feet (12 meters) in diameter and 6 to 7 feet (approx. 2 meters) deep with several entrances.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Antelope\">Antelope<\/p>\n<p>Several antelope-like creatures are referred to in the Scriptures. One seems to be the white oryx <em>(Oryx leucoryx),<\/em> referred to in Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild ox”; <span>rsv<\/span> “antelope”) and Isaiah 51:20 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild bull”; <span>RSV <\/span>“antelope”). The oryx was probably the antelope, commonly used for food because its long horns made it relatively easy to catch.<\/p>\n<p>Another antelope mentioned in the Bible is the addax <em>(Addax nasomaculatus),<\/em> probably the “pygarg” of Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span>). It is a native of North Africa with grayish white hinder parts, a white patch on the forehead, and twisted and ringed horns. The word “pygarg” comes from a Greek word meaning “white rump.” The addax is about the size of a donkey. Its body is closely covered with short hair. It has a short mane on the underside of its neck that makes the head look somewhat like that of a goat. The hooves are broad and flat, and the tail resembles that of a donkey. It is common in Africa and in Arabia, where Arabs hunt it with falcons and dogs.<\/p>\n<p>Antelopes are very graceful and run with their heads held high. Both sexes have long, permanent, hollow horns. With the oryx the horns go straight back; addax horns are twisted and ringed. Antelope are alert, wary, and keen sighted. They are usually found in herds of from two to a dozen. If injured or brought to bay, an antelope attacks with its head lowered so that the sharp horns point forward. Antelopes feed on grasses and shrubs, drinking from streams and water holes. When water is scarce, they eat melons and succulent bulbs. Both addax and oryx were ceremonially clean in Jewish law.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ape\">Ape<\/p>\n<p>Primate not native to Palestine. The two references to apes in the OT (1 Kgs 10:22; 2 Chr 9:21) refer to their importation by King Solomon with other treasures on board the ships of his mercantile fleet. There is some question concerning the origin of those primates. Some believe that the mention of “ivory” in the same verses suggests they came from East Africa and that they were indeed apes, that is, tailless primates. Others, believing they came from India or Ceylon, suggest that they were actually monkeys. There the baboon (genus Papeio), a large monkey, was considered sacred to the god Thoth. Males of that genus were kept in temples, and the more docile females were often kept as house pets. Such baboons frequently had some of their teeth removed or ground down to lessen the danger of their biting. A number of mummified baboons have been found in Egypt, indicating the high regard in which they were held.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Asp\">Asp<\/p>\n<p>Poisonous snake. Most biblical references to the asp (Dt 32:33) seem to be to the Egyptian cobra <em>(Naja haje),<\/em> which conceals itself in holes, walls, and rocks and has the ability to expand its neck by raising its anterior ribs so as to enlarge the front of its breast into the shape of a flat disc. Its potent poison can cause death in 30 minutes. It attains a length of about 80 inches (2 meters). The fangs are permanently erect, not movable as in the vipers (the common poisonous snakes of North America; only the coral snake in America has permanently erect fangs). Cobra poison attacks the nervous system, causing muscular paralysis. The Egyptians looked upon it as a sacred creature; they regarded it as a protector since it fed on the rodents that ate their crops. The “fiery serpents” (Nm 21:6; Dt 8:15, both <span>rsv<\/span>) may have been cobras; “fiery” probably refers to the burning fever caused by their venom. Isaiah 14:29 and 30:6 (“flying serpent”) may refer to the hood of the cobra.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ass\">Ass<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Donkey (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Badger\">Badger<\/p>\n<p>Small hoofed mammal. What the <span>kjv<\/span> calls a “coney,” modern translations name “rock badger” (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7; Ps 104:18; Prv 30:26). The rock badger spoken of in the Bible is probably the Syrian rock hyrax <em>(Hyrax syriaca),<\/em> the only species of hyrax found outside Africa. This small ungulate (having hooflike toenails) lives among rocks from the Dead Sea valley to Mt Hermon. It is strictly a herbivorous (plant-eating) animal about the size of a rabbit. It resembles a guinea pig more than a rabbit, having quite inconspicuous ears and a very small tail. It has broad nails with four toes on its forelegs and three on its hind legs, the toes being connected with skin almost like a web. Pads acting as sucking discs under its feet enable it to keep its footing on slippery rocks. With its yellow and brown fur, it is sometimes called the bear rat because of its resemblance to a tailless rat. It is also equipped with black whiskers that may be seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p>These rock badgers, or hyraxes, live together in colonies of from 6 to 50 animals, often sunning themselves on rocks. They are difficult to catch. Guards are posted, and if approaching danger is sighted, the whole group will scurry for cover, warned by the sharp whistles of the guards. Thus they are commended for taking refuge in the rocks (Ps 104:18) and are called wise for making “their houses in the rocks” (Prv 30:24, 26, <span>kjv<\/span>). The badger is not a ruminant (does not chew its cud), but the motion of its jaws may suggest that it chews its cud. That is probably why it was included with other cud-chewing animals in the Jewish food laws (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7). It was forbidden to the Jews as food because it did not have cloven hooves. Some Arabs eat and even prize its meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bat\">Bat<\/p>\n<p>Flying mammals according to modern classification. They have hair and provide milk for their young. The Bible classifies them with other aerial creatures. Bats take shelter in caves, crevices, tree cavities, buildings, and also in exposed places on trees. In colder areas they hibernate or migrate. The normal resting position for a bat is hanging head downward. Bats “swim” through the air rather than fly because they move with their legs as well as with their wings.<\/p>\n<p>The bat’s thumb is free and terminates in a single hook claw used for climbing and hanging. The hind feet have five toes, all pointing the same way. The large chest accommodates the powerful muscles needed for flying. Because they orient themselves by echo location, the sense of hearing is very well developed.<\/p>\n<p>Most bats are insect eaters, seizing insects in flight. Many insectivorous bats also eat some fruit. Other bats feed exclusively, usually in groups, on fruit and green vegetation. Fruit-eating bats generally live in the tropics where fruit is constantly ripening, although some have been found in the Holy Land. These bats tend to be larger than the insectivores, having a wingspread of up to five feet (1.5 meters).<\/p>\n<p>A third group includes flower-eating bats that feed on pollen and nectar. These small bats with long pointed heads and long tongues are found only in tropical and semitropical regions. Three species of vampire bats, which do not occur in the Holy Land, eat blood by making a small incision and lapping it up. Carnivorous (meat-eating) bats prey on birds, lizards, and frogs. Fish-eating bats catch fish at or near the water surface.<\/p>\n<p>Eight varieties of bats are known in the Holy Land. One of them, the little brown bat (genus <em>Myotis<\/em>), is worldwide in its distribution. It is insectivorous and probably has the widest distribution of any nonhuman terrestrial mammal. Brown bats are mostly cave dwellers. The females form maternity colonies that may number in the tens of thousands.<\/p>\n<p>Two species of mouse-tailed bats (genus <em>Rhinopoma<\/em>) are found in the Holy Land. Their tails are nearly as long as the head and body combined. They are colonial, roosting in caves, rock clefts, wells, pyramids, palaces, and houses. Like the brown bat, they are insectivorous. The slit-faced or hollow-faced bats (genus <em>Nycteris<\/em>) are also found in the Holy Land. They are insectivorous and roost in groups from 6 to 20.<\/p>\n<p>The bats found in the Holy Land vary in size from that of a mouse to the size of a rat; the largest species measures more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) across the wings. The bat was unclean to the Jews (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bear\">Bear<\/p>\n<p>Large, heavy, big-headed mammal with short, powerful limbs, a short tail, and small eyes and ears. Bears have a “plantigrade” walk: they walk on both the sole and heel as humans do. The Palestinian bear is a Syrian version of the brown bear <em>(Ursus arctos syriacus).<\/em> It can grow to a height of 6 feet (1.8 meters) and may weigh as much as 500 pounds (227 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>Bears have an excellent sense of smell but less developed senses of sight and hearing. They are omnivorous (eating any kind of food); they subsist largely on vegetation, fruits, insects, and fish.<\/p>\n<p>Bears are usually peaceful and inoffensive, but if they think they must defend themselves (Lam 3:10) or their young (2 Sm 17:8; Prv 17:12; Hos 13:8), they may be formidable and dangerous adversaries. David boasted of his role as a bear killer (1 Sm 17:34-37). Since a blow from a bear’s paw can be fatal, David’s courage and strength as a young shepherd in running after a bear and wrenching one of his father’s sheep from its jaws were noteworthy.<\/p>\n<p>Some biblical passages seem to imply that bears attacked for no apparent reason (e.g., Prv 28:15; Am 5:19). At other times they were God’s instruments of punishment, as in the story of Elisha and the two she-bears (2 Kgs 2:24). The bear and the lion, often mentioned together in the Bible (1 Sm 17:37), were the two largest and strongest beasts of prey in the Holy Land. Thus they symbolized both strength and terror (Am 5:19).<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times bears seem to have roamed all over Palestine. Today they are found only in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and even there they are rare.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bee\">Bee<\/p>\n<p>One of two domesticated insects <em>(Apis mellifica),<\/em> the other being the silkworm. Bees gather nectar from flowers, transferring pollen from one flower to another in the process. It is believed that they convey the location of sources of nectar to other bees through a bee “dance,” which may indicate both distance and direction. Bees are sensitive to four colors: blue-green, yellow-green, blue-violet, and ultra-violet (invisible to humans).<\/p>\n<p>The wild bees of the Holy Land are especially noted for their ferocity in attack. Only the female “worker” bees sting people and animals, the virulence of their venom increasing in warm weather. A number of biblical passages allude to the irritable, vindictive nature of bees and to the painful stings they inflict (Dt 1:44; Ps 118:12; Is 7:18).<\/p>\n<p>One reference calls attention to the fact that in semidesert regions a dead animal’s carcass, stripped to the bone by jackals or vultures and dried in the sun, can provide wild bees an excellent place to start a new colony (Jgs 14:5-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptians considered the bee sacred. In ancient Greece candles were made from beeswax. In the Holy Land, beekeeping was probably not practiced until the Hellenistic period (second century <span>BC<\/span>), although Ezekiel 27:17 suggests that it may have been practiced earlier. If domestic honey was not available to the Hebrews, wild honey certainly was, and travelers would be on the lookout for caches of honey in rocky clefts and other likely places. The Philistines and the Hittites practiced beekeeping in their cities.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible contains many references to bees and bee products. A bee swarm was a valuable asset, though the price of honey itself was low. Honey was sometimes eaten with the honeycomb (Sg 5:1). Honey also had uses other than food, e.g., in embalming.<\/p>\n<p>The land of Israel was described as a land flowing with milk and honey. Honey was a major source of sweetening in the ancient Near East—hence, its importance (cf. Jgs 14:8-9). Actually the Hebrew word for “honey” may include not only bee honey but also the sweet syrup extracted from such fruits as figs, dates, and grapes. Thus “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ex 3:8, <span>rsv<\/span>) does not necessarily stand for a land of bees but for a land rich in sweetness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Honey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Behemoth\">Behemoth<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Hippopotamus (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Camel\">Camel<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of burden. Unintelligent, ill-natured, and quarrelsome, the camel <em>(Camelus dromedarius)<\/em> is nevertheless a blessing to people living in the desert and on its borders because it is especially adapted to that habitat. It has been called the ship of the desert. Having thick elastic pads of fibrous tissue on its feet, it can walk on hot desert sands. It can go without water for long periods and can subsist on vegetation growing on the saline soils. The camel’s nostrils are pinched together and can be closed at will to prevent penetration of sand during violent sandstorms.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are used for transporting both goods and people. A person riding a camel can cover from 60 to 75 miles (96.5 to 121 kilometers) in a day. A camel can carry a load weighing 600 pounds (272 kilograms) or more. Camels were used heavily in the spice trade (Gn 37:25) and traveled regularly in camel trains between Arabia, Egypt, and Assyria. They were also ridden in time of war (Jgs 6:5). A camel can even be hitched to a plow in areas where the land is cultivated.<\/p>\n<p>The hair shed by camels during the early spring is preserved and used in weaving cloth and making tents. As much as 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of hair can be obtained from one camel. A rough cloak of camel’s hair, as worn by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4), is still worn by Bedouins today. A camel’s hair garment was also the sign of the prophetic office (Zec 13:4).<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of camel occur within the one-humped species, the slow burden-bearing camel referred to in Genesis 37:25 and the fast dromedary of 1 Samuel 30:17. The dromedary can stand seven feet (2.1 meters) tall and measure as much as nine feet (2.7 meters) from the muzzle to the tip of the tail. With its three-chambered stomach, which can hold from 15 to 30 quarts (14.2 to 28.4 liters) of liquid, it can go for as long as 5 days during the summer or 25 days in winter without drinking. The camel’s hump is a reserve store of fat, making it possible for the animal to subsist on very little food during a desert journey.<\/p>\n<p>Another species of camel, the Bactrian camel <em>(Camelus bactrianus),<\/em> is also resident in the Holy Land. It has two humps. It is heavier, bigger, and has longer hair than the one-humped camel and is slower than the swift dromedary. Isaiah 21:7 may refer to the Bactrian camel; both kinds of camel are referred to in Esther 8:10 (<span>kjv<\/span>). Camels ranked in importance with sheep, cattle, and asses in OT times. A third of the 66 biblical references to the camel lists it with other animals.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are ruminants (cud-chewing mammals) but do not have cloven hooves. Thus, they were included in the list of unclean beasts, forbidden by the Israelites as food (Lv 11:4; Dt 14:7). They are eaten by Arabs, however, who also drink their milk (cf. Gn 32:15).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham had camels in Egypt (Gn 12:16). At first Job had 3,000 camels (Jb 1:3) and after his recovery, 6,000 (Jb 42:12). Although wide use of camels does not seem to have begun until shortly before 1000 <span>BC<\/span> (Jgs 6:5), Sumerian texts from the Old Babylonian period list camels and indicate that they had been domesticated. Camel bones and figurines have been found at various eastern archaeological sites dating from well before 1200 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Caterpillar\">Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>Larval stage of insects characterized by complete metamorphosis. Such insects pass through four stages: egg, larva or caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Bees, flies, moths, and butterflies all pass through a larval or caterpillar stage.<\/p>\n<p>The word “caterpillar” occurs three times in the <span>nlt<\/span> (1 Kgs 8:37; 2 Chr 6:28; Ps 78:46). In the book of Joel that same Hebrew word is translated “locust” (1:4; 2:25, <span>nlt<\/span>). The locust and grasshopper to which the Hebrew word refers have an incomplete type of metamorphosis with only three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The nymph is a miniature adult in which the wings are not fully developed, though their outline may be present. There are several nymph stages known as instars. The reference is to one of the last instars, in which the wing structures are still folded together and enclosed in a sac but are nevertheless clearly recognizable. That form of the insect is about an inch (2.5 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cattle\">Cattle<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animals of the bovine species <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> The OT often emphasized the beauty of cattle. Egypt was rich in cattle, especially in the Nile River delta area (Goshen), where the Hebrews settled under Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars believe that milk rather than meat was the foremost consideration in the domestication of cattle and that in early civilizations meat supplies came chiefly from wild game. Cattle also supplied strong hides that supplanted wood in the manufacture of shields. Their dung was a source of fuel when wood was scarce (Ez 4:15). They were used as beasts of burden and for plowing. Development of wheeled transportation was associated more closely with cattle than with any other animal.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical term “cattle” often refers to all domesticated animals or livestock (Gn 1:24; 2:20; 7:23; 47:6, 16-17; Ex 9:3-7; Nm 3:41, 45). Occasionally, the term was used to refer to all large domestic animals (Nm 31:9; 32:26), although sometimes the word as used in the <span>kjv<\/span> refers only to sheep and goats (Gn 30:32, 39, 43; 31:8, 10; Is 7:25; 43:23).<\/p>\n<p>Probably several kinds of cattle were domesticated in the Holy Land. Small, short-legged, black or brown shorthorn cattle were found in the southern part of Judah; that type submitted easily to the yoke and was prominent in agricultural operations. Along the coast a larger variety was found, and the wild districts east of the Jordan River were populated with a breed of huge black cattle.<\/p>\n<p>Cattle breeding was widely practiced by the patriarchs (cf. Gn 32:15; Jb 21:10). Strict laws in Mesopotamia, as well as in Israel, penalized the owner of a bull that gored a man or other cattle (Ex 21:28-36). Bulls were sometimes employed figuratively as pictures of strength or violence (Dt 33:17; Pss 22:12; 68:30; Is 10:13). For breeding purposes one bull is normally adequate for about 30 cows, but many more were kept since bulls were widely used in Israel for sacrifices. They might be used as a general sacrifice (Lv 22:23; Nm 23:1) or for special sacrifices (Jgs 6:25; 1 Sm 1:24). Particular sacrifices were offered at the consecration of priests (Ex 29:1), consecration of an altar (Nm 7), purification of the Levites (Nm 8), sin offerings (Lv 16), day of the new moon (Nm 28:11-14), Passover (Nm 28:19), Feast of Weeks (Nm 28:27), Feast of Trumpets (Nm 29:1-2), Day of Atonement (Nm 29:7-9), and the Feast of Tabernacles (Nm 29:12-38). The Feast of Tabernacles required the largest number of bulls for burnt offerings of all the annual feasts, with a total of 71 being slaughtered during the course of eight days.<\/p>\n<p>Calves were sometimes referred to as “sons of the herd” in the original Hebrew (Gn 18:8; 1 Sm 6:7; 14:32). The calf, a symbol of peacefulness (Is 11:6), was also used figuratively to refer to the weak (Ps 68:30). A calf’s head decorated the back of Solomon’s throne (1 Kgs 10:19). Calves were sometimes fattened in stalls to keep them from running off weight in the field (Am 6:4; Mal 4:2; Lk 15:23) or were kept around the house; the witch of Endor kept a calf in her house that she killed and served to Saul and his men (1 Sm 28:24-25). Calves supplied veal (Gn 18:7), considered a delicacy by the wealthy; Amos referred to stall-fattened calves in a denunciation of luxurious and careless living (Am 6:4). Calves also supplied meat for all Saul’s armies at the great slaughter of the Philistines (1 Sm 14:32). The “fatted calf” served roasted or boiled was gourmet fare, suitable for the finest banquet (Gn 18:7; Mt 22:4; Lk 15:23).<\/p>\n<p>Cattle were subject to the law of firstlings (Ex 13:12). They were a mark of wealth (Gn 13:2) and were considered proper booty of war (Jos 8:2). Aaron, the first high priest, made a golden calf as a rival to the ark of the covenant (Ex 32; Dt 9:16, 21). Even though he represented the calf as an image of the invisible God, it was especially offensive because the calf was a fertility symbol related to Egyptian and Canaanite practices. Two calves were later made by Jeroboam I of Israel (930–909 <span>BC<\/span>) for his shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:28-33). Hosea’s prophetic denunciations of calf worship were directed at those shrines (Hos 8:5-6; 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>An ox is an adult castrated bull. A steer is a young ox. Oxen were used to do work (Nm 7:3; Dt 22:10; 25:4), though for moving heavy objects, cows were typically favored over bulls because of their more docile nature. Oxen were also used as pack animals (1 Chr 12:40, although they did not have the endurance of the ass, camel, or mule. They usually fed on grass (Nm 22:4; Ps 106:20), but they also ate straw (Is 11:7) and salted fodder (Is 30:24) and could be kept in a stable (Lk 13:15). Oxen could not be offered as sacrifices because they had been castrated (Lv 22:24). They could be used for food but were rarely eaten. Possession of an ox and an ass was regarded as the bare minimum for existence in the ancient Palestinian agriculture economy (Jb 24:3; cf. Ex 20:17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Agriculture; Food and Food Preparation; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chameleon\">Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>Lizard characterized by its ability to change color according to its surroundings <em>(Chameleon vulgaris).<\/em> To the Israelites the chameleon was ritually unclean (Lv 11:30). The Hebrew word for chameleon is derived from a word meaning “to pant.” A lizard’s lungs are very large, and in ancient times lizards were believed to live on air. A chameleon’s eyes move independently of each other; so at times one eye may be turned upward and the other downward. Chameleons live in trees and bushes, clinging to branches with their long tails.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coral\">Coral<\/p>\n<p>Calcareous (lime-containing) skeletons of relatively simple marine organisms <em>(Corallium rubrum).<\/em> Red coral from the Mediterranean and Red Seas is widely used for jewelry and for medicinal purposes. While the animal is alive, the coral is green in color and shrublike in appearance, looking rather like an underwater plant since the coral animals are immobil. When the coral is removed from the water, it becomes hard and red in color.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient times coral was sometimes used as money, along with precious stones, pearls, and gold. Some believe the biblical reference in Lamentations 4:7 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is to pearls rather than to coral, but it is probable that the references in Job 28:18 and Ezekiel 27:16 are to the red coral (see <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cricket\">Cricket<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the order Orthptera related to grasshoppers and locusts. According to Leviticus 11:22, the cricket was edible. The reference may be to one of the growth stages of the locust.<\/p>\n<p>The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word as “beetle.” Beetles are insects with chewing mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the fore pair being hard and sheathlike and the hind pair being membranous and folded under the fore pair. Some beetles are carnivorous, others are chiefly herbivorous. Some are aquatic, some produce a secretion that blisters the skin, some damage fabrics, some damage crops, and some feed on other insects that are harmful to humans. In ancient Egypt the beetle, or sacred scarab, was a symbol of the sun god Ra. Scarab seals and amulets were extremely popular in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Crocodile\">Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all existing reptiles <em>(Crocodilus vulgaris),<\/em> attaining a length of well over 20 feet (6 meters). Crocodiles are characterized by large lizardlike bodies supported by short legs. The head terminates in a flattened snout armed with strong conical teeth, each of which is implanted in a distinct socket. New teeth growing from beneath continually replace those in use. The toes are webbed. The back and tail are protected by quadrangular horny shields of varying sizes arranged in regular rows and in contact with one another at the edges. The eyes are covered with movable lids that can be closed when the animal enters the water.<\/p>\n<p>The crocodile spends most of its time in the water where it feeds mainly on fish but also on aquatic birds and even small animals that come down to the water’s edge to drink. It is surprisingly fast and agile on dry land, even though its legs are so short that its belly and tail drag across the earth leaving a distinct path.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, the crocodile was found in the marshes and small coastal rivers of western Palestine. A first-century Roman writer, Pliny, referred to a place in the Holy Land called Crocodeilopolis (“crocodile city”) to the south of Mt Carmel, and visitors to the Holy Land as late as the 19th century reported seeing crocodiles in that general region.<\/p>\n<p>The description of “Leviathan” in Job 41 seems to be based on the crocodile (thus the translation of the <span>nlt<\/span>). The “dragon” of Ezekiel 29:3, used figuratively of the Egyptian pharaoh, may be a reference to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Deer\">Deer<\/p>\n<p>Large ruminant (cud-chewing) animals. Only the males have antlers (branching horns). Deer antlers grow annually and are solid, in contrast to those of the antelope and the gazelle. Fully developed antlers are devoid of any covering of skin or horn and, for all practical purposes, may be regarded as a mass of dead bone carried for a certain time by the living animal.<\/p>\n<p>The end of the deer’s muzzle is naked in all species. The stomach is divided into a series of compartments, some of which are used to store partly chewed food. The food is later regurgitated, rechewed, and finally swallowed into a section of the stomach where true digestion takes place.<\/p>\n<p>Three species of deer were known in Palestine: the red deer <em>(Cervus elaphus),<\/em> the Persian fallow deer <em>(Dama mesopotamica),<\/em> and the roe deer <em>(Capreolus capreolus).<\/em> All are now extinct there. The last deer were hunted in the Holy Land in 1914. The red deer referred to in the Bible as “hart” (male), “stag” (male), or “hind” (female) stood about four feet (1.2 meters) high at the shoulder. It was gregarious (living in herds or flocks), each group remaining in a definite territory. Red deer grazed and browsed during the morning and late afternoon (Lam 1:6). The sexes remained in separate herds. The red deer was known for its leaping (Is 35:6) and sure-footedness in the mountains (Ps 18:33; Sg 2:8-9, 17; 8:14; Hb 3:19).<\/p>\n<p>The antlers of the Persian fallow deer (1 Kgs 4:23) were large, flattened, and palmated (shaped like an open palm with fingers extended), and its coat was a yellowbrown. It traveled in small groups, feeding mainly on grass in the morning and evening.<\/p>\n<p>The roe deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23) was a small, graceful animal, dark reddish brown in summer and yellowish gray in winter. Its antlers were about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and had three points. The roe deer preferred sparsely wooded valleys and the lower slopes of mountains, grazing in open grasslands. It usually associated in family groups made up of the doe and her offspring. They were shy, yet very curious. The roe deer barked like a dog when disturbed, and they were excellent swimmers.<\/p>\n<p>There is some question as to whether the roe deer is actually referred to in such passages as 1 Kings 4:23; references may be to the fallow deer, although that animal does not seem to have lived in the southern part of Palestine around the Sinai Desert because of its need for ample amounts of food and water. Fallow deer were found in northern Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The hart (the male red deer) was listed among the clean beasts that Jewish law permitted as food (Dt 12:15, 22; 14:5), but deer were not listed among the animals appropriate for sacrifice. The hind (female red deer) normally gave birth to one calf at a time, though twins were born with some degree of regularity (Jb 39:1; Ps 29:9, <span>kjv<\/span>; Jer 14:5). The gestation period was about 40 weeks. When it was about to give birth, the hind looked for a secure hiding place, preferably in the dense undergrowth of the forest where it could find natural protection for the tiny calf. During the first few days after birth, the mother never went far from her young. The fawn was able to stand on its own legs a few hours after birth. The solicitous care by the hind for her calf during the first days of its life is hinted at in a touching way in Jeremiah 14:4-5, where only a severe drought is said to drive the hind from her calf. Job 39:1-4 describes the calving of the hinds. The hind illustrated grace and charm (Gn 49:21; Prv 5:19), and its dark, gentle eyes and graceful limbs were used to describe the beauty of a woman (Prv 5:18-19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dog\">Dog<\/p>\n<p>Probably the earliest domesticated animal <em>(Canis familiaris),<\/em> used very early in hunting. The modern dog is believed to have come from the Indian wolf <em>(Canis lupus pallipes).<\/em> The dogs of biblical times probably looked like a modern German shepherd, with short pointed ears, a pointed nose, and a long tail.<\/p>\n<p>The dog was generally looked down upon in biblical times (Prv 26:11; 2 Pt 2:22). The biblical writers did not share modern sentiments about dogs being man’s best friends. The dog was pictured as a scavenger, haunting streets and dumps (Ex 22:31; 1 Kgs 22:38; Mt 15:26; Lk 16:21). Human corpses could become the spoil of dogs (2 Kgs 9:35-36). In general, dogs served the same function as vultures and other birds of prey. Most of the 41 references in the Scriptures to dogs show strong disfavor. Dogs were considered cowardly, filthy creatures.<\/p>\n<p>Dogs used in hunting occur in paintings in Egyptian tombs, and there is a reference to dogs herding sheep in Job 30:1. One good quality of dogs highly esteemed by the Israelites was watchfulness (Is 56:10). In general, however, in biblical times “dog” was a term of contempt (1 Sm 17:43; 2 Sm 16:9) and was used of overly submissive persons (2 Sm 9:8; 2 Kgs 8:13) and of evil persons (Is 56:10-11; Mt 7:6; Phil 3:2; Rv 22:15).<\/p>\n<p>Dogs, like pigs, were voracious and omnivorous (eating any kind of food). In response to a Gentile woman’s request that he heal her daughter, Jesus used the metaphor of throwing household food scraps to dogs (Mt 15:22-28; Mk 7:25-30). At the time of Jesus, the word “dog” was a standard Jewish term of contempt for Gentiles who, like dogs, were considered unclean, although the diminutive form of the word, used by Jesus, softened this considerably. Seeing her faith, Jesus granted the woman’s request, giving a non-Jew some of “the children’s bread.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Donkey\">Donkey<\/p>\n<p>Beast of burden. The donkey of the Holy Land <em>(Equus asinus)<\/em> was quite different from the European donkey of today, which is usually a small, stubborn animal. In biblical times the donkey was a beautiful, stately, friendly animal. Its color was usually reddish brown. Three wild races have been described, all from Africa. The race from northwest Africa is extinct; the one from northeast Africa, if not extinct, is close to extinction; the Somalian race, which survives, did not play an important part in domestication. The northeast African race, the Nubian donkey, was evidently domesticated in the Nile River region in early historic times. The donkey was used as a mount from the time of domestication on. It is first mentioned in the Bible among the animals that Abraham acquired in Egypt (Gn 12:16). The donkey was primarily a beast of burden, driven but not bridled. From the time of the Middle Kingdom on (c. 2040 <span>BC<\/span>), it was used for riding in Egypt, but only the Jews and Nubians rode donkeys regularly. The donkey was also used for threshing grain and for pulling the plow. In Arab countries today peasants plow with a donkey and a cow or camel hitched together. In Israel the law forbade plowing with a donkey and an ox hitched together (Dt 22:10). Until the time of Solomon (960 <span>BC<\/span>), horses were not used in Palestine. From that time on, the horse was ridden by warriors; the donkey was used by those who were traveling peaceably.<\/p>\n<p>The donkey was held in high regard by the Jews and was considered an economic asset. An individual had to have a donkey for minimum existence (Jb 24:3), and wealth was frequently counted by the number of donkeys one possessed (Gn 12:16; 24:35). The donkey was considered an acceptable gift (Gn 32:13-15). It was allowed to rest on the Sabbath (Dt 5:14). Women in biblical times often used the donkey as a riding animal (Jos 15:18; 1 Sm 25:23; 2 Kgs 4:24); often a special driver would help a woman guide the animal, running along at its side. If a married couple possessed only one donkey, the husband usually walked alongside while the wife rode (Ex 4:20).<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel returning from Babylon had ten times as many donkeys as horses and camels (Ezr 2:66-67; Neh 7:68-69). Job’s wealth was indicated by the fact that he had 500 she-donkeys before catastrophe hit him (Jb 1:3); after his recovery he had 1,000 donkeys (Jb 42:12). Joseph’s brothers used donkeys to transport the grain they purchased in Egypt (Gn 42:26; 43:24). Abigail transported food on donkeys to David and his troops during their conflict with Saul (1 Sm 25:18). David assigned one of the 12 managers of his royal estates to look after his donkeys exclusively (1 Chr 27:30).<\/p>\n<p>The onager, or Syrian wild donkey <em>(Equus hemionus hemihippus)<\/em>, is an intermediate between the true horse and the true donkey. Its ears are longer than those of a horse but shorter than those of a donkey. The front hooves are narrow; there are chestnuts (callouslike spots on the inside of the knees) on the front legs only, and the tail is short haired for a long distance from its root so that it appears to be tufted.<\/p>\n<p>The Sumerians (ancient Mesopotamians) were able to domesticate the onager, which was eventually replaced by the horse. It was used to draw chariots in Ur; a number of onagers were buried with their vehicles in a royal grave that dates from about 2500 <span>BC<\/span>. Later the wild onager was a favorite hunter’s prize for Babylonian and Assyrian kings.<\/p>\n<p>The onager was very common in the steppe lands near Israel, where it was described as a freedom-loving desert animal (Jb 24:5; 39:5-8; Ps 104:11; Is 32:14; Jer 2:24; Hos 8:9). Ishmael was described as “free and untamed as a wild donkey” (Gn 16:12, <span>nlt<\/span>)—that is, one who could not adjust to domestic life. Drought seems to have been responsible for the population decline of the onager in biblical times (Jer 14:6). The modern onager <em>(Equus hemionus onager)<\/em> is slightly larger than the Syrian wild donkey that is extinct.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dragon\">Dragon<\/p>\n<p>Any one of a number of monstrous land and sea creatures. In biblical usage, “dragon” does not refer to the huge, fire-breathing, winged reptile of European folklore. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> used the term to translate two Hebrew words that are usually rendered more precisely in modern translations. One word referred to desert animals; most scholars agree with the <span>niv<\/span> that “jackals” is its proper meaning (Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; Jer 9:11; Mal 1:3). <em>See<\/em> Jackal (below).<\/p>\n<p>The other Hebrew word translated “dragon” is harder to define. It was frequently used in reference to serpents (so translated in the <span>rsv<\/span>: Ex 7:9-12; Dt 32:33; Ps 91:13). In other <span>rsv<\/span> passages it is translated “sea monster” (Gn 1:21; Jb 7:12; Ps 148:7). The exact identity of such sea monsters is not known. Several <span>rsv<\/span> passages retain the English “dragon.” In two of them (Ps 74:13; Is 27:1), the context indicates that sea monsters are meant. In three others (Is 51:9; Ez 29:3; 32:2) “dragon” seems to refer to the crocodile, a figurative reference to the Egyptian pharaoh at the time of the exodus. Jeremiah 51:34 (translated “monster” in the <span>rsv<\/span>) may also refer to a voracious creature such as a crocodile. <em>See<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p>Babylonian myths described monsters and dragons in primordial conflict with the god Marduk; they represented the principle of evil. In its figurative usages in Scripture, “dragon” has a similar significance, especially in the prophetic books. In the book of Revelation it is a symbol of Satan, the archenemy of God and his people (Rv 12:3-17; 13:2, 4, 11; 16:13; 20:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fish\">Fish<\/p>\n<p>Aquatic animals frequently mentioned in the Bible without names or descriptions that enable us to identify the particular species. Since time immemorial, fish have constituted one of the staple foods of humanity, and they still serve as the chief source of protein in many parts of the world. The trade in fish was highly developed in biblical times. For example, one of the gates in Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3; Zep 1:10). The law in Leviticus 11:9-12 permitted the Jews to eat fish, but only those having both fins and scales. Scaleless fish such as catfish were forbidden, even though they had fins.<\/p>\n<p>Egyptian paintings depict various methods of fishing, and the Philistines fished in the Mediterranean Sea. Since the people of Israel were not a seafaring nation, it is safe to assume that most of their fish came from freshwater lakes and rivers, especially the Sea of Galilee. Some 36 species of fish have been identified in that lake, including varieties of perch, carp, barbel, “sardine,” and catfish.<\/p>\n<p>The method of fishing characteristic of NT times was the dragnet. After a boat had put out into the deep (Lk 5:4), a large net would be thrown out from it and then dragged toward shore by the rowers in the boat, possibly with the help of a crew in another boat. The catch was sorted out on shore (Mt 13:47-48). Fishing was usually carried out at night when the coolness of the water brought fish closer to the surface and when they could not see the approaching nets.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews also fished by hook and line (Mt 17:27), a few by spear (Jb 41:7), and some by the throw net (Ez 47:10). Habakkuk refers to hook-and-line fishing, netting, and seining (1:15).<\/p>\n<p>Very early in the history of the Christian church the fish became a symbol for Christ and the faith. It was scratched on the walls of Roman catacombs and may be seen today decorating walls, altars, pews, and vestments. The symbol came into use because the Greek word for “fish” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ichthus<\/span><em>)<\/em> is composed of the first letter of each word in the Greek phrase “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” <em>See<\/em> Whale (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flea\">Flea<\/p>\n<p>Tiny, irritating insect (1 Sm 24:14; 26:20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many species of fleas occur in Palestine, the most common being <em>Pulex irritans.<\/em> About a thousand species are known around the world. Fleas are wingless parasites that have sharp jaws and suck out blood from the bodies of humans and animals. The body is wedge shaped, enabling the flea to burrow into folds of skin and hide there. The eggs, laid by the female in dust heaps in the corners of rooms, hatch into small, white larvae that pupate (a nonfeeding stage) in a cocoon. Soon adult fleas appear that immediately attach themselves to the body of a host. The female requires blood for the development of her eggs.<\/p>\n<p>A flea bite is painful and causes some swelling and itching. Fleas are attracted by warmth. With favorable moisture and temperature, adult fleas can live a year or longer without food, but they are voracious feeders. The most dangerous fleas are those of the rat that transmit the organism responsible for bubonic plague. There were 41 recorded epidemics of bubonic plague before the Christian era.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fly\">Fly<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the order Diptera, which have one pair of wings. Many winged insects of other orders, however, are also called flies, such as the dragonfly or butterfly.<\/p>\n<p>As in almost all parts of the world, flies are abundant in Palestine. One of the most numerous is the common housefly <em>(Musca domestica),<\/em> found chiefly around dung heaps and garbage. The female lays her eggs, out of which emerge white maggots that feed on refuse. After a few days the maggot develops into a cocoon out of which emerges the adult housefly. In the summer the whole cycle lasts about 12 days, so that a fly can breed about 20 generations a year.<\/p>\n<p>Another fly common to Palestine is the botfly (family Oestridae). It causes much discomfort among livestock by irritating them and spreading diseases. Tabanid flies (family Tabanidae), including the horsefly (genus <em>Tabanus<\/em>) and related species, are also found in Palestine. Both the botfly and horsefly are known as gadflies because of the persistent distress they inflict. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar is spoken of as a gadfly in view of his invasion of Egypt (Jer 46:20).<\/p>\n<p>The fourth plague in Egypt just before the exodus featured “swarms of flies” (Ex 8:21-31, <span>nlt<\/span>; cf. Pss 78:45; 105:31). Those swarms may have been made up of any or all the flies mentioned above. The maggots mentioned in Job 25:6 and Isaiah 14:11 and the worms in Exodus 16:24 and Job 7:5 and 17:14 were probably fly larvae.<\/p>\n<p>A proverb quoted in Ecclesiastes 10:1 probably refers to the housefly, which would be attracted to an open, perfumed ointment bottle. Once inside it would drown and eventually decay, causing the ointment to spoil and stink. The fly is also referred to in Isaiah 7:18 where it symbolizes Egypt. Isaiah may have had in mind a horsefly <em>(Tabanus arenivagus)<\/em> that attacks both humans and animals.<\/p>\n<p>Philistine inhabitants of the city of Ekron worshiped a god named Baal-zebul, meaning “Lord of the high places.” The Hebrews mockingly spoke of Baal-zebub, meaning “Lord of the flies” (2 Kgs 1:2). The NT form is Beelzebub (e.g., Mt 10:25; 12:24, 27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fox\">Fox<\/p>\n<p>Small, doglike carnivore with a bushy tail that is about half its body length. The red fox of the Holy Land <em>(Vulpes palaetinae)<\/em> is similar to the North American red fox; it is smaller than a wolf and is normally a nocturnal solitary animal. The omnivorous fox eats almost any kind of food—fruits, plants, mice, beetles, and birds—but seldom touches carrion. It loves the sweet juice of grapes, but it also burrows underground tunnels that can destroy the vines (Sg 2:15). The fox is intelligent and known for its slyness (Lk 13:32). It has considerable endurance and can run at speeds up to 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour. The Jews rebuilding Jerusalem’s wall were taunted by the wisecrack that even a fox jumping on their wall would knock it over (Neh 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian fox <em>(Vulpes niloticus)<\/em> is found in the central and southern parts of the Holy Land. It is somewhat smaller than the common red fox. Its back is rust colored and its belly light. The Syrian fox <em>(Vulpes flavescens)<\/em> that lives in the northern part of the Holy Land is shiny gold in color.<\/p>\n<p>Some OT references such as Psalm 63:10 and Lamentations 5:18 are translated “fox” in the <span>kjv<\/span> but probably refer to jackals. Jackals, not foxes, hunt in packs and tend to act as scavengers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frog\">Frog<\/p>\n<p>Amphibian (genus <em>Rana<\/em>), living part of its life in the water and part on land.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs and toads are covered with soft, hairless skin and lack a tail in the adult stage. The hind legs are much longer and more powerfully developed than the forelegs so that the animals are able to jump large distances. It has been suggested that the frog referred to in Scripture is an edible one, <em>Rana ridibunda,<\/em> one of the aquatic frogs found in Egypt and in the stagnant waters of the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The female frog lays her eggs in the water; after about a week the eggs hatch into tadpoles. Gradually through metamorphosis the tail is lost and limbs are acquired. Frogs must maintain a moist skin since they take oxygen through the skin as well as through their lungs; thus they must always remain close to water. They feed on insects and worms.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs are found throughout the Palestinian lowlands, where their croaking is heard in the spring and on summer evenings. The Israelites seem to have associated frogs primarily with sliminess and foulness. They fell into the category of creeping or swarming creatures, which in general were ritually unclean (Lv 11:29-31). Since the frog was not specifically listed, however, rabbis did not consider it one of the animals that defiled human beings through contact.<\/p>\n<p>In Revelation 16:13 certain foul spirits are said to look like frogs. The ancient Egyptians made the frog a symbol of life and birth and an image of Heqet, the patron goddess of birth. She is depicted with a frog’s head giving life to the newborn. Thus that deity was discredited when the power of God afflicted Egypt in the second of the ten plagues on the Egyptians with the very animal that was her symbol (Ex 8:1-14; Pss 78:45; 105:30). The frog in question may have been the spotted frog of Egypt <em>(Rana punctata,<\/em> or <em>Rana ridibunda).<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gazelle\">Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>Small, dainty, graceful antelope with hollow recurved horns on both sexes. Two varieties exist in the Holy Land, the dorcas gazelle <em>(Gazella dorcas),<\/em> which is pale fawn in color and up to 22 inches (56 centimeters) tall, and the Arabian gazelle <em>(Gazella arabica),<\/em> which is a dark smoky color and up to 25 inches (63.5 centimeters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Gazelles are still quite common throughout the desert and steppe areas of the Holy Land, especially in the Negev Desert. Herds usually consist of from 5 to 10 animals, but some varieties assemble in large migratory herds in the fall to relocate to lower elevations and new feeding grounds. Gazelles are herbivorous (plant eating). They are very shy and post guards to warn the herd of approaching danger.<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times the gazelle was probably the game animal most hunted by the Jews (Prv 6:5; Is 13:14). Pharaoh Tutankhamen hunted gazelles and ostriches. The gazelle is said to have graced Solomon’s table (1 Kgs 4:23). Gazelles were not easy to catch because of their great speed (2 Sm 2:18; 1 Chr 12:8; Prv 6:5); they surpass the deer in swiftness. They were trapped in various ways—encircled with nets, driven into enclosures with pitfalls, or forced into narrow valleys and shot with arrows. The Bedouin hunt gazelle with falcons and dogs; the falcon annoys the gazelle, striking it on the head and injuring it so that the dogs can overtake it.<\/p>\n<p>The gazelle is referred to in Song of Songs 2:9, 17; 4:5; 7:3; 8:14, where it is an image of feminine beauty.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gecko\">Gecko<\/p>\n<p>Reptile of the family Gekkonidae, referred to in Leviticus 11:30. In Jewish food law it was a ritually unclean lizard. There are seven species of geckos in the Holy Land (including <em>Hemidactylus turcicus<\/em> and <em>Ptyodactylus hasselquistii,<\/em> all insectivorous—insect eating). The gecko makes a low mourning sound by vibrating its tongue rapidly against the roof of its mouth. In legend the gecko was said to cause leprosy by crawling across a person’s body.<\/p>\n<p>Another name for the gecko is the wall lizard, so named because it can walk upside down on ceilings with the aid of the suction discs on its toes—but it often plops down into the middle of the home. Since it was considered unclean, such an intrusion would have been a disgusting nuisance to Jewish households (Lv 11:31-38).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gnat\">Gnat<\/p>\n<p>Any very small fly, in common and biblical usage. According to the <span>nlt<\/span>, the third plague in Egypt before the exodus consisted of gnats (Ex 8:16-18; Ps 105:31). The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word there as “lice,” but the breeding pattern described in Exodus 8—insects rising from the dust—seems to fit gnats better than lice. Since “gnat” is a general term, the small flies of that plague may have included several small species such as mosquitos, harvester gnats, midges, or sand flies.<\/p>\n<p>The sand fly inflicts a far more painful bite than the mosquito. Further, it does not betray itself by a buzzing noise in flight and is so small that it penetrates most mosquito netting.<\/p>\n<p>Gnats were drawn to wine while it was fermenting. The Pharisees in particular would strain their wine to avoid consuming unclean insects (Mt 23:24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Goat\">Goat<\/p>\n<p>Cloven-hooved mammals (genus <em>Capra<\/em>) with large eyes and big, floppy ears that constantly twitch. Both males and females have backward arching horns. The Palestinian goat is a ruminant (cud-chewing animal) of lighter build than the sheep.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was probably the earliest ruminant to be domesticated. Its wild ancestor seems to have been the Gezoar goat <em>(Capra aegagrus).<\/em> Wild goats are believed to have been domesticated very early in Palestine. The goat of Bible times was probably the Syrian or Mamber variety <em>(Capra hircus mambrica).<\/em> Domesticated goats may have as many as four kids in a litter, whereas wild goats bear only one or two.<\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian goat was commonly black. Speckled and spotted goats were a rarity, and for that reason Jacob’s request for those goats in Genesis 30:32 appeared very modest. There may also have been red goats (cf. 1 Sm 16:12; 19:13, where goat’s hair was used to imitate David’s hair, which was “ruddy” or auburn).<\/p>\n<p>Almost every part of the goat was used by the Israelites. The whole goat was used for sacrifice. Its flesh served as meat (Lv 7:23; Dt 14:4), and it was the principal source of milk (Prv 27:27). Goats were sheared in the late spring, and the goat hair was used for weaving tent cloth and for various domestic purposes (Ex 36:14; 1 Sm 19:13, 16). The tabernacle at Mt Sinai was made of goat’s hair blankets (Ex 26:7).<\/p>\n<p>Adult male goats were generally not eaten because of their strong flavor and toughness and also because they were necessary to insure the flock’s increase. Young kids, however, were usually the chief meat for a feast and were offered to visitors as a symbol of hospitality. Goat milk is richer than the milk of cows and sheep and evidently had broader uses. A good goat gives three quarts of milk a day, from which a rich butter and buttermilk can be made. The average Hebrew family could have lived almost entirely on a single goat’s production.<\/p>\n<p>Goatskin was tanned as leather, and the whole hide was turned into a skin bottle by sewing shut leg and neck apertures (Gn 21:14; Jos 9:4). Goatskin had many uses, including the construction of Hebrew musical instruments. The nebal, a large harp, was made with goatskin for its base sound. Drums had goatskin coverings.<\/p>\n<p>Goats were herded with sheep in biblical times, but each group remained separate following its own bell-laden leader. Jesus was evidently referring to their common herding in his description of the Last Judgment (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\n<p>Because of their wool, sheep are valued more than goats. However, where pasture and water are scarce and thorny shrubs dominate over grass, sheep are difficult to keep and goats become important. They can live under conditions that suit neither cows nor sheep, producing large quantities of milk. The goat does not supply fat as the sheep does, and since its hair is coarse its wool is rather scarce. Goat-hair cloth called cilicium was used to make tents.<\/p>\n<p>Goats have voracious appetites. They also were responsible for much damage done to the land of Palestine, breaking down terraces, destroying forests, and bringing about soil erosion by eating off all cover.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was recognized as a form of wealth, subject to the law of firstlings (Nm 18:17). It had to be eight days old before it could be offered as a sacrifice. A year-old male goat was one of the animals offered at the Passover (28:22), and two goats were offered on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:7-10). The goat was also used for other specific sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>The ibex, a type of wild goat <em>(Capra ibex nubiana),<\/em> still lives in small numbers on the cliffs close to the Dead Sea. That it was known in ancient times is evident from rock carvings. It is distinguished from the true wild goat by having a more compact rump and horns that are slender and curved back. Its slender legs and sharp cloven hooves enable it to cling to narrow rock ledges, to jump between them, and to climb steep cliffs.<\/p>\n<p>Usually the ibex is found in rugged mountain country among rocky crags and meadows just below the snow line (Ps 104:18). In Job 39:1 they are referred to as “mountain goats.” They frequently gather in herds of 5 to 20. They graze and browse, being active in the afternoon and sometimes feeding through the night. The large horn of the ibex was at one period made into the shofar that was blown in the second Jerusalem temple to announce the new year and the jubilee year.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was often used in a figurative and symbolic sense by the writers of the Bible: in Song of Songs 4:1 and 6:5 for the bride’s black hair; in Matthew 25:31-46 for the wicked; and in Ezekiel 34:17 and Daniel 8:5-8 for various human leaders.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Grasshopper\">Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>Large insects of the Orthoptera order. They have chewing or biting mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the front pair of which is narrow and somewhat thickened and the hind pair membranous and used for flying. When not in use the flight wings are folded beneath the protective front wings like a fan against the body. By rubbing their wings together, male grasshoppers produce sounds that both males and females can detect. Grasshoppers pass through a partial metamorphosis; the egg hatches into a juvenile nymph that looks like an adult except for its smaller size and undeveloped wings. After several months the nymph becomes a winged adult.<\/p>\n<p>The terms “grasshopper” and “locust” are often used interchangeably. Actually the locust is a kind of grasshopper. Also confusing is the fact that other insects such as cicadas are sometimes called locusts. The difference between grasshoppers and locusts depends more on behavior than appearance. Grasshoppers are individual insects that lead solitary lives and do not migrate. The same insects when migrating in a swarm are called migratory grasshoppers or locusts. Elimination of their food supply by drought, flood, or fire may lead to migration. Climatic factors such as a warm dry winter also stimulate migrations.<\/p>\n<p>Grasshoppers and locusts have been a staple food in the Middle East and also among the Indians of the American Southwest. To the Israelites the grasshopper was considered ritually clean and could be eaten (Lv 11:22).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hare\">Hare<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the genus and species <em>Lepus europaeus judaeus, Lepus capensis,<\/em> and <em>Lepus arabicus.<\/em> It is found in open country, often near or on cultivated lands, and in woods, usually deciduous rather than evergreen. It is an herbivorous rodent and is different from the rabbit, which is not found in Palestine. Although it is not a true ruminant according to modern classification (because it does not have a four-chambered stomach), the hare does rechew its food. It has a process of partial regurgitation of material too hard for the cells in the stomach to absorb initially; thus, the hare actually chews food previously swallowed.<\/p>\n<p>Near Eastern hares have very long ears and large hind feet; their feet are well furred. They are similar to American jackrabbits, which are true hares. Hares do not dig or occupy burrows the way rabbits do. Hares are mainly nocturnal and spend their inactive hours hiding in vegetation. They eat grasses and herbaceous matter as well as twigs and young bark of woody plants. Hares breed with great rapidity—the young attaining sexual maturity at six months after birth.<\/p>\n<p>The hare was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:6; Dt 14:7), evidently because although it appeared to chew its cud, it did not have cloven hooves. Consumption of hares has also been forbidden among the Arabs, Chinese, and Lapps, but the hare was widely hunted by other people in ancient and modern times. Its great speed, prolific breeding, timidity, and caution have saved it from extermination by its many enemies.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hippopotamus\">Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of problematic interpretation. Some early interpreters thought it referred to the elephant, others to the wild ox, the mammoth, or any large animal. It was called “behemoth” by the <span>kjv<\/span> translators. Today it is generally agreed that the reference is to the hippopotamus <em>(Hippopotamus amphibius),<\/em> a large, thick-skinned, amphibious mammal, an ungulate (having hooflike toenails) with a large head, a bulky, hairless body, and short legs.<\/p>\n<p>The description in Job 40:15-24 fits closely the modern hippopotamus (see <span>nlt<\/span>), except for the depiction of the tail. At present the hippopotamus is found only in the rivers of Africa, but there is fossil evidence that it has existed in the Holy Land, perhaps in the swamps of northern Galilee and the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The hippopotamus has highly developed sense organs, placed in such a way that it can see, hear, and smell almost without being seen; its eyes, ears, and nostrils can reach above water while the rest of the animal lies submerged. It has a large mouth, large tusks, and a short, heavy throat. The strong legs are so short that the belly almost reaches the ground when the animal is on the land. The hippopotamus lives on plants and herbs growing in rivers, but if food is scarce there, it forages on land, usually at night. In spite of its heavy body it is surprisingly agile on land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Horse\">Horse<\/p>\n<p>Przewalski’s horse (<em>Equus przewalskii,<\/em> an eastern race that roamed about Mongolia until modern firearms destroyed most of them after World War I) and the tarpan (a western race of southern Russia that became extinct in the Ukraine in 1851). The domesticated horse <em>(Equus caballus)<\/em> seems to have been derived from the tarpan. The original site of domestication is believed to have been Turkestan, a region north of Afghanistan and India, now in Russia. The horse differs from the donkey in that it has shorter ears, a longer mane with a forelock, a long hairy tail, and a soft, sensitive muzzle.<\/p>\n<p>Horses were used in war not only for riding but also for pulling the heavy, springless war chariots. Two kinds of horses were needed for these different purposes, and the Hebrews distinguished between chariot horses and cavalry horses.<\/p>\n\n<p>The Lord warned the early Israelites against unnecessarily amassing military strength in the form of horses and thereby following the oppressive tactics of the powerful Egyptians (Dt 17:14-16), but the demands of war caused both David and Solomon to import horses from Egypt into their kingdoms and to breed them. Solomon greatly increased the number of horses in the Jewish kingdom and maintained large stables at various cities (1 Kgs 10:26) such as the regional defense centers of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer (1 Kgs 9:15-19). Ahab’s horses are mentioned in 1 Kings 18:5, and records of Shalmaneser III state that Ahab furnished 2,000 chariots to a coalition against Assyria.<\/p>\n<p>In early Israel, the horse was opposed as a symbol of pagan luxury and of dependence on physical power for defense (Dt 17:16; 1 Sm 8:11; Ps 20:7; Is 31:1). Horse trading, mentioned as early as Genesis 47:17, was carried on by Solomon between Egypt and the Syro-Hittite principalities (1 Kgs 10:28-29). Most biblical references to horses refer to their use in war, but horses were also used for transportation. Riding seems to have been less popular than the use of chariots. Cavalry units were not introduced until the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> by the Medes. Joseph rode in Pharaoh’s second horse-drawn chariot (Gn 41:43), and Absalom made a display by riding a horse-drawn chariot (2 Sm 15:1). Naaman traveled by horse and chariot (2 Kgs 5:9). Later, horses were so common in Jerusalem that the royal palace had a special horse gate (2 Chr 23:15), and a gate of the city itself was known as the Horse Gate (Neh 3:28; Jer 31:40). Mordecai rode a royal horse of King Xerxes as a sign of honor (Est 6:8-11). Horses are often spoken of figuratively (Ps 32:9; “mare,” Sg 1:9; “stallions,” Jer 5:8; 12:5), especially in the context of judgment (Hb 3:8; Zec 1:8; 6:1-8; Rv 6:2-8; 9:17; 19:11-16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Warfare; Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyena\">Hyena<\/p>\n<p>Stocky carnivore <em>(Hyaena hyaena)<\/em> with coarse hair, an erect mane, and long hairs along the neck and back. Hyenas live in holes among rocks and banks. They are mainly nocturnal but are ordinarily neither noisy nor aggressive. Their cry, however, is a disagreeable, unearthly sound. Hyenas usually feed on carrion, crushing bones with their powerful jaws. If the carrion supply is inadequate, they will kill sheep, goats, or other small animals. When threatened, hyenas growl and erect their mane, but they rarely fight. They are massively built with forelegs longer than the hind legs.<\/p>\n<p>Known as scavengers in Africa, hyenas eat domestic refuse in the villages. In Palestine the striped hyena is a common predator, preferring rocky territory and even rock tombs. Since hyenas were notorious for raiding the graves of the dead, all Israelites who could afford it arranged for burial in tombs protected by massive stone doors. Absalom, King David’s son who was killed by Joab in the wild, was buried under a huge pile of stones to protect his corpse from molestation by hyenas (2 Sm 18:17).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Jackal\">Jackal<\/p>\n<p>Carnivore <em>(Canis aureus)<\/em> smaller than the true wolf and with a shorter tail. It is similar to the fox but has a broader head, shorter ears, and longer legs. The fox is solitary; the jackal tends to be gregarious. Its tail can be drooping or erect, compared with the long horizontal tail of the fox. Jackals usually prowl at night, either singly, in pairs, or in packs through open savannah country. They eat small mammals, poultry, fruit, vegetables, and carrion. They spend their days in thickets and clumps of vegetation. Often they obtain scraps from kills by larger carnivores. Jackals can run at speeds of about 33 miles (53 kilometers) per hour.<\/p>\n<p>The jackal can reach a height of about 20 inches (51 centimeters), roughly the size of a German shepherd dog. Its back is pale yellow with dark, almost black, flanks. Its lips are black and its ears white on the inside. The howl of the jackal sounds like the crying of a child or the heartrending wail of the bereaved (Mi 1:8; cf. Jb 30:29). To other jackals the howl is merely an invitation calling the pack together for its nocturnal hunting.<\/p>\n<p>OT references are chiefly to jackals prowling around ruined cities and wilderness areas (Neh 2:13; Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; Jer 9:11; 14:6; 49:33; 51:37; Lam 4:3; 5:18; Mal 1:3). Many such references are translated “dragon” in the <span>kjv<\/span>, but “jackal” is more appropriate.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leech\">Leech<\/p>\n<p>Segmented worm (class Hirundinea) up to five inches (12.7 centimeters) long with a flat body equipped with suction pads at each end. The mouth, located at the bottom of the front suction pad, has three teeth that the leech uses to pierce the skin of its host. The leech feeds on blood, and its glands secrete an anticoagulant to prevent the blood from clotting. The ordinary medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is abundant in springs and ponds from the Negev Desert to Galilee. It adheres to the bodies of human beings and animals that submerge themselves in water, injects its anticoagulant, and sucks their blood.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Proverbs 30:15 is uncertain (see <span>nlt<\/span>) but may be to the parasitic and greedy nature of the horse leech (genus <em>Haemopis<\/em>). The small horse leech enters its host’s mouth and nostrils from water while the animal is drinking. A leech weighing one-half ounce (14.2 grams) has been known to gorge itself with two and a half ounces (71 grams) of concentrated blood and then to exist for 15 months with no more to eat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leopard\">Leopard<\/p>\n<p>Called <em>Panthera pardus tulliana,<\/em> it is the most widespread of all the large wildcats. In rocky areas it lives in caves, but in forested regions it lives in thick vegetation. In OT times many lived in the vicinity of Mt Hermon (Sg 4:8).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is somewhat smaller than the tiger, measuring up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length with a tail of about 30 inches (.8 meter). Its body is better proportioned than that of the tiger. The leopard takes its victim by surprise from a silent ambush, often concealing itself near villages or watering places and waiting for its prey, remaining in one spot for long spans of time. The leopard is swift on the ground (Hb 1:8), agile in trees, and very graceful in its movements. Its color is yellowish speckled with black spots (Jer 13:23). Daniel and John saw visions in which leopards were symbols of world powers (Dn 7:6; Rv 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is a wary and cunning animal, formidable and ferocious (Jer 5:6; Hos 13:7; cf. Is 11:6). The leopard is dangerous not only to domestic animals but also to humans. With its natural camouflage it can hide on the forest floor, blending into the changing light and shadows. The Israelites were terrified of the leopard because it constantly ravaged their sheep and goats. Several biblical place names suggest that they were known for the leopards in their vicinity: Nimrah, Beth-nimrah, and Nimrim, a district northeast of the Dead Sea. It has survived in the Holy Land into the present century; a few leopards still exist in remote areas near Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leviathan\">Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>Sea monster mentioned several times in the Bible (Pss 74:14; 104:26; Is 27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). It may refer to any of the larger marine animals such as large jellyfish, whales, or sharks, or to a large reptile like the crocodile. Some scholars think “Leviathan” may refer to animals now extinct, such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs (marine reptiles similar to dinosaurs). The scriptural term might also refer to certain dinosaurs that spent part of their lives half-submerged in shallow lakes and oceans. Other scholars believe that most of the references are to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lion\">Lion<\/p>\n<p>Large, tawny-colored carnivore <em>(Panthera leo)<\/em> that preys chiefly on hoofed mammals and charges by a series of leaps and bounds. Within historic times the lion ranged in Africa, Europe, and the Holy Land. In ancient times the territories of the African and Persian lions met in the Middle East. The lion of the Holy Land was the Asiatic or Persian lion <em>(Panthera leo persica).<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The males have heavy manes that stop at the shoulders but cover much of the chest. The Persian lion cannot climb and is mainly nocturnal, returning to its lair or a thicket by day (Jer 4:7; 25:38; Na 2:11-12). This lion is about 5 feet (1.5 meters) long with a tasseled tail 30 inches (.8 meter) or so long; its shoulders may reach a height of 35 inches (.9 meter). It is one of the smallest of the lion breeds.<\/p>\n<p>Lions are usually found in pairs, though sometimes in larger numbers. A small group is known as a pride. They generally prefer open country but in Palestine evidently prowled the subtropical vegetation of the Jordan River valley. Lions, which usually hunt at dusk, kill smaller animals by a blow of the paw, larger ones by a bite in the throat. A lion does not remain in the same place for more than a few days. The animal is in its prime at about seven years of age, when it weighs from 400 to 600 pounds (181.6 to 272.4 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>The lion does not characteristically attack humans, though like other great cats it may become a man-eater (1 Kgs 13:24-28; 20:36; 2 Kgs 17:25-26; Ps 57:4; Dn 6:7-27). Ordinarily, it attacks only out of great hunger or in self-defense. A very young lion that attacks humans can become dangerous if it develops a taste for human flesh. A very old lion, expelled from the pride because it can no longer keep up in the pursuit of antelope or gazelles, may choose humans as a relatively slow-moving prey.<\/p>\n<p>A lion generally roars only on a full stomach—that is, after it has consumed its prey (Ps 22:13; Ez 22:25; Am 3:4). Nevertheless, its roaring arouses fear (Am 3:8; 1 Pt 5:8). The lion is a bold (2 Sm 17:10; Prv 28:1), destructive animal (Ps 7:2; Jer 2:30; Hos 5:14; Mi 5:8), and the enemy of flocks (Am 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>Lions were common in biblical times in all parts of the Holy Land. Hebrew has at least seven words for lion and young lion. The lion is referred to about 130 times in the OT—more than any other wild animal. Lions were evidently much less common in NT times. After gradually declining, they became extinct in Palestine shortly after <span>AD<\/span> 1300. The lion was present in Mesopotamia, however, until the end of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>Lions played an important part in the political and religious symbolism of the Near East (1 Kgs 10:19-20). In Assyria and Babylonia the lion was regarded as a royal beast (Dn 7:4). Oriental monarchs maintained artificial lion pits as places of execution (Ez 19:1-9; Dn 6:7-16). Animals for these were captured in camouflaged nets or pits. To the Jews, the lion was the mightiest of beasts (Prv 30:29-31). Thus, it symbolized leadership (Gn 49:9-10; Nm 24:9) and hence eventually became a title for Christ (Rv 5:5). It was also the ensign of Judah’s tribe and was used by King Solomon in the decoration of his house and the temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lizard\">Lizard<\/p>\n<p>Reptiles of the suborder Lacertilia. Their skin is covered with scales. The lizard is a useful creature because it captures harmful insects and worms. Like other reptiles, it lays eggs with shells softer than those of a bird and with no clear division between the yolk and the white. Lizards are “cold-blooded” organisms without a temperature-maintenance mechanism; hence, they become inactive in cold weather.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards can survive in barren parched countryside. In the Near East they are encountered in great numbers in the Arabian Desert, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Judean wilderness. There may be as many as 44 different species of lizards in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The Dabb lizard (genus <em>Uromastyx<\/em>), which attains a length of about 24 inches (61 centimeters), is found in the Negev Desert. It is omnivorous, an unusual trait since most lizards are insectivorous. It has a hard, rough skin, green with brown spots; a short, rounded head; and a powerful tail encircled with a row of strong spines that it uses as a weapon of defense.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards are listed as ceremonially unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:29-31). The fact that lizards crawl on their bellies made them unclean. Contact with a lizard’s carcass defiled a law-abiding Jew (Lv 11:32-36). The <span>nlt<\/span> translates the “lizards” of Leviticus 11 as “great lizard,” “gecko,” “monitor lizard,” “sand lizard,” and “chameleon.” The monitor lizard is a large lizard that lives in the deserts of southern Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt. It is up to 55 inches (1.4 meters) long with a long snout and sharp teeth. Other translators and commentators render the original Hebrew in a wide variety of ways, including “tortoise,” “ferret,” “lizard,” “snail,” “mole,” and even “water hen.” The fact that most of the original Hebrew words occur only once in Scripture makes it very difficult to be certain about their appropriate translation.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gecko (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Locust\">Locust<\/p>\n<p>An insect of the family <em>Acridiidae.<\/em> It is referred to by at least 12 different names in Scripture. The various Hebrew words may refer to different stages of its development from larva to adult or to the type of damage that it causes. Locusts are characterized by swarming and mass migration. In modern times they have caused extensive and disastrous destruction to vegetation. Grasshoppers do not swarm or migrate en masse, differentiating them from the true locusts.<\/p>\n<p>The OT mentions several different species of locusts. Leviticus 11:22 seems to refer to the slant-faced (bald) locust and also to the katydid, or long-horned grasshopper. The reference in Deuteronomy 28:42 may be to the mole cricket. In Joel 1:4 and 2:25 and in Nahum 3:16-17, successive stages of the insect’s development are described. The cutting locust (<span>kjv<\/span> “palmerworm”) of Joel is probably the first instar (stage of development), the swarming locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “locust”) are middle stages, and the hopping locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “cankerworm”) later instars but not yet fully matured insects. In the adult stage, called destroying locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “caterpillar”), the color of the locust is reddish brown, which turns to yellow with a brownish network on the wings.<\/p>\n<p>Only three of the hundreds of varieties of locusts found in Bible lands are capable of multiplying into great swarms, and only the desert locust <em>(Schistocerca gergaria)<\/em> can be considered widespread in all the Bible lands. The desert locust is native to the Sudan (Africa). It is a little over two inches (5 centimeters) long and has a wingspread of some five inches (12.7 centimeters). It shows two phases, a solitary phase and a gregarious phase, with a possible third phase known as transiens. There are differences in the immature and adult forms of the phases in color and physiology.<\/p>\n<p>The quantity and distribution of rains are important factors in the extent of swarming. Moist soil is needed for depositing the eggs and permitting them to develop. Each female deposits from one to six egg pods, containing 28 to 146 eggs each. The larvae emerge in 15 to 43 days.<\/p>\n<p>In the gregarious phase (from the second stage of metamorphosis onward), the locust is driven by a strong wandering instinct. Masses of them form a random procession of overflowing locust bodies that ignore any obstruction. They swarm over everything (Jl 2:4-9). The only regulator of their activities is temperature; they are immobilized by high or low temperatures. Taking to wing they may move 1,200 miles (1,930.8 kilometers) from their native home. They fly in compact formations large enough to blot out the light of the sun. Their movement seems to be controlled by hormones, but the direction is influenced by the wind. The swarms consume almost every plant in their path, sparing only the carob, sycamore, castor tree, and oleander bush.<\/p>\n<p>A locust plague was one of the most severe evils to come upon the ancient world (Dt 28:38). Joel 2:1-11 describes a locust plague in graphic terms, using it as a symbol of God’s destroying judgment. Special days of prayer, fasting, and trumpet blowing were prescribed to remove locust plagues (1 Kgs 8:37-38; 2 Chr 6:28-29; Jl 2:12-17). Locusts symbolized powerful and merciless enemies that completely destroyed the earnings of human toil (Jgs 6:5; Is 33:4; Jer 46:23; 51:27; Na 3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Bedouins eat locusts raw, roasted, or boiled, preserving them by drying and threading. They are also crushed and ground, and the grist used in cooking or eaten with bread, sometimes mixed with honey and dates. Such was the diet of John the Baptist (Mk 1:6). The Greeks ground locusts in stone mortars to make flour of them.<\/p>\n<p>The ancients considered the two large hind legs, or jumping legs, as separate limbs and had a special name for them. Hence locusts were described as having four legs, a reference to the four smaller walking legs. “Going on all fours” thus referred to creeping or walking as opposed to jumping and did not mean that the unclean insects had only four legs in all. Because of its two hind jumping legs, the locust was exempted from the prohibition against unclean insects (Lv 11:20-23).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mole\">Mole<\/p>\n<p>Rodent <em>(Spalax ehrenbergi)<\/em> from six to nine inches (15 to 23 centimeters) long, which burrows in any area where the soil is suitable for digging; it should be called a mole rat. Common in the Holy Land, large numbers are found in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Isaiah 2:20 refers to the mole, as does Leviticus 11:29-30 (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The mole rat has no tail and is molelike in appearance, but neither true moles nor shrews have ever been found in the Holy Land. The mole rat’s teeth are strong and protruding like those of a squirrel. The neck is short and thick with a plump body shaped like a sausage. The short legs have broad paws with claws adapted for burrowing. The fur is soft, thick, and ashen gray. Its ears and almost sightless eyes, which are no larger than poppyseeds, are hidden in the fur. Folklore taught that touching a mole rat would result in blindness.<\/p>\n<p>In the wet winter season the mole rat builds breeding mounds resembling those of pocket gophers. It builds less complex resting mounds in the summer, although both have rather elaborate tunnel systems. The mole rat feeds on roots, bulbs, tubers, and various other subterranean plant parts, often doing extensive damage to agriculture.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Moth\">Moth<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the genus <em>Tineola<\/em> that lays its eggs on wool or furs, its larvae feeding on those materials. The destructive qualities of moths are referred to in several biblical passages (Jb 13:28; Ps 39:11; Is 50:9; Hos 5:12; Mt 6:19-20; Lk 12:33; Jas 5:2). In Isaiah 51:8 “worm” (<span>nlt<\/span>) refers specifically to the larva of the clothes moth. The moth symbolizes disintegration, decay, and weakening. It is only the larvae that do the damage. The adult is quite harmless and feeds mainly on the nectar of flowers. It is easily crushed (Jb 4:19). The clothes moth reproduces in May or June. It enters human dwellings in the evening. A week after the eggs are laid the larvae appear and immediately begin their work of destruction, eating anything within reach made of animal fibers.<\/p>\n<p>The moth’s destructive activity is done in secret without any sound and without any dramatic appearance, such as a swarm that blots out the sun. In an age when wealth was counted more in possessions than in money, and when among those possessions wool clothing was highly valued, moths could literally cause economic disaster; hence the words of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p>There are hundreds of species of moths other than the clothes moth in the Holy Land; they are harmless to leaves, flowers, fruit, trees, and seeds. As with the clothes moth, the larvae inflict the damage.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mouse\">Mouse<\/p>\n<p>Rodent of the family Muridae, especially genus <em>Mus.<\/em> The mouse was regarded as unclean because, being short legged, it was considered one of the creeping creatures (Lv 11:29). Mice known as commensals live in dwellings and tend to have longer tails and to be darker in color than wild mice, which are active chiefly at night. Mice are good climbers and even good swimmers. Wild mice eat many kinds of vegetation, including seeds, fleshy roots, leaves, and stems. At times they store food.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for “mouse” (Lv 11:29; 1 Sm 6:4-5; Is 66:17) is probably a general term for various rats and mice. The root meaning of the Hebrew word “mouse” is “destruction of corn,” a reference to the damage mice do to field crops. At least 23 varieties of mouselike rodents are known in the Holy Land. They cause food spoilage, damage household articles, and transport the host fleas that spread typhus, spotted fever, and bubonic plague. Plague bacteria may have caused the tumors or swellings among the Philistines (1 Sm 6:5). Isaiah 66:17 refers to a pre-exilic Canaanite cultic practice in which mice were eaten; the reference may actually be to the hamster. A number of rodents are eaten by Arabs of the Near East; the gerbil is considered a special delicacy. <em>See<\/em> Mole (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mule\">Mule<\/p>\n<p>Hybrid offspring of a male ass and a female horse <em>(Equus asinus mulus),<\/em> ordinarily sterile. The offspring of a female donkey and a stallion (male horse) is known as a hinny and is of little value because of its inferior size.<\/p>\n<p>Because crossbreeding was forbidden in the law (Lv 19:19), the Israelites procured mules from the Gentiles, perhaps from the Phoenicians, since Tyre (a Phoenician seaport in what is now southern Lebanon) imported horses and mules (Ez 27:14). Mules did not appear in Israel until David’s reign (2 Sm 13:29), possibly because of the rarity of horses among the Hebrews. Mules were used chiefly by members of the royal court and by other nobles. King David rode on a mule, and Solomon rode to his inaugaration on King David’s mule (1 Kgs 1:33). Absalom met his death riding on a mule (2 Sm 18:9). Mules were less common than horses, camels, and asses in the postexilic community (Ezr 2:66). In antiquity Asia Minor was especially noted for breeding fine mules.<\/p>\n<p>Mules have long enjoyed a reputation for obstinacy, but that trait is not mentioned in the Bible. The mule is prized for riding and for carrying heavy burdens, especially in warm mountainous regions. They are sure-footed and thrive best in hot, dry climates. The mule has the frugality, endurance, and steady gait of an ass along with the size, strength, swiftness, and courage of a horse. Mules are almost never sick. They live longer than horses. They can carry a load of up to 300 pounds (136 kilograms) as far as 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) a day.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pig\">Pig<\/p>\n<p>Most properly, newborn swine. “Swine” is technically the better name for the species, but it is rarely used in common speech today. The domestic pigs of the Middle East derived from the wild pig <em>(Sus scrofa).<\/em> The pig is the most prolific and abundant supplier of meat and fat for food. A thick layer of fat just under the skin is especially pronounced in domestic breeds. Pigs cannot be driven, so they are of value only to the settled farmer. The Hebrews were originally a nomadic people; therefore, they had little use for an animal closely associated with settled life. An Egyptian prince of about 1500 <span>BC<\/span>, however, is recorded as owning a herd of 1,500 swine.<\/p>\n<p>The pig is clumsily built, yet lively and able to move with agility and speed. The most conspicuous characteristic of the pig is a truncated, mobile snout terminating in a disc-shaped surface on which the nostrils are located. Most pigs have large tusks in both jaws which grow continuously in life. The tusks of the upper jaw are unique in that they curve upward instead of pointing downward as in most animals. The excrement of a pig has an almost unbearable odor, which clings not only to the pig itself but also to swineherds, who can be identified a long way off.<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were never raised in the Holy Land by Jews. The great herd into which Jesus drove the unclean spirits was encountered in the land of the Gadarenes, a non-Jewish area east of the Jordan. The Gadarene demons took refuge in a herd of pigs feeding on a bluff overlooking the Sea of Galilee (Mt 8:28-32).<\/p>\n<p>Wild pigs were found in the Holy Land as in many countries today. Psalm 80:13 refers to the destructiveness of a wild boar (the male, or hog) attacking growing crops. A party of wild boars can destroy an entire vineyard or a field of crops in a single night. They devour, trample, and ravage everything within reach.<\/p>\n<p>Boar hunts were common in ancient Mesopotamia. Wild boars do not attack unless molested, but they are dangerous when aroused. They travel in bands of from 6 to 50 and are most active in the evening and early morning hours. The body is covered with stiff bristles and usually some finer hair, but the body covering is often quite scanty. Wild pigs are mainly vegetarian, feeding on roots, nuts, grains, and plant stems. Wild boars were particularly abundant in the mountainous regions of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, in the Jordan River valley, and in wooded sections such as Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Strict Jews would not even mention swine by name but would always substitute the term “the abomination.” Israelites considered themselves polluted if they were even touched by a swine’s bristle. To the Jews, the pig symbolized filth and ugliness. Pigs will eat fecal material, vermin, rodents, carrion, and the like (2 Pt 2:22). Proverbs 11:22 refers to the incongruity of a golden ring in the nose of an animal showing such characteristics. A similar metaphor occurs in Jesus’ statement about casting pearls before swine (Mt 7:6). The prodigal son’s degeneration was shown by his being forced in his poverty to feed pigs and eat their food (Lk 15:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>Eating the flesh of pigs was forbidden to the Jews (Lv 11:7; Dt 14:8). The Canaanites in the Holy Land killed and ate pigs freely. In intertestamental times Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), a Syrian king whose territories included Israel, used the pig to “Hellenize” the Jews. He first tested their loyalty to the Jewish faith by requiring the consumption of pork, considered a delicacy by the Greeks (2 Macc 6:18). The act of desecration that drove the Jews to rebellion, however, was the sprinkling of pig blood on the temple altar in a sacrifice to Zeus (1 Macc 1:47).<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were frequently used in pagan worship (Is 65:4; 66:3, 17), which may account for their being forbidden to the Jews as food. Evidence in the Holy Land shows that pigs were sacrificed long before Hellenistic times. Pig bones were found in a grotto below the rock-cut place of sacrifice at Gezer. A similar underground chamber with vessels containing piglet bones at Tirzah dates to the middle Bronze Age (about 2000 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Alabaster fragments of a statuette of a pig ready to be sacrificed have been unearthed. Swine were sacrificed to Aphrodite (Venus) in Greece and Asia Minor. In addition, pigs were sacrificed in connection with oaths and treaties; in the <em>Iliad,<\/em> Agamemnon sacrificed a boar to Zeus and Helios. So it is not surprising that among the Jews the pig became a symbol of filthiness and paganism.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that eating pork was forbidden primarily because the pig may carry many worm parasites such as trichina, though that is also true of some “clean” animals. Another reason for forbidding their consumption may have been that pigs eat carrion. Some people are allergic to pork in hot weather—another suggested reason behind the Jewish taboo. The same taboo exists among the Muslims and existed in certain social strata in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Porcupine\">Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>Rodent, <em>Hystrix cristata,<\/em> which lives in forested areas, rocky hills, ravines, and valleys. The porcupine is still found in the Holy Land today. It has long quills that can be raised to give the appearance of a crest. It is almost entirely nocturnal. It burrows by day into a natural cavity or crevice. The Old World porcupine rarely climbed trees, although the New World porcupine frequently does. A porcupine may weigh as much as 60 pounds (27.2 kilograms). It eats fruit, bark, roots, and other vegetation, and carrion as well. Although its flesh is edible, the porcupine was not classed among the clean animals for the Israelites. The reference in Isaiah 34:11 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is probably to the porcupine, as is Isaiah 14:23 in the <span>nlt<\/span>. <em>See<\/em> Hedgehog.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Scorpion\">Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>Arthropod of the same group as spiders (arachnids). A dozen species of scorpions (order Scorpionida) are found in the Holy Land, but 90 percent of the scorpions are yellow scorpions, usually three to five inches (7.6 to 12.7 centimeters) long. The rock scorpion, also common to the Holy Land, is as thick as a man’s finger and from five to seven inches (12.7 to 17.8 centimeters) in length. Scorpions are slow, nocturnal invertebrates that rest beneath stones by day and prey on insects and other arachnids by night. At the end of its long tail the scorpion carries a poisonous sting that is fatal to most prey and extremely painful to humans (Rv 9:3, 5, 10; cf. 1 Kgs 12:11, 14). Scorpions symbolize Ezekiel’s evil countrymen (Ez 2:6) and the demonic forces of Satan (Lk 10:19). The scorpion is referred to as frequenting the Sinai Desert (Dt 8:15).<\/p>\n<p>A scorpion has from six to eight eyes. It has eight legs like a spider and two lobsterlike claws with which it catches and holds its prey. It feeds particularly on locusts and beetles. In many species the female scorpion eats the male after mating. Scorpions lay eggs that hatch very shortly after laying. Scorpions prefer warmer climates, and because of their desire for warmth, enter houses, especially at night, hiding in beds, blankets, footwear, and clothing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sheep\">Sheep<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animal, <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> referred to directly or by some term such as ewe, lamb, ram, or by some fact concerning them over 700 times in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Sheep represented the chief wealth and total livelihood of pastoral peoples, providing food to eat, milk to drink, wool for the making of cloth, and hides and bones for other uses. In addition, the sheep was a medium of exchange and a sacrificial animal. The number of sheep raised in ancient times was prodigious. Mesha, king of Moab, paid a tribute annually of 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams (2 Kgs 3:4). The Israelites took 250,000 sheep from the Hagrites (1 Chr 5:21).<\/p>\n<p>Sheep shearing was often done for festivals (2 Sm 13:23). The sheep was held down on its side and its legs were tied together; then it lay docilely while its wool was clipped (Is 53:7). Sheep reserved for burnt offerings were not shorn; nothing could be held back from a sacrifice to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Wool had to be processed before it could be used for clothing. First it was washed, sometimes while still on the sheep, then carded and perhaps weighed for the market. The spinning of wool was regarded as a woman’s work (Prv 31:19), but weaving the spun thread into cloth on a loom was primarily a man’s occupation.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible reports that Abel kept sheep (Gn 4:2). The first sheep to be domesticated was probably the argali <em>(Ovis ammon),<\/em> a variety of the urial <em>(Ovis vignei),<\/em> a mountainous species still existing in Turkestan and Mongolia. Five breeds had reached Mesopotamia by 2000 <span>BC<\/span>; all were of the urial stock.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep known in Israel was the broad-tailed sheep <em>(Ovis orientalis vignei<\/em> or <em>laticaudata),<\/em> of which the tail weighs from 10 to 15 pounds (4.5 to 6.8 kilograms) and has always been considered a delicacy. Thus the Lord asked for this choice part as a sacrifice (Ex 29:22-25).<\/p>\n<p>Only the ram of the broad-tailed sheep has horns, but in other varieties of sheep in the Holy Land the ewe also has horns. The horns, two to three inches (5 to 8 centimeters) in diameter, can be potent weapons. Rams’ horns could be used as trumpets (Jos 6:4) or as oil containers (1 Sm 16:1).<\/p>\n<p>Although the sheep is very similar to the goat, it is differentiated by a lower forehead, its angulated spiral horns marked with transverse wrinkles and curved slightly outward, its covering of wool, and its lack of a “goatee.” Most sheep are white (Ps 147:16; Is 1:18; Dn 7:9; Rv 1:14).<\/p>\n<p>The flesh of sheep was a luxury in the biblical culture. King Solomon required a daily provision of 100 sheep for his table (1 Kgs 4:23), but the common people ate lamb or mutton only on festive occasions. A young ram was usually chosen because the ewes were more important to the future prospects of the herd. The meat was boiled in large caldrons. The milk of the sheep is extremely rich; in biblical times it was usually allowed to curdle before drinking. Possibly some Israelites kept lambs in their houses as pets (2 Sm 12:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>To protect the flock at night against predatory attacks, the shepherd tried to provide a fold. In meadows near villages, folds were built and watchmen were hired to relieve the shepherds. The shepherds of the nativity story were out in the field (Lk 2:8); they had no fold but probably had set up a tent for shelter, consisting simply of goat-hair blankets spread across sapling supports. The scarcity of springs in the Holy Land made the watering of the flock a crucial problem for the shepherd (Gn 13:8-11).<\/p>\n<p>Wild mountain sheep, varieties of <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> are known in the Mediterranean area (Dt 14:5). The Deuteronomy passage (<span>kjv<\/span> “chamois”) might also refer to <em>Ovis traelaphus,<\/em> a sheep about five feet high (1.5 meters) with long, curved horns. Another possibility is the Barbary sheep that lives in small flocks in rugged mountain areas in Barbary, Egypt, and Mt Sinai. The true chamois is unknown in Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep is also used figuratively in Scripture. The ram represented great strength and fittingly symbolized Medo-Persia in Daniel’s vision (Dn 8:3). It is the nature of sheep to be gentle and submissive (Is 53:7; Jer 11:19), defenseless (Mi 5:8; Mt 10:16), and in constant need of guidance and care (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36). Such qualities are regarded as desirable in the lives of believers in Christ; hence the many figurative references to sheep in the NT and to Jesus as shepherd (Mk 6:34; Jn 10:1-30; Rom 8:35-37; Heb 13:20-21; 1 Pt 2:25). The resurrected Christ told the apostle Peter to “feed my lambs” and “tend my sheep” (Jn 21:15-17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snail\">Snail<\/p>\n<p>Invertebrate gastropods (mollusks). Land snails are very numerous in the Near East. Some freshwater forms serve as hosts for the schistosome worm, the fluke parasite causing the dread disease bilharzia (schistosomiasis).<\/p>\n<p>Purple dyes of all shades were highly valued in the ancient world. A royal purple dye was obtained from secretions of a sea snail <em>(Murex trunculus<\/em> and <em>Murex brandaris).<\/em> Evidently, that process was developed by Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Assyrians as early as 1500 <span>BC<\/span>. The “purple” fishermen had their own guild during the time of the Roman Empire. The snails were harvested during the fall and winter seasons; in the spring, when egg laying took place, little dye was available. The snails tended to remain concealed in the summer. They inhabited the waters off Crete and Phoenicia. Tyrian purple, produced in the Phoenician city of Tyre, the center of the purple-dye industry, was obtained by a double dyeing. Large deposits of murex shells from dyeing operations have been found along the Mediterranean shoreline. The Israelites had to import purple goods (Ez 27:16). Lydia was a “seller of purple” or of cloth so dyed (Acts 16:14). Purple was a sign of distinction, royalty, and wealth (cf. Ex 25:4; 28:5-6, 15; Nm 15:38; 2 Chr 2:7; Est 8:15; Prv 31:22; Sg 3:10; Ez 27:7; Dn 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 30:34-35 refers to “onycha,” which was an important ingredient of incense. Onycha is the horny, clawlike operculum (the plate that closes off the opening of its shell when a snail is retracted) of a Near Eastern member of the molluskan family Strombidae. The operculum is sometimes used for offense or locomotion as well as for defense. When burned, the operculum gives off a sharp, strong scent, and when mixed with more fragrant but less powerful substances is even more potent. The name “onycha” is derived from a Greek word <em>(onyx)<\/em> for a fingernail or a claw.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snake\">Snake<\/p>\n<p>Various species of snake, suborder Ophidia (Serpentes). In the Bible nine Hebrew words and four Greek ones refer to snakes. The most common Hebrew word is onomatopoeic—that is, it is an imitation of a snake hissing or of the sound it produces as it scrapes its scales along the ground (cf. Jer 46:22). Many types of snakes lay eggs (Is 59:5), although some retain the eggs in the body until ready to hatch.<\/p>\n<p>Snakes are among the most widespread reptiles and are found on all continents except Antarctica; they decrease in numbers and species toward the poles but increase as one approaches the equator. Thirty-three species of snakes are known in Palestine and neighboring countries, 20 of which are poisonous. Two dangerous characteristics of the snake noted by biblical writers are its inconspicuous way of moving and the ease with which it hides itself.<\/p>\n<p>Many snakes are able to swallow animals several times their own diameter because of their unusually flexible jaw mechanism. They lack not only legs but also movable eyelids. Snakes periodically shed their skins. The tongue is actually a hearing apparatus sensitive to airborne vibrations and probably to heat waves.<\/p>\n<p>The venom of poisonous species is a clear, thin secretion, transmitted to the victim’s bloodstream by means of fangs. Two types of venom are known: that of the vipers, which affects respiration and disintegrates red blood cells, and that of the cobras, which paralyzes the nervous system.<\/p>\n<p>The “asp” referred to in the Bible is probably the cobra; the “adder” is the viper. The “cockatrice” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is probably the adder. Serpents were associated with worship in Canaanite religion and symbolized evil deities among many other peoples. Steles (upright stones bearing inscriptions) have been unearthed at several sites in the Holy Land and Syria depicting a god or worshiper with a snake winding about the legs or body. Because the Israelites were burning incense in pagan worship of Moses’ bronze serpent (Nm 21:8-9), King Hezekiah destroyed it in his religious reform (2 Kgs 18:4).<\/p>\n<p>Although snakes have been an object of veneration in some religions, in the Judeo-Christian tradition snakes represent evil and, more specifically, the devil. That association began in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:1-15) and is also found in the book of Revelation (12:9; 20:2-3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adder (above); Asp (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spider\">Spider<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the order Araneida. Between 600 and 700 different species inhabit the Holy Land. Spiders are different from insects in that, like scorpions, they have four pairs of legs instead of three. Spiders are equipped with poison glands—the effectiveness varying from species to species. A few can kill only insects, but others can also kill birds and mice.<\/p>\n<p>Most spiders have a pair of spinnerets attached to silk glands on the underside of the abdomen; from them a web is extruded. In the Bible the spider’s web is referred to as a symbol of frailty and insecurity (Jb 8:14; Is 59:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sponge\">Sponge<\/p>\n<p>Simple marine animals, phylum Porifera. The term “sponge” also refers to those animals’ skeletal remains. The sponge has a porous body composed of tubules and cells.<\/p>\n<p>Sponge fishing was well known in the Mediterranean area in ancient times. It was practiced particularly along the Anatolian and Syrian coasts. Sponges were harvested by divers. The use of sponges in absorbing liquids is referred to in the Bible (Mt 27:48; Mk 15:36).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Unicorn\">Unicorn<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Wild Ox (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wasp\">Wasp<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the family Vespidae. Hornets are social wasps that build large aerial apartment houses in which 1,000 or more individuals may live. In the Bible the hornet is used as a metaphor for God’s use of military forces (Ex 23:28; Dt 7:20; Jos 24:12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Whale\">Whale<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all living creatures, including those that have become extinct. Whales are air-breathing mammals of the order Cetacea.<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of whales visit the shores of the Holy Land at times. The finback whale <em>(Balaenoptera physalus)<\/em> weighs about 200 tons (181 metric tons) and lives mainly in the Arctic region but sometimes passes through the Straits of Gibraltar to reach the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It feeds on small marine organisms that it strains through its whale bone; it does not have teeth. The finback whale’s esophagus is narrow.<\/p>\n<p>The sperm whale <em>(Physeter catodon),<\/em> about 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, has a curiously shaped head that looks like a battering ram. The teeth in the lower jaw of the male sperm whale are about seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long. It feeds on big fish, even on sharks. It has a large throat opening.<\/p>\n<p>Whales are referred to in Genesis 1:21 and Job 7:12 (<span>kjv<\/span> only). The “great fish” of Jonah 2:1 need not have been a whale but could have been a large shark, such as the whale shark <em>(Rhineodon),<\/em> which grows 70 feet (21.3 meters) long and lacks the terrible teeth of other sharks. Whatever the actual marine organism, Jonah’s deliverance was miraculous. The Greek word for “whale” is sometimes used as a general term for “sea monster” or huge fish and may be used in that sense in Matthew 12:40.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WildOx\">Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>Large, fierce, fleet, intractable animal <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> It had a long, lean rump with a straight back and a long, narrow head. The animal described in Job 39:9-12 is clearly the wild ox. The two horns (Dt 33:17), its outstanding characteristic, were straight and as long as the head (Nm 23:22; 24:8; Ps 22:21). Kings often symbolized their dominion by wearing a helmet with two wild ox horns (cf. Pss 92:10; 132:17-18). The horns were often used as drinking vessels by the Israelites; some were large enough to hold four gallons (15 liters).<\/p>\n<p>Hunting the wild ox was a favorite sport of Assyrian kings. Tiglath-pileser I hunted it in the Lebanon Mountains about 1100 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Ps 29:6). At one time the animal referred to in Job 39:9-12 was thought to be the oryx or antelope because of the similarity between the Hebrew word in Job and the Arabian name for oryx. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> called the wild ox a “unicorn” because of representations found on Babylonian mosaics and Egyptian drawings. Those representations showed it in strict profile, showing only one horn—hence, “unicorn.” Jerome’s Vulgate, a Latin Bible translation (fourth century <span>AD<\/span>) and Martin Luther’s German version translated it similarly.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wolf\">Wolf<\/p>\n<p>Large doglike mammal <em>(Canis lupus)<\/em> that travels in bands of up to 30 animals. From the nose to the rump, the wolf measures about 3 feet (.9 meter); its drooping tail is about 18 inches (.5 meter) long. It looks much like a skinny German shepherd dog. The grayish yellow pelt is coarse and short haired.<\/p>\n<p>Wolves hunt singly or in relays, usually at night (Jer 5:6). Wolves have acute hearing and sight but rely chiefly on scent and usually catch their prey in a swift, open chase. The wolf has a reputation for boldness, fierceness, and voracity (Gn 49:27; Hb 1:8). It commonly kills more than it can eat or drag away and thus is known for its greediness.<\/p>\n<p>The wolf is a restless animal, always on the move; hunger drives it from one place to another in constant search of new hunting grounds. During spring and fall, wolves usually roam singly or in pairs, whereas in summer they may travel in family groups. In winter, several such groups may join to form a large pack. Wolves are intelligent, social creatures, faithful to their own kind. They mate for life. Individually, the wolf is a rather timid animal; it would much rather avoid human beings. But collectively wolves can be among the most dangerous animals alive.<\/p>\n<p>In Egypt, Rome, and Greece the wolf was considered sacred. Wolves were well known in the Holy Land and are still found there and also in many places in Asia Minor. Shepherds continually battled with wolves that plundered their flocks (Jn 10:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible refers to wolves in a literal sense in only three places (Is 11:6; 65:25; Jn 10:12), all other references being figurative. Usually the wolf is a symbol of enemies or the wicked (e.g., Ez 22:27; Zep 3:3; Acts 20:29). Both the wolf’s courage and its cruelty were probably in the mind of the patriarch Jacob when he predicted the fate of Benjamin’s tribe (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Worm\">Worm<\/p>\n<p>Actually insect larvae in most biblical references, usually maggots, the larvae of flies (see Fly, above). For example, maggots are evidently referred to in accounts of worms feeding on spoiled manna (Ex 16:19-20), corpses (Jb 21:26; Is 14:11), or open wounds (Jb 7:5). Mark 9:48 refers to a maggot that eats dead flesh. In Acts 12:23 a fatal, worm-induced abdominal disease of King Herod is mentioned. In other cases, the reference is to the larvae of other insects (Is 51:8). In Deuteronomy 28:39 and Jonah 4:7 the vine weevil <em>(Cochylis ambiguella)<\/em> is probably referred to; it destroys vines by boring into their stems. Comparing a man to a worm is a metaphor for abasement (Jb 25:6; Ps 22:6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ANIMALS In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals ...","summary_en":"ANIMALS In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals ...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"68":[{"id":6996,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Coins","title_en":"Coins","content_ro":"<h3>COINS<\/h3>\n<p>Pieces of metal used and accepted as a medium of exchange. A coin has a specific weight and bears some type of authentication to make it easily recognizable. The word “coin” originally referred to a wedge-shaped die or stamp used to “strike” the metal blank. The first coins may have been minted in the late eighth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Earliest Coins in Palestine<\/p>\n<p>• Coinage from the Maccabees to Herod Agrippa I<\/p>\n<p>• Roman Coins in New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"EarliestCoinsinPalestine\">Earliest Coins in Palestine<\/p>\n<p>Not until the time of Darius the Great (Darius I of Persia, 521–486 <span>BC<\/span>) did an official government-sponsored coinage become current in Palestine. Those earliest coins were oval-shaped gold darics, along with some silver coins.<\/p>\n<p>“Dram” is another term for the Persian gold daric. It is mentioned in Ezra 2:68-69 (<span>kjv<\/span>), where Zerubbabel’s caravan offered gold darics amounting to $30,000 toward rebuilding the temple. This passage is the first mention of an actual coin in the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Almost at the same time that the Persian coins became current in Palestine, the widely popular silver tetradrachmas (four-drachma pieces) of Athens began to find their way to the mercantile centers of the Phoenician, Israelite, and Philistine coasts. Archaeologists have unearthed them in hoards throughout the eastern Mediterranean region. They continued to be used through the Persian period, which lasted until the Persian Empire was conquered by Alexander the Great in 334–330 <span>BC<\/span>. The coin was thick and heavy in appearance, but being of high-quality silver, it was in great demand for international commerce. Presumably Greek merchants found they could obtain the most desirable Asiatic imports in exchange for that particular form of currency.<\/p>\n<p>The silver didrachma, or half-drachma, in general use in the Greek Empire from the fourth century <span>BC<\/span>, continued through Roman times. After Alexander’s conquests, of course, Greek coins were used throughout the Macedonian Empire from present-day Yugoslavia to Pakistan. They were almost certainly employed for business purposes in Judea, for example.<\/p>\n<p>The shekels of the Phoenician trade centers of Tyre and Sidon, which had contributed substantially to the money supply in the Persian period, continued to be accepted in Judea even after the Alexandrian conquest. Typical of Sidon was a silver shekel portraying the battlements and walls of Sidon’s harbor, with a ship lying at anchor and two prancing lions in the foreground. A typical Tyrian shekel showed the god Baal robed and wearing a tiara. He was riding a hippocamp (winged horse with the tail of a fish) on the sea, with a fish or dolphin beneath. The reverse showed an Egyptian-type owl facing right, plus a shepherd’s crook and flail, both royal insignia in Egypt. The stater (or tetradrachma) found by the disciple Peter in a fish’s mouth and used to pay the temple tax for himself and Jesus may have been a Tyrian coin (Mt 17:27; <span>rsv<\/span> “shekel”).<\/p>\n<p>The talent, which represented a certain weight of gold or silver, was a common medium of exchange before the development of coinage. During the Maccabean period, John Hyrcanus saved the city of Jerusalem from destruction in 133 <span>BC<\/span> by paying a ransom from a 900-year-old hoard stored in David’s sepulcher. Three thousand talents of silver were sent to the Seleucid king Antiochus VII Sidetes in return for his promise to withdraw his troops. Treasure plundered from the temple by the Romans in <span>AD<\/span> 66 is recorded as amounting to 17 talents. In gold talents that sum would represent the equivalent of the purchase price of about 15 large houses in a modern Western city.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CoinagefromtheMaccabeestoHerodAgrippaI\">Coinage from the Maccabees to Herod Agrippa I<\/p>\n<p>Even though a native Jewish dynasty assumed the government of the Holy Land, it was many years before any indigenous Jewish coinage was minted. Presumably the inhabitants continued to use the coinage of Tyre and Egypt and of the Seleucid Empire for their commercial transactions. It was formerly supposed that silver shekels bearing images of the chalice and pomegranate cluster dated from the reign of Simon Maccabeus (142–134 <span>BC<\/span>); more recent archaeological discoveries prove that those coins date from the first Jewish revolt (<span>AD<\/span> 66–70).<\/p>\n<p>When the time came to issue the first Jewish coins, the die makers faced several problems. No mint was available, and no local people were skilled in design or die sinking. Coins current in the Near East at that time, which showed a high degree of design and craftsmanship, each bore the portrait head of a ruler or a god. For the Jews to make such coins would have meant contravening the second commandment, “You shall not make for yourself a graven image” (Ex 20:4, <span>rsv<\/span>). Not until well into Roman times was a coin struck in Palestine bearing a portrait head of a Roman emperor.<\/p>\n<p>The earliest coinage of the Hasmonean dynasty (the regnal name of the Maccabees) was the small bronze lepton (plural, lepta) of John Hyrcanus I (134–104 <span>BC<\/span>), son of Simon Maccabeus. The obverse showed two cornucopias with a pomegranate between them. That image symbolized the fertility that God had granted to the land. The reverse contained an inscription within a wreath, “John the high priest and the community of the Jews.” Small bronze lepta from the reign of Alexander Janneus, son of Hyrcanus I, have been found in great numbers. They were evidently much in demand for transactions at the temple, where money changers converted the gentile currency of visiting worshipers into the more acceptable Jewish money. Undoubtedly Hasmonean lepta were the coins Jesus scattered over the pavement of the Court of the Gentiles when he overturned the tables of the money changers (Mt 21:12; Jn 2:15). The lepton, or “mite,” of bronze or copper, worth <span>1<\/span>\/<span>400<\/span> of a shekel, was mentioned by Jesus on another occasion. He praised a widow’s gift of two mites to the temple treasury with the comment that the rich “contributed out of their abundance; but she out of her poverty has put in everything she had, her whole living” (Mk 12:44, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Herod I came to power in Judea under the patronage of Mark Antony and secured the allegiance of the pro-Hasmonean Jews by marrying Mariamne, granddaughter of Hyrcanus II, in 38 <span>BC<\/span>. Herod was empowered to strike his own bronze coins. Although he had a free hand to introduce innovations, Herod’s lepta followed tradition quite faithfully. The lepta carried an anchor with letters meaning “Of King Herod.” The reverse bore the double cornucopias with a pomegranate (or poppy) between them. Herod also minted a large bronze coin with what appears to be a Macedonian helmet on the obverse and a slender tripod on the reverse, along with an inscription of Herod’s name. Other designs he employed included wheat, eagles, and wreaths. He issued no silver coinage, relying instead on the available supplies of silver coins from Tyre, Syria, Asia Minor, Greece, and Rome.<\/p>\n<p>After Herod’s death in 4 <span>BC<\/span>, his son Herod Archelaus assumed control. Lepta from that period bore a hanging cluster of grapes with a Greek inscription, and on the reverse a two-plumed Macedonian helmet. Grapes were an allusion to Israel as the Lord’s vine (Is 5).<\/p>\n<p>When Herod Antipas began his rule, also in 4 <span>BC<\/span>, he had no authority in Judea or Samaria. That portion of the former Jewish kingdom was placed under the control of Roman governors, or procurators, appointed directly by the emperor himself. Most familiar of the Roman procurators of Judea was Pontius Pilate (<span>AD<\/span> 26–36). His bronze coinage showed some bold innovations; his designs included representations of instruments used in the Roman religion such as the augur’s wand (resembling a shepherd’s crook in shape) and a ladle used in connection with broth prepared at sacrifices. The reverse bore a wreath enclosing the regnal date of <span>AD<\/span> 30–31. The two lepta put into the temple treasury (Lk 21:2) could have been lepta issued by Pilate or his predecessor. More likely, however, they were the Hasmonean lepta of Hyrcanus or Janneus, which were free of any taint of pagan Roman influence.<\/p>\n<p>Herod Agrippa I (<span>AD<\/span> 37–44), grandson of Herod the Great, continued the family tradition of ingratiating himself with the Roman overlords. Many of Herod Agrippa’s lepta have been found, showing a conical tasseled umbrella (perhaps symbolizing his royal protection of the people of Palestine) plus a Greek inscription indicating his reign. The reverse showed a bound cluster of three wheat ears and bore the regnal year as the legend.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"RomanCoinsinNewTestamentTimes\">Roman Coins in New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>The Roman “as” came into circulation about 348 <span>BC<\/span> as a bronze coin bearing the figure of an animal. The coin was named after the Roman one-pound weight, equivalent to 12 ounces (340 grams) in our modern system. At the time of Christ’s birth, the Roman “as” minted for use in the Asiatic provinces bore the head of the emperor Augustus, with a laurel wreath on the reverse. A smaller bronze quadrans, or quarter “as,” was also minted by the Romans.<\/p>\n<p>Another bronze coin found in Greek and Roman currency was the assarion, first minted in the first century <span>BC<\/span> but still in use in the Christian period. One type was stamped with a winged sphinx, with an amphora on the reverse. It is still debated whether the coin described as a “farthing” in the <span>kjv<\/span> was in fact a Greek assarion or a Roman “as” or quadrans. The coin is mentioned four times in the NT, most familiarly in the question “Are not two sparrows sold for a farthing?” (see Mt 5:26; 10:29; Mk 12:42; Lk 12:6, <span>rsv<\/span> “penny”). There is no doubt that the <span>kjv<\/span> translators decided to make the coin seem more familiar to their readers by using the name of the smallest copper coin in circulation in England at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The word translated “penny” in the <span>kjv<\/span> is the Greek form of “denarius,” the normal daily wage for a laborer in NT times. In the parable of the laborers in the vineyard, for example, the master agreed to pay each man “a penny” for his day’s work (Mt 20:2, <span>kjv<\/span>; <span>rsv<\/span> “a denarius”). “Two pence” was the amount paid to the innkeeper by the good Samaritan (Lk 10:35, <span>kjv<\/span>). Because of the influence of the Roman denarius on British currency, the English penny has always been represented by the initial letter of its Roman equivalent.<\/p>\n<p>When the denarius, or “penny,” is recognized as a normal day’s wage, the astonishment of Jesus’ disciples when they were expected to find food for 5,000 people is better understood. They exclaimed that “two hundred pennyworth” of food would not feed such a crowd (Jn 6:7, <span>kjv<\/span>); that sum represented more than six months’ work.<\/p>\n<p>As might be expected, the silver and gold coinage current in Palestine during the time of Christ and for the remainder of the first century <span>AD<\/span> came primarily from Rome. The larger silver coins, however, that are referred to as tetradrachmas or staters in the NT came from Egypt, Phoenicia, or Antioch. The silver coin most frequently mentioned in the NT was the Roman denarius or the Greek drachma. Since few drachmas have been found in excavations dating from the first century, it is possible that the term was used in popular speech to refer to the denarius (plural, denarii), which was approximately the same size as the average Greek drachma. Actually, few Greek cities were permitted by their Roman overlords to continue minting drachmas.<\/p>\n<p>Caesar Augustus issued a decree for all the Roman world to be enrolled (Lk 2:1-2) in an empire-wide census just about the time that Jesus was born (6 or 5 <span>BC<\/span>). During his long reign (27 <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 14), Augustus authorized a large variety of denarii. They generally carried his likeness on their obverse with the inscription “Augustus, son of the divine one” (that is, son of Julius Caesar, who had been voted divine honors by the Roman Senate).<\/p>\n<p>In Matthew 22:19 Jesus asked those trying to trick him with a question to show him a coin used to pay the government tax. They handed him a denarius bearing the portrait and inscription of Caesar (Mt 22:21). That coin could have been a denarius of Augustus, who had died some 16 years before, or of Tiberius (<span>AD<\/span> 14–37), who was then on the throne. The silver denarius of Tiberius read “Tiberius Caesar Augustus, son of the divine Augustus.” The reverse showed the high priestess of the vestal order, flaming torch in hand, seated on her throne facing right. The title “pontif(ex) maxim(us)” referred to Tiberius rather than to the priestess.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Minerals and Metals; Money; Money Changer.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>COINS<\/h3>\n<p>Pieces of metal used and accepted as a medium of exchange. A coin has a specific weight and bears some type of authentication to make it easily recognizable. The word “coin” originally referred to a wedge-shaped die or stamp used to “strike” the metal blank. The first coins may have been minted in the late eighth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Earliest Coins in Palestine<\/p>\n<p>• Coinage from the Maccabees to Herod Agrippa I<\/p>\n<p>• Roman Coins in New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"EarliestCoinsinPalestine\">Earliest Coins in Palestine<\/p>\n<p>Not until the time of Darius the Great (Darius I of Persia, 521–486 <span>BC<\/span>) did an official government-sponsored coinage become current in Palestine. Those earliest coins were oval-shaped gold darics, along with some silver coins.<\/p>\n<p>“Dram” is another term for the Persian gold daric. It is mentioned in Ezra 2:68-69 (<span>kjv<\/span>), where Zerubbabel’s caravan offered gold darics amounting to $30,000 toward rebuilding the temple. This passage is the first mention of an actual coin in the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Almost at the same time that the Persian coins became current in Palestine, the widely popular silver tetradrachmas (four-drachma pieces) of Athens began to find their way to the mercantile centers of the Phoenician, Israelite, and Philistine coasts. Archaeologists have unearthed them in hoards throughout the eastern Mediterranean region. They continued to be used through the Persian period, which lasted until the Persian Empire was conquered by Alexander the Great in 334–330 <span>BC<\/span>. The coin was thick and heavy in appearance, but being of high-quality silver, it was in great demand for international commerce. Presumably Greek merchants found they could obtain the most desirable Asiatic imports in exchange for that particular form of currency.<\/p>\n<p>The silver didrachma, or half-drachma, in general use in the Greek Empire from the fourth century <span>BC<\/span>, continued through Roman times. After Alexander’s conquests, of course, Greek coins were used throughout the Macedonian Empire from present-day Yugoslavia to Pakistan. They were almost certainly employed for business purposes in Judea, for example.<\/p>\n<p>The shekels of the Phoenician trade centers of Tyre and Sidon, which had contributed substantially to the money supply in the Persian period, continued to be accepted in Judea even after the Alexandrian conquest. Typical of Sidon was a silver shekel portraying the battlements and walls of Sidon’s harbor, with a ship lying at anchor and two prancing lions in the foreground. A typical Tyrian shekel showed the god Baal robed and wearing a tiara. He was riding a hippocamp (winged horse with the tail of a fish) on the sea, with a fish or dolphin beneath. The reverse showed an Egyptian-type owl facing right, plus a shepherd’s crook and flail, both royal insignia in Egypt. The stater (or tetradrachma) found by the disciple Peter in a fish’s mouth and used to pay the temple tax for himself and Jesus may have been a Tyrian coin (Mt 17:27; <span>rsv<\/span> “shekel”).<\/p>\n<p>The talent, which represented a certain weight of gold or silver, was a common medium of exchange before the development of coinage. During the Maccabean period, John Hyrcanus saved the city of Jerusalem from destruction in 133 <span>BC<\/span> by paying a ransom from a 900-year-old hoard stored in David’s sepulcher. Three thousand talents of silver were sent to the Seleucid king Antiochus VII Sidetes in return for his promise to withdraw his troops. Treasure plundered from the temple by the Romans in <span>AD<\/span> 66 is recorded as amounting to 17 talents. In gold talents that sum would represent the equivalent of the purchase price of about 15 large houses in a modern Western city.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CoinagefromtheMaccabeestoHerodAgrippaI\">Coinage from the Maccabees to Herod Agrippa I<\/p>\n<p>Even though a native Jewish dynasty assumed the government of the Holy Land, it was many years before any indigenous Jewish coinage was minted. Presumably the inhabitants continued to use the coinage of Tyre and Egypt and of the Seleucid Empire for their commercial transactions. It was formerly supposed that silver shekels bearing images of the chalice and pomegranate cluster dated from the reign of Simon Maccabeus (142–134 <span>BC<\/span>); more recent archaeological discoveries prove that those coins date from the first Jewish revolt (<span>AD<\/span> 66–70).<\/p>\n<p>When the time came to issue the first Jewish coins, the die makers faced several problems. No mint was available, and no local people were skilled in design or die sinking. Coins current in the Near East at that time, which showed a high degree of design and craftsmanship, each bore the portrait head of a ruler or a god. For the Jews to make such coins would have meant contravening the second commandment, “You shall not make for yourself a graven image” (Ex 20:4, <span>rsv<\/span>). Not until well into Roman times was a coin struck in Palestine bearing a portrait head of a Roman emperor.<\/p>\n<p>The earliest coinage of the Hasmonean dynasty (the regnal name of the Maccabees) was the small bronze lepton (plural, lepta) of John Hyrcanus I (134–104 <span>BC<\/span>), son of Simon Maccabeus. The obverse showed two cornucopias with a pomegranate between them. That image symbolized the fertility that God had granted to the land. The reverse contained an inscription within a wreath, “John the high priest and the community of the Jews.” Small bronze lepta from the reign of Alexander Janneus, son of Hyrcanus I, have been found in great numbers. They were evidently much in demand for transactions at the temple, where money changers converted the gentile currency of visiting worshipers into the more acceptable Jewish money. Undoubtedly Hasmonean lepta were the coins Jesus scattered over the pavement of the Court of the Gentiles when he overturned the tables of the money changers (Mt 21:12; Jn 2:15). The lepton, or “mite,” of bronze or copper, worth <span>1<\/span>\/<span>400<\/span> of a shekel, was mentioned by Jesus on another occasion. He praised a widow’s gift of two mites to the temple treasury with the comment that the rich “contributed out of their abundance; but she out of her poverty has put in everything she had, her whole living” (Mk 12:44, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Herod I came to power in Judea under the patronage of Mark Antony and secured the allegiance of the pro-Hasmonean Jews by marrying Mariamne, granddaughter of Hyrcanus II, in 38 <span>BC<\/span>. Herod was empowered to strike his own bronze coins. Although he had a free hand to introduce innovations, Herod’s lepta followed tradition quite faithfully. The lepta carried an anchor with letters meaning “Of King Herod.” The reverse bore the double cornucopias with a pomegranate (or poppy) between them. Herod also minted a large bronze coin with what appears to be a Macedonian helmet on the obverse and a slender tripod on the reverse, along with an inscription of Herod’s name. Other designs he employed included wheat, eagles, and wreaths. He issued no silver coinage, relying instead on the available supplies of silver coins from Tyre, Syria, Asia Minor, Greece, and Rome.<\/p>\n<p>After Herod’s death in 4 <span>BC<\/span>, his son Herod Archelaus assumed control. Lepta from that period bore a hanging cluster of grapes with a Greek inscription, and on the reverse a two-plumed Macedonian helmet. Grapes were an allusion to Israel as the Lord’s vine (Is 5).<\/p>\n<p>When Herod Antipas began his rule, also in 4 <span>BC<\/span>, he had no authority in Judea or Samaria. That portion of the former Jewish kingdom was placed under the control of Roman governors, or procurators, appointed directly by the emperor himself. Most familiar of the Roman procurators of Judea was Pontius Pilate (<span>AD<\/span> 26–36). His bronze coinage showed some bold innovations; his designs included representations of instruments used in the Roman religion such as the augur’s wand (resembling a shepherd’s crook in shape) and a ladle used in connection with broth prepared at sacrifices. The reverse bore a wreath enclosing the regnal date of <span>AD<\/span> 30–31. The two lepta put into the temple treasury (Lk 21:2) could have been lepta issued by Pilate or his predecessor. More likely, however, they were the Hasmonean lepta of Hyrcanus or Janneus, which were free of any taint of pagan Roman influence.<\/p>\n<p>Herod Agrippa I (<span>AD<\/span> 37–44), grandson of Herod the Great, continued the family tradition of ingratiating himself with the Roman overlords. Many of Herod Agrippa’s lepta have been found, showing a conical tasseled umbrella (perhaps symbolizing his royal protection of the people of Palestine) plus a Greek inscription indicating his reign. The reverse showed a bound cluster of three wheat ears and bore the regnal year as the legend.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"RomanCoinsinNewTestamentTimes\">Roman Coins in New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>The Roman “as” came into circulation about 348 <span>BC<\/span> as a bronze coin bearing the figure of an animal. The coin was named after the Roman one-pound weight, equivalent to 12 ounces (340 grams) in our modern system. At the time of Christ’s birth, the Roman “as” minted for use in the Asiatic provinces bore the head of the emperor Augustus, with a laurel wreath on the reverse. A smaller bronze quadrans, or quarter “as,” was also minted by the Romans.<\/p>\n<p>Another bronze coin found in Greek and Roman currency was the assarion, first minted in the first century <span>BC<\/span> but still in use in the Christian period. One type was stamped with a winged sphinx, with an amphora on the reverse. It is still debated whether the coin described as a “farthing” in the <span>kjv<\/span> was in fact a Greek assarion or a Roman “as” or quadrans. The coin is mentioned four times in the NT, most familiarly in the question “Are not two sparrows sold for a farthing?” (see Mt 5:26; 10:29; Mk 12:42; Lk 12:6, <span>rsv<\/span> “penny”). There is no doubt that the <span>kjv<\/span> translators decided to make the coin seem more familiar to their readers by using the name of the smallest copper coin in circulation in England at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The word translated “penny” in the <span>kjv<\/span> is the Greek form of “denarius,” the normal daily wage for a laborer in NT times. In the parable of the laborers in the vineyard, for example, the master agreed to pay each man “a penny” for his day’s work (Mt 20:2, <span>kjv<\/span>; <span>rsv<\/span> “a denarius”). “Two pence” was the amount paid to the innkeeper by the good Samaritan (Lk 10:35, <span>kjv<\/span>). Because of the influence of the Roman denarius on British currency, the English penny has always been represented by the initial letter of its Roman equivalent.<\/p>\n<p>When the denarius, or “penny,” is recognized as a normal day’s wage, the astonishment of Jesus’ disciples when they were expected to find food for 5,000 people is better understood. They exclaimed that “two hundred pennyworth” of food would not feed such a crowd (Jn 6:7, <span>kjv<\/span>); that sum represented more than six months’ work.<\/p>\n<p>As might be expected, the silver and gold coinage current in Palestine during the time of Christ and for the remainder of the first century <span>AD<\/span> came primarily from Rome. The larger silver coins, however, that are referred to as tetradrachmas or staters in the NT came from Egypt, Phoenicia, or Antioch. The silver coin most frequently mentioned in the NT was the Roman denarius or the Greek drachma. Since few drachmas have been found in excavations dating from the first century, it is possible that the term was used in popular speech to refer to the denarius (plural, denarii), which was approximately the same size as the average Greek drachma. Actually, few Greek cities were permitted by their Roman overlords to continue minting drachmas.<\/p>\n<p>Caesar Augustus issued a decree for all the Roman world to be enrolled (Lk 2:1-2) in an empire-wide census just about the time that Jesus was born (6 or 5 <span>BC<\/span>). During his long reign (27 <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 14), Augustus authorized a large variety of denarii. They generally carried his likeness on their obverse with the inscription “Augustus, son of the divine one” (that is, son of Julius Caesar, who had been voted divine honors by the Roman Senate).<\/p>\n<p>In Matthew 22:19 Jesus asked those trying to trick him with a question to show him a coin used to pay the government tax. They handed him a denarius bearing the portrait and inscription of Caesar (Mt 22:21). That coin could have been a denarius of Augustus, who had died some 16 years before, or of Tiberius (<span>AD<\/span> 14–37), who was then on the throne. The silver denarius of Tiberius read “Tiberius Caesar Augustus, son of the divine Augustus.” The reverse showed the high priestess of the vestal order, flaming torch in hand, seated on her throne facing right. The title “pontif(ex) maxim(us)” referred to Tiberius rather than to the priestess.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Minerals and Metals; Money; Money Changer.<\/p>","summary_ro":"COINS Pieces of metal used and accepted as a medium of exchange. A coin has a specific weight and bears some type of authentication to make it easily recognizable. The word “coin” originally referred to a wedge-shaped die or stamp used to “strike” the metal blank. The first coins may have been minted in the late eighth century BC. Preview • Earliest Coins in Palestine • Coinage from the Maccabees to Herod Agrippa I • Roman Coins in New Testament Times Earliest Coins in Palestine Not until the...","summary_en":"COINS Pieces of metal used and accepted as a medium of exchange. A coin has a specific weight and bears some type of authentication to make it easily recognizable. The word “coin” originally referred to a wedge-shaped die or stamp used to “strike” the metal blank. The first coins may have been minted in the late eighth century BC. Preview • Earliest Coins in Palestine • Coinage from the Maccabees to Herod Agrippa I • Roman Coins in New Testament Times Earliest Coins in Palestine Not until the...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30918,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Period*, Postexilic","title_en":"Period*, Postexilic","content_ro":"<h3>POSTEXILIC PERIOD*<\/h3>\n<p>A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>• The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>• The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>• The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>• The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>• Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>• Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheBiblicalPerspective\">The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, and Zechariah. These cover a period of over a century, only a portion of which is dealt with in detail, as the following table shows:<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCollapseoftheBabylonianEmpire\">The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>This occurred with dramatic suddenness, largely because of internal resistance to the policies of the last Babylonian king, Nabonidus (555–539 <span>BC<\/span>). His neglect of the traditional Babylonian deity, Marduk, in favor of the moon god, Sin, was particularly resented. Nabonidus lived in Taima during the last decade of his reign, refusing to enter Babylon, where his son Belshazzar ruled as virtual king, as noted in Daniel 5. Babylon fell to the Persians in October 538 <span>BC<\/span> and the entire empire passed into their control.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePolicyofPersia\">The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>This is well documented through contemporary inscriptions, notably the record of Cyrus, the first king of the Persian Empire (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), in the “Cyrus Cylinder.” A new phase in the relationship of conqueror to conquered peoples opened up, which contrasted with the policy of the Assyrian and Babylonian empires of crushing any opposition by massive force. Cyrus and his successors followed a conciliatory line, allowing exiled groups to return home, encouraging local faiths, posing as the champions of the territorial deities, and allowing local autonomy except where Persian interests were affected adversely. The cost of this operation, although considerable, must have been infinitesimal compared with that of keeping rebellious subjects under constant subjection.<\/p>\n<p>The new enlightened policy is reflected in the decree of Cyrus, dated 538 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 1:1) and preserved in two versions. The first (vv 1-4) is clearly the official proclamation, while the second (6:3-5) is a more prosaic memorandum dealing with building specifications, a record of Cyrus’s commitment stored in the official archives (vv 1-2). The critical tendency to question the narrative in Ezra 1, especially on the score of the favorable references to the God of Israel and the vast financial support promised, has been nullified by the archaeological evidence, which shows an identical policy elsewhere. The Cyrus Cylinder, for example, notes, “The gods who live within them [i.e., the cities] I returned to their places. . . . All of their inhabitants I collected and restored to their dwelling places.”<\/p>\n<p>In Judah itself there is no evidence for any warfare in this period, which suggests that the Persian takeover of the area was nonviolent. Judah was incorporated into the fifth Persian province, which included the entire area west of the Euphrates River (Ezr 7:21). It was no more than a minor subdistrict, governed through Samaria.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnfromExile\">The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>The continuance of a large Jewish community in Babylonia shows that not all the Jews responded to the invitation to return to their homeland, probably because of the prosperity acquired in exile. But 42,360 dedicated Jews (Ezr 2:64) braved the challenge of a four-month 900-mile (1,448-kilometer) journey under Sheshbazzar (1:8), the officially appointed leader, and Zerubbabel his nephew (3:2), who was probably the one to whom the Jews looked as leader. With great enthusiasm the Jews rebuilt the altar of sacrifice and resumed the observance of the traditional feasts (vv 1-6), revealing both a sense of stewardship (2:68-69) and careful attention to the requirements of the Law (3:2-4). Soon after, work on the second temple commenced—the materials and master craftsmen being imported from Tyre and Sidon (Ezr 3:7-9; cf. 1 Kgs 5). When the foundations were laid, the worshipers were doubtless aware that they were fulfilling God’s promise through Jeremiah (Ezr 3:10-11; cf. Jer 33:10-11). But their high hopes were thwarted when there was opposition from neighboring areas (Ezr 4:4-5), selfishness in giving their own accommodations a higher priority than the Lord’s house (Hg 1:2-4, 9), and a series of crop failures that further reduced morale (1:6, 10-11; 2:17).<\/p>\n<p>Work on the temple was not resumed until Haggai and Zechariah appeared in 520 <span>BC<\/span>. They encouraged Zerubbabel and Joshua (Jeshua) the high priest, rebuked the people for their apathy and selfishness, and promised God’s presence and blessing upon the temple project (Hg 1:12–2:9). Zechariah’s preaching went beyond the building of the temple, including the rebuilding of Jerusalem itself (Zec 2:1-5) and its world reputation (2:1-5, 11-12; 8:22). The two leaders were addressed in ways that anticipated the Messiah (Hg 2:21-23; Zec 6:10-14). But the Persian king Darius (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>) was not alarmed when the rebuilding operation was reported to him (Ezr 5:1–6:13) and allowed the work to continue. In February 515 <span>BC<\/span> it was dedicated (6:14-16). The Jewish community again had a focal point for its religion, but the political situation remained difficult, with no real security in a still-shattered city.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnofEzra\">The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>The traditional date of Ezra’s return is 458 <span>BC<\/span> (preceding that of Nehemiah in 445 <span>BC<\/span>). This is based on the premise that the King Artaxerxes noted in Ezra 7:7 was Artaxerxes I Longimanus (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>) and not Artaxerxes II Mnemon (404–359 <span>BC<\/span>). However, some scholars, allowing that the king was Artaxerxes I, but believing that Nehemiah preceded Ezra, suggest that a tens unit has dropped out of “seventh” in Ezra 7:7, and that the date of Ezra’s return should be the 27th (438 <span>BC<\/span>) or 37th year (428 <span>BC<\/span>) of Artaxerxes I, making Ezra’s return a few years after Nehemiah’s. While this is plausible, there remains strong support for the traditional view. It accords with the order of the two books in the OT and requires no textual emendation. It also accounts for the section in Ezra 4:7-23, where, in the reign of Artaxerxes, an abortive effort was made by a recently returned group to rebuild the wall of Jerusalem. Nehemiah 1:1-4 suggests that this was regarded as important and its abrupt termination, by a decree of the king, caused Nehemiah great distress. The probability is that Ezra, recently returned, realized that little could be done in the way of major religious reformation until Jerusalem was secure, but in attempting to rebuild the wall he exceeded his mandate and was not able to function adequately until Nehemiah arrived, when the new security of Jerusalem allowed the great Law-reading ceremony of Nehemiah 8:1-12 to take place.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s ministry concerned the teaching of the Law of Moses, the Pentateuch, which had long been extant in its final form by this time. Ezra 7 shows that Artaxerxes was following the traditional Persian policy of encouraging good relationships with his subject peoples. Ezra’s appointment (Ezr 7:12) was to a state office; it has frequently been paraphrased as “Secretary of State for Jewish Religious Affairs.”<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NehemiahsReturnandMinistry\">Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Hanani and others (Neh 1:1-3) informed Nehemiah of the complete failure of a recent attempt to rebuild the wall, probably that recorded in Ezra 4:7-23, and sought his mediation before the very king who had authorized the decree that compelled work on the wall to cease. A friend in high places was vital, and Nehemiah, a trusted and influential member of the court (Neh 1:11), was approached for this delicate and dangerous task. Nehemiah 1:4–2:8 shows how well he prepared for and seized his opportunity. His appointment as the governor of Judah (5:14) involved the removal of this area from the control of the governor of Samaria, which accounts for the unrelenting hostility of Sanballat (2:19; 4:1). The evidence of Nehemiah 3 suggests that the extent of Judah at this time was limited, probably not reaching as far north as Bethel or as far south as Hebron. Nehemiah was faced with opposition that included ridicule (2:19; 4:1-3), armed force (4:8, 11), discouragement (v 10), internal economic problems (5:1-18), intrigue (6:1-2), intimidation, and blackmail (vv 5-14). In spite of these obstacles, the wall was completed in the incredibly brief period of 52 days (v 15).<\/p>\n<p>In addition to this monumental achievement, Nehemiah completely reorganized the social and economic life of Jerusalem, dealing with alienated mortgages, excessive interest rates (Neh 5:1-13), mixed marriages (10:30; 13:23-30), Sabbath observance (10:31; 13:15-21), and temple supplies (10:32-40; 13:10-13). Almost certainly, it was this political and economic security that allowed Ezra, who probably arrived 13 years earlier, to proceed with his great religious reformation based on the Law. Nehemiah’s book, usually called the “Nehemiah Memoirs,” was probably presented by him in the temple as a “votive offering” (as indicated by the form of 5:19; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRemainderofthePersianPeriod\">The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>Persian control, which probably centered on Lachish, was traditionally mild, except where her interests were directly threatened. There is no evidence of any major discontent in Judah, which enjoyed a considerable degree of autonomy. The Phoenician revolt of 351 <span>BC<\/span>, which took Artaxerxes III (359–338 <span>BC<\/span>) three years to subdue, was the only serious disturbance in the area. While Artaxerxes deported some Jews to Hyrcania, southeast of the Caspian Sea, that was probably a precautionary measure, and Judah does not appear to have been greatly involved in the revolt. The Jerusalem priests were allowed to mint their own coinage and levy a temple tax. Under the wider influence of the Persian Empire, Hebrew gradually fell out of popular usage as a spoken language, being replaced by Aramaic. As the international stature of Greece increased, so the influence of Hellenism began to be felt, even in Judah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ReligiousFeaturesofthePostexilicPeriod\">Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<h5>The Decline of Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>There were three main reasons for this:<\/p>\n<p>1. The prophetic movement as a whole became discredited after Jerusalem fell in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The large number of popular cult prophets who had foretold a sudden end to the Babylonian oppression (e.g., Jer 28:1-4) were proved decisively wrong. The suspicion that henceforth became attached to prophecy was increased further in the Persian period, when large numbers of itinerant “prophets” of various religions traveled widely. Zechariah 13:2-6 shows the stern measures advocated against such false prophets and fortune-tellers.<\/p>\n<li>2. There was a markedly different historical situation. The chastened remnant that survived had turned away from the blatant apostasy that characterized the preexilic period, so that the prophetic condemnation was not required with the same urgency. The temple and the Law had acquired a new prominence, and postexilic prophecy generally was concerned either with the rebuilding of the temple (e.g., Haggai and Zechariah) or the purification of its cult (e.g., Malachi). Once this goal had been realized, the role of the prophet was diminished. Another historical factor was the relatively large number of priests who returned from captivity, doubtless encouraged by the prospect of serving in the rebuilt temple. The main need at this time was for the priest, who revealed God’s will on the basis of the Law.<\/li>\n<li>3. There was an increasing stress on the transcendence of God, caused partly by an emphasis upon priestly mediation and partly by a fear of God that resulted from the recent judgment. The apocalyptic movement, with its emphasis on angelic intermediaries between humans and a transcendent God, encouraged this tendency. Correspondingly, the prophetic appeal for a personal, moral walk with God weakened.<\/li>\n<h5>The Rise of the Synagogue<\/h5>\n<p>Some type of local worship, independent of the temple and its sacrifices, must have developed in the Captivity, with the Law increasingly occupying a dominant position. Later on, the prophetic books were read and expounded, but the primary stress was always on the Law. This mode of worship later took root in the homeland, and the synagogue gradually developed into the focal point of the community for social relationships, education, and worship. It facilitated the worldwide continuance and expansion of the Jewish faith, independent of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Diaspora of the Jews; Ezra, Book of; Haggai, Book of; Israel, History of; Nehemiah, Book of; Zechariah, Book of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>POSTEXILIC PERIOD*<\/h3>\n<p>A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>• The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>• The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>• The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>• The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>• Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>• Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheBiblicalPerspective\">The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, and Zechariah. These cover a period of over a century, only a portion of which is dealt with in detail, as the following table shows:<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCollapseoftheBabylonianEmpire\">The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>This occurred with dramatic suddenness, largely because of internal resistance to the policies of the last Babylonian king, Nabonidus (555–539 <span>BC<\/span>). His neglect of the traditional Babylonian deity, Marduk, in favor of the moon god, Sin, was particularly resented. Nabonidus lived in Taima during the last decade of his reign, refusing to enter Babylon, where his son Belshazzar ruled as virtual king, as noted in Daniel 5. Babylon fell to the Persians in October 538 <span>BC<\/span> and the entire empire passed into their control.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePolicyofPersia\">The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>This is well documented through contemporary inscriptions, notably the record of Cyrus, the first king of the Persian Empire (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), in the “Cyrus Cylinder.” A new phase in the relationship of conqueror to conquered peoples opened up, which contrasted with the policy of the Assyrian and Babylonian empires of crushing any opposition by massive force. Cyrus and his successors followed a conciliatory line, allowing exiled groups to return home, encouraging local faiths, posing as the champions of the territorial deities, and allowing local autonomy except where Persian interests were affected adversely. The cost of this operation, although considerable, must have been infinitesimal compared with that of keeping rebellious subjects under constant subjection.<\/p>\n<p>The new enlightened policy is reflected in the decree of Cyrus, dated 538 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 1:1) and preserved in two versions. The first (vv 1-4) is clearly the official proclamation, while the second (6:3-5) is a more prosaic memorandum dealing with building specifications, a record of Cyrus’s commitment stored in the official archives (vv 1-2). The critical tendency to question the narrative in Ezra 1, especially on the score of the favorable references to the God of Israel and the vast financial support promised, has been nullified by the archaeological evidence, which shows an identical policy elsewhere. The Cyrus Cylinder, for example, notes, “The gods who live within them [i.e., the cities] I returned to their places. . . . All of their inhabitants I collected and restored to their dwelling places.”<\/p>\n<p>In Judah itself there is no evidence for any warfare in this period, which suggests that the Persian takeover of the area was nonviolent. Judah was incorporated into the fifth Persian province, which included the entire area west of the Euphrates River (Ezr 7:21). It was no more than a minor subdistrict, governed through Samaria.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnfromExile\">The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>The continuance of a large Jewish community in Babylonia shows that not all the Jews responded to the invitation to return to their homeland, probably because of the prosperity acquired in exile. But 42,360 dedicated Jews (Ezr 2:64) braved the challenge of a four-month 900-mile (1,448-kilometer) journey under Sheshbazzar (1:8), the officially appointed leader, and Zerubbabel his nephew (3:2), who was probably the one to whom the Jews looked as leader. With great enthusiasm the Jews rebuilt the altar of sacrifice and resumed the observance of the traditional feasts (vv 1-6), revealing both a sense of stewardship (2:68-69) and careful attention to the requirements of the Law (3:2-4). Soon after, work on the second temple commenced—the materials and master craftsmen being imported from Tyre and Sidon (Ezr 3:7-9; cf. 1 Kgs 5). When the foundations were laid, the worshipers were doubtless aware that they were fulfilling God’s promise through Jeremiah (Ezr 3:10-11; cf. Jer 33:10-11). But their high hopes were thwarted when there was opposition from neighboring areas (Ezr 4:4-5), selfishness in giving their own accommodations a higher priority than the Lord’s house (Hg 1:2-4, 9), and a series of crop failures that further reduced morale (1:6, 10-11; 2:17).<\/p>\n<p>Work on the temple was not resumed until Haggai and Zechariah appeared in 520 <span>BC<\/span>. They encouraged Zerubbabel and Joshua (Jeshua) the high priest, rebuked the people for their apathy and selfishness, and promised God’s presence and blessing upon the temple project (Hg 1:12–2:9). Zechariah’s preaching went beyond the building of the temple, including the rebuilding of Jerusalem itself (Zec 2:1-5) and its world reputation (2:1-5, 11-12; 8:22). The two leaders were addressed in ways that anticipated the Messiah (Hg 2:21-23; Zec 6:10-14). But the Persian king Darius (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>) was not alarmed when the rebuilding operation was reported to him (Ezr 5:1–6:13) and allowed the work to continue. In February 515 <span>BC<\/span> it was dedicated (6:14-16). The Jewish community again had a focal point for its religion, but the political situation remained difficult, with no real security in a still-shattered city.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnofEzra\">The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>The traditional date of Ezra’s return is 458 <span>BC<\/span> (preceding that of Nehemiah in 445 <span>BC<\/span>). This is based on the premise that the King Artaxerxes noted in Ezra 7:7 was Artaxerxes I Longimanus (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>) and not Artaxerxes II Mnemon (404–359 <span>BC<\/span>). However, some scholars, allowing that the king was Artaxerxes I, but believing that Nehemiah preceded Ezra, suggest that a tens unit has dropped out of “seventh” in Ezra 7:7, and that the date of Ezra’s return should be the 27th (438 <span>BC<\/span>) or 37th year (428 <span>BC<\/span>) of Artaxerxes I, making Ezra’s return a few years after Nehemiah’s. While this is plausible, there remains strong support for the traditional view. It accords with the order of the two books in the OT and requires no textual emendation. It also accounts for the section in Ezra 4:7-23, where, in the reign of Artaxerxes, an abortive effort was made by a recently returned group to rebuild the wall of Jerusalem. Nehemiah 1:1-4 suggests that this was regarded as important and its abrupt termination, by a decree of the king, caused Nehemiah great distress. The probability is that Ezra, recently returned, realized that little could be done in the way of major religious reformation until Jerusalem was secure, but in attempting to rebuild the wall he exceeded his mandate and was not able to function adequately until Nehemiah arrived, when the new security of Jerusalem allowed the great Law-reading ceremony of Nehemiah 8:1-12 to take place.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s ministry concerned the teaching of the Law of Moses, the Pentateuch, which had long been extant in its final form by this time. Ezra 7 shows that Artaxerxes was following the traditional Persian policy of encouraging good relationships with his subject peoples. Ezra’s appointment (Ezr 7:12) was to a state office; it has frequently been paraphrased as “Secretary of State for Jewish Religious Affairs.”<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NehemiahsReturnandMinistry\">Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Hanani and others (Neh 1:1-3) informed Nehemiah of the complete failure of a recent attempt to rebuild the wall, probably that recorded in Ezra 4:7-23, and sought his mediation before the very king who had authorized the decree that compelled work on the wall to cease. A friend in high places was vital, and Nehemiah, a trusted and influential member of the court (Neh 1:11), was approached for this delicate and dangerous task. Nehemiah 1:4–2:8 shows how well he prepared for and seized his opportunity. His appointment as the governor of Judah (5:14) involved the removal of this area from the control of the governor of Samaria, which accounts for the unrelenting hostility of Sanballat (2:19; 4:1). The evidence of Nehemiah 3 suggests that the extent of Judah at this time was limited, probably not reaching as far north as Bethel or as far south as Hebron. Nehemiah was faced with opposition that included ridicule (2:19; 4:1-3), armed force (4:8, 11), discouragement (v 10), internal economic problems (5:1-18), intrigue (6:1-2), intimidation, and blackmail (vv 5-14). In spite of these obstacles, the wall was completed in the incredibly brief period of 52 days (v 15).<\/p>\n<p>In addition to this monumental achievement, Nehemiah completely reorganized the social and economic life of Jerusalem, dealing with alienated mortgages, excessive interest rates (Neh 5:1-13), mixed marriages (10:30; 13:23-30), Sabbath observance (10:31; 13:15-21), and temple supplies (10:32-40; 13:10-13). Almost certainly, it was this political and economic security that allowed Ezra, who probably arrived 13 years earlier, to proceed with his great religious reformation based on the Law. Nehemiah’s book, usually called the “Nehemiah Memoirs,” was probably presented by him in the temple as a “votive offering” (as indicated by the form of 5:19; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRemainderofthePersianPeriod\">The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>Persian control, which probably centered on Lachish, was traditionally mild, except where her interests were directly threatened. There is no evidence of any major discontent in Judah, which enjoyed a considerable degree of autonomy. The Phoenician revolt of 351 <span>BC<\/span>, which took Artaxerxes III (359–338 <span>BC<\/span>) three years to subdue, was the only serious disturbance in the area. While Artaxerxes deported some Jews to Hyrcania, southeast of the Caspian Sea, that was probably a precautionary measure, and Judah does not appear to have been greatly involved in the revolt. The Jerusalem priests were allowed to mint their own coinage and levy a temple tax. Under the wider influence of the Persian Empire, Hebrew gradually fell out of popular usage as a spoken language, being replaced by Aramaic. As the international stature of Greece increased, so the influence of Hellenism began to be felt, even in Judah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ReligiousFeaturesofthePostexilicPeriod\">Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<h5>The Decline of Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>There were three main reasons for this:<\/p>\n<p>1. The prophetic movement as a whole became discredited after Jerusalem fell in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The large number of popular cult prophets who had foretold a sudden end to the Babylonian oppression (e.g., Jer 28:1-4) were proved decisively wrong. The suspicion that henceforth became attached to prophecy was increased further in the Persian period, when large numbers of itinerant “prophets” of various religions traveled widely. Zechariah 13:2-6 shows the stern measures advocated against such false prophets and fortune-tellers.<\/p>\n<li>2. There was a markedly different historical situation. The chastened remnant that survived had turned away from the blatant apostasy that characterized the preexilic period, so that the prophetic condemnation was not required with the same urgency. The temple and the Law had acquired a new prominence, and postexilic prophecy generally was concerned either with the rebuilding of the temple (e.g., Haggai and Zechariah) or the purification of its cult (e.g., Malachi). Once this goal had been realized, the role of the prophet was diminished. Another historical factor was the relatively large number of priests who returned from captivity, doubtless encouraged by the prospect of serving in the rebuilt temple. The main need at this time was for the priest, who revealed God’s will on the basis of the Law.<\/li>\n<li>3. There was an increasing stress on the transcendence of God, caused partly by an emphasis upon priestly mediation and partly by a fear of God that resulted from the recent judgment. The apocalyptic movement, with its emphasis on angelic intermediaries between humans and a transcendent God, encouraged this tendency. Correspondingly, the prophetic appeal for a personal, moral walk with God weakened.<\/li>\n<h5>The Rise of the Synagogue<\/h5>\n<p>Some type of local worship, independent of the temple and its sacrifices, must have developed in the Captivity, with the Law increasingly occupying a dominant position. Later on, the prophetic books were read and expounded, but the primary stress was always on the Law. This mode of worship later took root in the homeland, and the synagogue gradually developed into the focal point of the community for social relationships, education, and worship. It facilitated the worldwide continuance and expansion of the Jewish faith, independent of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Diaspora of the Jews; Ezra, Book of; Haggai, Book of; Israel, History of; Nehemiah, Book of; Zechariah, Book of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"POSTEXILIC PERIOD* A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 BC. Preview • The Biblical Perspective • The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire • The Policy of Persia • The Return from Exile • The Return of Ezra • Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry • The Remainder of the Persian Period • Religious Features of the Postexilic Period The Biblical Perspective The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, N...","summary_en":"POSTEXILIC PERIOD* A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 BC. Preview • The Biblical Perspective • The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire • The Policy of Persia • The Return from Exile • The Return of Ezra • Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry • The Remainder of the Persian Period • Religious Features of the Postexilic Period The Biblical Perspective The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, N...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37022,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Temple","title_en":"Temple","content_ro":"<h3>TEMPLE<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Solomon’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>• Zerubbabel’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>• Herod’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>• Significance of the Temple in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Significance of the Temple in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>David’s capture of Jerusalem (2 Sm 5:6-9) and his designation of it as the nation’s capital is one of the great masterstrokes of history. Occupied by the Jebusites, it was a pocket of neutral territory between the northern and southern sections of David’s united kingdom and was politically acceptable to both. Jerusalem was then established as the national religious center by the return of the ark, which had been largely neglected since its capture by the Philistines (2 Sm 6:1-17). Henceforth, God’s choices of both David and Jerusalem (“Mount Zion”) were indissolubly linked (Ps 78:67-72).<\/p>\n<p>David’s great impulse was to build an adequate dwelling place for Israel’s God. The idea was initially approved by Nathan the prophet (2 Sm 7:1-3), but God revealed otherwise to him, and he conveyed the divine purpose to David (vv 4-17). In a significant wordplay, David was informed that, while he was not to build a house (temple) for God, God would build a house (dynasty) for him. David was not the one to build a temple because of the numerous wars during his reign; the temple would instead be built by his son (1 Kgs 5:3; 1 Chr 22:7-8; 28:3). Nevertheless, David enthusiastically amassed most of the necessary finances and materials and drew up the blueprints for the temple (1 Chr 22:3-5, 14; 28:2, 11-19). He also purchased the temple site (21:25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SolomonsTemple\">Solomon’s Temple<\/p>\n\n<h5>Date<\/h5>\n<p>Construction commenced in Solomon’s fourth year, about 966 <span>BC<\/span>, and took seven years to complete (1 Kgs 6:1, 38). Everything necessary for the temple, including the workers, had been prepared by David (1 Chr 28:21). The temple evidently had first priority among Solomon’s building schemes, as he built his own palace later (1 Kgs 7:1).<\/p>\n<h5>Superintendents and Workforce<\/h5>\n<p>The principal architect for the bronze furnishings was Huram (Hebrew “Hiram”), whose father was a metal craftsman from Tyre and whose mother was an Israelite (1 Kgs 7:13-14). Cedar for the temple came from Lebanon and was felled and transported by the skilled woodsmen of another Hiram—the king of Tyre, Solomon’s ally (5:5-9). Thirty thousand Israelites, divided into three groups, were drafted to assist at Lebanon. Each group was on duty for one month in three. For the stonework, Solomon conscripted 153,600 foreigners resident in Israel to provide a self-contained group of carriers, stone cutters, and supervisors (vv 15-17; 2 Chr 2:17-18). Possibly the “men of Gebal,” with their specialized skills, formed yet another group (1 Kgs 5:18). Building the temple was obviously a national project of immense size and effort. In order to preserve the sanctity of the site and to eliminate noise, the masonry and carpentry were not done at the temple site (6:7).<\/p>\n<h5>Description<\/h5>\n<p>The details given in the Bible are sufficiently clear for us to make a reasonably accurate description of the temple. The accounts in Kings and Chronicles are supplemented by Ezekiel’s depiction of the temple (see below), which was broadly based on his knowledge of the Jerusalem temple (Ez 40–48).<\/p>\n<p>The side rooms probably rested on a foundation or platform that was separate from the temple itself (1 Kgs 6:5, 10; cf. Ez 41:8-9) and were arranged in three stories, each seven and a half feet (2.3 meters) high, extending around the whole building except for the porch side. Each successive story was one and a half feet (.5 meter) wider than the one below, these dimensions coinciding with the thickness of the side wall of the Holy Place. The ground floor rooms were seven and a half feet (2.3 meters) wide; the first story was nine feet (2.7 meters), and the second was ten and a half feet (3.2 meters). Access to the upper stories was possibly by winding staircases (1 Kgs 6:8). There is some uncertainty concerning the location of the entrances; there may have been one on either side, but only one is mentioned (v 8). As in Ezekiel’s temple (Ez 40:17, 28), there were two adjacent courts, an inner and an outer (1 Kgs 6:36; 7:12), but no dimensions are given for these. The inner court, or “court of the priests,” being next to the temple itself, was also called “the upper court” (2 Chr 4:9; Jer 36:10). The wall of the inner court was made of three layers of hewn stone held together by a layer of cedar beams (1 Kgs 6:36), and the doors of both courts were sheathed in bronze (2 Chr 4:9). The palace buildings were within the outer court area, probably with a private passageway between the palace and the temple that was later closed during the reign of Ahaz (2 Chr 4:9, 12; 2 Kgs 16:18).<\/p>\n<p>The temple itself was 90 feet (27.4 meters) long, 30 feet (9.1 meters) wide, and 45 feet (13.7 meters) high (1 Kgs 6:2), with a porch or vestibule 15 feet (4.6 meters) deep stretching across the width. Probably the vestibule was on the east end of the temple, thus corresponding with the orientation of Ezekiel’s temple (Ez 43:1; 44:1). The larger part of the main sanctuary, next to the porch, formed the Holy Place, which was 60 feet (18.3 meters) long (1 Kgs 6:17). Beyond this was the innermost sanctuary, the Holy of Holies (or the “Most Holy Place“), which was a perfect cube of 30 feet (9.1 meters). All the interior walls were paneled with cedar decorated with flower patterns, cherubim, and palm trees, so that no masonry was visible. The walls of both inner and outer sanctuaries were “overlaid” (v 22) with pure gold. Actually the gold decoration may have been inlaid, on the basis that a solid sheath of gold would spoil the natural beauty of the wood carving. The floor was made of cypress planks (v 15). Narrow windows set high in the walls above the level of the three-storied outer chambers provided light in the Holy Place (v 4). The ceiling was paneled with beams and planks of cedar. No detail is given about the exterior roofing, but probably the contemporary technique was employed, using a wooden, latticelike framework into which a waterproof, limestone plaster was packed and rolled.<\/p>\n<p>The outer porch was apparently an open space, since no doors are mentioned. Access into the Holy Place was by double doors, both hinged to fold back on themselves, made of cypress and decorated in exactly the same way as the interior walls (vv 34-35). The doorposts were made of olive wood. Within the Holy Place was the altar of incense made of cedar overlaid with gold; it was placed centrally before the Holy of Holies. Also in the Holy Place were a table for the bread of the Presence of God, ten lampstands arranged in two groups of five on either side, and various utensils required for maintaining the priestly duties (1 Kgs 7:48-50). All these were made or overlaid with gold. The ten tables, arranged five on each side, were presumably for the utensils and accessories (2 Chr 4:8).<\/p>\n<p>Between the Holy Place and the Holy of Holies was a double door made of olive wood, carved with cherubim, palm trees, and flower patterns and overlaid with gold. Inside these doors, veiling still further the Holy of Holies, was a blue, purple, and crimson curtain, made of the finest fabrics and ornamented with cherubim (2 Chr 3:14).<\/p>\n<p>In the Holy of Holies were two cherubim, each 15 feet (4.6 meters) high and made of olive wood covered with gold (1 Kgs 6:23-28). Each wing measured seven and a half feet (2.3 meters). A wing of each touched the side walls; the other wings met at the center of the room. The divine throne had been considerably less impressive in the tabernacle, where a wing of each cherubim fused into the mercy seat above the ark (Ex 25:17-22). In Solomon’s temple, the ark of the covenant was placed below the forward-facing cherubim, the symbolic protectors. The ark, the only major item surviving from the Mosaic tabernacle, still contained the tablets of the law, but the pot of manna and Aaron’s rod were missing (1 Kgs 8:9).<\/p>\n<p>Immediately outside the temple and on either side of the vestibule were two hollow bronze pillars (1 Kgs 7:15-20; 2 Chr 3:15-17). According to the book of Kings, these pillars were 27 feet (8.2 meters) high, with a circumference of 18 feet (5.5 meters). The metal itself was about four inches (10.2 centimeters) thick. The pillars were surmounted by bronze, lily-shaped capitals seven and a half feet (2.3 meters) high and six feet (1.8 meters) wide, intricately adorned with a chain latticework that supported two rows of pomegranates. The total weight must have been enormous, and their size is attested to by Jeremiah, who notes that the Babylonians had to break them in pieces before transporting them to Babylon (Jer 52:17, 21-23).<\/p>\n<p>The bronze altar of sacrifice in front of the vestibule is not listed in the specifications of 1 Kings 7. However, it is mentioned in the temple dedication and subsequently (1 Kgs 8:22, 54, 64; 9:25) and clearly stood in the inner court. Its dimensions were 30 feet (9.1 meters) square and 15 feet (4.6 meters) high (2 Chr 4:1). In view of its weight, it was probably cast in sections at Solomon’s foundry in the Jordan Rift valley (vv 17-18) and then transported to the temple site for assembly.<\/p>\n<p>Probably the most striking article in the inner court was the “molten (bronze) sea,” a huge, round tank made of bronze 3 inches (8 centimeters) thick, 7½ feet (2.3 meters) high, and 15 feet (4.6 meters) in diameter (1 Kgs 7:23-26). Its rim flared out like a lily (2 Chr 4:2-5). The tank was supported on 12 bronze oxen, four on each side, and had two rows of decoration, possibly gourds or pomegranates, under the brim. Its capacity was between 10,000 and 12,000 gallons (37,850–45,420 liters). The bronze sea was used for priestly ablutions (v 6). Presumably this involved a platform of sorts, for the brim of this vast basin would have been about 15 feet (4.6 meters) above ground level.<\/p>\n<p>Hiram also constructed ten large lavers, mounted on moveable stands and placed in two groups of five, on the north and south sides of the inner court (1 Kgs 7:27-39). Basically the stands were bronze boxes, six feet (1.8 meters) square and four and a half feet (1.4 meters) high with a nine-inch (22.9-centimeter) rim around the top edge. Each corner was attached to braced posts to which the axles were fixed. The four-spoked wheels were 27 inches (68.6 centimeters) high. Into each stand there fitted a laver containing approximately 220 gallons (832.7 liters) of water, used for washing sacrificial animals (2 Chr 4:6). Probably each was adjacent to one of the ten tables that would be used to flay and otherwise prepare the sacrifices (v 8). Supplementary items, such as pots, shovels, and basins, all made of bronze, were also manufactured (1 Kgs 7:40, 45).<\/p>\n<h5>The Dedication<\/h5>\n<p>Eleven months elapsed between the completion of the temple and its dedication (1 Kgs 6:38; 8:2), during which time the major items of furniture were set in place. The dedication itself took place in the seventh month, presumably in connection with the Feast of Tabernacles and the Day of Atonement (Lv 23:23-36). The ark of the covenant was brought into its final resting place (1 Kgs 8:3-4), but the inner court proved inadequate for the vast numbers of beasts sacrificed (1 Kgs 8:62-64; 2 Chr 7:7).<\/p>\n<p>The temple employed the most sophisticated building techniques of the age, and no expense had been spared in construction, ornamentation, or equipment. Yet Solomon readily confessed its utter inadequacy to house the eternal God (1 Kgs 8:27). His prayer also underlined Israel’s propensity to forsake the Lord, contrasting the nation with God, who, though a just judge, was also merciful and faithful. The climax of the proceedings came when fire from heaven consumed the sacrifices and the shekinah glory filled the temple (2 Chr 7:1-3).<\/p>\n<h5>Later History<\/h5>\n<p>Like most ancient shrines, the temple became a treasury for national wealth and as such was often the target for attack. Shishak of Egypt plundered it within five years of Solomon’s death (1 Kgs 14:25-38). Shortly afterward, King Asa (910–869 <span>BC<\/span>) depleted its gold and silver treasures to buy Syrian help against his oppressor, Baasha (908–886 <span>BC<\/span>), king of Israel (15:16-19). Joash, the king of Judah (835–796 <span>BC<\/span>) who was concealed in the temple from the vicious Athaliah during his youth (2 Kgs 11), made provision for its repair after protesting the priests’ embezzlement of gifts (12:4-16). But after the death of Jehoiada, the high priest, Joash himself was adversely influenced by his nobles (2 Chr 24:15-19). As punishment for his apostasy, the Lord allowed the Syrians to attack, and Joash used the temple treasures to buy them off (2 Kgs 12:17-18). Hardly had provision for replacements been made, when Jehoash of Israel (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>), having shattered the arrogant pride of Amaziah of Judah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>), again stripped the temple (14:8-14). Later, King Ahaz (735-715 <span>BC<\/span>) used the remaining resources of the temple to enlist support from the Assyrians (16:7-9), though he eventually became completely subservient to them.<\/p>\n<p> Then Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>), one of the great reforming kings, thoroughly renovated the temple and restored worship after it had fallen into disuse during theclosing years of Ahaz (2 Chr 29:1-19; 31:9-21). Manasseh (696–642 <span>BC<\/span>), however, completely reversed his father’s policy, bringing the practices of Canaanite and Mesopotamian worship into the temple (2 Kgs 21:3-7). His conversion experience, which probably occurred late in his reign and resulted in certain reform measures in the temple (2 Chr 33:12-19), was not far-reaching enough to escape the final judgment that his reign was the dark spot of Judah’s history (2 Kgs 21:10-16).<\/p>\n<p>Manasseh’s grandson Josiah (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>), was the second great reforming king. He organized the repair of the temple in 622 <span>BC<\/span>, during which the lost Book of the Law (almost certainly the book of Deuteronomy) was discovered (2 Kgs 22:3-13). As a result, Josiah’s reformation gained a new dimension and sense of urgency (22:14–23:3). The reformation included a thorough purge of all idolatrous elements from the temple (23:4-12) and the restoration of the traditional festivals. Sadly, however, Josiah’s reformation died with him, and Judah’s downward slide continued under the apostate Jehoiakim (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>). It was probably during this time that Jeremiah preached his famous temple sermon foretelling its destruction (Jer 7:1–8:3; 26:1-19), which alienated him from the religious leaders. In Nebuchadnezzar’s reprisal raid following Jehoiakim’s rebellion in 601 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 24:1-4), Jerusalem was captured (596 <span>BC<\/span>) and many of the temple treasures were transported to Babylon (2 Chr 36:7). The temple itself appears to have escaped damage, but when Judah again rebelled under Zedekiah (597–586 <span>BC<\/span>), the temple was demolished (2 Kgs 25:8-10). The remaining temple treasures were taken away.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ZerubbabelsTemple\">Zerubbabel’s Temple<\/p>\n<h5>Construction<\/h5>\n<p>Although the temple was devastated, the site still remained as a place of pilgrimage during the exile (Jer 41:4-5). In 538 <span>BC<\/span> the Persian king, Cyrus, in pursuance of a liberal policy diametrically opposed to that of the earlier empires, permitted the Jews to return from exile. And he authorized the rebuilding of the temple, financing it from the Persian treasury.<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Ezra, the decree of authorization has been preserved in two forms: the general proclamation (Ezr 1:2-4) and a more prosaic memorandum in the national archives indicating the main temple specifications and the amount of promised Persian help (6:1-5). Probably only a minority of the Jews opted to leave the relative comforts of Mesopotamia for the dangers of a long journey to their desolated homeland. According to the book of Ezra, 42,360 dedicated individuals and their servants (2:64-65) responded under the leadership of Sheshbazzar (1:8-11; 5:14-16) and Zerubbabel (2:2; 3:2, 8; 4:2). With great enthusiasm, the altar was rebuilt on the temple site and the traditional pattern of worship reestablished (3:1-6). Utilizing the grant from Persia as well as their own freewill gifts (2:68-69; 3:7), the Jews began to plan the second temple and lay its foundations (3:7-13). The initial impetus quickly died as a result of local opposition (4:1-4, 24), selfish preoccupation, and crop failures (Hg 1:2-11). In 520 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 4:24; Hg 1:1; Zec 1:1), inspired by the prophets Haggai and Zechariah, the Jews under Zerubbabel and Joshua the high priest commenced rebuilding. Work continued in spite of official suspicion, if not direct opposition, and the temple was completed and dedicated in 515 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 5:1–6:22).<\/p>\n<p>Little is known of the physical features of Zerubbabel’s temple. The inference that it was vastly inferior to Solomon’s temple (Hg 2:3) probably relates to an early stage in the building operation. In fact, the second temple stood for over 500 years. The dimensions noted in Ezra 6:3 are incomplete; the new temple was no doubt about the same size as its predecessor and was probably built on the same foundation. The construction technique appears to have followed the method of the original, with layers of timber providing a framework for sections of masonry (v 4). Clearly, there was auxiliary accommodation, probably like the side rooms of Solomon’s temple (Ezr 8:29; Neh 12:44; 13:4-5). If Persian aid was forthcoming as promised (Ezr 6:8-12), the second temple was a more splendid, substantial structure than is generally supposed.<\/p>\n<h5>Later History<\/h5>\n<p>Several references in the Apocrypha, pseudepigrapha, rabbinic writings, and the historian Josephus help to illumine the history of the temple and give more detail on its structure and furnishings. Josephus, quoting from Hecateus of Abdera (fourth century <span>BC<\/span>), states that the temple was a large building in an enclosure about 500 feet by 150 feet (152.4 meters by 45.7 meters), surrounded by a stone wall, with an altar of unhewn stones the same size as Solomon’s bronze altar (cf. 2 Chr 4:1). Within the sanctuary was a golden altar of incense and a lampstand, the flame of which burned continually. Josephus also notes that Antiochus III (223–187 <span>BC<\/span>) financially supported the temple when the Seleucids displaced the Ptolemies as masters of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Ben Sirach, early in the second century <span>BC<\/span>, commended Simon, the son of Onias the high priest, for his work in fortifying and repairing the temple area. First Maccabees provides valuable evidence of the fate of the temple during the oppression under Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175–164 <span>BC<\/span>). The books of the Maccabees recount the defilement of the altar of burnt offering (1 Macc 1:54) and the plundering of the golden lampstand, altar of incense, table of offering, veil, and other treasures (2 Macc 5:15-16; 6:2-4). When the temple was recaptured and restored, the victorious Maccabees replaced the items taken by the Seleucids, except for the altar of sacrifice, which was considered so polluted that it was dismantled and replaced by a new one constructed of unhewn stone (1 Macc 4:36-61; 2 Macc 10:1-9). Clearly the temple area was used as a fortress, both in opposition to the Seleucid garrison that was maintained in Jerusalem in the Maccabean period and in the conflicts of the later Hasmonean period. When Pompey captured Jerusalem about 63 <span>BC<\/span>, he entered the temple to assert his authority but took no plunder, thus showing respect for it.<\/p>\n<p>The history of Zerubbabel’s temple closed when Herod, having carefully preserved it from any major damage when he gained control of Jerusalem with Roman aid in 37 <span>BC<\/span>, began to dismantle it about 21 <span>BC<\/span> in preparation for the construction of his own grand temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HerodsTemple\">Herod’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>Apart from over 100 references in the NT, our main sources of information about Herod’s temple come from the Jewish historian Josephus and from the Middoth (a section of the Jewish rabbinic writings). There are considerable differences in detail between the two, which rules out any dogmatic interpretation in attempted reconstructions. Since Josephus was contemporary with the temple (he was born about <span>AD<\/span> 37 and died early in the second century), he is probably more reliable than the Middoth, which, dating from about <span>AD<\/span> 150, appears to exaggerate occasionally. Archaeological research has been helpful in determining the positions of the outer walls and gates.<\/p>\n<p>Herod’s motive in building his temple was political rather than religious. As an Idumean, he wished to placate his Jewish subjects by constructing a sanctuary as magnificent as Solomon’s. Possible fears that the site might be profaned, or that the existing temple might be demolished and never rebuilt, were allayed by the training of 1,000 priests as masons and the amassing of materials before the work commenced. Herod’s temple followed the tripartite plan of its predecessors, although its porch was much larger. It was built in the contemporary Greco-Roman architectural style and must therefore be regarded as distinct from Zerubbabel’s temple. Work began in 20 <span>BC<\/span>, and while the main sanctuary was quickly erected (it was in full operation within ten years), the total project was not completed until <span>AD<\/span> 64, only six years before it was destroyed by the Romans.<\/p>\n<p>Herod first prepared the site by clearing and leveling an area approximately 500 yards (457.2 meters) from north to south and about 325 yards (297.2 meters) from east to west. This involved cutting away sections of rock in some areas and building up with rubble in others. Considerable sections of the enclosing wall, constructed on stone blocks averaging about 15 feet (4.6 meters) long by 4 feet (1.2 meters) high, still survive. Some of the stones in the corners of the south wall weigh up to 70 tons (63.5 metric tons).<\/p>\n<p>The sanctuary itself seems to have been based on the same dimensions as Solomon’s temple. It was divided into the Holy Place, which was 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, 30 feet (9.1 meters) wide, and 60 feet high, and the Holy of Holies, which was 30 feet square. There was no furniture within the Holy of Holies, which was separated by a veil from the Holy Place. The Holy Place contained the seven-branch lampstand, the table for the bread of the Presence, and the incense altar. The main divergence from Solomon’s temple was the imposing porch, 150 feet (45.7 meters) in width and height. Outside was a doorway approximately 30 feet (9.1 meters) wide by 40 feet (12.2 meters) high, with an inner doorway about half that size leading into the sanctuary. By allowing empty rooms over the Holy of Holies and the Holy Place, there was a uniform roof height of 150 feet (45.7 meters). Golden spikes on the roof discouraged birds from alighting and defiling the structure. Like its predecessors, the temple was oriented toward the east and was surrounded on the other sides by three stories of rooms rising to a height of 60 feet (18.3 meters). The stone used was the local white stone, cut in huge blocks and highly polished.<\/p>\n<p>Access to the porch was by a flight of 12 steps from the Court of the Priests. Centrally placed before the porch and 33 feet (10.1 meters) away was the altar of sacrifice. Made of unhewn stone, it was a multilevel construction 15 feet (4.6 meters) high and about 48 feet (14.6 meters) square at its base. Male Israelites were allowed into this area once a year, during the Feast of the Tabernacles, to walk around the altar of sacrifice. Otherwise, they were restricted to the Court of Israel. To the east of the Court of Israel, and separated from it by a flight of 15 steps and by the ornate Great Gate, made of Corinthian bronze, was the Court of the Women. Here the offertory chests for temple expenses were located (Mk 12:41-44). The next court was the large, lower, outer Court of the Gentiles, which surrounded the inner courts and was separated from them by a balustrade and a series of warning notices. Two of these have been excavated, written in Latin and Greek and forbidding trespass by Gentiles into the inner areas, on pain of death. This outer court was widely used. Immediately inside its walls was a portico, supported by four rows of columns almost 40 feet (12.2 meters) high on the south side (the Royal Porch), and two rows on the other sides, the eastern portico known as “Solomon’s Porch” or “Solomon’s Colonnade.” Here is the area where the stalls of the money changers and merchants were set up, where the Sanhedrin met, and where Christ and the scribes taught and debated (Mk 11:27; Lk 2:46; 19:47; Jn 10:23). Here, too, the infant church met before it was rejected by a hostile Judaism (Acts 3:11; 5:12). Just to the northwest of the temple enclosure was the Fortress of Antonia, where the Roman governor resided while in Jerusalem, and where a Roman garrison was on hand to deal with disturbances (Acts 21:31-40). Overlooking the temple area, it was separated from it by a wide moat. The high priest’s vestments were stored in the fortress as a symbol of Roman authority. Access to the Court of the Gentiles was by four gates in the west wall; two in the south wall, where the ground fell away steeply into the valley, a site often identified as the pinnacle of the temple (Mt 4:5; Lk 4:9); and one gate in each of the east and north walls.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SignificanceoftheTempleintheOldTestament\">Significance of the Temple in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The temple in Jerusalem functioned as the focal point of the tribal confederation. In spite of the attempt of Jeroboam I, the first king of the northern kingdom, to divert attention from Jerusalem by establishing shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:26-30), Jerusalem never lost its preeminence. Naturally, both Hezekiah and Josiah sought to extend their reformation into the area of the northern tribes (2 Chr 30:1-12; 34:6-7), and Jerusalem was a pilgrimage center for those areas even after its destruction (Jer 41:5). The prophets foretold its destiny as the focal point of universal worship (Is 2:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>The temple was God’s dwelling place among his people. God’s presence, symbolized in the shekinah glory and the pillar of cloud, was associated with the tent of meeting (Ex 33:9-11), with the tabernacle (40:34-38), and finally with the temple (1 Kgs 8:10-11). The paradox is that while God is completely unrestricted, the temple was considered a place for God to live forever (vv 13, 27). God had chosen Zion, as he had chosen David (Pss 68:15-18; 76:2; 78:67-72), so the temple was regarded as God’s house (27:4; 42:4; 84:1-4).<\/p>\n<h5>Ezekiel’s Temple<\/h5>\n<p>Ezekiel’s detailed description of the ideal temple (Ez 40–48) was not used as the blueprint for Zerubbabel’s temple. In fact, since Ezekiel must have been familiar with Solomon’s temple before his deportation in 597 <span>BC<\/span>, his description is of greater help in determining uncertain details of the first temple. Ezekiel’s concern was to show the nature of pure worship, safeguarded from all contamination. This worship would allow the glory of God, which had departed from corrupted Solomon’s temple (9:3; 10:4, 18-19: 11:22-23), to return so that Jerusalem could again be named “the Lord is there” (43:1-5; 48:35). This thought, linked with Ezekiel’s vital concept of God’s Spirit indwelling his faithful worshipers (36:24-28), anticipated the NT teaching of the believers becoming God’s temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SignificanceoftheTempleintheNewTestament\">Significance of the Temple in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>Christ and the Temple<\/h5>\n<p>Christ showed considerable respect for the temple. When he was 12 years old, he entered into the rabbinic discussions in its porticoes and described it as his Father’s house (Lk 2:41-50). To him “the house of God” was indwelt by God (Mt 12:4; 23:21). Although he twice cleansed it in righteous anger (Mt 21:12-13; Jn 2:13-16), he wept over the impending destruction of the city and temple (Lk 19:41-44). He often taught there, but he was “greater than the temple” (Mt 12:6). When his presentation to Jerusalem as the predicted Messiah was rejected, in spite of attendant miracles, he foretold its inevitable destruction (Mt 21:9-15; 24:1-2). For a brief period after Pentecost, the early church used the temple as its meeting place, until mounting opposition drove believers from Jerusalem (Acts 5:12, 21, 42; 8:1).<\/p>\n<h5>The Church as the Temple<\/h5>\n<p>The NT writers used two different Greek words to describe the temple: <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span><em>.<\/em> <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Naos<\/span> refers to the actual sanctuary of the temple, the place of God’s dwelling. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Hieron<\/span> refers to the temple precincts as well as to the sanctuary. Generally speaking, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> was used to designate the inner section of the temple known as the Holy Place and the Holy of Holies, whereas <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span> included the outer court and the temple proper.<\/p>\n<p>In Paul’s epistles the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> appears six times (1 Cor 3:16-17; 6:19; 2 Cor 6:16; Eph 2:21; 2 Thes 2:4) and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span> once (1 Cor 9:13). In these verses Paul maintains the distinction of definition noted above. When speaking of the actual physical temple, he used the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span> to indicate the place where the priests offered up animal sacrifices on the altar (1 Cor 9:13), which was situated in the outer court (see Ex 27–29, 40). And when Paul referred to the abominable act of the lawless one in usurping God’s place in the temple, he used the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span>—the word that designates the place of deity’s presence (2 Thes 2:4).<\/p>\n<p>In all the other Pauline passages, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> is used metaphorically—to depict a human habitation for the divine Spirit. In one instance the sanctuary image is used to describe the individual believer’s body (1 Cor 6:19); in every other instance the sanctuary depicts Christ’s body, the church (1 Cor 3:16-17; 2 Cor 6:16; Eph 2:21). Mistakenly, many readers think 1 Corinthians 3:16-17 speaks of the individual, but according to the Greek text, it is unquestionably clear that Paul was speaking about the collective church (specifically, the church in Corinth).<\/p>\n<p>When Paul told the church in Corinth that it was God’s sanctuary, they would have understood the image from their knowledge of pagan temples. But Paul probably had in mind the one temple in Jerusalem. The Gentiles had many gods with many temples in one city; the Jews had one God with only one temple in all of Israel. This helped to preserve unity among the Israelites. The Corinthians needed spiritual unity; they were fragmented due to their individual preferences (see 1 Cor 1:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>In Ephesians, Paul’s masterpiece on the church, he speaks of the local churches as living, organic entities that are all (compositely speaking) growing into a holy sanctuary in the Lord (Eph 2:21). Paul pictured each local church as providing God with a spiritual habitation in that locality (v 22) and as growing together with all the other churches into one holy, universal sanctuary for the Lord’s indwelling.<\/p>\n<h5>The Temple in John’s Revelation<\/h5>\n<p>In John’s revelation there is no material temple, even though he continues to use the imagery of Jerusalem and Mt Zion (Rv 3:12; 14:1; 21:2, 10, 22). Three interrelated ideas dominate. First is the concept of the church made up of martyrs, whose faithful members are God’s temple (3:12; 14:1). This temple grows gradually as the number of martyrs increases (6:11). Another aspect is the temple as the place of judgment (11:19; 14:15; 15:5–16:1). Finally, any temple in the new age is unnecessary, “for its temple is the Lord God Almighty and the Lamb” (21:22). The ultimate state will be God’s dwelling with his people—the eternal, spritual temple.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Altar; Ark of the Covenant; Bread of the Presence; David; Feasts and Festivals of Israel; First Jewish Revolt; Judaism; Mercy Seat; Offerings and Sacrifices; Priests and Levites; Sanctuary; Singers in the Temple; Solomon (Person).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TEMPLE<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Solomon’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>• Zerubbabel’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>• Herod’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>• Significance of the Temple in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Significance of the Temple in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>David’s capture of Jerusalem (2 Sm 5:6-9) and his designation of it as the nation’s capital is one of the great masterstrokes of history. Occupied by the Jebusites, it was a pocket of neutral territory between the northern and southern sections of David’s united kingdom and was politically acceptable to both. Jerusalem was then established as the national religious center by the return of the ark, which had been largely neglected since its capture by the Philistines (2 Sm 6:1-17). Henceforth, God’s choices of both David and Jerusalem (“Mount Zion”) were indissolubly linked (Ps 78:67-72).<\/p>\n<p>David’s great impulse was to build an adequate dwelling place for Israel’s God. The idea was initially approved by Nathan the prophet (2 Sm 7:1-3), but God revealed otherwise to him, and he conveyed the divine purpose to David (vv 4-17). In a significant wordplay, David was informed that, while he was not to build a house (temple) for God, God would build a house (dynasty) for him. David was not the one to build a temple because of the numerous wars during his reign; the temple would instead be built by his son (1 Kgs 5:3; 1 Chr 22:7-8; 28:3). Nevertheless, David enthusiastically amassed most of the necessary finances and materials and drew up the blueprints for the temple (1 Chr 22:3-5, 14; 28:2, 11-19). He also purchased the temple site (21:25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SolomonsTemple\">Solomon’s Temple<\/p>\n\n<h5>Date<\/h5>\n<p>Construction commenced in Solomon’s fourth year, about 966 <span>BC<\/span>, and took seven years to complete (1 Kgs 6:1, 38). Everything necessary for the temple, including the workers, had been prepared by David (1 Chr 28:21). The temple evidently had first priority among Solomon’s building schemes, as he built his own palace later (1 Kgs 7:1).<\/p>\n<h5>Superintendents and Workforce<\/h5>\n<p>The principal architect for the bronze furnishings was Huram (Hebrew “Hiram”), whose father was a metal craftsman from Tyre and whose mother was an Israelite (1 Kgs 7:13-14). Cedar for the temple came from Lebanon and was felled and transported by the skilled woodsmen of another Hiram—the king of Tyre, Solomon’s ally (5:5-9). Thirty thousand Israelites, divided into three groups, were drafted to assist at Lebanon. Each group was on duty for one month in three. For the stonework, Solomon conscripted 153,600 foreigners resident in Israel to provide a self-contained group of carriers, stone cutters, and supervisors (vv 15-17; 2 Chr 2:17-18). Possibly the “men of Gebal,” with their specialized skills, formed yet another group (1 Kgs 5:18). Building the temple was obviously a national project of immense size and effort. In order to preserve the sanctity of the site and to eliminate noise, the masonry and carpentry were not done at the temple site (6:7).<\/p>\n<h5>Description<\/h5>\n<p>The details given in the Bible are sufficiently clear for us to make a reasonably accurate description of the temple. The accounts in Kings and Chronicles are supplemented by Ezekiel’s depiction of the temple (see below), which was broadly based on his knowledge of the Jerusalem temple (Ez 40–48).<\/p>\n<p>The side rooms probably rested on a foundation or platform that was separate from the temple itself (1 Kgs 6:5, 10; cf. Ez 41:8-9) and were arranged in three stories, each seven and a half feet (2.3 meters) high, extending around the whole building except for the porch side. Each successive story was one and a half feet (.5 meter) wider than the one below, these dimensions coinciding with the thickness of the side wall of the Holy Place. The ground floor rooms were seven and a half feet (2.3 meters) wide; the first story was nine feet (2.7 meters), and the second was ten and a half feet (3.2 meters). Access to the upper stories was possibly by winding staircases (1 Kgs 6:8). There is some uncertainty concerning the location of the entrances; there may have been one on either side, but only one is mentioned (v 8). As in Ezekiel’s temple (Ez 40:17, 28), there were two adjacent courts, an inner and an outer (1 Kgs 6:36; 7:12), but no dimensions are given for these. The inner court, or “court of the priests,” being next to the temple itself, was also called “the upper court” (2 Chr 4:9; Jer 36:10). The wall of the inner court was made of three layers of hewn stone held together by a layer of cedar beams (1 Kgs 6:36), and the doors of both courts were sheathed in bronze (2 Chr 4:9). The palace buildings were within the outer court area, probably with a private passageway between the palace and the temple that was later closed during the reign of Ahaz (2 Chr 4:9, 12; 2 Kgs 16:18).<\/p>\n<p>The temple itself was 90 feet (27.4 meters) long, 30 feet (9.1 meters) wide, and 45 feet (13.7 meters) high (1 Kgs 6:2), with a porch or vestibule 15 feet (4.6 meters) deep stretching across the width. Probably the vestibule was on the east end of the temple, thus corresponding with the orientation of Ezekiel’s temple (Ez 43:1; 44:1). The larger part of the main sanctuary, next to the porch, formed the Holy Place, which was 60 feet (18.3 meters) long (1 Kgs 6:17). Beyond this was the innermost sanctuary, the Holy of Holies (or the “Most Holy Place“), which was a perfect cube of 30 feet (9.1 meters). All the interior walls were paneled with cedar decorated with flower patterns, cherubim, and palm trees, so that no masonry was visible. The walls of both inner and outer sanctuaries were “overlaid” (v 22) with pure gold. Actually the gold decoration may have been inlaid, on the basis that a solid sheath of gold would spoil the natural beauty of the wood carving. The floor was made of cypress planks (v 15). Narrow windows set high in the walls above the level of the three-storied outer chambers provided light in the Holy Place (v 4). The ceiling was paneled with beams and planks of cedar. No detail is given about the exterior roofing, but probably the contemporary technique was employed, using a wooden, latticelike framework into which a waterproof, limestone plaster was packed and rolled.<\/p>\n<p>The outer porch was apparently an open space, since no doors are mentioned. Access into the Holy Place was by double doors, both hinged to fold back on themselves, made of cypress and decorated in exactly the same way as the interior walls (vv 34-35). The doorposts were made of olive wood. Within the Holy Place was the altar of incense made of cedar overlaid with gold; it was placed centrally before the Holy of Holies. Also in the Holy Place were a table for the bread of the Presence of God, ten lampstands arranged in two groups of five on either side, and various utensils required for maintaining the priestly duties (1 Kgs 7:48-50). All these were made or overlaid with gold. The ten tables, arranged five on each side, were presumably for the utensils and accessories (2 Chr 4:8).<\/p>\n<p>Between the Holy Place and the Holy of Holies was a double door made of olive wood, carved with cherubim, palm trees, and flower patterns and overlaid with gold. Inside these doors, veiling still further the Holy of Holies, was a blue, purple, and crimson curtain, made of the finest fabrics and ornamented with cherubim (2 Chr 3:14).<\/p>\n<p>In the Holy of Holies were two cherubim, each 15 feet (4.6 meters) high and made of olive wood covered with gold (1 Kgs 6:23-28). Each wing measured seven and a half feet (2.3 meters). A wing of each touched the side walls; the other wings met at the center of the room. The divine throne had been considerably less impressive in the tabernacle, where a wing of each cherubim fused into the mercy seat above the ark (Ex 25:17-22). In Solomon’s temple, the ark of the covenant was placed below the forward-facing cherubim, the symbolic protectors. The ark, the only major item surviving from the Mosaic tabernacle, still contained the tablets of the law, but the pot of manna and Aaron’s rod were missing (1 Kgs 8:9).<\/p>\n<p>Immediately outside the temple and on either side of the vestibule were two hollow bronze pillars (1 Kgs 7:15-20; 2 Chr 3:15-17). According to the book of Kings, these pillars were 27 feet (8.2 meters) high, with a circumference of 18 feet (5.5 meters). The metal itself was about four inches (10.2 centimeters) thick. The pillars were surmounted by bronze, lily-shaped capitals seven and a half feet (2.3 meters) high and six feet (1.8 meters) wide, intricately adorned with a chain latticework that supported two rows of pomegranates. The total weight must have been enormous, and their size is attested to by Jeremiah, who notes that the Babylonians had to break them in pieces before transporting them to Babylon (Jer 52:17, 21-23).<\/p>\n<p>The bronze altar of sacrifice in front of the vestibule is not listed in the specifications of 1 Kings 7. However, it is mentioned in the temple dedication and subsequently (1 Kgs 8:22, 54, 64; 9:25) and clearly stood in the inner court. Its dimensions were 30 feet (9.1 meters) square and 15 feet (4.6 meters) high (2 Chr 4:1). In view of its weight, it was probably cast in sections at Solomon’s foundry in the Jordan Rift valley (vv 17-18) and then transported to the temple site for assembly.<\/p>\n<p>Probably the most striking article in the inner court was the “molten (bronze) sea,” a huge, round tank made of bronze 3 inches (8 centimeters) thick, 7½ feet (2.3 meters) high, and 15 feet (4.6 meters) in diameter (1 Kgs 7:23-26). Its rim flared out like a lily (2 Chr 4:2-5). The tank was supported on 12 bronze oxen, four on each side, and had two rows of decoration, possibly gourds or pomegranates, under the brim. Its capacity was between 10,000 and 12,000 gallons (37,850–45,420 liters). The bronze sea was used for priestly ablutions (v 6). Presumably this involved a platform of sorts, for the brim of this vast basin would have been about 15 feet (4.6 meters) above ground level.<\/p>\n<p>Hiram also constructed ten large lavers, mounted on moveable stands and placed in two groups of five, on the north and south sides of the inner court (1 Kgs 7:27-39). Basically the stands were bronze boxes, six feet (1.8 meters) square and four and a half feet (1.4 meters) high with a nine-inch (22.9-centimeter) rim around the top edge. Each corner was attached to braced posts to which the axles were fixed. The four-spoked wheels were 27 inches (68.6 centimeters) high. Into each stand there fitted a laver containing approximately 220 gallons (832.7 liters) of water, used for washing sacrificial animals (2 Chr 4:6). Probably each was adjacent to one of the ten tables that would be used to flay and otherwise prepare the sacrifices (v 8). Supplementary items, such as pots, shovels, and basins, all made of bronze, were also manufactured (1 Kgs 7:40, 45).<\/p>\n<h5>The Dedication<\/h5>\n<p>Eleven months elapsed between the completion of the temple and its dedication (1 Kgs 6:38; 8:2), during which time the major items of furniture were set in place. The dedication itself took place in the seventh month, presumably in connection with the Feast of Tabernacles and the Day of Atonement (Lv 23:23-36). The ark of the covenant was brought into its final resting place (1 Kgs 8:3-4), but the inner court proved inadequate for the vast numbers of beasts sacrificed (1 Kgs 8:62-64; 2 Chr 7:7).<\/p>\n<p>The temple employed the most sophisticated building techniques of the age, and no expense had been spared in construction, ornamentation, or equipment. Yet Solomon readily confessed its utter inadequacy to house the eternal God (1 Kgs 8:27). His prayer also underlined Israel’s propensity to forsake the Lord, contrasting the nation with God, who, though a just judge, was also merciful and faithful. The climax of the proceedings came when fire from heaven consumed the sacrifices and the shekinah glory filled the temple (2 Chr 7:1-3).<\/p>\n<h5>Later History<\/h5>\n<p>Like most ancient shrines, the temple became a treasury for national wealth and as such was often the target for attack. Shishak of Egypt plundered it within five years of Solomon’s death (1 Kgs 14:25-38). Shortly afterward, King Asa (910–869 <span>BC<\/span>) depleted its gold and silver treasures to buy Syrian help against his oppressor, Baasha (908–886 <span>BC<\/span>), king of Israel (15:16-19). Joash, the king of Judah (835–796 <span>BC<\/span>) who was concealed in the temple from the vicious Athaliah during his youth (2 Kgs 11), made provision for its repair after protesting the priests’ embezzlement of gifts (12:4-16). But after the death of Jehoiada, the high priest, Joash himself was adversely influenced by his nobles (2 Chr 24:15-19). As punishment for his apostasy, the Lord allowed the Syrians to attack, and Joash used the temple treasures to buy them off (2 Kgs 12:17-18). Hardly had provision for replacements been made, when Jehoash of Israel (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>), having shattered the arrogant pride of Amaziah of Judah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>), again stripped the temple (14:8-14). Later, King Ahaz (735-715 <span>BC<\/span>) used the remaining resources of the temple to enlist support from the Assyrians (16:7-9), though he eventually became completely subservient to them.<\/p>\n<p> Then Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>), one of the great reforming kings, thoroughly renovated the temple and restored worship after it had fallen into disuse during theclosing years of Ahaz (2 Chr 29:1-19; 31:9-21). Manasseh (696–642 <span>BC<\/span>), however, completely reversed his father’s policy, bringing the practices of Canaanite and Mesopotamian worship into the temple (2 Kgs 21:3-7). His conversion experience, which probably occurred late in his reign and resulted in certain reform measures in the temple (2 Chr 33:12-19), was not far-reaching enough to escape the final judgment that his reign was the dark spot of Judah’s history (2 Kgs 21:10-16).<\/p>\n<p>Manasseh’s grandson Josiah (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>), was the second great reforming king. He organized the repair of the temple in 622 <span>BC<\/span>, during which the lost Book of the Law (almost certainly the book of Deuteronomy) was discovered (2 Kgs 22:3-13). As a result, Josiah’s reformation gained a new dimension and sense of urgency (22:14–23:3). The reformation included a thorough purge of all idolatrous elements from the temple (23:4-12) and the restoration of the traditional festivals. Sadly, however, Josiah’s reformation died with him, and Judah’s downward slide continued under the apostate Jehoiakim (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>). It was probably during this time that Jeremiah preached his famous temple sermon foretelling its destruction (Jer 7:1–8:3; 26:1-19), which alienated him from the religious leaders. In Nebuchadnezzar’s reprisal raid following Jehoiakim’s rebellion in 601 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 24:1-4), Jerusalem was captured (596 <span>BC<\/span>) and many of the temple treasures were transported to Babylon (2 Chr 36:7). The temple itself appears to have escaped damage, but when Judah again rebelled under Zedekiah (597–586 <span>BC<\/span>), the temple was demolished (2 Kgs 25:8-10). The remaining temple treasures were taken away.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ZerubbabelsTemple\">Zerubbabel’s Temple<\/p>\n<h5>Construction<\/h5>\n<p>Although the temple was devastated, the site still remained as a place of pilgrimage during the exile (Jer 41:4-5). In 538 <span>BC<\/span> the Persian king, Cyrus, in pursuance of a liberal policy diametrically opposed to that of the earlier empires, permitted the Jews to return from exile. And he authorized the rebuilding of the temple, financing it from the Persian treasury.<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Ezra, the decree of authorization has been preserved in two forms: the general proclamation (Ezr 1:2-4) and a more prosaic memorandum in the national archives indicating the main temple specifications and the amount of promised Persian help (6:1-5). Probably only a minority of the Jews opted to leave the relative comforts of Mesopotamia for the dangers of a long journey to their desolated homeland. According to the book of Ezra, 42,360 dedicated individuals and their servants (2:64-65) responded under the leadership of Sheshbazzar (1:8-11; 5:14-16) and Zerubbabel (2:2; 3:2, 8; 4:2). With great enthusiasm, the altar was rebuilt on the temple site and the traditional pattern of worship reestablished (3:1-6). Utilizing the grant from Persia as well as their own freewill gifts (2:68-69; 3:7), the Jews began to plan the second temple and lay its foundations (3:7-13). The initial impetus quickly died as a result of local opposition (4:1-4, 24), selfish preoccupation, and crop failures (Hg 1:2-11). In 520 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 4:24; Hg 1:1; Zec 1:1), inspired by the prophets Haggai and Zechariah, the Jews under Zerubbabel and Joshua the high priest commenced rebuilding. Work continued in spite of official suspicion, if not direct opposition, and the temple was completed and dedicated in 515 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 5:1–6:22).<\/p>\n<p>Little is known of the physical features of Zerubbabel’s temple. The inference that it was vastly inferior to Solomon’s temple (Hg 2:3) probably relates to an early stage in the building operation. In fact, the second temple stood for over 500 years. The dimensions noted in Ezra 6:3 are incomplete; the new temple was no doubt about the same size as its predecessor and was probably built on the same foundation. The construction technique appears to have followed the method of the original, with layers of timber providing a framework for sections of masonry (v 4). Clearly, there was auxiliary accommodation, probably like the side rooms of Solomon’s temple (Ezr 8:29; Neh 12:44; 13:4-5). If Persian aid was forthcoming as promised (Ezr 6:8-12), the second temple was a more splendid, substantial structure than is generally supposed.<\/p>\n<h5>Later History<\/h5>\n<p>Several references in the Apocrypha, pseudepigrapha, rabbinic writings, and the historian Josephus help to illumine the history of the temple and give more detail on its structure and furnishings. Josephus, quoting from Hecateus of Abdera (fourth century <span>BC<\/span>), states that the temple was a large building in an enclosure about 500 feet by 150 feet (152.4 meters by 45.7 meters), surrounded by a stone wall, with an altar of unhewn stones the same size as Solomon’s bronze altar (cf. 2 Chr 4:1). Within the sanctuary was a golden altar of incense and a lampstand, the flame of which burned continually. Josephus also notes that Antiochus III (223–187 <span>BC<\/span>) financially supported the temple when the Seleucids displaced the Ptolemies as masters of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Ben Sirach, early in the second century <span>BC<\/span>, commended Simon, the son of Onias the high priest, for his work in fortifying and repairing the temple area. First Maccabees provides valuable evidence of the fate of the temple during the oppression under Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175–164 <span>BC<\/span>). The books of the Maccabees recount the defilement of the altar of burnt offering (1 Macc 1:54) and the plundering of the golden lampstand, altar of incense, table of offering, veil, and other treasures (2 Macc 5:15-16; 6:2-4). When the temple was recaptured and restored, the victorious Maccabees replaced the items taken by the Seleucids, except for the altar of sacrifice, which was considered so polluted that it was dismantled and replaced by a new one constructed of unhewn stone (1 Macc 4:36-61; 2 Macc 10:1-9). Clearly the temple area was used as a fortress, both in opposition to the Seleucid garrison that was maintained in Jerusalem in the Maccabean period and in the conflicts of the later Hasmonean period. When Pompey captured Jerusalem about 63 <span>BC<\/span>, he entered the temple to assert his authority but took no plunder, thus showing respect for it.<\/p>\n<p>The history of Zerubbabel’s temple closed when Herod, having carefully preserved it from any major damage when he gained control of Jerusalem with Roman aid in 37 <span>BC<\/span>, began to dismantle it about 21 <span>BC<\/span> in preparation for the construction of his own grand temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HerodsTemple\">Herod’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>Apart from over 100 references in the NT, our main sources of information about Herod’s temple come from the Jewish historian Josephus and from the Middoth (a section of the Jewish rabbinic writings). There are considerable differences in detail between the two, which rules out any dogmatic interpretation in attempted reconstructions. Since Josephus was contemporary with the temple (he was born about <span>AD<\/span> 37 and died early in the second century), he is probably more reliable than the Middoth, which, dating from about <span>AD<\/span> 150, appears to exaggerate occasionally. Archaeological research has been helpful in determining the positions of the outer walls and gates.<\/p>\n<p>Herod’s motive in building his temple was political rather than religious. As an Idumean, he wished to placate his Jewish subjects by constructing a sanctuary as magnificent as Solomon’s. Possible fears that the site might be profaned, or that the existing temple might be demolished and never rebuilt, were allayed by the training of 1,000 priests as masons and the amassing of materials before the work commenced. Herod’s temple followed the tripartite plan of its predecessors, although its porch was much larger. It was built in the contemporary Greco-Roman architectural style and must therefore be regarded as distinct from Zerubbabel’s temple. Work began in 20 <span>BC<\/span>, and while the main sanctuary was quickly erected (it was in full operation within ten years), the total project was not completed until <span>AD<\/span> 64, only six years before it was destroyed by the Romans.<\/p>\n<p>Herod first prepared the site by clearing and leveling an area approximately 500 yards (457.2 meters) from north to south and about 325 yards (297.2 meters) from east to west. This involved cutting away sections of rock in some areas and building up with rubble in others. Considerable sections of the enclosing wall, constructed on stone blocks averaging about 15 feet (4.6 meters) long by 4 feet (1.2 meters) high, still survive. Some of the stones in the corners of the south wall weigh up to 70 tons (63.5 metric tons).<\/p>\n<p>The sanctuary itself seems to have been based on the same dimensions as Solomon’s temple. It was divided into the Holy Place, which was 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, 30 feet (9.1 meters) wide, and 60 feet high, and the Holy of Holies, which was 30 feet square. There was no furniture within the Holy of Holies, which was separated by a veil from the Holy Place. The Holy Place contained the seven-branch lampstand, the table for the bread of the Presence, and the incense altar. The main divergence from Solomon’s temple was the imposing porch, 150 feet (45.7 meters) in width and height. Outside was a doorway approximately 30 feet (9.1 meters) wide by 40 feet (12.2 meters) high, with an inner doorway about half that size leading into the sanctuary. By allowing empty rooms over the Holy of Holies and the Holy Place, there was a uniform roof height of 150 feet (45.7 meters). Golden spikes on the roof discouraged birds from alighting and defiling the structure. Like its predecessors, the temple was oriented toward the east and was surrounded on the other sides by three stories of rooms rising to a height of 60 feet (18.3 meters). The stone used was the local white stone, cut in huge blocks and highly polished.<\/p>\n<p>Access to the porch was by a flight of 12 steps from the Court of the Priests. Centrally placed before the porch and 33 feet (10.1 meters) away was the altar of sacrifice. Made of unhewn stone, it was a multilevel construction 15 feet (4.6 meters) high and about 48 feet (14.6 meters) square at its base. Male Israelites were allowed into this area once a year, during the Feast of the Tabernacles, to walk around the altar of sacrifice. Otherwise, they were restricted to the Court of Israel. To the east of the Court of Israel, and separated from it by a flight of 15 steps and by the ornate Great Gate, made of Corinthian bronze, was the Court of the Women. Here the offertory chests for temple expenses were located (Mk 12:41-44). The next court was the large, lower, outer Court of the Gentiles, which surrounded the inner courts and was separated from them by a balustrade and a series of warning notices. Two of these have been excavated, written in Latin and Greek and forbidding trespass by Gentiles into the inner areas, on pain of death. This outer court was widely used. Immediately inside its walls was a portico, supported by four rows of columns almost 40 feet (12.2 meters) high on the south side (the Royal Porch), and two rows on the other sides, the eastern portico known as “Solomon’s Porch” or “Solomon’s Colonnade.” Here is the area where the stalls of the money changers and merchants were set up, where the Sanhedrin met, and where Christ and the scribes taught and debated (Mk 11:27; Lk 2:46; 19:47; Jn 10:23). Here, too, the infant church met before it was rejected by a hostile Judaism (Acts 3:11; 5:12). Just to the northwest of the temple enclosure was the Fortress of Antonia, where the Roman governor resided while in Jerusalem, and where a Roman garrison was on hand to deal with disturbances (Acts 21:31-40). Overlooking the temple area, it was separated from it by a wide moat. The high priest’s vestments were stored in the fortress as a symbol of Roman authority. Access to the Court of the Gentiles was by four gates in the west wall; two in the south wall, where the ground fell away steeply into the valley, a site often identified as the pinnacle of the temple (Mt 4:5; Lk 4:9); and one gate in each of the east and north walls.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SignificanceoftheTempleintheOldTestament\">Significance of the Temple in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The temple in Jerusalem functioned as the focal point of the tribal confederation. In spite of the attempt of Jeroboam I, the first king of the northern kingdom, to divert attention from Jerusalem by establishing shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:26-30), Jerusalem never lost its preeminence. Naturally, both Hezekiah and Josiah sought to extend their reformation into the area of the northern tribes (2 Chr 30:1-12; 34:6-7), and Jerusalem was a pilgrimage center for those areas even after its destruction (Jer 41:5). The prophets foretold its destiny as the focal point of universal worship (Is 2:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>The temple was God’s dwelling place among his people. God’s presence, symbolized in the shekinah glory and the pillar of cloud, was associated with the tent of meeting (Ex 33:9-11), with the tabernacle (40:34-38), and finally with the temple (1 Kgs 8:10-11). The paradox is that while God is completely unrestricted, the temple was considered a place for God to live forever (vv 13, 27). God had chosen Zion, as he had chosen David (Pss 68:15-18; 76:2; 78:67-72), so the temple was regarded as God’s house (27:4; 42:4; 84:1-4).<\/p>\n<h5>Ezekiel’s Temple<\/h5>\n<p>Ezekiel’s detailed description of the ideal temple (Ez 40–48) was not used as the blueprint for Zerubbabel’s temple. In fact, since Ezekiel must have been familiar with Solomon’s temple before his deportation in 597 <span>BC<\/span>, his description is of greater help in determining uncertain details of the first temple. Ezekiel’s concern was to show the nature of pure worship, safeguarded from all contamination. This worship would allow the glory of God, which had departed from corrupted Solomon’s temple (9:3; 10:4, 18-19: 11:22-23), to return so that Jerusalem could again be named “the Lord is there” (43:1-5; 48:35). This thought, linked with Ezekiel’s vital concept of God’s Spirit indwelling his faithful worshipers (36:24-28), anticipated the NT teaching of the believers becoming God’s temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SignificanceoftheTempleintheNewTestament\">Significance of the Temple in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>Christ and the Temple<\/h5>\n<p>Christ showed considerable respect for the temple. When he was 12 years old, he entered into the rabbinic discussions in its porticoes and described it as his Father’s house (Lk 2:41-50). To him “the house of God” was indwelt by God (Mt 12:4; 23:21). Although he twice cleansed it in righteous anger (Mt 21:12-13; Jn 2:13-16), he wept over the impending destruction of the city and temple (Lk 19:41-44). He often taught there, but he was “greater than the temple” (Mt 12:6). When his presentation to Jerusalem as the predicted Messiah was rejected, in spite of attendant miracles, he foretold its inevitable destruction (Mt 21:9-15; 24:1-2). For a brief period after Pentecost, the early church used the temple as its meeting place, until mounting opposition drove believers from Jerusalem (Acts 5:12, 21, 42; 8:1).<\/p>\n<h5>The Church as the Temple<\/h5>\n<p>The NT writers used two different Greek words to describe the temple: <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span><em>.<\/em> <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Naos<\/span> refers to the actual sanctuary of the temple, the place of God’s dwelling. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Hieron<\/span> refers to the temple precincts as well as to the sanctuary. Generally speaking, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> was used to designate the inner section of the temple known as the Holy Place and the Holy of Holies, whereas <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span> included the outer court and the temple proper.<\/p>\n<p>In Paul’s epistles the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> appears six times (1 Cor 3:16-17; 6:19; 2 Cor 6:16; Eph 2:21; 2 Thes 2:4) and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span> once (1 Cor 9:13). In these verses Paul maintains the distinction of definition noted above. When speaking of the actual physical temple, he used the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span> to indicate the place where the priests offered up animal sacrifices on the altar (1 Cor 9:13), which was situated in the outer court (see Ex 27–29, 40). And when Paul referred to the abominable act of the lawless one in usurping God’s place in the temple, he used the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span>—the word that designates the place of deity’s presence (2 Thes 2:4).<\/p>\n<p>In all the other Pauline passages, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> is used metaphorically—to depict a human habitation for the divine Spirit. In one instance the sanctuary image is used to describe the individual believer’s body (1 Cor 6:19); in every other instance the sanctuary depicts Christ’s body, the church (1 Cor 3:16-17; 2 Cor 6:16; Eph 2:21). Mistakenly, many readers think 1 Corinthians 3:16-17 speaks of the individual, but according to the Greek text, it is unquestionably clear that Paul was speaking about the collective church (specifically, the church in Corinth).<\/p>\n<p>When Paul told the church in Corinth that it was God’s sanctuary, they would have understood the image from their knowledge of pagan temples. But Paul probably had in mind the one temple in Jerusalem. The Gentiles had many gods with many temples in one city; the Jews had one God with only one temple in all of Israel. This helped to preserve unity among the Israelites. The Corinthians needed spiritual unity; they were fragmented due to their individual preferences (see 1 Cor 1:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>In Ephesians, Paul’s masterpiece on the church, he speaks of the local churches as living, organic entities that are all (compositely speaking) growing into a holy sanctuary in the Lord (Eph 2:21). Paul pictured each local church as providing God with a spiritual habitation in that locality (v 22) and as growing together with all the other churches into one holy, universal sanctuary for the Lord’s indwelling.<\/p>\n<h5>The Temple in John’s Revelation<\/h5>\n<p>In John’s revelation there is no material temple, even though he continues to use the imagery of Jerusalem and Mt Zion (Rv 3:12; 14:1; 21:2, 10, 22). Three interrelated ideas dominate. First is the concept of the church made up of martyrs, whose faithful members are God’s temple (3:12; 14:1). This temple grows gradually as the number of martyrs increases (6:11). Another aspect is the temple as the place of judgment (11:19; 14:15; 15:5–16:1). Finally, any temple in the new age is unnecessary, “for its temple is the Lord God Almighty and the Lamb” (21:22). The ultimate state will be God’s dwelling with his people—the eternal, spritual temple.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Altar; Ark of the Covenant; Bread of the Presence; David; Feasts and Festivals of Israel; First Jewish Revolt; Judaism; Mercy Seat; Offerings and Sacrifices; Priests and Levites; Sanctuary; Singers in the Temple; Solomon (Person).<\/p>","summary_ro":"TEMPLE Preview • Background • Solomon’s Temple • Zerubbabel’s Temple • Herod’s Temple • Significance of the Temple in the Old Testament • Significance of the Temple in the New Testament Background David’s capture of Jerusalem (2 Sm 5:6-9) and his designation of it as the nation’s capital is one of the great masterstrokes of history. Occupied by the Jebusites, it was a pocket of neutral territory between the northern and southern sections of David’s united kingdom and was politically acceptabl...","summary_en":"TEMPLE Preview • Background • Solomon’s Temple • Zerubbabel’s Temple • Herod’s Temple • Significance of the Temple in the Old Testament • Significance of the Temple in the New Testament Background David’s capture of Jerusalem (2 Sm 5:6-9) and his designation of it as the nation’s capital is one of the great masterstrokes of history. Occupied by the Jebusites, it was a pocket of neutral territory between the northern and southern sections of David’s united kingdom and was politically acceptabl...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48002,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:68","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:68","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:68-69<\/strong> As when the Tabernacle was built (Exod 25:2-7; 35:4-9) and the Temple was renovated (2 Kgs 12:1-21), the people gave <em>voluntary offerings<\/em> to finance this effort. These funds supplemented the provincial grant by Darius (Ezra 6:8) and gifts from Israelites who stayed in Babylon (1:6). Each <em>gave as much as he could<\/em> based on his resources.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:68-69<\/strong> As when the Tabernacle was built (Exod 25:2-7; 35:4-9) and the Temple was renovated (2 Kgs 12:1-21), the people gave <em>voluntary offerings<\/em> to finance this effort. These funds supplemented the provincial grant by Darius (Ezra 6:8) and gifts from Israelites who stayed in Babylon (1:6). Each <em>gave as much as he could<\/em> based on his resources.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:68-69 As when the Tabernacle was built (Exod 25:2-7; 35:4-9) and the Temple was renovated (2 Kgs 12:1-21), the people gave voluntary offerings to finance this effort. These funds supplemented the provincial grant by Darius (Ezra 6:8) and gifts from Israelites who stayed in Babylon (1:6). Each gave as much as he could based on his resources.","summary_en":"2:68-69 As when the Tabernacle was built (Exod 25:2-7; 35:4-9) and the Temple was renovated (2 Kgs 12:1-21), the people gave voluntary offerings to finance this effort. These funds supplemented the provincial grant by Darius (Ezra 6:8) and gifts from Israelites who stayed in Babylon (1:6). Each gave as much as he could based on his resources.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75628,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:68","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:68","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:68-69<\/strong> As when the Tabernacle was built (Exod 25:2-7; 35:4-9) and the Temple was renovated (2 Kgs 12:1-21), the people gave <em>voluntary offerings<\/em> to finance this effort. These funds supplemented the provincial grant by Darius (Ezra 6:8) and gifts from Israelites who stayed in Babylon (1:6). Each <em>gave as much as he could<\/em> based on his resources.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:68-69<\/strong> As when the Tabernacle was built (Exod 25:2-7; 35:4-9) and the Temple was renovated (2 Kgs 12:1-21), the people gave <em>voluntary offerings<\/em> to finance this effort. These funds supplemented the provincial grant by Darius (Ezra 6:8) and gifts from Israelites who stayed in Babylon (1:6). Each <em>gave as much as he could<\/em> based on his resources.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:68-69 As when the Tabernacle was built (Exod 25:2-7; 35:4-9) and the Temple was renovated (2 Kgs 12:1-21), the people gave voluntary offerings to finance this effort. These funds supplemented the provincial grant by Darius (Ezra 6:8) and gifts from Israelites who stayed in Babylon (1:6). Each gave as much as he could based on his resources.","summary_en":"2:68-69 As when the Tabernacle was built (Exod 25:2-7; 35:4-9) and the Temple was renovated (2 Kgs 12:1-21), the people gave voluntary offerings to finance this effort. These funds supplemented the provincial grant by Darius (Ezra 6:8) and gifts from Israelites who stayed in Babylon (1:6). Each gave as much as he could based on his resources.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103254,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:68","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:68","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:68-69<\/strong> As when the Tabernacle was built (Exod 25:2-7; 35:4-9) and the Temple was renovated (2 Kgs 12:1-21), the people gave <em>voluntary offerings<\/em> to finance this effort. These funds supplemented the provincial grant by Darius (Ezra 6:8) and gifts from Israelites who stayed in Babylon (1:6). Each <em>gave as much as he could<\/em> based on his resources.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:68-69<\/strong> As when the Tabernacle was built (Exod 25:2-7; 35:4-9) and the Temple was renovated (2 Kgs 12:1-21), the people gave <em>voluntary offerings<\/em> to finance this effort. These funds supplemented the provincial grant by Darius (Ezra 6:8) and gifts from Israelites who stayed in Babylon (1:6). Each <em>gave as much as he could<\/em> based on his resources.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:68-69 As when the Tabernacle was built (Exod 25:2-7; 35:4-9) and the Temple was renovated (2 Kgs 12:1-21), the people gave voluntary offerings to finance this effort. These funds supplemented the provincial grant by Darius (Ezra 6:8) and gifts from Israelites who stayed in Babylon (1:6). Each gave as much as he could based on his resources.","summary_en":"2:68-69 As when the Tabernacle was built (Exod 25:2-7; 35:4-9) and the Temple was renovated (2 Kgs 12:1-21), the people gave voluntary offerings to finance this effort. These funds supplemented the provincial grant by Darius (Ezra 6:8) and gifts from Israelites who stayed in Babylon (1:6). Each gave as much as he could based on his resources.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":130880,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:68","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:68","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:68-69<\/strong> As when the Tabernacle was built (Exod 25:2-7; 35:4-9) and the Temple was renovated (2 Kgs 12:1-21), the people gave <em>voluntary offerings<\/em> to finance this effort. These funds supplemented the provincial grant by Darius (Ezra 6:8) and gifts from Israelites who stayed in Babylon (1:6). Each <em>gave as much as he could<\/em> based on his resources.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:68-69<\/strong> As when the Tabernacle was built (Exod 25:2-7; 35:4-9) and the Temple was renovated (2 Kgs 12:1-21), the people gave <em>voluntary offerings<\/em> to finance this effort. These funds supplemented the provincial grant by Darius (Ezra 6:8) and gifts from Israelites who stayed in Babylon (1:6). Each <em>gave as much as he could<\/em> based on his resources.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:68-69 As when the Tabernacle was built (Exod 25:2-7; 35:4-9) and the Temple was renovated (2 Kgs 12:1-21), the people gave voluntary offerings to finance this effort. These funds supplemented the provincial grant by Darius (Ezra 6:8) and gifts from Israelites who stayed in Babylon (1:6). Each gave as much as he could based on his resources.","summary_en":"2:68-69 As when the Tabernacle was built (Exod 25:2-7; 35:4-9) and the Temple was renovated (2 Kgs 12:1-21), the people gave voluntary offerings to finance this effort. These funds supplemented the provincial grant by Darius (Ezra 6:8) and gifts from Israelites who stayed in Babylon (1:6). Each gave as much as he could based on his resources.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"69":[{"id":9846,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Dram*","title_en":"Dram*","content_ro":"<h3>DRAM*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV for daric, a Persian gold coin, in 1 Chronicles 29:7, Ezra 2:69, 8:27, and Nehemiah 7:70-72. <em>See<\/em> Coins.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DRAM*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV for daric, a Persian gold coin, in 1 Chronicles 29:7, Ezra 2:69, 8:27, and Nehemiah 7:70-72. <em>See<\/em> Coins.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DRAM* KJV for daric, a Persian gold coin, in 1 Chronicles 29:7, Ezra 2:69, 8:27, and Nehemiah 7:70-72. See Coins.","summary_en":"DRAM* KJV for daric, a Persian gold coin, in 1 Chronicles 29:7, Ezra 2:69, 8:27, and Nehemiah 7:70-72. See Coins.","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30987,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Pound","title_en":"Pound","content_ro":"<h3>POUND<\/h3>\n<li>1. KJV for “mina,” a weight equivalent of about one pound or half a kilogram (1 Kgs 10:17; Ezr 2:69; Neh 7:71-72). <em>See<\/em> Weights and Measures.<\/li>\n<li>2. Greek coin <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">mina<\/span><em>)<\/em> equivalent to about three month’s wages (Lk 19:13).<\/li>\n<li>3. Roman measure (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">litra<\/span>) equivalent to about three-quarters of a pound (12 ounces, or .3 kilogram); mentioned only in John 12:3 and 19:39. <em>See<\/em> Weights and Measures.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>POUND<\/h3>\n<li>1. KJV for “mina,” a weight equivalent of about one pound or half a kilogram (1 Kgs 10:17; Ezr 2:69; Neh 7:71-72). <em>See<\/em> Weights and Measures.<\/li>\n<li>2. Greek coin <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">mina<\/span><em>)<\/em> equivalent to about three month’s wages (Lk 19:13).<\/li>\n<li>3. Roman measure (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">litra<\/span>) equivalent to about three-quarters of a pound (12 ounces, or .3 kilogram); mentioned only in John 12:3 and 19:39. <em>See<\/em> Weights and Measures.<\/li>","summary_ro":"POUND 1. KJV for “mina,” a weight equivalent of about one pound or half a kilogram (1 Kgs 10:17; Ezr 2:69; Neh 7:71-72). See Weights and Measures. 2. Greek coin (mina) equivalent to about three month’s wages (Lk 19:13). 3. Roman measure (Greek litra) equivalent to about three-quarters of a pound (12 ounces, or .3 kilogram); mentioned only in John 12:3 and 19:39. See Weights and Measures.","summary_en":"POUND 1. KJV for “mina,” a weight equivalent of about one pound or half a kilogram (1 Kgs 10:17; Ezr 2:69; Neh 7:71-72). See Weights and Measures. 2. Greek coin (mina) equivalent to about three month’s wages (Lk 19:13). 3. Roman measure (Greek litra) equivalent to about three-quarters of a pound (12 ounces, or .3 kilogram); mentioned only in John 12:3 and 19:39. See Weights and Measures.","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48003,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:69","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:69","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:69<\/strong> Each of the <em>gold coins<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">darics<\/span>) was worth a month’s wages for a professional soldier. • <em>6,250 pounds<\/em> (Hebrew <em>5,000 minas<\/em>): Each mina weighed 20 ounces and was equal to 60 shekels of silver; each shekel was worth an average worker’s monthly wages.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:69<\/strong> Each of the <em>gold coins<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">darics<\/span>) was worth a month’s wages for a professional soldier. • <em>6,250 pounds<\/em> (Hebrew <em>5,000 minas<\/em>): Each mina weighed 20 ounces and was equal to 60 shekels of silver; each shekel was worth an average worker’s monthly wages.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:69 Each of the gold coins (Hebrew darics) was worth a month’s wages for a professional soldier. • 6,250 pounds (Hebrew 5,000 minas): Each mina weighed 20 ounces and was equal to 60 shekels of silver; each shekel was worth an average worker’s monthly wages.","summary_en":"2:69 Each of the gold coins (Hebrew darics) was worth a month’s wages for a professional soldier. • 6,250 pounds (Hebrew 5,000 minas): Each mina weighed 20 ounces and was equal to 60 shekels of silver; each shekel was worth an average worker’s monthly wages.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75629,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:69","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:69","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:69<\/strong> Each of the <em>gold coins<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">darics<\/span>) was worth a month’s wages for a professional soldier. • <em>6,250 pounds<\/em> (Hebrew <em>5,000 minas<\/em>): Each mina weighed 20 ounces and was equal to 60 shekels of silver; each shekel was worth an average worker’s monthly wages.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:69<\/strong> Each of the <em>gold coins<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">darics<\/span>) was worth a month’s wages for a professional soldier. • <em>6,250 pounds<\/em> (Hebrew <em>5,000 minas<\/em>): Each mina weighed 20 ounces and was equal to 60 shekels of silver; each shekel was worth an average worker’s monthly wages.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:69 Each of the gold coins (Hebrew darics) was worth a month’s wages for a professional soldier. • 6,250 pounds (Hebrew 5,000 minas): Each mina weighed 20 ounces and was equal to 60 shekels of silver; each shekel was worth an average worker’s monthly wages.","summary_en":"2:69 Each of the gold coins (Hebrew darics) was worth a month’s wages for a professional soldier. • 6,250 pounds (Hebrew 5,000 minas): Each mina weighed 20 ounces and was equal to 60 shekels of silver; each shekel was worth an average worker’s monthly wages.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103255,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:69","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:69","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:69<\/strong> Each of the <em>gold coins<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">darics<\/span>) was worth a month’s wages for a professional soldier. • <em>6,250 pounds<\/em> (Hebrew <em>5,000 minas<\/em>): Each mina weighed 20 ounces and was equal to 60 shekels of silver; each shekel was worth an average worker’s monthly wages.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:69<\/strong> Each of the <em>gold coins<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">darics<\/span>) was worth a month’s wages for a professional soldier. • <em>6,250 pounds<\/em> (Hebrew <em>5,000 minas<\/em>): Each mina weighed 20 ounces and was equal to 60 shekels of silver; each shekel was worth an average worker’s monthly wages.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:69 Each of the gold coins (Hebrew darics) was worth a month’s wages for a professional soldier. • 6,250 pounds (Hebrew 5,000 minas): Each mina weighed 20 ounces and was equal to 60 shekels of silver; each shekel was worth an average worker’s monthly wages.","summary_en":"2:69 Each of the gold coins (Hebrew darics) was worth a month’s wages for a professional soldier. • 6,250 pounds (Hebrew 5,000 minas): Each mina weighed 20 ounces and was equal to 60 shekels of silver; each shekel was worth an average worker’s monthly wages.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":130881,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Ezra 2:69","title_en":"Study Note: Ezra 2:69","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:69<\/strong> Each of the <em>gold coins<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">darics<\/span>) was worth a month’s wages for a professional soldier. • <em>6,250 pounds<\/em> (Hebrew <em>5,000 minas<\/em>): Each mina weighed 20 ounces and was equal to 60 shekels of silver; each shekel was worth an average worker’s monthly wages.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:69<\/strong> Each of the <em>gold coins<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">darics<\/span>) was worth a month’s wages for a professional soldier. • <em>6,250 pounds<\/em> (Hebrew <em>5,000 minas<\/em>): Each mina weighed 20 ounces and was equal to 60 shekels of silver; each shekel was worth an average worker’s monthly wages.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:69 Each of the gold coins (Hebrew darics) was worth a month’s wages for a professional soldier. • 6,250 pounds (Hebrew 5,000 minas): Each mina weighed 20 ounces and was equal to 60 shekels of silver; each shekel was worth an average worker’s monthly wages.","summary_en":"2:69 Each of the gold coins (Hebrew darics) was worth a month’s wages for a professional soldier. • 6,250 pounds (Hebrew 5,000 minas): Each mina weighed 20 ounces and was equal to 60 shekels of silver; each shekel was worth an average worker’s monthly wages.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}
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