1
Pe când era Apolo în Corint, Pavel, dupăce a trecut prin ţinuturile de sus ale Asiei, a ajuns la Efes. Aici a întâlnit pe cîţiva ucenici,
2
şi le-a zis: ,,Aţi primit voi Duhul Sfânt când aţi crezut?`` Ei i-au răspuns: ,,Nici n-am auzit măcar că a fost dat un Duh Sfânt.``
3
Dar cu ce botez aţi fost botezaţi?`` le-a zis el. Şi ei au răspuns: ,,Cu botezul lui Ioan.``
4
Atunci Pavel a zis: ,,Ioan a botezat cu botezul pocăinţei, şi spunea norodului să creadă în Celce venea după el, adică în Isus.``
5
Când au auzit ei aceste vorbe, au fost botezaţi în Numele Domnului Isus.
6
Când şi-a pus Pavel mânile peste ei, Duhul Sfânt S-a pogorât peste ei, şi vorbeau în alte limbi, şi prooroceau.
7
Erau cam doisprezece bărbaţi de toţi.
8
În urmă, Pavel a intrat în sinagogă, unde vorbea cu îndrăzneală. Timp de trei luni a vorbit cu ei despre lucrurile privitoare la Împărăţia lui Dumnezeu, şi căuta să înduplece pe cei ce-l ascultau.
9
Dar, fiindcă unii rămâneau împietriţi şi necredincioşi, şi vorbeau de rău Calea Domnului înaintea norodului, Pavel a plecat dela ei, a despărţit pe ucenici de ei, şi a învăţat în fiecare zi pe norod în şcoala unuia numit Tiran.
10
Lucrul acesta a ţinut doi ani, aşa că toţi ceice locuiau în Asia, Iudei şi Greci, au auzit Cuvântul Domnului.
11
Şi Dumnezeu făcea minuni nemaipomenite prin mânile lui Pavel;
12
până acolo că peste cei bolnavi se puneau basmale sau şorţuri, cari fuseseră atinse de trupul lui, şi-i lăsau boalele, şi ieşeau afară din ei duhurile rele.
13
Nişte exorcişti Iudei, cari umblau din loc în loc, au încercat să cheme Numele Domnului Isus peste ceice aveau duhuri rele, zicând: ,,Vă jur pe Isus, pe care -L propovăduieşte Pavel, să ieşiţi afară!``
14
Ceice făceau lucrul acesta, erau şapte feciori ai lui Sceva, un preot Iudeu din cei mai de seamă.
15
Duhul cel rău le-a răspuns: ,,Pe Isus Îl cunosc, şi pe Pavel îl ştiu; dar voi, cine sânteţi?``
16
Şi omul, în care era duhul cel rău, a sărit asupra lor, i-a biruit pe amândoi, şi i-a schingiuit în aşa fel, că au fugit goi şi răniţi din casa aceea.
17
Lucrul acesta a fost cunoscut de toţi Iudeii, de toţi Grecii cari locuiau în Efes, şi i-a apucat frica pe toţi: şi Numele Domnului Isus era proslăvit.
18
Mulţi din cei ce crezuseră, veneau să mărturisească şi să spună ce făcuseră.
19
Şi unii din cei ce făcuseră vrăjitorii, şi-au adus cărţile, şi le-au ars, înaintea tuturor: preţul lor s-a socotit la cincizeci de mii de arginţi.
20
Cu atâta putere se răspândea şi se întărea Cuvântul Domnului.
21
Dupăce s-au petrecut aceste lucruri, Pavel şi-a pus de gând să se ducă la Ierusalim, trecând prin Macedonia şi Ahaia. ,,Dupăce voi merge acolo``, îşi zicea el, ,,trebuie să văd şi Roma.``
22
A trimes în Macedonia pe doi din ajutoarele lui, pe Timotei şi Erast, iar el a mai rămas câtăva vreme în Asia.
23
Pe vremea aceea, s-a făcut o mare turburare cu privire la Calea Domnului.
24
Un argintar, numit Dimitrie, făcea temple de argint de ale Dianei, şi aducea lucrătorilor săi nu puţin cîştig cu ele.
25
I-a adunat la un loc, împreună cu cei de aceeaş meserie, şi le-a zis: ,,Oamenilor, ştiţi că bogăţia noastră atârnă de meseria aceasta;
26
şi vedeţi şi auziţi că Pavel acesta, nu numai în Efes, dar aproape în toată Asia, a înduplecat şi a abătut mult norod, şi zice că zeii făcuţi de mâni nu sânt dumnezei.
27
Primejdia, care vine din acest fapt, nu este numai că meseria noastră cade în dispreţ; dar şi că templul marei zeiţe Diana este socotit ca o nimica, şi chiar măreţia aceleia, care este cinstită în toată Asia şi în toată lumea, este nimicită.``
28
Cuvintele acestea i-au umplut de mânie, şi au început să strige: ,,Mare este Diana Efesenilor!``
29
Toată cetatea s-a tulburat. Au năvălit cu toţii într-un gând în teatru, şi au luat cu ei pe Macedonenii Gaiu şi Aristarh, tovarăşii de călătorie ai lui Pavel.
30
Pavel voia să vină înaintea norodului, dar nu l-au lăsat ucenicii.
31
Chiar şi unii din mai marii Asiei, cari-i erau prieteni, au trimes la el să-l roage să nu se ducă la teatru.
32
Unii strigau una, alţii alta, căci adunarea era în învălmăşală, şi cei mai mulţi nici nu ştiau pentruce se adunaseră.
33
Atunci au scos din norod pe Alexandru, pe care Iudeii îl împingeau înainte. Alexandru a făcut semn cu mâna, şi voia să se apere înaintea norodului.
34
Dar când l-au cunoscut că este Iudeu, au strigat toţi într-un glas, timp de aproape două ceasuri: ,,Mare este Diana Efesenilor!``
35
Totuş logofătul a potolit norodul, şi a zis: ,,Bărbaţi Efeseni, cine este acela care nu ştie că cetatea Efesenilor este păzitoarea templului marei Diane şi a chipului ei căzut din cer?
36
Fiindcă nimeni nu poate să tăgăduiască lucrul acesta, trebuie să vă potoliţi, şi să nu faceţi nimic cu pornire nechibzuită.
37
Căci aţi adus aici pe oamenii aceştia, cari nu sânt vinovaţi nici de jăfuirea templului, nici de hulă împotriva zeiţei noastre.
38
Deci, dacă în adevăr, Dimitrie şi meşterii lui au să se plângă împotriva cuiva, sânt zile de judecată, şi sânt dregători; să se pârască unii pe alţii.
39
Dar dacă umblaţi după altceva, se va hotărî într-o adunare legiuită.
40
Noi, de fapt, sântem în primejdie să fim învinuiţi de răscoală pentru cele întâmplate astăzi, căci n-avem nici un temei, ca să putem îndreptăţi zarva aceasta.``
41
După aceste cuvinte, a dat drumul adunării.
{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":42407,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"John the Baptist","title_en":"John the Baptist","content_ro":"<h3>John the Baptist<\/h3>\n<p>John the Baptist was a fiery open-air preacher who called people to repent and be baptized. John worked in the role of Elijah, to prepare people for the coming of the Messiah (Mal 4:4-5; Matt 11:14; 17:12; Mark 9:13).<\/p>\n<p>John’s birth, like that of Jesus, was miraculous. His parents were elderly and had been unable to have children (Luke 1:5-25). His mother, Elizabeth, was a relative of Mary, Jesus’ mother (Luke 1:36), so John was related to Jesus. The two miraculous births around the same time signaled the beginning of God’s redeeming work.<\/p>\n<p>John was filled with the Holy Spirit from birth and devoted his life to preparing people for the coming of the Lord (Luke 1:15-17). Living in the desert (Luke 1:80), he began preaching when he was about thirty years old. 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John’s imprisonment marked the beginning of Jesus’ public preaching (Matt 4:12; Mark 1:14).<\/p>\n<p>Shortly before his death, John seemed to be confused about Jesus and sent messengers from prison to ask him if he really was the Messiah. Jesus did not do what most people anticipated the Messiah would do. Rather than bringing judgment and a visible kingdom, he brought forgiveness, healing, and a spiritual kingdom. To reassure John, Jesus spoke of the miraculous things God was doing through him (Luke 7:18-23).<\/p>\n<p>John remained faithful to his calling throughout his life, consistently preaching repentance and the judgment of God, even to people who had no desire to hear it. Jesus referred to John as one of the greatest servants of God who had ever lived (Matt 11:2-19; Luke 7:18-35), the end of a long line of prophets anticipating the coming of the Kingdom of God (Luke 16:16). John stood on the threshold of the new age, proclaiming its coming to all who would hear.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matthew 3:1-15; 4:12; 9:14; 11:2-19; 14:1-12; 16:14; 17:10-13; 21:24-27, 31-32; Mark 1:1-9, 14; 2:18; 6:14-29; 8:28; 9:11-13; 11:29-33; Luke 1:13-17, 36, 39-43, 57-66, 76-80; 3:1-21; 5:33; 7:18-35; 9:7-9, 19; 11:1; 16:16; 20:3-8; John 1:6-37; John 3:23-36; 4:1-3; 10:40-42; Acts 1:5; 10:37; 11:16; 18:25-26; 19:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>John the Baptist<\/h3>\n<p>John the Baptist was a fiery open-air preacher who called people to repent and be baptized. John worked in the role of Elijah, to prepare people for the coming of the Messiah (Mal 4:4-5; Matt 11:14; 17:12; Mark 9:13).<\/p>\n<p>John’s birth, like that of Jesus, was miraculous. His parents were elderly and had been unable to have children (Luke 1:5-25). His mother, Elizabeth, was a relative of Mary, Jesus’ mother (Luke 1:36), so John was related to Jesus. The two miraculous births around the same time signaled the beginning of God’s redeeming work.<\/p>\n<p>John was filled with the Holy Spirit from birth and devoted his life to preparing people for the coming of the Lord (Luke 1:15-17). Living in the desert (Luke 1:80), he began preaching when he was about thirty years old. Dressed like a prophet and subsisting on desert food (locusts and wild honey, see Matt 3:4; Mark 1:6), he called everyone to repent and be baptized (Matt 3:1-2; Mark 1:4; Luke 3:1-3). He even castigated the religious leaders who came to hear him (Matt 3:7-10).<\/p>\n<p>Though John reluctantly baptized Jesus (Matt 3:13-17), he considered Jesus his superior, the one who would “baptize with the Holy Spirit” (John 1:33; Matt 3:11; Mark 1:7-8; Luke 3:16; cp. John 3:23-30). He encouraged his followers to become Jesus’ disciples—and many did, including Andrew (1:35-40), Apollos (Acts 18:24-26), and the twelve disciples at Ephesus (Acts 19:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>Herod Antipas received harsh judgment from John because of Herod’s unlawful marriage to Herodias, his brother Philip’s wife. To please Herodias, Herod imprisoned John and then beheaded him (Matt 14:3-12; Mark 6:17-29; Luke 3:19-20). John’s imprisonment marked the beginning of Jesus’ public preaching (Matt 4:12; Mark 1:14).<\/p>\n<p>Shortly before his death, John seemed to be confused about Jesus and sent messengers from prison to ask him if he really was the Messiah. Jesus did not do what most people anticipated the Messiah would do. Rather than bringing judgment and a visible kingdom, he brought forgiveness, healing, and a spiritual kingdom. To reassure John, Jesus spoke of the miraculous things God was doing through him (Luke 7:18-23).<\/p>\n<p>John remained faithful to his calling throughout his life, consistently preaching repentance and the judgment of God, even to people who had no desire to hear it. Jesus referred to John as one of the greatest servants of God who had ever lived (Matt 11:2-19; Luke 7:18-35), the end of a long line of prophets anticipating the coming of the Kingdom of God (Luke 16:16). John stood on the threshold of the new age, proclaiming its coming to all who would hear.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matthew 3:1-15; 4:12; 9:14; 11:2-19; 14:1-12; 16:14; 17:10-13; 21:24-27, 31-32; Mark 1:1-9, 14; 2:18; 6:14-29; 8:28; 9:11-13; 11:29-33; Luke 1:13-17, 36, 39-43, 57-66, 76-80; 3:1-21; 5:33; 7:18-35; 9:7-9, 19; 11:1; 16:16; 20:3-8; John 1:6-37; John 3:23-36; 4:1-3; 10:40-42; Acts 1:5; 10:37; 11:16; 18:25-26; 19:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"John the Baptist John the Baptist was a fiery open-air preacher who called people to repent and be baptized. John worked in the role of Elijah, to prepare people for the coming of the Messiah (Mal 4:4-5; Matt 11:14; 17:12; Mark 9:13). John’s birth, like that of Jesus, was miraculous. His parents were elderly and had been unable to have children (Luke 1:5-25). His mother, Elizabeth, was a relative of Mary, Jesus’ mother (Luke 1:36), so John was related to Jesus. The two miraculous births aroun...","summary_en":"John the Baptist John the Baptist was a fiery open-air preacher who called people to repent and be baptized. John worked in the role of Elijah, to prepare people for the coming of the Messiah (Mal 4:4-5; Matt 11:14; 17:12; Mark 9:13). John’s birth, like that of Jesus, was miraculous. His parents were elderly and had been unable to have children (Luke 1:5-25). His mother, Elizabeth, was a relative of Mary, Jesus’ mother (Luke 1:36), so John was related to Jesus. The two miraculous births aroun...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":42733,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ephesus","title_en":"Ephesus","content_ro":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","summary_en":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70033,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"John the Baptist","title_en":"John the Baptist","content_ro":"<h3>John the Baptist<\/h3>\n<p>John the Baptist was a fiery open-air preacher who called people to repent and be baptized. John worked in the role of Elijah, to prepare people for the coming of the Messiah (Mal 4:4-5; Matt 11:14; 17:12; Mark 9:13).<\/p>\n<p>John’s birth, like that of Jesus, was miraculous. His parents were elderly and had been unable to have children (Luke 1:5-25). His mother, Elizabeth, was a relative of Mary, Jesus’ mother (Luke 1:36), so John was related to Jesus. The two miraculous births around the same time signaled the beginning of God’s redeeming work.<\/p>\n<p>John was filled with the Holy Spirit from birth and devoted his life to preparing people for the coming of the Lord (Luke 1:15-17). Living in the desert (Luke 1:80), he began preaching when he was about thirty years old. Dressed like a prophet and subsisting on desert food (locusts and wild honey, see Matt 3:4; Mark 1:6), he called everyone to repent and be baptized (Matt 3:1-2; Mark 1:4; Luke 3:1-3). He even castigated the religious leaders who came to hear him (Matt 3:7-10).<\/p>\n<p>Though John reluctantly baptized Jesus (Matt 3:13-17), he considered Jesus his superior, the one who would “baptize with the Holy Spirit” (John 1:33; Matt 3:11; Mark 1:7-8; Luke 3:16; cp. John 3:23-30). He encouraged his followers to become Jesus’ disciples—and many did, including Andrew (1:35-40), Apollos (Acts 18:24-26), and the twelve disciples at Ephesus (Acts 19:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>Herod Antipas received harsh judgment from John because of Herod’s unlawful marriage to Herodias, his brother Philip’s wife. To please Herodias, Herod imprisoned John and then beheaded him (Matt 14:3-12; Mark 6:17-29; Luke 3:19-20). John’s imprisonment marked the beginning of Jesus’ public preaching (Matt 4:12; Mark 1:14).<\/p>\n<p>Shortly before his death, John seemed to be confused about Jesus and sent messengers from prison to ask him if he really was the Messiah. Jesus did not do what most people anticipated the Messiah would do. Rather than bringing judgment and a visible kingdom, he brought forgiveness, healing, and a spiritual kingdom. To reassure John, Jesus spoke of the miraculous things God was doing through him (Luke 7:18-23).<\/p>\n<p>John remained faithful to his calling throughout his life, consistently preaching repentance and the judgment of God, even to people who had no desire to hear it. Jesus referred to John as one of the greatest servants of God who had ever lived (Matt 11:2-19; Luke 7:18-35), the end of a long line of prophets anticipating the coming of the Kingdom of God (Luke 16:16). John stood on the threshold of the new age, proclaiming its coming to all who would hear.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matthew 3:1-15; 4:12; 9:14; 11:2-19; 14:1-12; 16:14; 17:10-13; 21:24-27, 31-32; Mark 1:1-9, 14; 2:18; 6:14-29; 8:28; 9:11-13; 11:29-33; Luke 1:13-17, 36, 39-43, 57-66, 76-80; 3:1-21; 5:33; 7:18-35; 9:7-9, 19; 11:1; 16:16; 20:3-8; John 1:6-37; John 3:23-36; 4:1-3; 10:40-42; Acts 1:5; 10:37; 11:16; 18:25-26; 19:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>John the Baptist<\/h3>\n<p>John the Baptist was a fiery open-air preacher who called people to repent and be baptized. John worked in the role of Elijah, to prepare people for the coming of the Messiah (Mal 4:4-5; Matt 11:14; 17:12; Mark 9:13).<\/p>\n<p>John’s birth, like that of Jesus, was miraculous. His parents were elderly and had been unable to have children (Luke 1:5-25). His mother, Elizabeth, was a relative of Mary, Jesus’ mother (Luke 1:36), so John was related to Jesus. The two miraculous births around the same time signaled the beginning of God’s redeeming work.<\/p>\n<p>John was filled with the Holy Spirit from birth and devoted his life to preparing people for the coming of the Lord (Luke 1:15-17). Living in the desert (Luke 1:80), he began preaching when he was about thirty years old. Dressed like a prophet and subsisting on desert food (locusts and wild honey, see Matt 3:4; Mark 1:6), he called everyone to repent and be baptized (Matt 3:1-2; Mark 1:4; Luke 3:1-3). He even castigated the religious leaders who came to hear him (Matt 3:7-10).<\/p>\n<p>Though John reluctantly baptized Jesus (Matt 3:13-17), he considered Jesus his superior, the one who would “baptize with the Holy Spirit” (John 1:33; Matt 3:11; Mark 1:7-8; Luke 3:16; cp. John 3:23-30). He encouraged his followers to become Jesus’ disciples—and many did, including Andrew (1:35-40), Apollos (Acts 18:24-26), and the twelve disciples at Ephesus (Acts 19:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>Herod Antipas received harsh judgment from John because of Herod’s unlawful marriage to Herodias, his brother Philip’s wife. To please Herodias, Herod imprisoned John and then beheaded him (Matt 14:3-12; Mark 6:17-29; Luke 3:19-20). John’s imprisonment marked the beginning of Jesus’ public preaching (Matt 4:12; Mark 1:14).<\/p>\n<p>Shortly before his death, John seemed to be confused about Jesus and sent messengers from prison to ask him if he really was the Messiah. Jesus did not do what most people anticipated the Messiah would do. Rather than bringing judgment and a visible kingdom, he brought forgiveness, healing, and a spiritual kingdom. To reassure John, Jesus spoke of the miraculous things God was doing through him (Luke 7:18-23).<\/p>\n<p>John remained faithful to his calling throughout his life, consistently preaching repentance and the judgment of God, even to people who had no desire to hear it. Jesus referred to John as one of the greatest servants of God who had ever lived (Matt 11:2-19; Luke 7:18-35), the end of a long line of prophets anticipating the coming of the Kingdom of God (Luke 16:16). John stood on the threshold of the new age, proclaiming its coming to all who would hear.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matthew 3:1-15; 4:12; 9:14; 11:2-19; 14:1-12; 16:14; 17:10-13; 21:24-27, 31-32; Mark 1:1-9, 14; 2:18; 6:14-29; 8:28; 9:11-13; 11:29-33; Luke 1:13-17, 36, 39-43, 57-66, 76-80; 3:1-21; 5:33; 7:18-35; 9:7-9, 19; 11:1; 16:16; 20:3-8; John 1:6-37; John 3:23-36; 4:1-3; 10:40-42; Acts 1:5; 10:37; 11:16; 18:25-26; 19:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"John the Baptist John the Baptist was a fiery open-air preacher who called people to repent and be baptized. John worked in the role of Elijah, to prepare people for the coming of the Messiah (Mal 4:4-5; Matt 11:14; 17:12; Mark 9:13). John’s birth, like that of Jesus, was miraculous. His parents were elderly and had been unable to have children (Luke 1:5-25). His mother, Elizabeth, was a relative of Mary, Jesus’ mother (Luke 1:36), so John was related to Jesus. The two miraculous births aroun...","summary_en":"John the Baptist John the Baptist was a fiery open-air preacher who called people to repent and be baptized. John worked in the role of Elijah, to prepare people for the coming of the Messiah (Mal 4:4-5; Matt 11:14; 17:12; Mark 9:13). John’s birth, like that of Jesus, was miraculous. His parents were elderly and had been unable to have children (Luke 1:5-25). His mother, Elizabeth, was a relative of Mary, Jesus’ mother (Luke 1:36), so John was related to Jesus. The two miraculous births aroun...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70359,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ephesus","title_en":"Ephesus","content_ro":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","summary_en":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97659,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"John the Baptist","title_en":"John the Baptist","content_ro":"<h3>John the Baptist<\/h3>\n<p>John the Baptist was a fiery open-air preacher who called people to repent and be baptized. John worked in the role of Elijah, to prepare people for the coming of the Messiah (Mal 4:4-5; Matt 11:14; 17:12; Mark 9:13).<\/p>\n<p>John’s birth, like that of Jesus, was miraculous. His parents were elderly and had been unable to have children (Luke 1:5-25). His mother, Elizabeth, was a relative of Mary, Jesus’ mother (Luke 1:36), so John was related to Jesus. The two miraculous births around the same time signaled the beginning of God’s redeeming work.<\/p>\n<p>John was filled with the Holy Spirit from birth and devoted his life to preparing people for the coming of the Lord (Luke 1:15-17). Living in the desert (Luke 1:80), he began preaching when he was about thirty years old. Dressed like a prophet and subsisting on desert food (locusts and wild honey, see Matt 3:4; Mark 1:6), he called everyone to repent and be baptized (Matt 3:1-2; Mark 1:4; Luke 3:1-3). He even castigated the religious leaders who came to hear him (Matt 3:7-10).<\/p>\n<p>Though John reluctantly baptized Jesus (Matt 3:13-17), he considered Jesus his superior, the one who would “baptize with the Holy Spirit” (John 1:33; Matt 3:11; Mark 1:7-8; Luke 3:16; cp. John 3:23-30). He encouraged his followers to become Jesus’ disciples—and many did, including Andrew (1:35-40), Apollos (Acts 18:24-26), and the twelve disciples at Ephesus (Acts 19:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>Herod Antipas received harsh judgment from John because of Herod’s unlawful marriage to Herodias, his brother Philip’s wife. To please Herodias, Herod imprisoned John and then beheaded him (Matt 14:3-12; Mark 6:17-29; Luke 3:19-20). John’s imprisonment marked the beginning of Jesus’ public preaching (Matt 4:12; Mark 1:14).<\/p>\n<p>Shortly before his death, John seemed to be confused about Jesus and sent messengers from prison to ask him if he really was the Messiah. Jesus did not do what most people anticipated the Messiah would do. Rather than bringing judgment and a visible kingdom, he brought forgiveness, healing, and a spiritual kingdom. To reassure John, Jesus spoke of the miraculous things God was doing through him (Luke 7:18-23).<\/p>\n<p>John remained faithful to his calling throughout his life, consistently preaching repentance and the judgment of God, even to people who had no desire to hear it. Jesus referred to John as one of the greatest servants of God who had ever lived (Matt 11:2-19; Luke 7:18-35), the end of a long line of prophets anticipating the coming of the Kingdom of God (Luke 16:16). John stood on the threshold of the new age, proclaiming its coming to all who would hear.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matthew 3:1-15; 4:12; 9:14; 11:2-19; 14:1-12; 16:14; 17:10-13; 21:24-27, 31-32; Mark 1:1-9, 14; 2:18; 6:14-29; 8:28; 9:11-13; 11:29-33; Luke 1:13-17, 36, 39-43, 57-66, 76-80; 3:1-21; 5:33; 7:18-35; 9:7-9, 19; 11:1; 16:16; 20:3-8; John 1:6-37; John 3:23-36; 4:1-3; 10:40-42; Acts 1:5; 10:37; 11:16; 18:25-26; 19:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>John the Baptist<\/h3>\n<p>John the Baptist was a fiery open-air preacher who called people to repent and be baptized. John worked in the role of Elijah, to prepare people for the coming of the Messiah (Mal 4:4-5; Matt 11:14; 17:12; Mark 9:13).<\/p>\n<p>John’s birth, like that of Jesus, was miraculous. His parents were elderly and had been unable to have children (Luke 1:5-25). His mother, Elizabeth, was a relative of Mary, Jesus’ mother (Luke 1:36), so John was related to Jesus. The two miraculous births around the same time signaled the beginning of God’s redeeming work.<\/p>\n<p>John was filled with the Holy Spirit from birth and devoted his life to preparing people for the coming of the Lord (Luke 1:15-17). Living in the desert (Luke 1:80), he began preaching when he was about thirty years old. Dressed like a prophet and subsisting on desert food (locusts and wild honey, see Matt 3:4; Mark 1:6), he called everyone to repent and be baptized (Matt 3:1-2; Mark 1:4; Luke 3:1-3). He even castigated the religious leaders who came to hear him (Matt 3:7-10).<\/p>\n<p>Though John reluctantly baptized Jesus (Matt 3:13-17), he considered Jesus his superior, the one who would “baptize with the Holy Spirit” (John 1:33; Matt 3:11; Mark 1:7-8; Luke 3:16; cp. John 3:23-30). He encouraged his followers to become Jesus’ disciples—and many did, including Andrew (1:35-40), Apollos (Acts 18:24-26), and the twelve disciples at Ephesus (Acts 19:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>Herod Antipas received harsh judgment from John because of Herod’s unlawful marriage to Herodias, his brother Philip’s wife. To please Herodias, Herod imprisoned John and then beheaded him (Matt 14:3-12; Mark 6:17-29; Luke 3:19-20). John’s imprisonment marked the beginning of Jesus’ public preaching (Matt 4:12; Mark 1:14).<\/p>\n<p>Shortly before his death, John seemed to be confused about Jesus and sent messengers from prison to ask him if he really was the Messiah. Jesus did not do what most people anticipated the Messiah would do. Rather than bringing judgment and a visible kingdom, he brought forgiveness, healing, and a spiritual kingdom. To reassure John, Jesus spoke of the miraculous things God was doing through him (Luke 7:18-23).<\/p>\n<p>John remained faithful to his calling throughout his life, consistently preaching repentance and the judgment of God, even to people who had no desire to hear it. Jesus referred to John as one of the greatest servants of God who had ever lived (Matt 11:2-19; Luke 7:18-35), the end of a long line of prophets anticipating the coming of the Kingdom of God (Luke 16:16). John stood on the threshold of the new age, proclaiming its coming to all who would hear.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matthew 3:1-15; 4:12; 9:14; 11:2-19; 14:1-12; 16:14; 17:10-13; 21:24-27, 31-32; Mark 1:1-9, 14; 2:18; 6:14-29; 8:28; 9:11-13; 11:29-33; Luke 1:13-17, 36, 39-43, 57-66, 76-80; 3:1-21; 5:33; 7:18-35; 9:7-9, 19; 11:1; 16:16; 20:3-8; John 1:6-37; John 3:23-36; 4:1-3; 10:40-42; Acts 1:5; 10:37; 11:16; 18:25-26; 19:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"John the Baptist John the Baptist was a fiery open-air preacher who called people to repent and be baptized. John worked in the role of Elijah, to prepare people for the coming of the Messiah (Mal 4:4-5; Matt 11:14; 17:12; Mark 9:13). John’s birth, like that of Jesus, was miraculous. His parents were elderly and had been unable to have children (Luke 1:5-25). His mother, Elizabeth, was a relative of Mary, Jesus’ mother (Luke 1:36), so John was related to Jesus. The two miraculous births aroun...","summary_en":"John the Baptist John the Baptist was a fiery open-air preacher who called people to repent and be baptized. John worked in the role of Elijah, to prepare people for the coming of the Messiah (Mal 4:4-5; Matt 11:14; 17:12; Mark 9:13). John’s birth, like that of Jesus, was miraculous. His parents were elderly and had been unable to have children (Luke 1:5-25). His mother, Elizabeth, was a relative of Mary, Jesus’ mother (Luke 1:36), so John was related to Jesus. The two miraculous births aroun...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97985,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ephesus","title_en":"Ephesus","content_ro":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","summary_en":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":125285,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"John the Baptist","title_en":"John the Baptist","content_ro":"<h3>John the Baptist<\/h3>\n<p>John the Baptist was a fiery open-air preacher who called people to repent and be baptized. John worked in the role of Elijah, to prepare people for the coming of the Messiah (Mal 4:4-5; Matt 11:14; 17:12; Mark 9:13).<\/p>\n<p>John’s birth, like that of Jesus, was miraculous. His parents were elderly and had been unable to have children (Luke 1:5-25). His mother, Elizabeth, was a relative of Mary, Jesus’ mother (Luke 1:36), so John was related to Jesus. The two miraculous births around the same time signaled the beginning of God’s redeeming work.<\/p>\n<p>John was filled with the Holy Spirit from birth and devoted his life to preparing people for the coming of the Lord (Luke 1:15-17). Living in the desert (Luke 1:80), he began preaching when he was about thirty years old. Dressed like a prophet and subsisting on desert food (locusts and wild honey, see Matt 3:4; Mark 1:6), he called everyone to repent and be baptized (Matt 3:1-2; Mark 1:4; Luke 3:1-3). He even castigated the religious leaders who came to hear him (Matt 3:7-10).<\/p>\n<p>Though John reluctantly baptized Jesus (Matt 3:13-17), he considered Jesus his superior, the one who would “baptize with the Holy Spirit” (John 1:33; Matt 3:11; Mark 1:7-8; Luke 3:16; cp. John 3:23-30). He encouraged his followers to become Jesus’ disciples—and many did, including Andrew (1:35-40), Apollos (Acts 18:24-26), and the twelve disciples at Ephesus (Acts 19:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>Herod Antipas received harsh judgment from John because of Herod’s unlawful marriage to Herodias, his brother Philip’s wife. To please Herodias, Herod imprisoned John and then beheaded him (Matt 14:3-12; Mark 6:17-29; Luke 3:19-20). John’s imprisonment marked the beginning of Jesus’ public preaching (Matt 4:12; Mark 1:14).<\/p>\n<p>Shortly before his death, John seemed to be confused about Jesus and sent messengers from prison to ask him if he really was the Messiah. Jesus did not do what most people anticipated the Messiah would do. Rather than bringing judgment and a visible kingdom, he brought forgiveness, healing, and a spiritual kingdom. To reassure John, Jesus spoke of the miraculous things God was doing through him (Luke 7:18-23).<\/p>\n<p>John remained faithful to his calling throughout his life, consistently preaching repentance and the judgment of God, even to people who had no desire to hear it. Jesus referred to John as one of the greatest servants of God who had ever lived (Matt 11:2-19; Luke 7:18-35), the end of a long line of prophets anticipating the coming of the Kingdom of God (Luke 16:16). John stood on the threshold of the new age, proclaiming its coming to all who would hear.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matthew 3:1-15; 4:12; 9:14; 11:2-19; 14:1-12; 16:14; 17:10-13; 21:24-27, 31-32; Mark 1:1-9, 14; 2:18; 6:14-29; 8:28; 9:11-13; 11:29-33; Luke 1:13-17, 36, 39-43, 57-66, 76-80; 3:1-21; 5:33; 7:18-35; 9:7-9, 19; 11:1; 16:16; 20:3-8; John 1:6-37; John 3:23-36; 4:1-3; 10:40-42; Acts 1:5; 10:37; 11:16; 18:25-26; 19:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>John the Baptist<\/h3>\n<p>John the Baptist was a fiery open-air preacher who called people to repent and be baptized. John worked in the role of Elijah, to prepare people for the coming of the Messiah (Mal 4:4-5; Matt 11:14; 17:12; Mark 9:13).<\/p>\n<p>John’s birth, like that of Jesus, was miraculous. His parents were elderly and had been unable to have children (Luke 1:5-25). His mother, Elizabeth, was a relative of Mary, Jesus’ mother (Luke 1:36), so John was related to Jesus. The two miraculous births around the same time signaled the beginning of God’s redeeming work.<\/p>\n<p>John was filled with the Holy Spirit from birth and devoted his life to preparing people for the coming of the Lord (Luke 1:15-17). Living in the desert (Luke 1:80), he began preaching when he was about thirty years old. Dressed like a prophet and subsisting on desert food (locusts and wild honey, see Matt 3:4; Mark 1:6), he called everyone to repent and be baptized (Matt 3:1-2; Mark 1:4; Luke 3:1-3). He even castigated the religious leaders who came to hear him (Matt 3:7-10).<\/p>\n<p>Though John reluctantly baptized Jesus (Matt 3:13-17), he considered Jesus his superior, the one who would “baptize with the Holy Spirit” (John 1:33; Matt 3:11; Mark 1:7-8; Luke 3:16; cp. John 3:23-30). He encouraged his followers to become Jesus’ disciples—and many did, including Andrew (1:35-40), Apollos (Acts 18:24-26), and the twelve disciples at Ephesus (Acts 19:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>Herod Antipas received harsh judgment from John because of Herod’s unlawful marriage to Herodias, his brother Philip’s wife. To please Herodias, Herod imprisoned John and then beheaded him (Matt 14:3-12; Mark 6:17-29; Luke 3:19-20). John’s imprisonment marked the beginning of Jesus’ public preaching (Matt 4:12; Mark 1:14).<\/p>\n<p>Shortly before his death, John seemed to be confused about Jesus and sent messengers from prison to ask him if he really was the Messiah. Jesus did not do what most people anticipated the Messiah would do. Rather than bringing judgment and a visible kingdom, he brought forgiveness, healing, and a spiritual kingdom. To reassure John, Jesus spoke of the miraculous things God was doing through him (Luke 7:18-23).<\/p>\n<p>John remained faithful to his calling throughout his life, consistently preaching repentance and the judgment of God, even to people who had no desire to hear it. Jesus referred to John as one of the greatest servants of God who had ever lived (Matt 11:2-19; Luke 7:18-35), the end of a long line of prophets anticipating the coming of the Kingdom of God (Luke 16:16). John stood on the threshold of the new age, proclaiming its coming to all who would hear.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matthew 3:1-15; 4:12; 9:14; 11:2-19; 14:1-12; 16:14; 17:10-13; 21:24-27, 31-32; Mark 1:1-9, 14; 2:18; 6:14-29; 8:28; 9:11-13; 11:29-33; Luke 1:13-17, 36, 39-43, 57-66, 76-80; 3:1-21; 5:33; 7:18-35; 9:7-9, 19; 11:1; 16:16; 20:3-8; John 1:6-37; John 3:23-36; 4:1-3; 10:40-42; Acts 1:5; 10:37; 11:16; 18:25-26; 19:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"John the Baptist John the Baptist was a fiery open-air preacher who called people to repent and be baptized. John worked in the role of Elijah, to prepare people for the coming of the Messiah (Mal 4:4-5; Matt 11:14; 17:12; Mark 9:13). John’s birth, like that of Jesus, was miraculous. His parents were elderly and had been unable to have children (Luke 1:5-25). His mother, Elizabeth, was a relative of Mary, Jesus’ mother (Luke 1:36), so John was related to Jesus. The two miraculous births aroun...","summary_en":"John the Baptist John the Baptist was a fiery open-air preacher who called people to repent and be baptized. John worked in the role of Elijah, to prepare people for the coming of the Messiah (Mal 4:4-5; Matt 11:14; 17:12; Mark 9:13). John’s birth, like that of Jesus, was miraculous. His parents were elderly and had been unable to have children (Luke 1:5-25). His mother, Elizabeth, was a relative of Mary, Jesus’ mother (Luke 1:36), so John was related to Jesus. The two miraculous births aroun...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":125611,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ephesus","title_en":"Ephesus","content_ro":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","summary_en":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":409,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of the Acts of the Apostles","title_en":"Book of the Acts of the Apostles","content_ro":"<h3>ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, B<span>ook of the<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>NT book presenting the history of the early church and written as a sequel to the Gospel of Luke. In the arrangement of the NT books, Acts comes after the four Gospels and before the Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background and Content<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts does not state clearly who its writer is, but the general consensus is that Luke was its author.<\/p>\n<p>Early church tradition from the second century states that Acts (as well as the third Gospel) was written by a traveling companion and fellow worker of the apostle Paul. That companion is identified in Colossians 4:14 as “Luke, the beloved physician” (<span>nasb<\/span>) and mentioned among Paul’s coworkers (Col 4:10-17; see also 2 Tm 4:11; Phlm 1:24).<\/p>\n<p>Strong support for the tradition that the author of Acts was a companion of Paul comes from the second half of the book recounting Paul’s ministry. There, several narratives are told in the first person plural:<\/p>\n<p>1. “That night Paul had a vision. He saw a man from Macedonia in northern Greece, pleading with him, ‘Come over here and help us.’ So we decided to leave for Macedonia at once, for we could only conclude that God was calling us to preach the Good News there” (16:9-10, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<li>2. “They went ahead and waited for us at Troas . . . we boarded a ship at Philippi in Macedonia and five days later arrived in Troas, where we stayed a week” (20:5-6, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>3. “When the time came, we set sail for Italy” (27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n<p>These “we” sections (16:9-18; 20:5–21:18; 27:1–28:16) sound like part of a travel narrative or diary written by an eyewitness who accompanied Paul from Troas to Philippi on his second missionary journey; from Philippi to Miletus on the third; from Miletus to Jerusalem; and from Caesarea to Rome. Since the style and vocabulary of these travel narratives resemble those of the rest of the book, it is highly probably that the diarist was also the author of the entire book.<\/p>\n<p>The sophisticated literary style and polished use of the Greek language in the book, as well as the fact that it is addressed to someone called Theophilus (possibly a high-ranking Roman official), provide strong support for the tradition that Luke was a gentile convert to Christianity. His consistent and frequent use of the Greek OT may indicate that he had been a gentile “God-fearer” before conversion to the new faith.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginDestination\">Date, Origin, Destination<\/p>\n\n<p>The question of the date and place of the origin of Acts continues to be debated. There are no clear indications in the book itself. With regard to its destination, however, Luke did not leave any doubt. In the opening verse he addresses a certain Theophilus, to whom he had already written an earlier book about the life of Jesus. There can be no doubt that he was referring to the work we know as the Gospel of Luke. In the preface to that Gospel (Lk 1:1-4), Luke clearly stated his purpose for writing and addressed his account to the “most honorable Theophilus.” It is not clear who that person was. Some interpreters think that Theophilus (which means “dear to God” or “lover of God”) stands for Christian readers in general rather than any specific individual. However, the designation “most honorable” argues against such an assumption. That ascription was a common title of honor, designating a person with official standing in the Roman sociopolitical order (cf. use of the title for Felix, Acts 23:26; 24:2; and for Festus, 26:25). It is thus likely that Luke intended his two-volume work for an official representative of Roman society.<\/p>\n<p>When was Acts written? Some scholars date it in the last quarter of the first century. Since the Gospel was written first, and since Luke based his story of Jesus on eyewitness accounts and written sources (among which was possibly the Gospel of Mark, probably written in the 60s), Acts should not be dated much before <span>AD<\/span> 85. Proponents of such a late date claim support from the theology of Acts, which they see as picturing a Christian church settled into history, adjusted to the prospect of a lengthy period before the Lord’s return. Since expectation of the Lord’s imminent return was fanned into a living flame by the Jewish revolt and the fall of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 70, time must be allowed for that flame to have died down a bit.<\/p>\n<p>Other scholars date Acts around <span>AD<\/span> 70 or shortly thereafter. The Jewish rebellion of <span>AD<\/span> 66–70, which culminated in the destruction of Jerusalem, brought the Jewish faith—legal until then—into disrepute. The Christian movement, which had been accepted as a Jewish sect, became suspect. Christians were increasingly charged with being enemies of Rome. A study of Acts shows that among a number of purposes (see below), Luke seems to have been defending the Christians against the charge of hostility toward the state. He showed how Roman officials repeatedly testified to the complete innocence of Christians and above all else of Paul (16:39; 18:14-17; 19:37; 23:29; 25:25; 26:32). Luke also made it clear that Paul was allowed to carry on his mission with full approval of Roman officials in the very heart of the imperial capital (28:16-31).<\/p>\n<p>A still earlier date, closer to Paul’s Roman imprisonment (early 60s), has been advocated by a number of scholars. There are two compelling reasons: (1) The abrupt ending of Acts, describing Paul carrying on a ministry in Rome before his trial had commenced, may indicate that Luke was writing at that point. It is possible, of course, that Luke ended his story with Paul preaching the gospel in Rome because one of his purposes had been accomplished: namely, showing how the gospel spread from Jerusalem to Rome. But it seems highly unlikely that Luke would close his history without Paul’s defense of the gospel before Caesar himself if that had already happened. (2) The most appropriate period for Luke’s history, with its defense of the Christian movement against all kinds of accusations from both Jews and Gentiles, is the period when Christianity was becoming suspect but was not yet proscribed. That was the time before the start of the persecutions under Nero in <span>AD<\/span> 64. The early date would correspond with the contention that Luke was with Paul during his Roman imprisonment and that he wrote his history in Rome while waiting for Paul’s trial to begin. It is possible that Luke’s work was partially intended to influence the verdict. Luke presented a picture of Christianity and of Paul that he hoped would enable Paul to continue his work among the Gentiles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BackgroundandContent\">Background and Content<\/p>\n<p>Luke grounds his documentary of the rapid expansion of Christianity in the history of the Roman Empire and Palestine during the three decades from <span>AD<\/span> 30 to 60. Some brief historical and geographical considerations will aid in understanding Luke’s history.<\/p>\n<p>Acts 1–12 reports the beginnings of the Christian movement within the imperial province of Syria, which included Judea and Samaria. In the first century <span>AD<\/span>, those regions were generally governed by Roman procurators or puppet kings. At the time of Jesus’ death and resurrection (c. <span>AD<\/span> 30), Pontius Pilate was procurator in Judea and Samaria (<span>AD<\/span> 26–36). Galilee was ruled by King Herod Antipas (4 <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 39). Tiberius was emperor of the Roman Empire (<span>AD<\/span> 14–37). The account of Acts 1–12 took place in the period <span>AD<\/span> 30–44.<\/p>\n<p>The conversion of Saul (Acts 9) is generally dated in <span>AD <\/span>33. After Saul’s conversion and departure to his native Tarsus, the church evidently enjoyed a period of tranquility, consolidating its gains and growing steadily (9:31–11:26). It can be assumed, from Galatians 1:18-21 and the existence of Christian communities that Paul and Silas visited on the second missionary tour (Acts 15:40-41), that Paul was not idle during that decade, but intensely involved in the mission to the Gentiles. (After Acts 13:9, the name “Saul” is dropped from the narrative.)<\/p>\n<p>In <span>AD<\/span> 41, Claudius became emperor of Rome and installed Herod Agrippa I as king of the Jews. (The procurator Pontius Pilate had been removed several years earlier for inept administration of the region.) Agrippa I was grandson of Herod the Great and his Jewish princess Mariamne. Because of his Jewish roots, he was more popular with his subjects than the former Herods. No doubt it was his desire to increase that popularity and gain the support of the Jewish religious authorities that led to a renewed outbreak of violence against the Jerusalem church. Acts 12 recounts the execution of James (the brother of the apostle John) and the imprisonment of Peter. The story of Agrippa I’s death (12:20-23) is paralleled in an account by the Jewish historian Josephus, who dates the event in <span>AD<\/span> 44.<\/p>\n<p>A second event providing a time reference for the unfolding story of the early church is the collection of famine relief in Antioch for Christians in Judea (11:27-29). Luke stated that a severe famine took place (v 28) during the reign of Emperor Claudius (<span>AD<\/span> 41–54). Josephus, writing his <em>Antiquities<\/em> at the end of the first century, spoke of a severe famine in Palestine between the years <span>AD<\/span> 44 and 48. According to Acts 12:25, Barnabas and Paul finished their mission to famine-stricken Christians in Judea after the death of Agrippa I, making it possible to date their mission about <span>AD<\/span> 45.<\/p>\n<p>At that point in the narrative of Acts, Paul is launched officially into his mission to the Gentiles (13:1-3), for which the history and geography of the larger Roman Empire form the backdrop. The official Roman policy toward the various religions in the empire was one of toleration. That policy, plus use of the Greek language throughout the empire and a phenomenal network of roads and sea routes, paved the way for Paul’s far-ranging missionary work.<\/p>\n<p>The first tour (<span>AD<\/span> 46–47) took Paul and Barnabas through the island province of Cyprus in the northeastern tip of the Mediterranean Sea and into the province of Galatia, where churches were established in several cities of southern Galatia (Antioch of Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra, Derbe). Galatia is located in Asia Minor, bordered by the Black Sea, the Aegean Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea on its northern, western, and southern sides. Those cities, important colonial outposts for the Romans, contained mixed populations, including large Jewish communities. It was in the synagogues of those communities that Paul launched his missionary efforts, almost always meeting with considerable opposition (chs 13–14).<\/p>\n<p>The deliberation of the Jerusalem Council about differences between Jewish and gentile Christians (ch 15) can be dated in the year <span>AD<\/span> 48. It was followed by Paul’s second missionary journey, which led him through the already evangelized territory of his native Cilicia, Galatia, and through Troas on the Aegean coast to Macedonia and down into Achaia, the Greek Peninsula (15:40–18:22). Churches were established in the important Macedonian cities of Philippi, Thessalonica, and Beroea.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s one and a half years in Corinth (18:11) can be dated with some certainty in <span>AD<\/span> 51–52. An ancient inscription among the ruins of Delphi, a city in central Greece, states that Gallio became proconsul of Achaia in 51. Acts 18:12-17 tells how Paul was accused by antagonistic Jews before Gallio. The implication is that Paul’s adversaries in Corinth felt that a new proconsul could be persuaded to side with their cause. Thus, Paul’s stay in Corinth can be dated around the beginning of Gallio’s proconsulship.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s account of Paul’s return to Palestine and the beginning of his third missionary tour brings up a fascinating historical question about what happened to the followers of John the Baptist (13:13–19:7). Acts 18:24-28 refers to a learned Jew, Apollos, who was actively teaching about Jesus in the synagogue at Ephesus, but who was apparently not a member of a distinctively Christian community, not having been baptized in the name of Jesus. He was acquainted only with the baptism of repentance practiced by John the Baptist. After Apollos went to Corinth to minister to the young congregation that Paul founded the previous year, Paul went to Ephesus. There he met several disciples of Jesus who, like Apollos, had experienced John’s baptism of repentance, but who had not been baptized as Christians.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s reference to Apollos and those disciples, as well as several passages in the Gospels, indicate that the movement begun by John the Baptist did not simply come to an end when Jesus began his ministry. Evidently John continued to baptize until his death (Jn 3:22-24), and many of his disciples maintained John’s work after his death. Probably both Apollos and the disciples at Ephesus were products of the continuing ministry of John’s disciples. Eventually they were introduced to “the way of the Lord” (18:25). Their lack of knowledge about a distinctive Christian baptism or about the reality of the Holy Spirit (19:2-4) shows how much diversity in both belief and practice existed in early Christianity.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s third missionary tour began with a three-year ministry in Ephesus (19:1–20:1), continued with a visit to churches established on the previous journey (20:2-12), and came to a climax with his arrest in Jerusalem (Acts 21). It took place in the mid-50s (<span>AD<\/span> 53–57). Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem and arraignment before the provincial governor, Felix, in Caesarea (23:23–24:23) must be dated about 57. After Paul had spent two years under house arrest, no doubt prolonged by Felix to gain favor with Jewish subjects, Felix was replaced by Porcius Festus (<span>AD<\/span> 59–60). Josephus noted that Felix was recalled because of an outbreak of civil strife between Jewish and gentile inhabitants of Caesarea and Felix’s unwise handling of the situation.<\/p>\n<p>The new procurator, Festus, was uncertain about what to do with his prisoner. The Jewish leadership sought to seize that opportunity, aware of the desire of new procurators to gain popularity with their subjects (25:1-9). Realizing the threat, Paul appealed his case to the highest court of the empire, presided over by Caesar himself (25:10-12).<\/p>\n<p>Festus was then left with a problem. He had to send with his prisoner a report to the emperor, clearly outlining the charges. Since he did not really comprehend the case (25:25-27), he sought the advice of Herod Agrippa II, who with his sister had come to Caesarea to pay their respects to the new imperial governor of Palestine (25:13). Agrippa II was the son of Herod Agrippa I and, at least in theory, a Jew. He ruled over parts of Palestine from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 100 and had been given the right to appoint the Jewish high priests. His familiarity with Jewish religious traditions and the Law thus put him in a better position to understand Jerusalem’s case against Paul. The outcome of Paul’s appearance before Festus and Agrippa (26:1-29) was recognition of Paul’s innocence (26:31). Yet Paul’s appeal to Rome had to be honored; the law governing such cases had to be followed (26:32).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s relative freedom during the next two-year period (28:30) seems unusual but was a rather common practice in Roman judicial proceedings, especially for Roman citizens who had appealed to the emperor. There is no good reason to believe that Paul was executed at the time when Luke’s narrative ends (c. <span>AD<\/span> 61–62). The great fire of Rome and Nero’s subsequent persecution of Christians were still a few years away (<span>AD<\/span> 64). It is likely that the case against Paul was dismissed, especially in light of the favorable verdict by Festus and King Agrippa. It is also likely that Paul was executed during the later, more general persecution of Christians. Such a sequence would correspond with the tradition cited by Eusebius, a fourth-century church historian, that Paul resumed his ministry and later suffered martyrdom under Nero.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>In the preface to the Gospel, intended to cover the second volume also, Luke told Theophilus (and the audience he represented) that he had set out to write an accurate, orderly account about the beginnings of the Christian movement in the ministry of Jesus of Nazareth (Lk 1:1-4). The opening lines in Acts indicate that the narrative beginning with Jesus of Nazareth (vol 1) is continuing and that Luke’s second volume intends to trace the story from Palestine to Rome (Acts 1:1-8).<\/p>\n<p>While recounting this story, Luke attempted to defend the Christian movement against false charges brought against it. A number of misconceptions attended the birth and growth of the Christian movement. One concerned the relationship between the new faith and Judaism. Many, both within the church and among Roman officials, understood the Christian faith as no more than a particular expression of, or sect within, Judaism. Against that restricted notion, Luke-Acts strikes a universal note. The Gospel proclaims Jesus as Savior of the world (Lk 2:29-32). In Acts, Stephen’s defense before the Jewish council (ch 7), Peter’s experience in Joppa with Cornelius (ch 10), and Paul’s speech at Athens (ch 17) all demonstrate that Christianity is not merely a Jewish sect, some narrow messianic movement, but rather a universal faith. Another problem was popular identification of the new faith with the various religious cults and mystery religions in the Roman Empire. The accounts of the early church’s conflict with Simon the magician (ch 8) and of Paul and Barnabas’s rejection of an attempt to worship them at Lystra (ch 14) undermine the popular charge of superstition. Also, Christianity is not a mystery cult in which esoteric, secret rites bring a worshiper into union with the divine. The Lord worshiped by Christians, said Luke, belongs to real history; he lived his life in Palestine in the then-recent past, openly, for all to observe (see the speeches of Peter and Paul in Acts 2; 10; 13).<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s major purpose, however, was defense of Christianity against the charge that it posed a threat to the order and stability of the Roman Empire. There were, of course, grounds for such suspicions. After all, the founder of the movement had been crucified on a charge of sedition by a Roman procurator, and the movement that claimed his name seemed to evoke tumult, disorder, and riots wherever it spread. Luke’s account met those problems head-on. In the Gospel he presented the trial of Jesus as a serious miscarriage of justice. Pilate had handed Jesus over for crucifixion, but he had found Jesus not guilty. Herod Antipas likewise found no substance in the charges against Jesus (Lk 23:13-16; Acts 13:28). A neutral or even friendly attitude of Roman officials toward leading Christians and the movement as a whole is documented throughout Acts. The Roman proconsul of Cyprus, Sergius Paulus, gladly received Paul and Barnabas and responded positively to their message (Acts 13:7-12). The chief magistrate in Philippi apologized for the illegal beating and imprisonment of Paul and Silas (16:37-39). The proconsul of Achaia, Gallio, found Paul guiltless in the eyes of Roman law (18:12-16). In Ephesus the magistrate intervened in a crowd’s attack on Paul and his companions, rejecting the charges against them (19:35-39). A tribune of the Roman military contingent in Jerusalem arrested Paul, but it turned out that he really saved the apostle from the wrath of a mob; in his letter to the procurator Felix, the tribune acknowledged that Paul was not guilty by Roman law (23:26-29). The same verdict was repeated after Paul’s arraignment before Felix, his successor Festus, and Herod Agrippa II: “This man hasn’t done anything worthy of death or imprisonment” (26:31, <span>nlt<\/span>). Luke climaxed his story by telling how Paul carried on his missionary activity in Rome, the very heart of the empire, and with the permission of the imperial guards (28:30-31). It is clear throughout Luke’s defense that the strife that attended the beginnings and progress of Christianity was not due primarily to anything within the movement, but rather to Jewish opposition and falsification.<\/p>\n<p>Within his lengthy apology for the integrity of Christianity, Luke’s specific theological perspectives can be clearly seen. The two volume work presents a grand scheme of the history of redemption, extending from the <em>time of Israel<\/em> (Lk 1–2) through the <em>time of Jesus,<\/em> and continuing through the <em>time of the church,<\/em> when the good news for Israel is extended to all nations. Paralleling that emphasis is an insistence that God is present in the redemptive story through the Holy Spirit. In the Gospel, Jesus is presented as the Man of the Spirit; the reality of the Spirit empowered him for his work (Lk 3:22; 4:1, 14, 18). In Acts, the fellowship of Jesus’ disciples is presented as the community of the Spirit (1:8; 2:1-8). What Jesus in the power of the Spirit had begun in his own ministry, the church in the power of the Spirit continues to do.<\/p>\n<p>For Luke, the empowering presence of God’s Spirit was a reality that gave the new faith its power, integrity, and perseverance. It enabled faithful witness (1:8) and created genuine community (2:44-47; 4:32-37), something for which the ancient world desperately longed. The Spirit in the new community produced courage and boldness (see Peter’s defenses in chs 2–5), empowered for service (ch 6), overcame prejudice as in the mission in Samaria (ch 8), broke down walls as in the Cornelius episode (chs 10–11), and sent believers out on missions (ch 13).<\/p>\n<p>The entire story is also punctuated by the centrality of Jesus’ resurrection. Luke, like Paul (see 1 Cor 15:12-21), must have been convinced that without the resurrection of Jesus there would be no Christian faith at all. More than that, the resurrection put God’s stamp of approval on Jesus’ life and ministry, authenticating the truth of his claims. Luke announced his interest in that theme at the outset: the ultimate criterion for an apostolic replacement for Judas was that he must have been, with the other disciples, a witness to Jesus’ resurrection. Throughout Acts, from Peter’s Pentecost sermon and defenses before the Sanhedrin to Paul’s speeches before Felix and Agrippa, the church is shown bearing witness to Jesus’ resurrection as a great reversal executed by God (2:22-24, 36; 3:14-15; 5:30-31; 10:39-42).<\/p>\n<p>Acts falls naturally into two parts, chapters 1–12, and 13–28. The first part, roughly speaking, contains the “acts of Peter.” Part two is largely concerned with the “acts of Paul.” In the first 12 chapters, Peter is the central figure who initiates the choosing of a replacement for Judas Iscariot (ch 1); addresses the multitudes at Pentecost (ch 2); interprets the significance of the healing of a lame man to a temple crowd (ch 3); delivers a defense of the Christian proclamation before the supreme Jewish council (ch 4); leads the apostles in a healing ministry and speaks for them (ch 5); stands in the forefront of conflict with a Samaritan magician, “Simon the Great” (ch 8); launches—though somewhat unwillingly—the movement of the gospel to the Gentiles through Cornelius (chs 10–11); and draws the fire of Herod’s campaign against the church but is miraculously delivered from prison (ch 12).<\/p>\n<p>Proclamation of the gospel to the Gentiles through Paul’s ministry is the theme of part two of Acts (chs 13–28). The story primarily concerns three major missionary tours, each of which moved the gospel into yet untouched territory and expanded earlier missionary efforts. The account of Paul’s life and work climaxes in his arrest in Jerusalem (chs 21–22), a lengthy imprisonment in Caesarea (chs 23–26), and a voyage to Rome (chs 27–28).<\/p>\n<p>Another way of getting at the structure and content of Acts is thematic. It has its starting point in Jesus’ statement, “You shall receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you; and you shall be my witnesses in Jerusalem and in all Judea and Samaria and to the ends of the earth” (1:8). Acts can be seen as the story of the fulfillment of that “Great Commission,” unfolding essentially in three stages: (1) witness to Judaism, focused in Jerusalem but also expanding into surrounding Judea and north into Galilee (chs 1–7); (2) witness to Samaria through Philip, Peter, and John (8:1–9:31); (3) witness to the gentile world, first haltingly through Peter (9:32–12:25), and then decisively through Paul (chs 13–28).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Luke (Person); Paul, The Apostle; Simon Peter; Theophilus #1; Chronology of the Bible (New Testament).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, B<span>ook of the<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>NT book presenting the history of the early church and written as a sequel to the Gospel of Luke. In the arrangement of the NT books, Acts comes after the four Gospels and before the Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background and Content<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts does not state clearly who its writer is, but the general consensus is that Luke was its author.<\/p>\n<p>Early church tradition from the second century states that Acts (as well as the third Gospel) was written by a traveling companion and fellow worker of the apostle Paul. That companion is identified in Colossians 4:14 as “Luke, the beloved physician” (<span>nasb<\/span>) and mentioned among Paul’s coworkers (Col 4:10-17; see also 2 Tm 4:11; Phlm 1:24).<\/p>\n<p>Strong support for the tradition that the author of Acts was a companion of Paul comes from the second half of the book recounting Paul’s ministry. There, several narratives are told in the first person plural:<\/p>\n<p>1. “That night Paul had a vision. He saw a man from Macedonia in northern Greece, pleading with him, ‘Come over here and help us.’ So we decided to leave for Macedonia at once, for we could only conclude that God was calling us to preach the Good News there” (16:9-10, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<li>2. “They went ahead and waited for us at Troas . . . we boarded a ship at Philippi in Macedonia and five days later arrived in Troas, where we stayed a week” (20:5-6, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>3. “When the time came, we set sail for Italy” (27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n<p>These “we” sections (16:9-18; 20:5–21:18; 27:1–28:16) sound like part of a travel narrative or diary written by an eyewitness who accompanied Paul from Troas to Philippi on his second missionary journey; from Philippi to Miletus on the third; from Miletus to Jerusalem; and from Caesarea to Rome. Since the style and vocabulary of these travel narratives resemble those of the rest of the book, it is highly probably that the diarist was also the author of the entire book.<\/p>\n<p>The sophisticated literary style and polished use of the Greek language in the book, as well as the fact that it is addressed to someone called Theophilus (possibly a high-ranking Roman official), provide strong support for the tradition that Luke was a gentile convert to Christianity. His consistent and frequent use of the Greek OT may indicate that he had been a gentile “God-fearer” before conversion to the new faith.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginDestination\">Date, Origin, Destination<\/p>\n\n<p>The question of the date and place of the origin of Acts continues to be debated. There are no clear indications in the book itself. With regard to its destination, however, Luke did not leave any doubt. In the opening verse he addresses a certain Theophilus, to whom he had already written an earlier book about the life of Jesus. There can be no doubt that he was referring to the work we know as the Gospel of Luke. In the preface to that Gospel (Lk 1:1-4), Luke clearly stated his purpose for writing and addressed his account to the “most honorable Theophilus.” It is not clear who that person was. Some interpreters think that Theophilus (which means “dear to God” or “lover of God”) stands for Christian readers in general rather than any specific individual. However, the designation “most honorable” argues against such an assumption. That ascription was a common title of honor, designating a person with official standing in the Roman sociopolitical order (cf. use of the title for Felix, Acts 23:26; 24:2; and for Festus, 26:25). It is thus likely that Luke intended his two-volume work for an official representative of Roman society.<\/p>\n<p>When was Acts written? Some scholars date it in the last quarter of the first century. Since the Gospel was written first, and since Luke based his story of Jesus on eyewitness accounts and written sources (among which was possibly the Gospel of Mark, probably written in the 60s), Acts should not be dated much before <span>AD<\/span> 85. Proponents of such a late date claim support from the theology of Acts, which they see as picturing a Christian church settled into history, adjusted to the prospect of a lengthy period before the Lord’s return. Since expectation of the Lord’s imminent return was fanned into a living flame by the Jewish revolt and the fall of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 70, time must be allowed for that flame to have died down a bit.<\/p>\n<p>Other scholars date Acts around <span>AD<\/span> 70 or shortly thereafter. The Jewish rebellion of <span>AD<\/span> 66–70, which culminated in the destruction of Jerusalem, brought the Jewish faith—legal until then—into disrepute. The Christian movement, which had been accepted as a Jewish sect, became suspect. Christians were increasingly charged with being enemies of Rome. A study of Acts shows that among a number of purposes (see below), Luke seems to have been defending the Christians against the charge of hostility toward the state. He showed how Roman officials repeatedly testified to the complete innocence of Christians and above all else of Paul (16:39; 18:14-17; 19:37; 23:29; 25:25; 26:32). Luke also made it clear that Paul was allowed to carry on his mission with full approval of Roman officials in the very heart of the imperial capital (28:16-31).<\/p>\n<p>A still earlier date, closer to Paul’s Roman imprisonment (early 60s), has been advocated by a number of scholars. There are two compelling reasons: (1) The abrupt ending of Acts, describing Paul carrying on a ministry in Rome before his trial had commenced, may indicate that Luke was writing at that point. It is possible, of course, that Luke ended his story with Paul preaching the gospel in Rome because one of his purposes had been accomplished: namely, showing how the gospel spread from Jerusalem to Rome. But it seems highly unlikely that Luke would close his history without Paul’s defense of the gospel before Caesar himself if that had already happened. (2) The most appropriate period for Luke’s history, with its defense of the Christian movement against all kinds of accusations from both Jews and Gentiles, is the period when Christianity was becoming suspect but was not yet proscribed. That was the time before the start of the persecutions under Nero in <span>AD<\/span> 64. The early date would correspond with the contention that Luke was with Paul during his Roman imprisonment and that he wrote his history in Rome while waiting for Paul’s trial to begin. It is possible that Luke’s work was partially intended to influence the verdict. Luke presented a picture of Christianity and of Paul that he hoped would enable Paul to continue his work among the Gentiles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BackgroundandContent\">Background and Content<\/p>\n<p>Luke grounds his documentary of the rapid expansion of Christianity in the history of the Roman Empire and Palestine during the three decades from <span>AD<\/span> 30 to 60. Some brief historical and geographical considerations will aid in understanding Luke’s history.<\/p>\n<p>Acts 1–12 reports the beginnings of the Christian movement within the imperial province of Syria, which included Judea and Samaria. In the first century <span>AD<\/span>, those regions were generally governed by Roman procurators or puppet kings. At the time of Jesus’ death and resurrection (c. <span>AD<\/span> 30), Pontius Pilate was procurator in Judea and Samaria (<span>AD<\/span> 26–36). Galilee was ruled by King Herod Antipas (4 <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 39). Tiberius was emperor of the Roman Empire (<span>AD<\/span> 14–37). The account of Acts 1–12 took place in the period <span>AD<\/span> 30–44.<\/p>\n<p>The conversion of Saul (Acts 9) is generally dated in <span>AD <\/span>33. After Saul’s conversion and departure to his native Tarsus, the church evidently enjoyed a period of tranquility, consolidating its gains and growing steadily (9:31–11:26). It can be assumed, from Galatians 1:18-21 and the existence of Christian communities that Paul and Silas visited on the second missionary tour (Acts 15:40-41), that Paul was not idle during that decade, but intensely involved in the mission to the Gentiles. (After Acts 13:9, the name “Saul” is dropped from the narrative.)<\/p>\n<p>In <span>AD<\/span> 41, Claudius became emperor of Rome and installed Herod Agrippa I as king of the Jews. (The procurator Pontius Pilate had been removed several years earlier for inept administration of the region.) Agrippa I was grandson of Herod the Great and his Jewish princess Mariamne. Because of his Jewish roots, he was more popular with his subjects than the former Herods. No doubt it was his desire to increase that popularity and gain the support of the Jewish religious authorities that led to a renewed outbreak of violence against the Jerusalem church. Acts 12 recounts the execution of James (the brother of the apostle John) and the imprisonment of Peter. The story of Agrippa I’s death (12:20-23) is paralleled in an account by the Jewish historian Josephus, who dates the event in <span>AD<\/span> 44.<\/p>\n<p>A second event providing a time reference for the unfolding story of the early church is the collection of famine relief in Antioch for Christians in Judea (11:27-29). Luke stated that a severe famine took place (v 28) during the reign of Emperor Claudius (<span>AD<\/span> 41–54). Josephus, writing his <em>Antiquities<\/em> at the end of the first century, spoke of a severe famine in Palestine between the years <span>AD<\/span> 44 and 48. According to Acts 12:25, Barnabas and Paul finished their mission to famine-stricken Christians in Judea after the death of Agrippa I, making it possible to date their mission about <span>AD<\/span> 45.<\/p>\n<p>At that point in the narrative of Acts, Paul is launched officially into his mission to the Gentiles (13:1-3), for which the history and geography of the larger Roman Empire form the backdrop. The official Roman policy toward the various religions in the empire was one of toleration. That policy, plus use of the Greek language throughout the empire and a phenomenal network of roads and sea routes, paved the way for Paul’s far-ranging missionary work.<\/p>\n<p>The first tour (<span>AD<\/span> 46–47) took Paul and Barnabas through the island province of Cyprus in the northeastern tip of the Mediterranean Sea and into the province of Galatia, where churches were established in several cities of southern Galatia (Antioch of Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra, Derbe). Galatia is located in Asia Minor, bordered by the Black Sea, the Aegean Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea on its northern, western, and southern sides. Those cities, important colonial outposts for the Romans, contained mixed populations, including large Jewish communities. It was in the synagogues of those communities that Paul launched his missionary efforts, almost always meeting with considerable opposition (chs 13–14).<\/p>\n<p>The deliberation of the Jerusalem Council about differences between Jewish and gentile Christians (ch 15) can be dated in the year <span>AD<\/span> 48. It was followed by Paul’s second missionary journey, which led him through the already evangelized territory of his native Cilicia, Galatia, and through Troas on the Aegean coast to Macedonia and down into Achaia, the Greek Peninsula (15:40–18:22). Churches were established in the important Macedonian cities of Philippi, Thessalonica, and Beroea.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s one and a half years in Corinth (18:11) can be dated with some certainty in <span>AD<\/span> 51–52. An ancient inscription among the ruins of Delphi, a city in central Greece, states that Gallio became proconsul of Achaia in 51. Acts 18:12-17 tells how Paul was accused by antagonistic Jews before Gallio. The implication is that Paul’s adversaries in Corinth felt that a new proconsul could be persuaded to side with their cause. Thus, Paul’s stay in Corinth can be dated around the beginning of Gallio’s proconsulship.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s account of Paul’s return to Palestine and the beginning of his third missionary tour brings up a fascinating historical question about what happened to the followers of John the Baptist (13:13–19:7). Acts 18:24-28 refers to a learned Jew, Apollos, who was actively teaching about Jesus in the synagogue at Ephesus, but who was apparently not a member of a distinctively Christian community, not having been baptized in the name of Jesus. He was acquainted only with the baptism of repentance practiced by John the Baptist. After Apollos went to Corinth to minister to the young congregation that Paul founded the previous year, Paul went to Ephesus. There he met several disciples of Jesus who, like Apollos, had experienced John’s baptism of repentance, but who had not been baptized as Christians.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s reference to Apollos and those disciples, as well as several passages in the Gospels, indicate that the movement begun by John the Baptist did not simply come to an end when Jesus began his ministry. Evidently John continued to baptize until his death (Jn 3:22-24), and many of his disciples maintained John’s work after his death. Probably both Apollos and the disciples at Ephesus were products of the continuing ministry of John’s disciples. Eventually they were introduced to “the way of the Lord” (18:25). Their lack of knowledge about a distinctive Christian baptism or about the reality of the Holy Spirit (19:2-4) shows how much diversity in both belief and practice existed in early Christianity.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s third missionary tour began with a three-year ministry in Ephesus (19:1–20:1), continued with a visit to churches established on the previous journey (20:2-12), and came to a climax with his arrest in Jerusalem (Acts 21). It took place in the mid-50s (<span>AD<\/span> 53–57). Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem and arraignment before the provincial governor, Felix, in Caesarea (23:23–24:23) must be dated about 57. After Paul had spent two years under house arrest, no doubt prolonged by Felix to gain favor with Jewish subjects, Felix was replaced by Porcius Festus (<span>AD<\/span> 59–60). Josephus noted that Felix was recalled because of an outbreak of civil strife between Jewish and gentile inhabitants of Caesarea and Felix’s unwise handling of the situation.<\/p>\n<p>The new procurator, Festus, was uncertain about what to do with his prisoner. The Jewish leadership sought to seize that opportunity, aware of the desire of new procurators to gain popularity with their subjects (25:1-9). Realizing the threat, Paul appealed his case to the highest court of the empire, presided over by Caesar himself (25:10-12).<\/p>\n<p>Festus was then left with a problem. He had to send with his prisoner a report to the emperor, clearly outlining the charges. Since he did not really comprehend the case (25:25-27), he sought the advice of Herod Agrippa II, who with his sister had come to Caesarea to pay their respects to the new imperial governor of Palestine (25:13). Agrippa II was the son of Herod Agrippa I and, at least in theory, a Jew. He ruled over parts of Palestine from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 100 and had been given the right to appoint the Jewish high priests. His familiarity with Jewish religious traditions and the Law thus put him in a better position to understand Jerusalem’s case against Paul. The outcome of Paul’s appearance before Festus and Agrippa (26:1-29) was recognition of Paul’s innocence (26:31). Yet Paul’s appeal to Rome had to be honored; the law governing such cases had to be followed (26:32).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s relative freedom during the next two-year period (28:30) seems unusual but was a rather common practice in Roman judicial proceedings, especially for Roman citizens who had appealed to the emperor. There is no good reason to believe that Paul was executed at the time when Luke’s narrative ends (c. <span>AD<\/span> 61–62). The great fire of Rome and Nero’s subsequent persecution of Christians were still a few years away (<span>AD<\/span> 64). It is likely that the case against Paul was dismissed, especially in light of the favorable verdict by Festus and King Agrippa. It is also likely that Paul was executed during the later, more general persecution of Christians. Such a sequence would correspond with the tradition cited by Eusebius, a fourth-century church historian, that Paul resumed his ministry and later suffered martyrdom under Nero.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>In the preface to the Gospel, intended to cover the second volume also, Luke told Theophilus (and the audience he represented) that he had set out to write an accurate, orderly account about the beginnings of the Christian movement in the ministry of Jesus of Nazareth (Lk 1:1-4). The opening lines in Acts indicate that the narrative beginning with Jesus of Nazareth (vol 1) is continuing and that Luke’s second volume intends to trace the story from Palestine to Rome (Acts 1:1-8).<\/p>\n<p>While recounting this story, Luke attempted to defend the Christian movement against false charges brought against it. A number of misconceptions attended the birth and growth of the Christian movement. One concerned the relationship between the new faith and Judaism. Many, both within the church and among Roman officials, understood the Christian faith as no more than a particular expression of, or sect within, Judaism. Against that restricted notion, Luke-Acts strikes a universal note. The Gospel proclaims Jesus as Savior of the world (Lk 2:29-32). In Acts, Stephen’s defense before the Jewish council (ch 7), Peter’s experience in Joppa with Cornelius (ch 10), and Paul’s speech at Athens (ch 17) all demonstrate that Christianity is not merely a Jewish sect, some narrow messianic movement, but rather a universal faith. Another problem was popular identification of the new faith with the various religious cults and mystery religions in the Roman Empire. The accounts of the early church’s conflict with Simon the magician (ch 8) and of Paul and Barnabas’s rejection of an attempt to worship them at Lystra (ch 14) undermine the popular charge of superstition. Also, Christianity is not a mystery cult in which esoteric, secret rites bring a worshiper into union with the divine. The Lord worshiped by Christians, said Luke, belongs to real history; he lived his life in Palestine in the then-recent past, openly, for all to observe (see the speeches of Peter and Paul in Acts 2; 10; 13).<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s major purpose, however, was defense of Christianity against the charge that it posed a threat to the order and stability of the Roman Empire. There were, of course, grounds for such suspicions. After all, the founder of the movement had been crucified on a charge of sedition by a Roman procurator, and the movement that claimed his name seemed to evoke tumult, disorder, and riots wherever it spread. Luke’s account met those problems head-on. In the Gospel he presented the trial of Jesus as a serious miscarriage of justice. Pilate had handed Jesus over for crucifixion, but he had found Jesus not guilty. Herod Antipas likewise found no substance in the charges against Jesus (Lk 23:13-16; Acts 13:28). A neutral or even friendly attitude of Roman officials toward leading Christians and the movement as a whole is documented throughout Acts. The Roman proconsul of Cyprus, Sergius Paulus, gladly received Paul and Barnabas and responded positively to their message (Acts 13:7-12). The chief magistrate in Philippi apologized for the illegal beating and imprisonment of Paul and Silas (16:37-39). The proconsul of Achaia, Gallio, found Paul guiltless in the eyes of Roman law (18:12-16). In Ephesus the magistrate intervened in a crowd’s attack on Paul and his companions, rejecting the charges against them (19:35-39). A tribune of the Roman military contingent in Jerusalem arrested Paul, but it turned out that he really saved the apostle from the wrath of a mob; in his letter to the procurator Felix, the tribune acknowledged that Paul was not guilty by Roman law (23:26-29). The same verdict was repeated after Paul’s arraignment before Felix, his successor Festus, and Herod Agrippa II: “This man hasn’t done anything worthy of death or imprisonment” (26:31, <span>nlt<\/span>). Luke climaxed his story by telling how Paul carried on his missionary activity in Rome, the very heart of the empire, and with the permission of the imperial guards (28:30-31). It is clear throughout Luke’s defense that the strife that attended the beginnings and progress of Christianity was not due primarily to anything within the movement, but rather to Jewish opposition and falsification.<\/p>\n<p>Within his lengthy apology for the integrity of Christianity, Luke’s specific theological perspectives can be clearly seen. The two volume work presents a grand scheme of the history of redemption, extending from the <em>time of Israel<\/em> (Lk 1–2) through the <em>time of Jesus,<\/em> and continuing through the <em>time of the church,<\/em> when the good news for Israel is extended to all nations. Paralleling that emphasis is an insistence that God is present in the redemptive story through the Holy Spirit. In the Gospel, Jesus is presented as the Man of the Spirit; the reality of the Spirit empowered him for his work (Lk 3:22; 4:1, 14, 18). In Acts, the fellowship of Jesus’ disciples is presented as the community of the Spirit (1:8; 2:1-8). What Jesus in the power of the Spirit had begun in his own ministry, the church in the power of the Spirit continues to do.<\/p>\n<p>For Luke, the empowering presence of God’s Spirit was a reality that gave the new faith its power, integrity, and perseverance. It enabled faithful witness (1:8) and created genuine community (2:44-47; 4:32-37), something for which the ancient world desperately longed. The Spirit in the new community produced courage and boldness (see Peter’s defenses in chs 2–5), empowered for service (ch 6), overcame prejudice as in the mission in Samaria (ch 8), broke down walls as in the Cornelius episode (chs 10–11), and sent believers out on missions (ch 13).<\/p>\n<p>The entire story is also punctuated by the centrality of Jesus’ resurrection. Luke, like Paul (see 1 Cor 15:12-21), must have been convinced that without the resurrection of Jesus there would be no Christian faith at all. More than that, the resurrection put God’s stamp of approval on Jesus’ life and ministry, authenticating the truth of his claims. Luke announced his interest in that theme at the outset: the ultimate criterion for an apostolic replacement for Judas was that he must have been, with the other disciples, a witness to Jesus’ resurrection. Throughout Acts, from Peter’s Pentecost sermon and defenses before the Sanhedrin to Paul’s speeches before Felix and Agrippa, the church is shown bearing witness to Jesus’ resurrection as a great reversal executed by God (2:22-24, 36; 3:14-15; 5:30-31; 10:39-42).<\/p>\n<p>Acts falls naturally into two parts, chapters 1–12, and 13–28. The first part, roughly speaking, contains the “acts of Peter.” Part two is largely concerned with the “acts of Paul.” In the first 12 chapters, Peter is the central figure who initiates the choosing of a replacement for Judas Iscariot (ch 1); addresses the multitudes at Pentecost (ch 2); interprets the significance of the healing of a lame man to a temple crowd (ch 3); delivers a defense of the Christian proclamation before the supreme Jewish council (ch 4); leads the apostles in a healing ministry and speaks for them (ch 5); stands in the forefront of conflict with a Samaritan magician, “Simon the Great” (ch 8); launches—though somewhat unwillingly—the movement of the gospel to the Gentiles through Cornelius (chs 10–11); and draws the fire of Herod’s campaign against the church but is miraculously delivered from prison (ch 12).<\/p>\n<p>Proclamation of the gospel to the Gentiles through Paul’s ministry is the theme of part two of Acts (chs 13–28). The story primarily concerns three major missionary tours, each of which moved the gospel into yet untouched territory and expanded earlier missionary efforts. The account of Paul’s life and work climaxes in his arrest in Jerusalem (chs 21–22), a lengthy imprisonment in Caesarea (chs 23–26), and a voyage to Rome (chs 27–28).<\/p>\n<p>Another way of getting at the structure and content of Acts is thematic. It has its starting point in Jesus’ statement, “You shall receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you; and you shall be my witnesses in Jerusalem and in all Judea and Samaria and to the ends of the earth” (1:8). Acts can be seen as the story of the fulfillment of that “Great Commission,” unfolding essentially in three stages: (1) witness to Judaism, focused in Jerusalem but also expanding into surrounding Judea and north into Galilee (chs 1–7); (2) witness to Samaria through Philip, Peter, and John (8:1–9:31); (3) witness to the gentile world, first haltingly through Peter (9:32–12:25), and then decisively through Paul (chs 13–28).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Luke (Person); Paul, The Apostle; Simon Peter; Theophilus #1; Chronology of the Bible (New Testament).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, Book of the NT book presenting the history of the early church and written as a sequel to the Gospel of Luke. In the arrangement of the NT books, Acts comes after the four Gospels and before the Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, Destination • Background and Content • Purpose Author The book of Acts does not state clearly who its writer is, but the general consensus is that Luke was its author. Early church tradition from the second century states that Acts (as w...","summary_en":"ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, Book of the NT book presenting the history of the early church and written as a sequel to the Gospel of Luke. In the arrangement of the NT books, Acts comes after the four Gospels and before the Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, Destination • Background and Content • Purpose Author The book of Acts does not state clearly who its writer is, but the general consensus is that Luke was its author. Early church tradition from the second century states that Acts (as w...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":3047,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Asiarch*","title_en":"Asiarch*","content_ro":"<h3>ASIARCH*<\/h3>\n<p>Title of an official of unknown function in the Roman province of Asia. Several such officials were concerned for the safety of Paul during a silversmiths’ riot in Ephesus (Acts 19:31). Nothing else is known about their qualifications, periods of tenure, or duties. Why there were a number of such officers in Ephesus at the time of the riot, or why the Asiarchs showed such concern for Paul, is not clear. Perhaps they were deputies of the “Commune of Asia,” responsible to promote and protect the imperial cult (the worship practices of Rome and the emperor). The Asiarchs mentioned were evidently not adverse to a religious movement like Christianity, which embarrassed the prevailing pagan cult of Artemis. The long account in Acts 19 repeats one of Luke’s themes, that Christianity was not subversive, nor was Paul a political menace. Otherwise the Asiarchs would not have favored him in such a manner.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ASIARCH*<\/h3>\n<p>Title of an official of unknown function in the Roman province of Asia. Several such officials were concerned for the safety of Paul during a silversmiths’ riot in Ephesus (Acts 19:31). Nothing else is known about their qualifications, periods of tenure, or duties. Why there were a number of such officers in Ephesus at the time of the riot, or why the Asiarchs showed such concern for Paul, is not clear. Perhaps they were deputies of the “Commune of Asia,” responsible to promote and protect the imperial cult (the worship practices of Rome and the emperor). The Asiarchs mentioned were evidently not adverse to a religious movement like Christianity, which embarrassed the prevailing pagan cult of Artemis. The long account in Acts 19 repeats one of Luke’s themes, that Christianity was not subversive, nor was Paul a political menace. Otherwise the Asiarchs would not have favored him in such a manner.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ASIARCH* Title of an official of unknown function in the Roman province of Asia. Several such officials were concerned for the safety of Paul during a silversmiths’ riot in Ephesus (Acts 19:31). Nothing else is known about their qualifications, periods of tenure, or duties. Why there were a number of such officers in Ephesus at the time of the riot, or why the Asiarchs showed such concern for Paul, is not clear. Perhaps they were deputies of the “Commune of Asia,” responsible to promote and p...","summary_en":"ASIARCH* Title of an official of unknown function in the Roman province of Asia. Several such officials were concerned for the safety of Paul during a silversmiths’ riot in Ephesus (Acts 19:31). Nothing else is known about their qualifications, periods of tenure, or duties. Why there were a number of such officers in Ephesus at the time of the riot, or why the Asiarchs showed such concern for Paul, is not clear. Perhaps they were deputies of the “Commune of Asia,” responsible to promote and p...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":6530,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"of the Bible* (New Testament), Chronology","title_en":"of the Bible* (New Testament), Chronology","content_ro":"<h3>CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (New Testament)<\/h3>\n<p>Branch of biblical studies that attempts to discover the sequence of NT events and the amount of time that elapsed between them. Chronology is essential to historians, whose task it is to determine the causes and effects of past events. Generally, for a historian’s purpose, assigning absolute dates is less important than knowing the sequence of events that may have influenced each other. Very few NT happenings, in fact, can be given exact dates.<\/p>\n\n<p>A remarkable testimony to the influence of Christianity is the fact that the entire Western world now divides history into <span>BC<\/span> (before Christ) and <span>AD<\/span> (<em>anno Domini,<\/em> “in the year of the Lord”). Before that method of dating became widespread in the Middle Ages, events were dated by their relation to other important events such as the founding of Rome or the beginning of a king’s reign. When a monk named Dionysius Exiguus (sixth century) invented our present method of dating, with the birth of Christ dividing history, he made a mistake in his computations. The odd result is the historical anomaly that Jesus himself was born no later than four years “before Christ.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ChronologyofJesusLife\">Chronology of Jesus’ Life<\/p>\n<h5>Birth<\/h5>\n<p>According to Matthew 2:1 Jesus was born “in the days of Herod the king.” A first-century <span>AD<\/span> historian, Josephus, recorded that Herod died in the spring of the year we identify as 4 <span>BC<\/span>. Hence, Jesus was born sometime before that, but how much before is uncertain. Luke 2:1-2 records that Jesus’ birth occurred when “Caesar Augustus,” the Roman emperor, decreed that a census, or enrollment, should be taken throughout the nation. “This was the first census taken when Quirinius was governor of Syria” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Those statements raise two questions: When was such a census taken, and when was Quirinius governor of Syria? Neither question has received a completely satisfying answer.<\/p>\n<p>Census documents discovered in Egypt, together with earlier references, suggest that such enrollments were held every 14 years. That would put a census roughly in 8 or 9 <span>BC<\/span>. In view of the time needed to carry out the census (which required a person to travel to his birthplace), the birth of Jesus may have been somewhat later than the actual year of the decree (perhaps 7 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Josephus recorded that Quirinius became governor of Syria in <span>AD<\/span> 6, rather late as a date for Jesus’ birth. But some scholars have argued from ancient inscriptions that Quirinius also served in Syria as a special legate of the emperor Augustus before 6 <span>BC<\/span>. That could be the period referred to in Luke 2:2. Why did Luke choose to cite Quirinius instead of the regular governor of Syria at that time? Perhaps by so doing he could provide a more exact date for the birth of Jesus, since Quirinius was in authority for a shorter time than the regular governor of Syria.<\/p>\n<p>A reasonable conclusion is that Jesus was born about 7 or 6 <span>BC<\/span>. That fits with Matthew 2:16, which seems to say that Jesus was born at least two years before Herod’s death in 4 <span>BC<\/span>. No clear evidence exists concerning the day and month of his birth. Celebration of December 25 as Christmas originated in the fourth century, probably as a Christian alternative to the pagan winter solstice festival (Saturnalia).<\/p>\n<h5>The Beginning of Public Ministry<\/h5>\n<p>Luke 3:23 says that Jesus, “when he began his ministry, was about thirty years of age”; since the age given is only approximate, he may have been two or three years older or younger (cf. the pseudepigraphal Testament of Levi 2:2; 12:5). If exactly 30 is added to the suggested date of birth, one gets <span>AD<\/span> 24. That date cannot be right, because Jesus’ ministry began after John the Baptist appears; Luke 3:1-3 dates John’s public appearance precisely in “the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberias Caesar” while Pilate was procurator (governor) over Judea. Pilate governed from <span>AD<\/span> 26 to 36, and the 15th year of Tiberius was most likely <span>AD<\/span> 27. Therefore Jesus did not begin his public ministry before <span>AD<\/span> 27. If only a short time elapsed between the beginning of John’s ministry and the beginning of Jesus’ ministry, then Jesus probably began in <span>AD<\/span> 27 or 28 when he was approximately 33 years old.<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus’ Death<\/h5>\n<p>All four Gospel records seem to imply that Jesus ate the Last Supper with his disciples on Thursday evening, was crucified on Friday, and rose from the dead early Sunday morning (Mt 28:1; Mk 16:1; Lk 24:1). The claim that Jesus rose on the third day (1 Cor 15:4) comes from the Jewish custom of counting a part of the day as a whole day. According to Matthew (26:19), Mark (14:12), and Luke (22:15), the Last Supper was the Passover meal, a yearly celebration of Israel’s escape from Egypt (Ex 12–15). But according to John 13:1 and 19:14, the Passover meal had not yet been eaten on Friday; hence the Last Supper in John was not the Passover meal.<\/p>\n<p>No completely satisfying solution to the apparent discrepancy has been put forward. Some scholars suggest plausibly that the use of two different calendars was responsible. According to that theory, Jesus was following a calendar that placed the Passover meal on Thursday night. Temple officials, on the other hand, followed an alternate calendar that placed the killing of sacrificial victims on the next day. John may have used the second system to emphasize the fact that Christ was offered as the Passover sacrifice (cf. Jn 19:36; 1 Cor 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>To find out how long Jesus’ public ministry lasted and thus the year in which he died, one can turn to time references in John’s Gospel. John referred to at least three Passovers (2:13; 6:4; 13:1) and possibly four (5:1). Since the Passover was a yearly feast, the ministry of Jesus would have lasted at least two and possibly three years. In Matthew, Mark, and Luke the Friday of Jesus’ death occurred on the 15th of the Jewish month Nisan (which overlaps March and April). According to John, Jesus died on 14 Nisan. The question is: In which years from 26 to 36 (when Pilate was procurator in Judea) did 14 or 15 Nisan fall on a Friday? The answer is <span>AD<\/span> 27, 29, 30, and 33. Of those, the year 27 is too early and 33 is probably too late. Thus Jesus was probably crucified in 29 or 30, his public ministry lasted two or three years, and he was 35 or 36 years old when he died.<\/p>\n<h4>Events from <span>AD<\/span> 30 to 50<\/h4>\n<p>Acts is the only NT book that records how much time elapsed between Jesus’ death and his ascension: “To them he presented himself alive after his passion by many proofs, appearing to them during forty days, and speaking of the kingdom of God” (Acts 1:3, <span>rsv<\/span>). The next key event after the ascension of Jesus into heaven was Pentecost (Acts 2:1). Pentecost, the Greek word for “fiftieth,” referred to a celebration of the Feast of Weeks\/Harvest (cf. Ex 34:22; Dt 16:9-12) 50 days after the Passover. Since Jesus was crucified during the Passover season, the Pentecost of Acts 2:1, during which the disciples were filled with the Holy Spirit, took place in <span>AD<\/span> 29 or 30, some 50 days after the Crucifixion and about 10 days after the Ascension.<\/p>\n<p>After that, events of the early chapters of Acts are hard to date because no precise statements are made about the amount of time between various events. Therefore, the usual method for dating events of the apostolic age is first to find at least one event that can be dated with relative certainty from sources outside the NT; one then dates events before and after that event by figuring out how much time elapsed between them. Sometimes Acts records how much time passed between two events; usually it does not, so dating can only be approximate.<\/p>\n<p>One pivotal starting point is the great famine prophesied by Agabus, which befell Palestine during the reign of the Roman emperor Claudius (Acts 11:28-29). Josephus, who was alive at the time, gives enough information to locate the famine sometime between the years 46 and 48. We also know from the Mishnah, a collection of Jewish laws, that the autumn of 47 to the autumn of 48 was a sabbatical year, when the Jews let the land rest and harvested nothing (cf. Lv 25:2-7). That could have aggravated and prolonged a famine, but one cannot be sure how early the famine started; some scholars propose 46 and some 47.<\/p>\n<p>At first, it seems peculiar that Luke, the author of Acts, should have recorded that famine (Acts 11:28) before recording the death of Herod Agrippa (12:20-23). From facts reported by Josephus, the death of Herod (a grandson of Herod the Great) can be dated in <span>AD<\/span> 44, probably in the spring. That means that Herod must have died several years before the famine Luke recorded earlier. Some scholars think that Luke simply got his chronological facts wrong. Others see Acts 12:1-24 as a kind of flashback to bring the history of the church in Jerusalem up to date. Such a practice was common among ancient historians, who often followed one source up to a suitable stopping point before moving on to another source. To charge Luke with inaccurate dating, it is argued, is to misunderstand the techniques of historical writing he was using.<\/p>\n<p>Since Herod Agrippa died in <span>AD<\/span> 44 (Acts 12:23), the apostle James, whom Herod put to death with the sword (v 2), must have died soon before 44, perhaps during the Passover season of 43 (v 3). The apostle Peter’s imprisonment and his miraculous escape (vv 3-17) also belong to that period.<\/p>\n<p>When the Christians of Antioch decided to send relief to the Christians in Jerusalem in the midst of the great famine (Acts 11:29), Barnabas and Paul were appointed to transport the money to Jerusalem. That was Paul’s second visit to Jerusalem after his conversion. The first visit is recorded in Acts 9:26-30. The third comes in Acts 15 when Paul and Barnabas were sent to discuss with the apostles and elders whether gentile converts to Christianity had to be circumcised. How one dates the first and third visits to Jerusalem, as well as Paul’s conversion, depends on how those Jerusalem visits are related to those reported in Paul’s letter to the Galatians.<\/p>\n<p>The basic problem, which still divides NT scholars, is this: In Galatians 1:15–2:10 Paul recounted that his conversion was followed by two visits to Jerusalem, one three years after his conversion (1:18) and one 14 years after that (2:1-10). All scholars agree that the first visit three years after his conversion is the same as the first visit recorded in Acts 9:26-30. Answers differ, however, to the question of whether Galatians 2:1-10 refers to the second (famine) visit to Jerusalem in Acts 11:30 (in which case the third visit of Acts 15 is the one omitted from Galatians) or whether Galatians 2:1-10 refers to the visit in Acts 15 (in which case the famine visit was the one omitted from Galatians).<\/p>\n\n<p>Those who favor the first reconstruction offer six arguments: (1) The reason Paul gave such a rigorous account of his comings and goings in Galatians 1:15-24 was to show that he did not get his gospel from men, nor was he taught it (1:12). In other words, his visits to the Jerusalem apostles were not for the purpose of receiving his gospel. If that is so, for Paul to omit the second Jerusalem visit would jeopardize his integrity and his authority with the Galatians. The first reconstruction avoids that difficulty; omission of a third Jerusalem visit from Galatians 2:1-10 could mean that it had not yet happened when Galatians was written. (2) Galatians 2:1-10 pictures a private meeting between Paul and Barnabas on one hand and the “pillar” apostles on the other. But the meeting in Acts 15 was public and before the whole church. Hence Galatians 2:1-10 more likely refers to a private meeting during the visit of Acts 11:30, which Galatians does not record. (3) Paul’s eagerness to give to the poor mentioned in Galatians 2:10 connects naturally with the second Jerusalem visit, when he was in fact delivering relief to the poor (Acts 11:30). (4) If Galatians 2 recorded the same trip as Acts 15, one would expect some mention of the decision reached by the Jerusalem Council, especially since that decision related directly to the problem of circumcision that Paul was handling in his Letter to the Galatians. (5) Further, it seems unlikely that the Jerusalem Council preceded the event of Galatians 2:11-21, when Peter was rebuked by Paul for withdrawing from fellowship with gentile believers; that incident could hardly have happened so soon after the issue of gentile status in the church had been settled in Jerusalem. (6) According to Galatians 1:6, the letter was written “quickly” after Paul had established the Galatian churches. That makes sense if Galatians was written soon after the first missionary journey, hence just before the Jerusalem Council of Acts 15; that would make Galatians Paul’s first letter.<\/p>\n<p>Scholars who favor the second reconstruction offer four arguments: (1) The main purpose of Paul’s visit in Galatians 2:1-10 appears to be the same as that in Acts 15:1-20; both dealt with the issue of whether circumcision should be required of gentile converts (Gal 2:3-5; Acts 15:1, 5). That similarity is obvious, but there is no such explicit similarity between Galatians 2 and Acts 11:30. (2) On the basis of form and content Galatians is similar to Romans and to 1 and 2 Corinthians; it would thus seem to come from the same period—considerably later than the Jerusalem Council. If so, it is likely that Paul would have included a reference to the Jerusalem Council (namely Gal 2:1-10) in his recollections, since its outcome supported his own stance on circumcision set forth in the letter. (3) Acts 11:30 pictures Barnabas as the leader of the Barnabas\/Paul team, since his name is given first place (as in Acts 12:25; 13:1-2, 7; cf. 11:25-26). But in the description Paul gives of the visit in Galatians 2, he sees himself as the leader of the team. Since Acts does picture Paul as the leader from the time of the first missionary journey (Acts 13:9, 13, 43, 46, 50), including the third Jerusalem visit (15:2), it is more likely that Galatians 2 records the trip of Acts 15. (4) Finally, in Galatians 2:7-8 Paul was recognized as an apostle to the Gentiles with a standing equal to that of Peter. But if Galatians 2 recorded the events of Acts 11:30 and the first missionary journey had not yet occurred, the “pillar” apostles could hardly have recognized Paul’s authority as apostle to the Gentiles. It is more likely that Galatians 2 followed the first missionary journey, just as Acts 15 followed the first missionary journey in Acts, and that both refer to the same event.<\/p>\n<p>The significance of those arguments for chronology is that, according to the first view, Paul’s conversion came 17 years before the famine visit of Acts 11:30 (cf. Gal 1:18; 2:1). According to the second view, Paul’s conversion took place 17 years before the Jerusalem Council in Acts 15. The difference amounts to only one year, however.<\/p>\n<p>It is helpful to consider one more date that can be fixed with high probability—namely, Paul’s arrival in Corinth on his second missionary journey (Acts 18:1). On the second missionary journey (15:40–18:22), Paul and Silas set out on land through Syria, Cilicia, Phrygia, and Galatia, visiting churches founded on the first missionary journey. They came to Troas, then passed over to Philippi and continued down the coast through Thessalonica and Berea. Paul went on to Athens before arriving at Corinth. From Acts 18:12 we know that Gallio was a proconsul in Corinth while Paul was there. An inscription discovered at nearby Delphi indicates that in all likelihood Gallio’s term of office was from mid-51 to mid-52. The incident recorded in Acts 18:12-17 probably occurred at the beginning of Gallio’s term, since the Jews hoped to get a ruling against Paul from their new proconsul. Not long after that, Paul left Corinth, probably in the summer or autumn of 52. According to Acts 18:11 Paul had spent 18 months in Corinth; that means that he probably arrived in the early months of 50 or the end of 49. That arrival date is confirmed by Acts 18:2, which says that Aquila and Priscilla had only recently been exiled from Rome when Paul came to Corinth. A fifth-century historian, Orosius, dated the edict of Claudius expelling the Jews from Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 49. Therefore, Paul and Aquila and Priscilla probably arrived close together late in 49 or early in 50. Early in his 18-month stay Paul wrote his First and Second Letters to the Thessalonians.<\/p>\n<p>The two fixed dates, then, are 46 or 47 for the famine visit (Acts 11:30) and late 49 or early 50 for Paul’s arrival in Corinth (Acts 18:1). Taking into account the time gaps mentioned in Galatians 1:18 and 2:1, as well as the supposition that the first missionary journey lasted about a year, the two reconstructions are presented in the following table. Keep in mind that they are approximations and that they reflect the ancient custom of counting a part of a year as a whole year.<\/p>\n\n<h4>Events from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 70<\/h4>\n<p>Acts 24:27 describes an event that helps us date events in the rest of the book, namely, Porcius Festus’s replacement of Felix as the governor of Judea. A careful analysis of the evidence given by Eusebius, a fourth-century historian, leads to the probable conclusion that Felix was replaced in the summer of 59.<\/p>\n<p>Working backward from that date, Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem (Acts 21:33) must have occurred in 57, some two years before the coming of Festus. More precisely, Paul’s arrest probably occurred in the late spring or summer of 57; Paul’s goal (20:16) was to arrive in Jerusalem by Pentecost of that year, and Pentecost occurred at the end of May. He was not long in the city before he was arrested.<\/p>\n<p>The Passover festival, 50 days before Pentecost, was celebrated by Paul with the church in Philippi (Acts 20:6). That would have been April 7–14, <span>AD<\/span> 57. Only after the feast did he continue his hurried journey to Caesarea and Jerusalem (20:6–21:16). Before his Passover visit to Philippi, Paul had spent three months in Greece (20:3). Allowing some time for him to travel through Macedonia and visit the Thessalonians and Bereans, those three months were probably the winter months of 56–57 (Acts 20:3; cf. 1 Cor 16:6). No doubt they were spent in the main church of Greece, Corinth, and were used in part for the writing of the Letter to the Romans.<\/p>\n<p>Between Paul’s departure from Corinth on the second missionary journey (Acts 18:18) in the autumn of 51 and his arrival in Corinth on the third missionary journey (20:2) in the late winter of 56 are five years of activities that cannot be given exact dates. Paul said that he worked during three of those years in Ephesus (20:31; cf. 19:1–20:1). With enough time allowed for the travels before and after, that stay at Ephesus probably lasted from 52 or 53 to the summer of 55 or 56 (cf. 1 Cor 16:8). During his long stay in Ephesus, Paul wrote his First Letter to the Corinthians. Then, on his way to Corinth in 56, he wrote 2 Corinthians from Macedonia.<\/p>\n<p>Festus arrived as governor in the summer of 59, after Paul had been in prison in Caesarea for two years. Within a matter of days, Paul was tried before Festus (Acts 25:1-12). Not wanting to be remanded to the Jewish authorities, Paul appealed to Caesar (v 12), which meant that he would go to Rome. The account in Acts gives no hint of a delay, so the voyage most likely began in the summer or fall of 59 (27:2).<\/p>\n<p>Luke reported that when Paul the prisoner got to Fair Havens on the island of Crete, the weather had become dangerous for sea travel “because the fast had already gone by” (Acts 27:8-9). One ancient writer said that sailing became dangerous between mid-September and mid-November, and after that, impossible until spring. The fast referred to was no doubt the one in preparation for the Day of Atonement, which in the year 59 fell on October 5. It is not surprising that, 14 days after leaving Fair Havens, the ship in which Paul was traveling was wrecked on the coast of Malta, south of Sicily (vv 27-44). Three months later Paul set sail for Rome again in a ship that had spent the winter at Malta (28:11). Soon he was welcomed into Rome by Christians who came out to meet him (v 15). Thus Paul arrived in Rome in the early part of <span>AD<\/span> 60. The book of Acts closes with the remark that “For two whole years Paul stayed there in his own rented house” (v 30, <span>niv<\/span>). The NT does not report the outcome of his trial. During that period, according to the traditional view, he wrote Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon.<\/p>\n<p>Eusebius wrote, “Tradition has it that after defending himself the Apostle was again sent on the ministry of preaching, and coming a second time to the same city suffered martyrdom under Nero.” Nero, who was the Roman emperor from 54 to 68, put to death a multitude of Christians in Rome soon after a disastrous fire in July of 64, according to the Roman historian Tacitus. A number of early Christian writings (e.g., Clement) seem to indicate that Peter and Paul were both killed in Rome during that savage persecution. If so, and if Eusebius was right, then Paul may have spent the two years from 62 to 64 freely ministering back in the eastern provinces. Many conservative scholars date Paul’s First Letter to Timothy and his Letter to Titus from that period. Written from Rome shortly before Paul’s martyrdom in 64, 2 Timothy was probably his last letter (2 Tm 2:9; 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem, within three years after Paul had been carried off to Rome, James the brother of Jesus was stoned to death by the Jewish authorities. According to Josephus, that occurred in 62. Not long afterward, according to Eusebius, the church in Jerusalem received a prophecy warning them to leave that doomed city and settle in Pella, one of the cities of the Decapolis (“ten cities”) east of the Jordan. Thus when war broke out between the Jews and the Romans in 66, the Christians for the most part escaped its fury. That war ended in 70 with the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (cf. Mk 13:2; Lk 21:24).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Apostle, Apostleship; Age; “Date” under each NT book; First Jewish Revolt; Genealogy of Jesus Christ; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (New Testament)<\/h3>\n<p>Branch of biblical studies that attempts to discover the sequence of NT events and the amount of time that elapsed between them. Chronology is essential to historians, whose task it is to determine the causes and effects of past events. Generally, for a historian’s purpose, assigning absolute dates is less important than knowing the sequence of events that may have influenced each other. Very few NT happenings, in fact, can be given exact dates.<\/p>\n\n<p>A remarkable testimony to the influence of Christianity is the fact that the entire Western world now divides history into <span>BC<\/span> (before Christ) and <span>AD<\/span> (<em>anno Domini,<\/em> “in the year of the Lord”). Before that method of dating became widespread in the Middle Ages, events were dated by their relation to other important events such as the founding of Rome or the beginning of a king’s reign. When a monk named Dionysius Exiguus (sixth century) invented our present method of dating, with the birth of Christ dividing history, he made a mistake in his computations. The odd result is the historical anomaly that Jesus himself was born no later than four years “before Christ.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ChronologyofJesusLife\">Chronology of Jesus’ Life<\/p>\n<h5>Birth<\/h5>\n<p>According to Matthew 2:1 Jesus was born “in the days of Herod the king.” A first-century <span>AD<\/span> historian, Josephus, recorded that Herod died in the spring of the year we identify as 4 <span>BC<\/span>. Hence, Jesus was born sometime before that, but how much before is uncertain. Luke 2:1-2 records that Jesus’ birth occurred when “Caesar Augustus,” the Roman emperor, decreed that a census, or enrollment, should be taken throughout the nation. “This was the first census taken when Quirinius was governor of Syria” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Those statements raise two questions: When was such a census taken, and when was Quirinius governor of Syria? Neither question has received a completely satisfying answer.<\/p>\n<p>Census documents discovered in Egypt, together with earlier references, suggest that such enrollments were held every 14 years. That would put a census roughly in 8 or 9 <span>BC<\/span>. In view of the time needed to carry out the census (which required a person to travel to his birthplace), the birth of Jesus may have been somewhat later than the actual year of the decree (perhaps 7 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Josephus recorded that Quirinius became governor of Syria in <span>AD<\/span> 6, rather late as a date for Jesus’ birth. But some scholars have argued from ancient inscriptions that Quirinius also served in Syria as a special legate of the emperor Augustus before 6 <span>BC<\/span>. That could be the period referred to in Luke 2:2. Why did Luke choose to cite Quirinius instead of the regular governor of Syria at that time? Perhaps by so doing he could provide a more exact date for the birth of Jesus, since Quirinius was in authority for a shorter time than the regular governor of Syria.<\/p>\n<p>A reasonable conclusion is that Jesus was born about 7 or 6 <span>BC<\/span>. That fits with Matthew 2:16, which seems to say that Jesus was born at least two years before Herod’s death in 4 <span>BC<\/span>. No clear evidence exists concerning the day and month of his birth. Celebration of December 25 as Christmas originated in the fourth century, probably as a Christian alternative to the pagan winter solstice festival (Saturnalia).<\/p>\n<h5>The Beginning of Public Ministry<\/h5>\n<p>Luke 3:23 says that Jesus, “when he began his ministry, was about thirty years of age”; since the age given is only approximate, he may have been two or three years older or younger (cf. the pseudepigraphal Testament of Levi 2:2; 12:5). If exactly 30 is added to the suggested date of birth, one gets <span>AD<\/span> 24. That date cannot be right, because Jesus’ ministry began after John the Baptist appears; Luke 3:1-3 dates John’s public appearance precisely in “the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberias Caesar” while Pilate was procurator (governor) over Judea. Pilate governed from <span>AD<\/span> 26 to 36, and the 15th year of Tiberius was most likely <span>AD<\/span> 27. Therefore Jesus did not begin his public ministry before <span>AD<\/span> 27. If only a short time elapsed between the beginning of John’s ministry and the beginning of Jesus’ ministry, then Jesus probably began in <span>AD<\/span> 27 or 28 when he was approximately 33 years old.<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus’ Death<\/h5>\n<p>All four Gospel records seem to imply that Jesus ate the Last Supper with his disciples on Thursday evening, was crucified on Friday, and rose from the dead early Sunday morning (Mt 28:1; Mk 16:1; Lk 24:1). The claim that Jesus rose on the third day (1 Cor 15:4) comes from the Jewish custom of counting a part of the day as a whole day. According to Matthew (26:19), Mark (14:12), and Luke (22:15), the Last Supper was the Passover meal, a yearly celebration of Israel’s escape from Egypt (Ex 12–15). But according to John 13:1 and 19:14, the Passover meal had not yet been eaten on Friday; hence the Last Supper in John was not the Passover meal.<\/p>\n<p>No completely satisfying solution to the apparent discrepancy has been put forward. Some scholars suggest plausibly that the use of two different calendars was responsible. According to that theory, Jesus was following a calendar that placed the Passover meal on Thursday night. Temple officials, on the other hand, followed an alternate calendar that placed the killing of sacrificial victims on the next day. John may have used the second system to emphasize the fact that Christ was offered as the Passover sacrifice (cf. Jn 19:36; 1 Cor 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>To find out how long Jesus’ public ministry lasted and thus the year in which he died, one can turn to time references in John’s Gospel. John referred to at least three Passovers (2:13; 6:4; 13:1) and possibly four (5:1). Since the Passover was a yearly feast, the ministry of Jesus would have lasted at least two and possibly three years. In Matthew, Mark, and Luke the Friday of Jesus’ death occurred on the 15th of the Jewish month Nisan (which overlaps March and April). According to John, Jesus died on 14 Nisan. The question is: In which years from 26 to 36 (when Pilate was procurator in Judea) did 14 or 15 Nisan fall on a Friday? The answer is <span>AD<\/span> 27, 29, 30, and 33. Of those, the year 27 is too early and 33 is probably too late. Thus Jesus was probably crucified in 29 or 30, his public ministry lasted two or three years, and he was 35 or 36 years old when he died.<\/p>\n<h4>Events from <span>AD<\/span> 30 to 50<\/h4>\n<p>Acts is the only NT book that records how much time elapsed between Jesus’ death and his ascension: “To them he presented himself alive after his passion by many proofs, appearing to them during forty days, and speaking of the kingdom of God” (Acts 1:3, <span>rsv<\/span>). The next key event after the ascension of Jesus into heaven was Pentecost (Acts 2:1). Pentecost, the Greek word for “fiftieth,” referred to a celebration of the Feast of Weeks\/Harvest (cf. Ex 34:22; Dt 16:9-12) 50 days after the Passover. Since Jesus was crucified during the Passover season, the Pentecost of Acts 2:1, during which the disciples were filled with the Holy Spirit, took place in <span>AD<\/span> 29 or 30, some 50 days after the Crucifixion and about 10 days after the Ascension.<\/p>\n<p>After that, events of the early chapters of Acts are hard to date because no precise statements are made about the amount of time between various events. Therefore, the usual method for dating events of the apostolic age is first to find at least one event that can be dated with relative certainty from sources outside the NT; one then dates events before and after that event by figuring out how much time elapsed between them. Sometimes Acts records how much time passed between two events; usually it does not, so dating can only be approximate.<\/p>\n<p>One pivotal starting point is the great famine prophesied by Agabus, which befell Palestine during the reign of the Roman emperor Claudius (Acts 11:28-29). Josephus, who was alive at the time, gives enough information to locate the famine sometime between the years 46 and 48. We also know from the Mishnah, a collection of Jewish laws, that the autumn of 47 to the autumn of 48 was a sabbatical year, when the Jews let the land rest and harvested nothing (cf. Lv 25:2-7). That could have aggravated and prolonged a famine, but one cannot be sure how early the famine started; some scholars propose 46 and some 47.<\/p>\n<p>At first, it seems peculiar that Luke, the author of Acts, should have recorded that famine (Acts 11:28) before recording the death of Herod Agrippa (12:20-23). From facts reported by Josephus, the death of Herod (a grandson of Herod the Great) can be dated in <span>AD<\/span> 44, probably in the spring. That means that Herod must have died several years before the famine Luke recorded earlier. Some scholars think that Luke simply got his chronological facts wrong. Others see Acts 12:1-24 as a kind of flashback to bring the history of the church in Jerusalem up to date. Such a practice was common among ancient historians, who often followed one source up to a suitable stopping point before moving on to another source. To charge Luke with inaccurate dating, it is argued, is to misunderstand the techniques of historical writing he was using.<\/p>\n<p>Since Herod Agrippa died in <span>AD<\/span> 44 (Acts 12:23), the apostle James, whom Herod put to death with the sword (v 2), must have died soon before 44, perhaps during the Passover season of 43 (v 3). The apostle Peter’s imprisonment and his miraculous escape (vv 3-17) also belong to that period.<\/p>\n<p>When the Christians of Antioch decided to send relief to the Christians in Jerusalem in the midst of the great famine (Acts 11:29), Barnabas and Paul were appointed to transport the money to Jerusalem. That was Paul’s second visit to Jerusalem after his conversion. The first visit is recorded in Acts 9:26-30. The third comes in Acts 15 when Paul and Barnabas were sent to discuss with the apostles and elders whether gentile converts to Christianity had to be circumcised. How one dates the first and third visits to Jerusalem, as well as Paul’s conversion, depends on how those Jerusalem visits are related to those reported in Paul’s letter to the Galatians.<\/p>\n<p>The basic problem, which still divides NT scholars, is this: In Galatians 1:15–2:10 Paul recounted that his conversion was followed by two visits to Jerusalem, one three years after his conversion (1:18) and one 14 years after that (2:1-10). All scholars agree that the first visit three years after his conversion is the same as the first visit recorded in Acts 9:26-30. Answers differ, however, to the question of whether Galatians 2:1-10 refers to the second (famine) visit to Jerusalem in Acts 11:30 (in which case the third visit of Acts 15 is the one omitted from Galatians) or whether Galatians 2:1-10 refers to the visit in Acts 15 (in which case the famine visit was the one omitted from Galatians).<\/p>\n\n<p>Those who favor the first reconstruction offer six arguments: (1) The reason Paul gave such a rigorous account of his comings and goings in Galatians 1:15-24 was to show that he did not get his gospel from men, nor was he taught it (1:12). In other words, his visits to the Jerusalem apostles were not for the purpose of receiving his gospel. If that is so, for Paul to omit the second Jerusalem visit would jeopardize his integrity and his authority with the Galatians. The first reconstruction avoids that difficulty; omission of a third Jerusalem visit from Galatians 2:1-10 could mean that it had not yet happened when Galatians was written. (2) Galatians 2:1-10 pictures a private meeting between Paul and Barnabas on one hand and the “pillar” apostles on the other. But the meeting in Acts 15 was public and before the whole church. Hence Galatians 2:1-10 more likely refers to a private meeting during the visit of Acts 11:30, which Galatians does not record. (3) Paul’s eagerness to give to the poor mentioned in Galatians 2:10 connects naturally with the second Jerusalem visit, when he was in fact delivering relief to the poor (Acts 11:30). (4) If Galatians 2 recorded the same trip as Acts 15, one would expect some mention of the decision reached by the Jerusalem Council, especially since that decision related directly to the problem of circumcision that Paul was handling in his Letter to the Galatians. (5) Further, it seems unlikely that the Jerusalem Council preceded the event of Galatians 2:11-21, when Peter was rebuked by Paul for withdrawing from fellowship with gentile believers; that incident could hardly have happened so soon after the issue of gentile status in the church had been settled in Jerusalem. (6) According to Galatians 1:6, the letter was written “quickly” after Paul had established the Galatian churches. That makes sense if Galatians was written soon after the first missionary journey, hence just before the Jerusalem Council of Acts 15; that would make Galatians Paul’s first letter.<\/p>\n<p>Scholars who favor the second reconstruction offer four arguments: (1) The main purpose of Paul’s visit in Galatians 2:1-10 appears to be the same as that in Acts 15:1-20; both dealt with the issue of whether circumcision should be required of gentile converts (Gal 2:3-5; Acts 15:1, 5). That similarity is obvious, but there is no such explicit similarity between Galatians 2 and Acts 11:30. (2) On the basis of form and content Galatians is similar to Romans and to 1 and 2 Corinthians; it would thus seem to come from the same period—considerably later than the Jerusalem Council. If so, it is likely that Paul would have included a reference to the Jerusalem Council (namely Gal 2:1-10) in his recollections, since its outcome supported his own stance on circumcision set forth in the letter. (3) Acts 11:30 pictures Barnabas as the leader of the Barnabas\/Paul team, since his name is given first place (as in Acts 12:25; 13:1-2, 7; cf. 11:25-26). But in the description Paul gives of the visit in Galatians 2, he sees himself as the leader of the team. Since Acts does picture Paul as the leader from the time of the first missionary journey (Acts 13:9, 13, 43, 46, 50), including the third Jerusalem visit (15:2), it is more likely that Galatians 2 records the trip of Acts 15. (4) Finally, in Galatians 2:7-8 Paul was recognized as an apostle to the Gentiles with a standing equal to that of Peter. But if Galatians 2 recorded the events of Acts 11:30 and the first missionary journey had not yet occurred, the “pillar” apostles could hardly have recognized Paul’s authority as apostle to the Gentiles. It is more likely that Galatians 2 followed the first missionary journey, just as Acts 15 followed the first missionary journey in Acts, and that both refer to the same event.<\/p>\n<p>The significance of those arguments for chronology is that, according to the first view, Paul’s conversion came 17 years before the famine visit of Acts 11:30 (cf. Gal 1:18; 2:1). According to the second view, Paul’s conversion took place 17 years before the Jerusalem Council in Acts 15. The difference amounts to only one year, however.<\/p>\n<p>It is helpful to consider one more date that can be fixed with high probability—namely, Paul’s arrival in Corinth on his second missionary journey (Acts 18:1). On the second missionary journey (15:40–18:22), Paul and Silas set out on land through Syria, Cilicia, Phrygia, and Galatia, visiting churches founded on the first missionary journey. They came to Troas, then passed over to Philippi and continued down the coast through Thessalonica and Berea. Paul went on to Athens before arriving at Corinth. From Acts 18:12 we know that Gallio was a proconsul in Corinth while Paul was there. An inscription discovered at nearby Delphi indicates that in all likelihood Gallio’s term of office was from mid-51 to mid-52. The incident recorded in Acts 18:12-17 probably occurred at the beginning of Gallio’s term, since the Jews hoped to get a ruling against Paul from their new proconsul. Not long after that, Paul left Corinth, probably in the summer or autumn of 52. According to Acts 18:11 Paul had spent 18 months in Corinth; that means that he probably arrived in the early months of 50 or the end of 49. That arrival date is confirmed by Acts 18:2, which says that Aquila and Priscilla had only recently been exiled from Rome when Paul came to Corinth. A fifth-century historian, Orosius, dated the edict of Claudius expelling the Jews from Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 49. Therefore, Paul and Aquila and Priscilla probably arrived close together late in 49 or early in 50. Early in his 18-month stay Paul wrote his First and Second Letters to the Thessalonians.<\/p>\n<p>The two fixed dates, then, are 46 or 47 for the famine visit (Acts 11:30) and late 49 or early 50 for Paul’s arrival in Corinth (Acts 18:1). Taking into account the time gaps mentioned in Galatians 1:18 and 2:1, as well as the supposition that the first missionary journey lasted about a year, the two reconstructions are presented in the following table. Keep in mind that they are approximations and that they reflect the ancient custom of counting a part of a year as a whole year.<\/p>\n\n<h4>Events from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 70<\/h4>\n<p>Acts 24:27 describes an event that helps us date events in the rest of the book, namely, Porcius Festus’s replacement of Felix as the governor of Judea. A careful analysis of the evidence given by Eusebius, a fourth-century historian, leads to the probable conclusion that Felix was replaced in the summer of 59.<\/p>\n<p>Working backward from that date, Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem (Acts 21:33) must have occurred in 57, some two years before the coming of Festus. More precisely, Paul’s arrest probably occurred in the late spring or summer of 57; Paul’s goal (20:16) was to arrive in Jerusalem by Pentecost of that year, and Pentecost occurred at the end of May. He was not long in the city before he was arrested.<\/p>\n<p>The Passover festival, 50 days before Pentecost, was celebrated by Paul with the church in Philippi (Acts 20:6). That would have been April 7–14, <span>AD<\/span> 57. Only after the feast did he continue his hurried journey to Caesarea and Jerusalem (20:6–21:16). Before his Passover visit to Philippi, Paul had spent three months in Greece (20:3). Allowing some time for him to travel through Macedonia and visit the Thessalonians and Bereans, those three months were probably the winter months of 56–57 (Acts 20:3; cf. 1 Cor 16:6). No doubt they were spent in the main church of Greece, Corinth, and were used in part for the writing of the Letter to the Romans.<\/p>\n<p>Between Paul’s departure from Corinth on the second missionary journey (Acts 18:18) in the autumn of 51 and his arrival in Corinth on the third missionary journey (20:2) in the late winter of 56 are five years of activities that cannot be given exact dates. Paul said that he worked during three of those years in Ephesus (20:31; cf. 19:1–20:1). With enough time allowed for the travels before and after, that stay at Ephesus probably lasted from 52 or 53 to the summer of 55 or 56 (cf. 1 Cor 16:8). During his long stay in Ephesus, Paul wrote his First Letter to the Corinthians. Then, on his way to Corinth in 56, he wrote 2 Corinthians from Macedonia.<\/p>\n<p>Festus arrived as governor in the summer of 59, after Paul had been in prison in Caesarea for two years. Within a matter of days, Paul was tried before Festus (Acts 25:1-12). Not wanting to be remanded to the Jewish authorities, Paul appealed to Caesar (v 12), which meant that he would go to Rome. The account in Acts gives no hint of a delay, so the voyage most likely began in the summer or fall of 59 (27:2).<\/p>\n<p>Luke reported that when Paul the prisoner got to Fair Havens on the island of Crete, the weather had become dangerous for sea travel “because the fast had already gone by” (Acts 27:8-9). One ancient writer said that sailing became dangerous between mid-September and mid-November, and after that, impossible until spring. The fast referred to was no doubt the one in preparation for the Day of Atonement, which in the year 59 fell on October 5. It is not surprising that, 14 days after leaving Fair Havens, the ship in which Paul was traveling was wrecked on the coast of Malta, south of Sicily (vv 27-44). Three months later Paul set sail for Rome again in a ship that had spent the winter at Malta (28:11). Soon he was welcomed into Rome by Christians who came out to meet him (v 15). Thus Paul arrived in Rome in the early part of <span>AD<\/span> 60. The book of Acts closes with the remark that “For two whole years Paul stayed there in his own rented house” (v 30, <span>niv<\/span>). The NT does not report the outcome of his trial. During that period, according to the traditional view, he wrote Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon.<\/p>\n<p>Eusebius wrote, “Tradition has it that after defending himself the Apostle was again sent on the ministry of preaching, and coming a second time to the same city suffered martyrdom under Nero.” Nero, who was the Roman emperor from 54 to 68, put to death a multitude of Christians in Rome soon after a disastrous fire in July of 64, according to the Roman historian Tacitus. A number of early Christian writings (e.g., Clement) seem to indicate that Peter and Paul were both killed in Rome during that savage persecution. If so, and if Eusebius was right, then Paul may have spent the two years from 62 to 64 freely ministering back in the eastern provinces. Many conservative scholars date Paul’s First Letter to Timothy and his Letter to Titus from that period. Written from Rome shortly before Paul’s martyrdom in 64, 2 Timothy was probably his last letter (2 Tm 2:9; 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem, within three years after Paul had been carried off to Rome, James the brother of Jesus was stoned to death by the Jewish authorities. According to Josephus, that occurred in 62. Not long afterward, according to Eusebius, the church in Jerusalem received a prophecy warning them to leave that doomed city and settle in Pella, one of the cities of the Decapolis (“ten cities”) east of the Jordan. Thus when war broke out between the Jews and the Romans in 66, the Christians for the most part escaped its fury. That war ended in 70 with the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (cf. Mk 13:2; Lk 21:24).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Apostle, Apostleship; Age; “Date” under each NT book; First Jewish Revolt; Genealogy of Jesus Christ; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (New Testament) Branch of biblical studies that attempts to discover the sequence of NT events and the amount of time that elapsed between them. Chronology is essential to historians, whose task it is to determine the causes and effects of past events. Generally, for a historian’s purpose, assigning absolute dates is less important than knowing the sequence of events that may have influenced each other. Very few NT happenings, in fact, can be given exact dates. A rema...","summary_en":"CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (New Testament) Branch of biblical studies that attempts to discover the sequence of NT events and the amount of time that elapsed between them. Chronology is essential to historians, whose task it is to determine the causes and effects of past events. Generally, for a historian’s purpose, assigning absolute dates is less important than knowing the sequence of events that may have influenced each other. Very few NT happenings, in fact, can be given exact dates. A rema...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":7189,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter to the Colossians","title_en":"Letter to the Colossians","content_ro":"<h3>COLOSSIANS, Letter to the<\/h3>\n<p>NT epistle, one of four “prison letters” attributed to the apostle Paul. As with Ephesians, Philippians, and Philemon, Paul said he was in prison when he wrote Colossians (Col 4:3, 10; cf. Eph 3:1; 4:1; 6:20; Phil 1:12-14; Phlm 1:9-10). He sent three of the letters to churches in Asia Minor and linked them with his colleague, Tychicus (Col 4:7-9; Eph 6:21-22). That seems to indicate that he wrote them at approximately the same time and that Tychicus delivered them.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Though the tradition that Paul wrote Colossians stands on solid ground, many scholars today debate its authorship. Reasons for their doubts fall into two main categories—theology and style.<\/p>\n<p>First, some scholars question Paul’s authorship on theological grounds. Development of certain major theological themes in Colossians differs from the way they are set forth in the undisputed letters of Paul. In Colossians the doctrine of Christ is developed on the basis of a hymn about Christ in 1:15-20. There he is seen as the “firstborn of all creation”; all things owe both their origin and continuing existence to him. In him resides all the fullness of deity. His death is interpreted not as a victory over sin, law, and death, but as a triumph over the cosmic authorities and powers.<\/p>\n<p>To some scholars that suggests that the Christology in Colossians is much more “exalted” than in any of the undisputed letters. Yet Paul characteristically regarded Christ as highly exalted. He declared Christ to be creator of all things (1 Cor 8:6) and set forth his lordship over the whole cosmic order by citing another hymn (Phil 2:6-11). Further, the kind of statements made about Christ in Colossians was demanded by the situation that had arisen in the city of Colosse. The heresy that had broken into the congregation required such statements.<\/p>\n<p>Colossians also appears to teach doctrines about “the last things” and baptism that are somewhat different from the doctrines in the undisputed letters. In Corinthians, Paul based his teaching about the last things on the Jewish doctrine of the “two ages.” Judaism taught that in “this age” the world is under the tyranny of the evil powers, but that in “the age to come” God would set it free. In contrast, Paul’s teaching was unique in holding that the age to come had already come in the advent of Christ—though not in its fullness. Paul saw the time between the first and second advents of Christ as a period of conflict. Christ “must reign until he has put all his enemies under his feet” (1 Cor 15:25). Christ by his mission is liberating the present age from the evil powers, but the conflict will not end until his second coming. Therefore Christians live in hope of his future appearing. That future element of hope is not stressed in Colossians (though see 3:1-4); rather, the emphasis is on a hope already present in heaven (1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The doctrine of baptism in Colossians has been influenced by the stress on the realized aspect of hope. In his Letter to the Romans, Paul taught that baptized Christians live by faith in the resurrected Lord and are filled with hope for their future resurrection (Rom 6:1-11). In Colossians he declared that baptized believers have not only died with Christ but have already been raised with him (Col 2:12-13; 3:1). The hope for the future is not for resurrection but for the manifestation of the life that is already hidden with Christ in God (3:2-3). Further, in Romans Paul stated that in baptism Christians have died to sin, so they no longer need serve it. Colossians, on the other hand, states that in Christ, Christians died to what can literally be translated as the “rudiments of the universe” (2:20). Many interpret that phrase to mean the basic religious teaching of the world. In Colossians, however, a strong case can be made that the phrase means “the elemental spirits of the universe” (<span>rsv<\/span>). In either case, the emphasis, if not the meaning, differs from Romans.<\/p>\n<p>Such theological matters have led many to believe that Paul could not have written the Letter to the Colossians. Rather, they see the letter as the product of a disciple of Paul who wrote at a later time. It should be noted, however, that the differences are of perspective or emphasis, not differences that result in contradiction.<\/p>\n<p>The second reason for questioning Paul’s authorship of Colossians is literary, pertaining to vocabulary and style. The brief letter uses 34 words that occur nowhere else in the NT. Also, common Pauline terms are absent from passages where they might logically be expected. Further, the style of the letter, though similar to Ephesians, is notably different from other undisputed letters of Paul. In those letters the thoughts are usually developed in an argumentative style similar to the discussions of the Jewish scribes. Colossians is marked by stylistic features that one finds in hymns, liturgies, and early Jewish and Christian catechisms. But some obvious differences in theological perspective and literary style do not force one to conclude that someone other than Paul wrote Colossians.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>The date of Colossians depends on where Paul was imprisoned when he wrote. Traditionally scholars have held that all four “prison letters” came from Rome. If so, Paul would have written them between <span>AD<\/span> 60 and 62.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts indicates three places where Paul was imprisoned: Philippi, Caesarea, and Rome. Paul, writing 2 Corinthians before either of the last two imprisonments, suggested that he had already been in prison many times (2 Cor 11:23). Ephesus is a likely place for one of those imprisonments (cf. Acts 19–20; 1 Cor 15:32; 2 Cor 1:8-10). Consequently, an increasing number of scholars name that city as the probable place where Paul wrote the prison letters. If that is correct, Paul wrote Colossians sometime between <span>AD<\/span> 52 and 55. But the general consensus is that all the Prison Epistles were written in Rome, thus leading to <span>AD<\/span> 60–62 as the date of Colossians.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>To identify the teaching that endangered the church at Colosse is a difficult task. The problem is not insufficient data but the opposite. Historical research has uncovered a wealth of information about the religious beliefs and practices that proliferated in the first-century Roman world. Asia Minor was a particularly fertile region for religions. Many people even belonged to more than one religious sect, and it was common to select ideas and practices of several religions. Christians were not exempt from those tendencies.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Colossian Heresy<\/h5>\n<p>Paul gave no formal definition of the Christian heresy in Colosse. Rather, he dealt with a number of issues without precisely identifying them. If one is given only the answers to a number of questions, however, it may be possible to recreate the questions from them. The reader of Colossians must attempt to define the tenets of the false teaching on the basis of Paul’s response to them.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars have concluded that the heresy rose out of the flesh-spirit dualism that became characteristic of later Greek and oriental Gnosticism. The later Gnostics taught that the material order of things is evil, so only what is free from matter is good. Other scholars, noting Paul’s injunctions against certain food laws, festivals, sabbaths, and external circumcision, have concluded that the false teaching rose out of Jewish beliefs. Since the tendency to blend a variety of ideas was so prevalent, both theories are probably true.<\/p>\n<p>Paul regarded the heretical teaching as a “philosophy” based on human tradition (2:8). His prayer for the Colossians (1:9-11) and certain other remarks (1:26-28; 2:2-3) suggest that he was countering the notion that for certain people “philosophy” led to some special, perhaps magical, understanding. That philosophy was based on “the rudiments of the universe.” This phrase is open to two main lines of interpretation. First, the basic meaning of “rudiments” is “objects that stand in a row or series,” such as the letters of the alphabet. It can readily be extended to mean rudimentary principles or basic teaching. Such is the meaning in Hebrews 5:12, where the term refers to the “first principles” of God’s Word. Second, the Greeks applied the phrase to the four physical substances they thought made up the world: earth, water, fire, and air.<\/p>\n<p>A first-century <span>BC<\/span> Greek text, referring to the followers of the philosopher Pythagorus, uses several of the same words that Paul applied to the Colossian heresy. A messenger of the highest gods carries the soul through all the elements of the world, from the lowest of earth and water to the highest. If the soul is pure, it remains in the highest element. If not, it is returned to the lower ones. The required purity is achieved by self-denial and certain cultic observances. The upper air contains the sun, moon, and stars, regarded as gods who control human destinies. In addition, the atmosphere around the earth is filled with spirit powers who are to be revered. In that way, the elements of the world become associated with the gods and spirit-powers who hold all people captive and determine their fate. With the help of magical knowledge and cultic ceremonies, human beings could not only escape from the destiny imposed by the spirit powers but even manipulate them for their own advantage.<\/p>\n<p>To summarize, the phrase “rudiments of the universe” can refer either to basic religious teaching or to the spirit powers of the universe. The statements in Colossians make the latter meaning probable. Through his cross, Christ has triumphed over the rulers and authorities and has publicly exposed them (2:15). They do not rule the world order; he does (1:16-20). The divine “fullness” dwells in Christ, not in a remote deity (1:19; 2:9). The spirit powers are under the authority of Christ (2:10) and owe their existence to him (1:16). The “worshiping of angels” (a practice probably including homage paid to heavenly powers) is so wrong that it may have disastrous consequences (2:18).<\/p>\n<h5>Main Features of the Heresy<\/h5>\n<p>A major dogma of the Colossian philosophy seems to have asserted that God was remote and inaccessible. Two factors point in that direction. First, the fascination with the angels and spirit-powers just discussed seems to indicate that the remote God was accessible only through a long chain of intermediaries. Christ seems to have been regarded as one of them, perhaps enthroned above them. Second, the philosophy evidently held to a dualism that separated the high God from creation. To approach him, seekers first had to be delivered from the evil influence of the material order.<\/p>\n<p>How could human beings short-circuit or manipulate the angelic star powers who hindered them from reaching the high God? How could they be delivered from the enslaving power of matter? The philosophy evidently offered magical wisdom and insight as the answer. Through worshiping angels and observing special days and cultic practices (2:16-18), seekers could placate or please the intermediaries and get through to the divine “fullness.” By voluntary self-abasement, self-denial, and the achievement of visions (2:18, 21-23) they could escape the pull of the material order. The practice of self-denial through abstinence from food and possibly from sexual relations (“touch not” in 2:21) seems to have been limited to special seasons for attaining the “vision” of God. Otherwise, the philosophy seems to have permitted freedom to engage in libertine practices (3:5-11).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTeaching\">Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>A warning in Colossians 2:8 points to the main purpose of the Colossian letter. The readers are admonished against following anyone who “makes a prey of you by philosophy and empty deceit, according to human tradition, according to the elemental spirits of the universe, and not according to Christ” (<span>rsv<\/span>). A false teaching was settling in and threatening the health of the congregation, so Paul wrote Colossians to counter it.<\/p>\n<p>Paul approached the heresy by contrasting its teachings with the correct teaching his readers had received in the traditions previously delivered to them, probably by Epaphras (1:7; 4:12-13). God through Christ had qualified them to be uniquely his own people, his church (1:12-14). The proponents of the false teaching threatened to disqualify the Colossians from that favored position by persuading them not to hold fast to Christ, the Head of the church (2:18-19). Consequently, the traditions Paul cited mainly teach about Christ or about the church. The former are primarily related to the impressive hymn about Christ (1:15-20; referred to again in 2:9-10, the latter mainly associated with baptism).<\/p>\n<h5>Christ<\/h5>\n<p>In 1:15-20 Christ is celebrated as the preexistent Creator of all and as the divine Redeemer of all. The “all” has cosmic dimensions. It includes the earth and the heavens, the visible and the invisible, the church and the universal powers. All things, including the heavenly powers, owe their existence, sustenance, and destiny to Christ. He is not to be regarded as one of the heavenly mediaries. He is the preeminent one in whom all the fullness of God dwells (1:19; 2:9) and in whom human beings find fulfillment (2:10).<\/p>\n<p>Paul gave special attention to the significance of Christ’s death. In the hymn of Colossians 1 he explained the reconciling work of Christ by the phrase “making peace through the blood of his cross” (1:20). He contrasted the past and present experiences of the readers. Formerly they were alienated from God both in attitude and behavior. Now they are reconciled “in his body of flesh by his death” (1:21-22). As a consequence of that reconciliation, God transforms human character.<\/p>\n<p>The death of Christ not only brings about restored relationships between individuals and God, but it also liberates them from the hostile intentions of the “principalities and powers.” Those powers seem to be demonic agents who bring accusations against human beings—accusations grounded on a “certificate of indebtedness” based on ordinances (laws). Paul proclaimed to the Colossians that God had removed the ground of those accusations, nailing it to the cross (2:14), and that in the cross he had publicly exposed and triumphed over the accusers (v 15). Christ’s death was not a tragedy but a life-changing, liberating triumph over sin and evil powers.<\/p>\n<h5>The Church<\/h5>\n<p>The church is the “body” of Christ (1:18, 24), over which Christ is the Head and source of life (2:19). It is a community that the Father has qualified to participate in the heavenly inheritance with the saints; he has delivered it from the powers of the evil age and made it participate in the power of the age to come, “the kingdom of his beloved Son” (1:13). The church, therefore, should not live in fear of the “rulers” and “authorities,” but should participate in Christ’s triumph over those hostile powers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In writing to the Colossians, Paul followed a standard letter form of salutation, thanksgiving, prayer, main body, and concluding remarks. The salutation (1:1-2) carries greetings to the church from himself and Timothy. Then follows a statement of thanksgiving for the good condition of the community (1:3-8) and a prayer that the Colossians may be filled with a knowledge of God’s will, which will result in worthy conduct (1:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>The first part of the body of the letter summons the Colossians to praise and then quotes and applies the great hymn about Christ (1:12-23). Specifically, the first part begins with a confessional thanksgiving to the Father for calling them to be his own unique people (1:12-14). A hymn follows, celebrating Christ as the sovereign Creator and Redeemer of all that exists (1:15-20). The Colossians are participants in the results of Christ’s reconciling ministry (1:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>The second part of the body of the letter describes Paul’s apostolic ministry (1:24–2:5). His was the task of making known the mystery of God concerning Christ to the Gentiles in general (1:24-29) and to the churches of Colosse and Laodicea in particular (2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>The third part of the body of the letter introduces Paul’s primary concern for the Colossian congregation: they are to follow the received tradition about Christ (that is, the teachings about Christ they had first accepted), and not to fall prey to the current false teaching (2:6-23). They are to walk in the light of the received tradition (vv 6-7), and they are warned against the false philosophy (v 8). The hymn of 1:15-20 is again referred to, here stressing Christ’s divine lordship (2:9-10) and proclaiming his victory over the principalities and powers (vv 11-15). Because of such a Christ, the Colossians are exhorted not to submit to the regulations and tenets of the false teaching (vv 16-23).<\/p>\n<p>The fourth part of the body of the letter summons the church to a life befitting Christians (3:1–4:6). Those who have been raised with Christ are to seek the things that are above (3:1-4). That means they are to put off the traits and attitudes listed in a catalog of vices (vv 5-11) and to put on the traits and attitudes listed in a catalog of virtues (vv 12-14). In worship they are to conduct themselves in a unified and orderly way (3:15–4:1). The so-called “household code” concerning marriage, children, and slavery (3:18–4:1) appears in a context dealing with worship (3:15-17; 4:2-6). The most pressing admonitions in the code are addressed to wives and slaves, groups that especially would crave the equality promised in the gospel (Gal 3:28; note Col 3:11). So Paul probably used the code to call for order in the public worship service.<\/p>\n<p>Paul concluded his letter by first stating that Tychicus and the recently converted slave, Onesimus, would inform the church about his circumstances (4:7-9), and then added a series of greetings (vv 10-18).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Apostle, Apostleship; Colossae, Colosse; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>COLOSSIANS, Letter to the<\/h3>\n<p>NT epistle, one of four “prison letters” attributed to the apostle Paul. As with Ephesians, Philippians, and Philemon, Paul said he was in prison when he wrote Colossians (Col 4:3, 10; cf. Eph 3:1; 4:1; 6:20; Phil 1:12-14; Phlm 1:9-10). He sent three of the letters to churches in Asia Minor and linked them with his colleague, Tychicus (Col 4:7-9; Eph 6:21-22). That seems to indicate that he wrote them at approximately the same time and that Tychicus delivered them.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Though the tradition that Paul wrote Colossians stands on solid ground, many scholars today debate its authorship. Reasons for their doubts fall into two main categories—theology and style.<\/p>\n<p>First, some scholars question Paul’s authorship on theological grounds. Development of certain major theological themes in Colossians differs from the way they are set forth in the undisputed letters of Paul. In Colossians the doctrine of Christ is developed on the basis of a hymn about Christ in 1:15-20. There he is seen as the “firstborn of all creation”; all things owe both their origin and continuing existence to him. In him resides all the fullness of deity. His death is interpreted not as a victory over sin, law, and death, but as a triumph over the cosmic authorities and powers.<\/p>\n<p>To some scholars that suggests that the Christology in Colossians is much more “exalted” than in any of the undisputed letters. Yet Paul characteristically regarded Christ as highly exalted. He declared Christ to be creator of all things (1 Cor 8:6) and set forth his lordship over the whole cosmic order by citing another hymn (Phil 2:6-11). Further, the kind of statements made about Christ in Colossians was demanded by the situation that had arisen in the city of Colosse. The heresy that had broken into the congregation required such statements.<\/p>\n<p>Colossians also appears to teach doctrines about “the last things” and baptism that are somewhat different from the doctrines in the undisputed letters. In Corinthians, Paul based his teaching about the last things on the Jewish doctrine of the “two ages.” Judaism taught that in “this age” the world is under the tyranny of the evil powers, but that in “the age to come” God would set it free. In contrast, Paul’s teaching was unique in holding that the age to come had already come in the advent of Christ—though not in its fullness. Paul saw the time between the first and second advents of Christ as a period of conflict. Christ “must reign until he has put all his enemies under his feet” (1 Cor 15:25). Christ by his mission is liberating the present age from the evil powers, but the conflict will not end until his second coming. Therefore Christians live in hope of his future appearing. That future element of hope is not stressed in Colossians (though see 3:1-4); rather, the emphasis is on a hope already present in heaven (1:5).<\/p>\n<p>The doctrine of baptism in Colossians has been influenced by the stress on the realized aspect of hope. In his Letter to the Romans, Paul taught that baptized Christians live by faith in the resurrected Lord and are filled with hope for their future resurrection (Rom 6:1-11). In Colossians he declared that baptized believers have not only died with Christ but have already been raised with him (Col 2:12-13; 3:1). The hope for the future is not for resurrection but for the manifestation of the life that is already hidden with Christ in God (3:2-3). Further, in Romans Paul stated that in baptism Christians have died to sin, so they no longer need serve it. Colossians, on the other hand, states that in Christ, Christians died to what can literally be translated as the “rudiments of the universe” (2:20). Many interpret that phrase to mean the basic religious teaching of the world. In Colossians, however, a strong case can be made that the phrase means “the elemental spirits of the universe” (<span>rsv<\/span>). In either case, the emphasis, if not the meaning, differs from Romans.<\/p>\n<p>Such theological matters have led many to believe that Paul could not have written the Letter to the Colossians. Rather, they see the letter as the product of a disciple of Paul who wrote at a later time. It should be noted, however, that the differences are of perspective or emphasis, not differences that result in contradiction.<\/p>\n<p>The second reason for questioning Paul’s authorship of Colossians is literary, pertaining to vocabulary and style. The brief letter uses 34 words that occur nowhere else in the NT. Also, common Pauline terms are absent from passages where they might logically be expected. Further, the style of the letter, though similar to Ephesians, is notably different from other undisputed letters of Paul. In those letters the thoughts are usually developed in an argumentative style similar to the discussions of the Jewish scribes. Colossians is marked by stylistic features that one finds in hymns, liturgies, and early Jewish and Christian catechisms. But some obvious differences in theological perspective and literary style do not force one to conclude that someone other than Paul wrote Colossians.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>The date of Colossians depends on where Paul was imprisoned when he wrote. Traditionally scholars have held that all four “prison letters” came from Rome. If so, Paul would have written them between <span>AD<\/span> 60 and 62.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts indicates three places where Paul was imprisoned: Philippi, Caesarea, and Rome. Paul, writing 2 Corinthians before either of the last two imprisonments, suggested that he had already been in prison many times (2 Cor 11:23). Ephesus is a likely place for one of those imprisonments (cf. Acts 19–20; 1 Cor 15:32; 2 Cor 1:8-10). Consequently, an increasing number of scholars name that city as the probable place where Paul wrote the prison letters. If that is correct, Paul wrote Colossians sometime between <span>AD<\/span> 52 and 55. But the general consensus is that all the Prison Epistles were written in Rome, thus leading to <span>AD<\/span> 60–62 as the date of Colossians.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>To identify the teaching that endangered the church at Colosse is a difficult task. The problem is not insufficient data but the opposite. Historical research has uncovered a wealth of information about the religious beliefs and practices that proliferated in the first-century Roman world. Asia Minor was a particularly fertile region for religions. Many people even belonged to more than one religious sect, and it was common to select ideas and practices of several religions. Christians were not exempt from those tendencies.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Colossian Heresy<\/h5>\n<p>Paul gave no formal definition of the Christian heresy in Colosse. Rather, he dealt with a number of issues without precisely identifying them. If one is given only the answers to a number of questions, however, it may be possible to recreate the questions from them. The reader of Colossians must attempt to define the tenets of the false teaching on the basis of Paul’s response to them.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars have concluded that the heresy rose out of the flesh-spirit dualism that became characteristic of later Greek and oriental Gnosticism. The later Gnostics taught that the material order of things is evil, so only what is free from matter is good. Other scholars, noting Paul’s injunctions against certain food laws, festivals, sabbaths, and external circumcision, have concluded that the false teaching rose out of Jewish beliefs. Since the tendency to blend a variety of ideas was so prevalent, both theories are probably true.<\/p>\n<p>Paul regarded the heretical teaching as a “philosophy” based on human tradition (2:8). His prayer for the Colossians (1:9-11) and certain other remarks (1:26-28; 2:2-3) suggest that he was countering the notion that for certain people “philosophy” led to some special, perhaps magical, understanding. That philosophy was based on “the rudiments of the universe.” This phrase is open to two main lines of interpretation. First, the basic meaning of “rudiments” is “objects that stand in a row or series,” such as the letters of the alphabet. It can readily be extended to mean rudimentary principles or basic teaching. Such is the meaning in Hebrews 5:12, where the term refers to the “first principles” of God’s Word. Second, the Greeks applied the phrase to the four physical substances they thought made up the world: earth, water, fire, and air.<\/p>\n<p>A first-century <span>BC<\/span> Greek text, referring to the followers of the philosopher Pythagorus, uses several of the same words that Paul applied to the Colossian heresy. A messenger of the highest gods carries the soul through all the elements of the world, from the lowest of earth and water to the highest. If the soul is pure, it remains in the highest element. If not, it is returned to the lower ones. The required purity is achieved by self-denial and certain cultic observances. The upper air contains the sun, moon, and stars, regarded as gods who control human destinies. In addition, the atmosphere around the earth is filled with spirit powers who are to be revered. In that way, the elements of the world become associated with the gods and spirit-powers who hold all people captive and determine their fate. With the help of magical knowledge and cultic ceremonies, human beings could not only escape from the destiny imposed by the spirit powers but even manipulate them for their own advantage.<\/p>\n<p>To summarize, the phrase “rudiments of the universe” can refer either to basic religious teaching or to the spirit powers of the universe. The statements in Colossians make the latter meaning probable. Through his cross, Christ has triumphed over the rulers and authorities and has publicly exposed them (2:15). They do not rule the world order; he does (1:16-20). The divine “fullness” dwells in Christ, not in a remote deity (1:19; 2:9). The spirit powers are under the authority of Christ (2:10) and owe their existence to him (1:16). The “worshiping of angels” (a practice probably including homage paid to heavenly powers) is so wrong that it may have disastrous consequences (2:18).<\/p>\n<h5>Main Features of the Heresy<\/h5>\n<p>A major dogma of the Colossian philosophy seems to have asserted that God was remote and inaccessible. Two factors point in that direction. First, the fascination with the angels and spirit-powers just discussed seems to indicate that the remote God was accessible only through a long chain of intermediaries. Christ seems to have been regarded as one of them, perhaps enthroned above them. Second, the philosophy evidently held to a dualism that separated the high God from creation. To approach him, seekers first had to be delivered from the evil influence of the material order.<\/p>\n<p>How could human beings short-circuit or manipulate the angelic star powers who hindered them from reaching the high God? How could they be delivered from the enslaving power of matter? The philosophy evidently offered magical wisdom and insight as the answer. Through worshiping angels and observing special days and cultic practices (2:16-18), seekers could placate or please the intermediaries and get through to the divine “fullness.” By voluntary self-abasement, self-denial, and the achievement of visions (2:18, 21-23) they could escape the pull of the material order. The practice of self-denial through abstinence from food and possibly from sexual relations (“touch not” in 2:21) seems to have been limited to special seasons for attaining the “vision” of God. Otherwise, the philosophy seems to have permitted freedom to engage in libertine practices (3:5-11).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTeaching\">Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>A warning in Colossians 2:8 points to the main purpose of the Colossian letter. The readers are admonished against following anyone who “makes a prey of you by philosophy and empty deceit, according to human tradition, according to the elemental spirits of the universe, and not according to Christ” (<span>rsv<\/span>). A false teaching was settling in and threatening the health of the congregation, so Paul wrote Colossians to counter it.<\/p>\n<p>Paul approached the heresy by contrasting its teachings with the correct teaching his readers had received in the traditions previously delivered to them, probably by Epaphras (1:7; 4:12-13). God through Christ had qualified them to be uniquely his own people, his church (1:12-14). The proponents of the false teaching threatened to disqualify the Colossians from that favored position by persuading them not to hold fast to Christ, the Head of the church (2:18-19). Consequently, the traditions Paul cited mainly teach about Christ or about the church. The former are primarily related to the impressive hymn about Christ (1:15-20; referred to again in 2:9-10, the latter mainly associated with baptism).<\/p>\n<h5>Christ<\/h5>\n<p>In 1:15-20 Christ is celebrated as the preexistent Creator of all and as the divine Redeemer of all. The “all” has cosmic dimensions. It includes the earth and the heavens, the visible and the invisible, the church and the universal powers. All things, including the heavenly powers, owe their existence, sustenance, and destiny to Christ. He is not to be regarded as one of the heavenly mediaries. He is the preeminent one in whom all the fullness of God dwells (1:19; 2:9) and in whom human beings find fulfillment (2:10).<\/p>\n<p>Paul gave special attention to the significance of Christ’s death. In the hymn of Colossians 1 he explained the reconciling work of Christ by the phrase “making peace through the blood of his cross” (1:20). He contrasted the past and present experiences of the readers. Formerly they were alienated from God both in attitude and behavior. Now they are reconciled “in his body of flesh by his death” (1:21-22). As a consequence of that reconciliation, God transforms human character.<\/p>\n<p>The death of Christ not only brings about restored relationships between individuals and God, but it also liberates them from the hostile intentions of the “principalities and powers.” Those powers seem to be demonic agents who bring accusations against human beings—accusations grounded on a “certificate of indebtedness” based on ordinances (laws). Paul proclaimed to the Colossians that God had removed the ground of those accusations, nailing it to the cross (2:14), and that in the cross he had publicly exposed and triumphed over the accusers (v 15). Christ’s death was not a tragedy but a life-changing, liberating triumph over sin and evil powers.<\/p>\n<h5>The Church<\/h5>\n<p>The church is the “body” of Christ (1:18, 24), over which Christ is the Head and source of life (2:19). It is a community that the Father has qualified to participate in the heavenly inheritance with the saints; he has delivered it from the powers of the evil age and made it participate in the power of the age to come, “the kingdom of his beloved Son” (1:13). The church, therefore, should not live in fear of the “rulers” and “authorities,” but should participate in Christ’s triumph over those hostile powers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In writing to the Colossians, Paul followed a standard letter form of salutation, thanksgiving, prayer, main body, and concluding remarks. The salutation (1:1-2) carries greetings to the church from himself and Timothy. Then follows a statement of thanksgiving for the good condition of the community (1:3-8) and a prayer that the Colossians may be filled with a knowledge of God’s will, which will result in worthy conduct (1:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>The first part of the body of the letter summons the Colossians to praise and then quotes and applies the great hymn about Christ (1:12-23). Specifically, the first part begins with a confessional thanksgiving to the Father for calling them to be his own unique people (1:12-14). A hymn follows, celebrating Christ as the sovereign Creator and Redeemer of all that exists (1:15-20). The Colossians are participants in the results of Christ’s reconciling ministry (1:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>The second part of the body of the letter describes Paul’s apostolic ministry (1:24–2:5). His was the task of making known the mystery of God concerning Christ to the Gentiles in general (1:24-29) and to the churches of Colosse and Laodicea in particular (2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>The third part of the body of the letter introduces Paul’s primary concern for the Colossian congregation: they are to follow the received tradition about Christ (that is, the teachings about Christ they had first accepted), and not to fall prey to the current false teaching (2:6-23). They are to walk in the light of the received tradition (vv 6-7), and they are warned against the false philosophy (v 8). The hymn of 1:15-20 is again referred to, here stressing Christ’s divine lordship (2:9-10) and proclaiming his victory over the principalities and powers (vv 11-15). Because of such a Christ, the Colossians are exhorted not to submit to the regulations and tenets of the false teaching (vv 16-23).<\/p>\n<p>The fourth part of the body of the letter summons the church to a life befitting Christians (3:1–4:6). Those who have been raised with Christ are to seek the things that are above (3:1-4). That means they are to put off the traits and attitudes listed in a catalog of vices (vv 5-11) and to put on the traits and attitudes listed in a catalog of virtues (vv 12-14). In worship they are to conduct themselves in a unified and orderly way (3:15–4:1). The so-called “household code” concerning marriage, children, and slavery (3:18–4:1) appears in a context dealing with worship (3:15-17; 4:2-6). The most pressing admonitions in the code are addressed to wives and slaves, groups that especially would crave the equality promised in the gospel (Gal 3:28; note Col 3:11). So Paul probably used the code to call for order in the public worship service.<\/p>\n<p>Paul concluded his letter by first stating that Tychicus and the recently converted slave, Onesimus, would inform the church about his circumstances (4:7-9), and then added a series of greetings (vv 10-18).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Apostle, Apostleship; Colossae, Colosse; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"COLOSSIANS, Letter to the NT epistle, one of four “prison letters” attributed to the apostle Paul. As with Ephesians, Philippians, and Philemon, Paul said he was in prison when he wrote Colossians (Col 4:3, 10; cf. Eph 3:1; 4:1; 6:20; Phil 1:12-14; Phlm 1:9-10). He sent three of the letters to churches in Asia Minor and linked them with his colleague, Tychicus (Col 4:7-9; Eph 6:21-22). That seems to indicate that he wrote them at approximately the same time and that Tychicus delivered them. P...","summary_en":"COLOSSIANS, Letter to the NT epistle, one of four “prison letters” attributed to the apostle Paul. As with Ephesians, Philippians, and Philemon, Paul said he was in prison when he wrote Colossians (Col 4:3, 10; cf. Eph 3:1; 4:1; 6:20; Phil 1:12-14; Phlm 1:9-10). He sent three of the letters to churches in Asia Minor and linked them with his colleague, Tychicus (Col 4:7-9; Eph 6:21-22). That seems to indicate that he wrote them at approximately the same time and that Tychicus delivered them. P...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":7558,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"First Letter to the Corinthians","title_en":"First Letter to the Corinthians","content_ro":"<h3>CORINTHIANS, First Letter to the<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date and Origin<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>There is no doubt about who wrote 1 Corinthians, for all scholars agree that the apostle Paul wrote it on his third missionary journey while he was living in Ephesus. By this time Paul was a mature, middle-aged (perhaps 55 years old) missionary, fully seasoned from planting churches around a quarter of the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateandOrigin\">Date and Origin<\/p>\n<p>Paul worked in Corinth from about <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 52. After a brief stay in Jerusalem, he returned to his missionary work, this time at Ephesus (Acts 19), where he ministered for three years (<span>AD<\/span> 53–55\/56). During this period, he wrote at least three letters to Corinth and made a visit as well. His first letter, often called “the previous letter,” is referred to in 1 Corinthians 5:9-11. We know from this reference that the letter was misunderstood, but we know little of its content, for it has been lost.<\/p>\n<p>Sometime in <span>AD<\/span> 55, after hearing reports from Chloe’s household (1 Cor 1:11), who were probably members of Chloe’s house church, he dictated a second letter to Corinth, our 1 Corinthians. This was probably sent off in the hands of Stephanas, Fortunatus, and Achaicus (16:17). Paul would later write a third letter to Corinth, called “the letter of tears” (2 Cor 2:2-3), and then finally 2 Corinthians.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Corinth was a seaport city, destroyed by the Romans in 146 <span>BC<\/span> and rebuilt in 46 <span>BC<\/span> by Julius Caesar. After 27 <span>BC<\/span>, it was the Roman capital of Achaia, where the proconsul had his residence (Acts 18:12). The city itself was really three cities: the port of Cenchrea, about eight miles (13 kilometers) to the east, where ships from the Aegean would unload; the port of Lechaion, about a mile (1.6 kilometers) to the west on the Gulf of Corinth, where the ships would be reloaded, their goods having been transported in wagons over the isthmus and the ships on rollers; and the city itself on the high ground in between.<\/p>\n<p>The acropolis of the city, on top of the steep, high Acrocorinth, contained the temple of Aphrodite, where 1,000 female slaves were dedicated to the service of this goddess of love. This distinctive cult of Corinth was dedicated to the veneration of Aphrodite, goddess of love, beauty, and fertility, who is identified with the Roman Venus. Associated with such religious practices was a general moral degradation. Corinthian morals were notoriously corrupt, even when compared with pagan Rome. Down in the city was the synagogue (Acts 18:4); for while the city as a Roman colony was largely populated by Italians, it had attracted other peoples from the Mediterranean, among whom were the Jews.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTeaching\">Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The main concern of Paul in 1 Corinthians was the unity of the church. There was a self-centeredness in Corinth that resulted in building cliques within the church, in flaunting knowledge and liberty in the face of others scandalized by it, and in selfish displays in the worship services.<\/p>\n<p>Two other major concerns also surface in the book. First, along with other pagan practices, the lax sexual ethics of Corinth had influenced the church; Paul needed to erect some barriers. Second, there was a problem in accepting the resurrection of the body; Paul realized that this issue had implications for the core of the faith and vigorously affirmed the resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>Both of these latter two areas, as well as aspects of the unity issue (particularly their concern with knowledge), have been identified by some scholars as Gnostic motifs, leading to the conclusion that Paul was opposing a Gnostic party in Corinth. Careful examination reveals, however, that while some of the elements floating in the Corinthian milieu would later contribute to the development of Gnosticism, it would be anachronistic to call them gnostic. While recognizing protognostic ideas in the Corinthian situation, it is important to keep interpretation within the first-century context.<\/p>\n<p>Thus, the focus of Paul’s concern was the church, its unity and purity. Paul was fighting to keep this church from disintegrating into a number of competing and bickering factions divided over moral and doctrinal issues. Furthermore, he wanted to keep the focus of the church on Jesus, the exalted Lord.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting, 1:1-9<\/h5>\n<p>Paul begins with a standard greeting, followed by his usual thanksgiving prayer. Two features stand out. First, the greeting associates Sosthenes with Paul. While we cannot be sure who Sosthenes was, he was surely well known to the Corinthians; probably he was the Sosthenes whom Acts 18:17 identifies as the ruler of the synagogue, following the conversion of Crispus.<\/p>\n<p>Second, Paul stresses the Corinthians’ abilities in speech, knowledge, and spiritual gifts. They had all of these, and these were genuine, but it was precisely these good things that they were abusing. Paul’s solution is not to suppress these gifts (indeed, he thanks God for them), but to place them in a new context.<\/p>\n<h5>Report from Chloe’s People, 1:10–4:21<\/h5>\n<p>The Corinthians had made Paul, Cephas (Peter), Apollos, and even Christ into party leaders. We are not sure what each of these groups stood for, but one might guess that the Pauline group stressed Paul’s slogans of liberty; the Petrine group, the need to hold to Jewish practices; and the Apollos group, the value of philosophical understanding and oratory. Whatever they stood for, Paul is appalled that it breaks their unity. His first response is to argue that his behavior was not calculated to build a following but to point to Christ. That is, he did not insist on personally baptizing converts; who performed these acts did not matter, since they were all baptized into Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul immediately moves to the underlying issue, that of various persons wanting to show themselves better or wiser than others who did not have the insights of their party in the church. Their seeking for wisdom contradicts Paul’s preaching of the gospel.<\/p>\n<p>First, the message of a crucified Christ (1:18) made no sense within the wisdom and values of either Jews or Greeks. It demanded a whole new way of looking on life—God’s way.<\/p>\n<p>Second, God had not chosen them on the basis of their status in society; quite the contrary, he had made their only status the equal status they received from him (1:26-31).<\/p>\n<p>Third, their faith had not been based on Paul’s oratory but on the gifts of the Spirit that Paul had manifested (2:4), which had convinced them that God was acting in Paul. Thus, it was not argument that led them to God, but God’s Spirit. Therefore it was the Spirit, not human reasoning, that would continue to reveal God to them. Unless they became fools with respect to the world’s ways of reasoning, they would never be able to rethink life from the perspective of the Spirit, who gives true wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>Fourth, they were not acting on this spiritual level when they claimed Paul and others as party leaders; this activity demonstrates the evil impulse in human beings (“the flesh” or “fallen human nature”) at work since it elevates human servants rather than the God who works equally in each of them.<\/p>\n<p>Fifth, these servants were working together to build one “temple” for God based on the one foundation in Jesus Christ, that is, the church. God alone will judge how each Christian contributes to the work of building the church. But woe to the person who divides the church, for “if anyone destroys God’s temple, God will destroy him” (3:17, <span>rsv<\/span>). (Note that here the temple imagery is used collectively; the church is the temple. In chapter 6 it will be used individually; each Christian is the temple.)<\/p>\n<p>Finally, he points to their overrealized eschatology, for with their spiritual gifts (which were genuine) and vaunted wisdom (which was worldly) they claimed they were reigning with Christ (4:8-13). Paul, with ironic sarcasm, points out how different this claim is from the lifestyle of the apostles. The apostles lived like Jesus—a life of suffering, expecting exaltation later. The Corinthians were trying to have their exaltation now without crucifixion.<\/p>\n<p>Paul closes this section with an admonition. He softens his words toward some who would be responsive, urging them to copy his lifestyle. The teacher was the message (vv 14-16). Timothy will also faithfully live the truth before them. Then he threatens the “arrogant” (v 18), pointing out that he will not challenge their words but their spiritual power if he comes.<\/p>\n<h5>The Report from the Corinthian Messengers, 5:1–6:20<\/h5>\n<p>Paul now turns to three issues raised by oral reports from the messengers bearing the Corinthians’ letter to him.<\/p>\n<p>The first issue is that of church discipline (5:12-13). Paul cites a case of flagrant immorality—that of incest. This immorality was so clear (even pagans considered it immoral), that it was not a case of ignorance of Christian principles. Further, the church had taken no action but rather boasted in its tolerance, perhaps on the basis of a misunderstanding of Paul’s teaching on freedom from the law.<\/p>\n<p>Paul presents three principles in this section: (1) the primary goal of church discipline is the repentance and restoration of the offender; (2) the secondary goal of church discipline is the protection of the church (5:6-8); and (3) the church is not to seek to judge or control the actions of evil persons in the world—they are God’s responsibility—but to discipline those within the church (vv 9-13). Paul will use these principles also in the following chapters (cf. 7:12-16).<\/p>\n<p>The second issue is that of lawsuits between Christians (6:1-11). The Corinthian society was as prone to litigation as our own, and Christians did not see anything wrong in suing each other. Paul was troubled. If Christians are to judge the world, they certainly should not bring the world in to judge issues within the church. Rather than put their cases before “those who are least esteemed by the church” (6:4, <span>rsv<\/span>, i.e., pagan judges), they should decide the cases within the church.<\/p>\n<p>Paul has an even better way than bypassing the pagan courts, and that is to simply suffer the wrong (1 Cor 6:7). Applying the teaching of Jesus quite literally (Mt 5:38-42), Paul argues that it would be best to allow themselves to be defrauded. Instead, the Corinthians are willing to step on their brothers in Christ to get what they feel are their rights. This raises the issue as to whether greed is not still in their hearts (1 Cor 6:9-11). While Paul accepts people who formerly did all sorts of evil (for Jesus has cleansed them), he makes it very clear that anyone presently practicing greed or immorality is not part of the kingdom, whatever their doctrinal commitments may be.<\/p>\n<p>The final issue in this section is that of casual sexual intercourse (6:12-20). In a world where virginity was important if a woman wished to be married and where slaves in the temple of Aphrodite were available as prostitutes, prostitution was the major form of casual sex. The libertine party used two slogans: “All things are lawful for me,” a saying that may well have been derived from Paul’s teaching, and “Food is meant for the stomach and the stomach for food”—that is, since the body works this way, it must be the Creator’s purpose. Paul qualifies rather than contradicts their slogans. Freedom is subordinate to other goals (6:12, 20). The body is not made to be used as we wish, but is to be dedicated to the Lord, as the doctrine of the resurrection demonstrates (vv 13-14).<\/p>\n<p>Furthermore, sexual intercourse is an act of the whole person, unlike eating (Paul cites Gn 2:24; cf. Jesus in Mt 19:5). Therefore, this act takes a member (i.e., the person) from the body of Christ and makes him a unity with a prostitute (1 Cor 6:15-17). Thus immorality is unlike other sins that are external to the self, for it changes the self and thus defiles the body, the place where the Holy Spirit dwells. It disregards the fact that Christ has redeemed the body, and that the whole of the Christian belongs to God, not to the Christian.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Answers to the Corinthians, 7:1–16:4<\/h5>\n<p>Now Paul turns to the Corinthians’ own issues, building on the answers he has already given to questions they did not ask.<\/p>\n<p>The first issue is that of marriage (7:1-24). The slogan of the ascetic party in Corinth (perhaps a reaction against the libertines of ch 6) was “It is good for a man not to touch a woman” (7:1, <span>kjv<\/span>). The Corinthians applied this slogan to both married and unmarried, arguing that married Christians should abstain from sexual relations. Paul clarified the matter with three points. First, he said that this was totally unrealistic, for total abstinence would lead to immorality (vv 2, 7-9). Second, when people get married they no longer own their own bodies; their bodies belong to each other for their mutual benefit (vv 3-4). Sexual refusal denies a spouse what rightly belongs to him or her. Third, abstinence is allowed for limited periods by mutual agreement as a type of fast to help focus on Christ (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>While Paul will address the issue of the unmarried more fully in 7:25-40, in a side remark he indicates that he is himself content to be unmarried. But since some do not have this gift, full sexual expression in marriage is far better than fighting passion (7:7-9). Once two Christians are married, divorce is unthinkable. A clear word of Christ proves this (Mt 5:31-32; Mk 10:11-12; Lk 16:18 and parallels), so there are no exceptions (Paul either does not know of the exception clause in Mt 19:9 or he understands it as referring to something like premarital unchastity discovered before the wedding, not to adultery after the wedding). Although in some cases a Christian couple must live separately, it is always with a view to reconciliation. The teaching of Jesus does not allow him to think of the marriage as ending (1 Cor 7:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>But what if the spouse is not a Christian? Paul applies his principles to a situation for which Jesus did not leave a clear word. First, since Jesus told Christians not to divorce, even in this situation the Christian may not initiate a divorce (7:12-13). Second, since Christians are not to control or judge non-Christians (6:12-13), the Christian does not need to continue the relationship if the non-Christian insists on a divorce (7:15). Third, far from defiling the Christian (as the relationship in 6:15 does), the Christian will make the relationship holy, with positive results for the children and the possible salvation of the spouse (7:14, 16). While this is no call to remain in situations of physical or sexual abuse, it is a call to remain faithful to a mixed marriage situation.<\/p>\n<p>Paul does not believe that one normally needs to change one’s life situation to serve Christ (7:17-24). Therefore, normally each person should remain in that state of life in which he or she was when called to Christ. Paul’s examples show that he was thinking in terms of marriage or singleness, Jew (circumcision) or Gentile, slave or free, not in terms of situations that might be immoral in themselves. In the case of slaves, they can accept freedom if it becomes available, but it does not make an essential difference in their real state before God or their ability to serve Christ (vv 21-23).<\/p>\n<p>The second issue is that of the unmarried (7:25-40). Paul argues that single people and widows may marry—it is not wrong. Yet he advises them to remain single. Since all in this age is passing away, it would be good to stay single so as to avoid the extra suffering to which marriage exposes a person (vv 25-31). What is more, marriage always divides one’s attention between the Lord and the legitimate needs of the spouse. One must not abandon the spouse or ignore his or her needs in order to serve the Lord, but one can remain single so that the Lord can be the sole focus of life and devotion (vv 32-35). Finally, if one is in a situation in which marriage is expected, the person must make his own decision as to whether he should marry the woman for her sake (and perhaps that of the wider family) or whether he can and should simply care for her as a single person (vv 36-38). Paul closes this section by repeating his general principles (vv 39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The third issue Paul deals with is that of food that has been offered to idols (8:1–11:1). Most meat that was available in the marketplace came either from animals slaughtered as sacrifices in the temples or from groups of animals from which one was offered as a dedicatory sacrifice. To scrupulous Jews, all of this meat would be untouched. Furthermore, pagans invited Christians to feasts in their homes and to private feasts held in the precincts of pagan temples, where trade guilds also held feasts. Paul discusses these issues and uses them to teach wider principles of Christian conduct.<\/p>\n<p>First, love, not knowledge, is the key to correct behavior (8:1-13). Some Corinthians felt superior because they were convinced that idols had no reality (there is only one God), and therefore any food offered to them was still fit to eat. Paul again accepts their slogans, but counters with the statement, “Knowledge puffs up, but love builds up” (v 1, <span>niv<\/span>). God is not concerned with what we know or eat, but he is concerned with whether or not we love our fellow Christians. The concern is not that a fellow Christian might become enraged because one indulged, but that he or she might have a vulnerable conscience and indulge himself, even though he believed it wrong and thus in his own eyes apostasizes from the faith (i.e., rebels against Christ). Such leading astray is not love. It would be better never to eat meat than to lead a fellow Christian into sin.<\/p>\n<p>Second, he points out that one should subordinate one’s own interests to those of others, especially those of Christ and his gospel (9:1-23). Both the examples of the apostles, who expected the church to support them and their families (cf. Lk 10:5-7), and Scripture prove that Paul had the right to demand support from the Corinthians. This had not been his practice, for he had normally made tents to support his ministry, though he did accept gifts from other churches. Paul did this to prevent people from thinking he was peddling religion for profit (9:12) and for the personal satisfaction of doing more than he had to do (vv 16-17). This was part of Paul’s larger policy of subordinating his own personal preferences and interests to those of Christ and his gospel (vv 19-23).<\/p>\n<p>Third, the bravado of the strong who demonstrate their liberty with disregard of fellow Christians is spiritually dangerous (9:24–10:22). It is not who begins but who completes the Christian life that counts; therefore, it is a life of discipline, not relaxed license (9:24-27). Israel in the wilderness presents an example of failure in this regard. They had “baptism” and “the Lord’s Supper” (10:2-4), just like the church, yet most of them did not make it to the Promised Land. The reason God destroyed them was simple: they turned to sin. Likewise, the Christian has to be careful not to be so proud about faith and freedom that he becomes careless about sin and falls from the faith (v 12). On the other hand, Christians need not be fearful, for the temptation is not more powerful than they are; God has provided a way of escape, if they will take it (v 13).<\/p>\n<p>Another link between the Israelites and the Corinthians pertains to partaking of a sacrificial meal (10:14-22). In the Lord’s Supper there is a sharing of the blood and body of Christ, just as real as Israel’s sacrifices on the altar. Food offered to idols is also a sharing, not with the supposed god, but with the real demon that is behind the idol. To try to share at both tables is to provoke God’s jealousy just as Israel did (v 22).<\/p>\n<p>A summary of the discussion draws the three chapters together (10:23–11:1). Since the food is not changed by being offered to idols, and since all food really belongs to God, one may eat anything sold in the market—do not ask any questions (10:25-26). Likewise, the Christian may eat anything served at a dinner in the home of an unbeliever. However, if someone points out that the food was offered to idols, the Christian should pass it by, not because it would hurt him, but because it is an issue with the person who raised the question, and the Christian is concerned about the good of his neighbor (vv 27-30). In other words, follow Paul’s example as he patterns himself in turn after Christ, who served others rather than himself. Act so that God’s reputation and character shine through even in what one eats (v 31); try to offend no one but to benefit each person in moving him toward salvation (v 32).<\/p>\n<p>The fourth issue Paul deals with is that of order in church meetings (11:2–14:40). The Corinthians’ house churches had lively meetings, but rather than showing unity in Christ, they demonstrated selfishness. Paul had no desire to change what they did; he did want to change how they did it.<\/p>\n<p>The first problem in the meetings was the behavior of married women (11:1-16). The sign of marriage in that day was the wearing of a veil or distinctive hairstyle, as a ring is today. Women praying and delivering prophecies in church was no issue for Paul, but the women may have felt that this loosed them from their husbands (cf. Mk 12:25) and therefore was a reason to set aside their veils. Paul argues that husband and wife are intimately joined, just as humans are to God (1 Cor 11:3). Therefore as humans should not shame but glorify God, so the wife should act toward her husband. Thus, while Paul approves of ministry by women, he puts marriage first.<\/p>\n<p>The second problem in the meetings was that of making class distinctions (11:17-34). Until the weekly Lord’s Supper began to be turned into the sacrifice of the Mass in the third and fourth centuries, it was a full shared meal. Middle- and upper-class Christians could come earlier to the church gatherings and also provide better food and drink for themselves. Following the customs of pagan clubs, they had no scruples against starting early and feasting as befit their class, so long as at least simple food was provided for the slaves and peasants who could not come as early (v 21). This shamed the poorer Christians and made them feel class distinctions keenly (v 22). This, argues Paul, is not the Lord’s Supper but a sham (v 20).<\/p>\n<p>Paul repeats the words of institution to point out that they all are participating in Christ’s body and blood (cf. 10:16-17), not their own meal. To do it in an unworthy manner, with divisions and class distinctions among them, is to profane his meal by failing to demonstrate the unity of his body, the church (11:29), and thus invite his judgment, which they were already experiencing. Instead, they should examine their own motives and truly gather as one to eat this common meal.<\/p>\n<p>The third problem in their meetings was the use of spiritual gifts (12:1–14:40). It is possible that some people in these house churches, under the influence of Gnostic ideas in which the spiritual is good and the material evil, and feeling inspired by a spirit, cried out, “Jesus [meaning the human Jesus as opposed to the spiritual Christ] be cursed.” It is not the Spirit of God saying this, argues Paul, for the Spirit in us cries the basic Christian confession, “Jesus is Lord.”<\/p>\n<p>Others in these churches were exalting their own particular gift, especially the gift of tongues, shouting down others or refusing to give them a turn. There is only one Spirit and he gives all the gifts, Paul argues (12:4-6). The Spirit manifests himself sovereignly in each Christian, not simply for the Christian’s own benefit, but for the good of all (v 7). Since it is the Spirit, not a given manifestation, that the Christian has, the gifts manifested could change from meeting to meeting.<\/p>\n<p>That same Spirit has made all Christians into one organic unity in Christ (12:12-13). Thus not only does the one Spirit give all the gifts—all are equally inspired—but all the gifts are equally needed for the proper functioning of the body of Christ (vv 14-26). No one can say that his lack of a given gift makes him less a part of the body; indeed, the less noticeable gifts may well be the more important. Thus, within the body of Christ, there are not only different manifestations of the Spirit through individuals in a given meeting, but different ministries or functions of individuals in the body (vv 27-31).<\/p>\n<p>Therefore, it is not the demonstration of a particular gift that shows one’s spirituality, but how one demonstrates it—that is, whether one manifests it with love (13:1-13). Any gift exercised for selfish purposes may be a genuine gift of the Spirit, but it is worthless to the individual (vv 1-3). This is because love is the opposite of selfishness (vv 4-7). In fact, the gifts of the Spirit are only for the period between Jesus’ first coming and his second coming, when the kingdom of God will be perfectly revealed and the King will be present in person, and thus the intermediary gifts of the Spirit will be no longer necessary (vv 10, 12). It is not giftedness but faith and hope that will have a reward then, and love, which is the greatest, because it will continue as Christians live in perfect love with each other and with Jesus (v 13).<\/p>\n<p>Applying this to Corinth, Paul argues that while one should desire all the gifts, love dictates that prophecy should be the gift of choice in the church meetings (14:1-25). The Corinthians had evidently been stressing tongues. Tongues without interpretation is of little value to anyone except to the speaker himself. It does not build anyone up; its confusion seems madness to outsiders. Outside the church meetings there is a role for tongues, both as a sign of judgment (v 21) and for private devotion (v 18), but inside, only with interpretation. Prophecy, however, both builds up and convicts, and thus is to be sought in the meetings.<\/p>\n<p>In the church meetings, then, both gifts and order are to prevail (14:26-40). All types of gifts are allowed expression with a goal of mutual edification, not selfish demonstration (v 26). Tongues speakers must have an interpreter; both they and prophets must speak in turn, with time being taken to evaluate the utterances after every few speakers (vv 27-33). Furthermore, the women, who were perhaps chatting in the service (perhaps due to habits learned in Jewish synagogues, where they were segregated and did not participate) are to cease their chattering, pay attention, and learn, asking questions at home if they do not understand (vv 34-36). In his concluding summary, Paul states that all should be done in an orderly manner (vv 37-40).<\/p>\n<p>The fifth issue Paul deals with is that of the resurrection of the dead (ch 15). Some of the problems mentioned earlier concerning loose morals (chs 5–6), ascetic denial, sexuality (ch 7), or feeling one was resurrected already (ch 11) point to the fact that some Corinthians did not believe in the resurrection of the body, though they apparently believed in the resurrection of Jesus and the immortality of the human soul.<\/p>\n<p>Paul reaffirms that the resurrection of Jesus is an essential part of the gospel message (15:1-19). The unified voice of the church was that Jesus not only died but rose again and appeared to numerous witnesses (vv 3-11). If they were consistent in their antiresurrection argument, Christ could not have been raised. Yet if this were the case, the whole gospel message is false and all their hopes for salvation are in vain (vv 12-19).<\/p>\n<p>Since Christ has been raised, Christians will also be raised because of their solidarity with him (15:20-28). As they had experienced the results of being in Adam, so now they will experience the results of being in Christ. But resurrection does not happen at once. There are progressive stages: (a) Christ was first; (b) Christians will be raised at his coming; (c) Christ must reign until he extends kingdom rule over the whole world, destroying all demonic powers (including death itself); and (d) then he will turn over the perfected kingdom to the Father (vv 23-28).<\/p>\n<p>Resurrection hope also explains Christian practices such as baptizing people on behalf of others who had died (probably people who had turned to Christ but had died before they could be baptized, 15:29), and willingness to risk death for Christ (vv 30-32).<\/p>\n<p>Paul admits that there are intellectual problems involved, but these are solved when one realizes that resurrection includes both continuity and discontinuity (15:35-50). Just as seed and plant are the same and yet different, and just as many types of bodies exist, so it is with the resurrection. What was perishable, dishonorable, weak, and physical (i.e., in Adam) will be raised imperishable, glorious, powerful, and spiritual (i.e., in Christ). Indeed, it is only as Christians thus become like Christ, the heavenly man, that they can become part of God’s kingdom.<\/p>\n<p>With excitement Paul shares his real hope, that of transformation (15:51-58). At the coming of Christ the dead will be raised and transformed. But the living will also need transformation, and this will happen in a split second, making all of them impervious to death. Then they will truly know the victory already present in Jesus’ resurrection (vv 54-57). A concluding summary draws the practical conclusion that this teaching should give them assurance of a reward for anything done for Christ now (v 58).<\/p>\n<p>The sixth issue Paul deals with is that of the collection for the needy Jerusalem church (16:1-4). Because of famine in Judea in the 40s, the church there had become impoverished. Partly because of the need and partly to further the unity of the church, Paul took up a collection in some of his churches for the Judean church. He answers the Corinthians’ practical queries by stating that the collection should be made weekly according to ability, not all at once when Paul arrives (16:2). When he comes, he will send off the money with their own messengers. Paul remains vague about whether or not he will accompany them, allaying suspicions that somehow he plans to profit from it (cf. 2 Cor 8–9).<\/p>\n<h5>Final Remarks and Closing, 16:5-24<\/h5>\n<p>Having come to the end, Paul discusses his travel plans, including his intention for a lengthy visit whenever he leaves Ephesus (cf. 2 Cor 1). Timothy was either coming with the letter or else would arrive shortly after another mission; they were to respect him and help him return. Paul points out that he urged Apollos to visit Corinth, in case some suspect Paul is against him. A closing formal exhortation to firm faith and love leads into his final customary greetings. He praises the Corinthian messengers who had brought him their letter (16:15-18) and sends greetings from Aquila and Prisca (Priscilla), his comissionaries who had helped him found the church in Corinth (Acts 18:2-3, 18). Referring to the customary greeting in the church, he tells them to greet each other with a kiss on each cheek (16:20). Paul then takes the pen from the scribe, as was normal, and writes the closing exhortation—placing a curse on those who do not love Jesus, the common Aramaic expression used in the church “Come, O Lord” (<em>Marana tha,<\/em> perhaps used to close services), and providing an assurance of his own love for them (vv 21-24).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Corinth; Corinthians, Second Letter to the; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CORINTHIANS, First Letter to the<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date and Origin<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>There is no doubt about who wrote 1 Corinthians, for all scholars agree that the apostle Paul wrote it on his third missionary journey while he was living in Ephesus. By this time Paul was a mature, middle-aged (perhaps 55 years old) missionary, fully seasoned from planting churches around a quarter of the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateandOrigin\">Date and Origin<\/p>\n<p>Paul worked in Corinth from about <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 52. After a brief stay in Jerusalem, he returned to his missionary work, this time at Ephesus (Acts 19), where he ministered for three years (<span>AD<\/span> 53–55\/56). During this period, he wrote at least three letters to Corinth and made a visit as well. His first letter, often called “the previous letter,” is referred to in 1 Corinthians 5:9-11. We know from this reference that the letter was misunderstood, but we know little of its content, for it has been lost.<\/p>\n<p>Sometime in <span>AD<\/span> 55, after hearing reports from Chloe’s household (1 Cor 1:11), who were probably members of Chloe’s house church, he dictated a second letter to Corinth, our 1 Corinthians. This was probably sent off in the hands of Stephanas, Fortunatus, and Achaicus (16:17). Paul would later write a third letter to Corinth, called “the letter of tears” (2 Cor 2:2-3), and then finally 2 Corinthians.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Corinth was a seaport city, destroyed by the Romans in 146 <span>BC<\/span> and rebuilt in 46 <span>BC<\/span> by Julius Caesar. After 27 <span>BC<\/span>, it was the Roman capital of Achaia, where the proconsul had his residence (Acts 18:12). The city itself was really three cities: the port of Cenchrea, about eight miles (13 kilometers) to the east, where ships from the Aegean would unload; the port of Lechaion, about a mile (1.6 kilometers) to the west on the Gulf of Corinth, where the ships would be reloaded, their goods having been transported in wagons over the isthmus and the ships on rollers; and the city itself on the high ground in between.<\/p>\n<p>The acropolis of the city, on top of the steep, high Acrocorinth, contained the temple of Aphrodite, where 1,000 female slaves were dedicated to the service of this goddess of love. This distinctive cult of Corinth was dedicated to the veneration of Aphrodite, goddess of love, beauty, and fertility, who is identified with the Roman Venus. Associated with such religious practices was a general moral degradation. Corinthian morals were notoriously corrupt, even when compared with pagan Rome. Down in the city was the synagogue (Acts 18:4); for while the city as a Roman colony was largely populated by Italians, it had attracted other peoples from the Mediterranean, among whom were the Jews.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTeaching\">Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The main concern of Paul in 1 Corinthians was the unity of the church. There was a self-centeredness in Corinth that resulted in building cliques within the church, in flaunting knowledge and liberty in the face of others scandalized by it, and in selfish displays in the worship services.<\/p>\n<p>Two other major concerns also surface in the book. First, along with other pagan practices, the lax sexual ethics of Corinth had influenced the church; Paul needed to erect some barriers. Second, there was a problem in accepting the resurrection of the body; Paul realized that this issue had implications for the core of the faith and vigorously affirmed the resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>Both of these latter two areas, as well as aspects of the unity issue (particularly their concern with knowledge), have been identified by some scholars as Gnostic motifs, leading to the conclusion that Paul was opposing a Gnostic party in Corinth. Careful examination reveals, however, that while some of the elements floating in the Corinthian milieu would later contribute to the development of Gnosticism, it would be anachronistic to call them gnostic. While recognizing protognostic ideas in the Corinthian situation, it is important to keep interpretation within the first-century context.<\/p>\n<p>Thus, the focus of Paul’s concern was the church, its unity and purity. Paul was fighting to keep this church from disintegrating into a number of competing and bickering factions divided over moral and doctrinal issues. Furthermore, he wanted to keep the focus of the church on Jesus, the exalted Lord.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting, 1:1-9<\/h5>\n<p>Paul begins with a standard greeting, followed by his usual thanksgiving prayer. Two features stand out. First, the greeting associates Sosthenes with Paul. While we cannot be sure who Sosthenes was, he was surely well known to the Corinthians; probably he was the Sosthenes whom Acts 18:17 identifies as the ruler of the synagogue, following the conversion of Crispus.<\/p>\n<p>Second, Paul stresses the Corinthians’ abilities in speech, knowledge, and spiritual gifts. They had all of these, and these were genuine, but it was precisely these good things that they were abusing. Paul’s solution is not to suppress these gifts (indeed, he thanks God for them), but to place them in a new context.<\/p>\n<h5>Report from Chloe’s People, 1:10–4:21<\/h5>\n<p>The Corinthians had made Paul, Cephas (Peter), Apollos, and even Christ into party leaders. We are not sure what each of these groups stood for, but one might guess that the Pauline group stressed Paul’s slogans of liberty; the Petrine group, the need to hold to Jewish practices; and the Apollos group, the value of philosophical understanding and oratory. Whatever they stood for, Paul is appalled that it breaks their unity. His first response is to argue that his behavior was not calculated to build a following but to point to Christ. That is, he did not insist on personally baptizing converts; who performed these acts did not matter, since they were all baptized into Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul immediately moves to the underlying issue, that of various persons wanting to show themselves better or wiser than others who did not have the insights of their party in the church. Their seeking for wisdom contradicts Paul’s preaching of the gospel.<\/p>\n<p>First, the message of a crucified Christ (1:18) made no sense within the wisdom and values of either Jews or Greeks. It demanded a whole new way of looking on life—God’s way.<\/p>\n<p>Second, God had not chosen them on the basis of their status in society; quite the contrary, he had made their only status the equal status they received from him (1:26-31).<\/p>\n<p>Third, their faith had not been based on Paul’s oratory but on the gifts of the Spirit that Paul had manifested (2:4), which had convinced them that God was acting in Paul. Thus, it was not argument that led them to God, but God’s Spirit. Therefore it was the Spirit, not human reasoning, that would continue to reveal God to them. Unless they became fools with respect to the world’s ways of reasoning, they would never be able to rethink life from the perspective of the Spirit, who gives true wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>Fourth, they were not acting on this spiritual level when they claimed Paul and others as party leaders; this activity demonstrates the evil impulse in human beings (“the flesh” or “fallen human nature”) at work since it elevates human servants rather than the God who works equally in each of them.<\/p>\n<p>Fifth, these servants were working together to build one “temple” for God based on the one foundation in Jesus Christ, that is, the church. God alone will judge how each Christian contributes to the work of building the church. But woe to the person who divides the church, for “if anyone destroys God’s temple, God will destroy him” (3:17, <span>rsv<\/span>). (Note that here the temple imagery is used collectively; the church is the temple. In chapter 6 it will be used individually; each Christian is the temple.)<\/p>\n<p>Finally, he points to their overrealized eschatology, for with their spiritual gifts (which were genuine) and vaunted wisdom (which was worldly) they claimed they were reigning with Christ (4:8-13). Paul, with ironic sarcasm, points out how different this claim is from the lifestyle of the apostles. The apostles lived like Jesus—a life of suffering, expecting exaltation later. The Corinthians were trying to have their exaltation now without crucifixion.<\/p>\n<p>Paul closes this section with an admonition. He softens his words toward some who would be responsive, urging them to copy his lifestyle. The teacher was the message (vv 14-16). Timothy will also faithfully live the truth before them. Then he threatens the “arrogant” (v 18), pointing out that he will not challenge their words but their spiritual power if he comes.<\/p>\n<h5>The Report from the Corinthian Messengers, 5:1–6:20<\/h5>\n<p>Paul now turns to three issues raised by oral reports from the messengers bearing the Corinthians’ letter to him.<\/p>\n<p>The first issue is that of church discipline (5:12-13). Paul cites a case of flagrant immorality—that of incest. This immorality was so clear (even pagans considered it immoral), that it was not a case of ignorance of Christian principles. Further, the church had taken no action but rather boasted in its tolerance, perhaps on the basis of a misunderstanding of Paul’s teaching on freedom from the law.<\/p>\n<p>Paul presents three principles in this section: (1) the primary goal of church discipline is the repentance and restoration of the offender; (2) the secondary goal of church discipline is the protection of the church (5:6-8); and (3) the church is not to seek to judge or control the actions of evil persons in the world—they are God’s responsibility—but to discipline those within the church (vv 9-13). Paul will use these principles also in the following chapters (cf. 7:12-16).<\/p>\n<p>The second issue is that of lawsuits between Christians (6:1-11). The Corinthian society was as prone to litigation as our own, and Christians did not see anything wrong in suing each other. Paul was troubled. If Christians are to judge the world, they certainly should not bring the world in to judge issues within the church. Rather than put their cases before “those who are least esteemed by the church” (6:4, <span>rsv<\/span>, i.e., pagan judges), they should decide the cases within the church.<\/p>\n<p>Paul has an even better way than bypassing the pagan courts, and that is to simply suffer the wrong (1 Cor 6:7). Applying the teaching of Jesus quite literally (Mt 5:38-42), Paul argues that it would be best to allow themselves to be defrauded. Instead, the Corinthians are willing to step on their brothers in Christ to get what they feel are their rights. This raises the issue as to whether greed is not still in their hearts (1 Cor 6:9-11). While Paul accepts people who formerly did all sorts of evil (for Jesus has cleansed them), he makes it very clear that anyone presently practicing greed or immorality is not part of the kingdom, whatever their doctrinal commitments may be.<\/p>\n<p>The final issue in this section is that of casual sexual intercourse (6:12-20). In a world where virginity was important if a woman wished to be married and where slaves in the temple of Aphrodite were available as prostitutes, prostitution was the major form of casual sex. The libertine party used two slogans: “All things are lawful for me,” a saying that may well have been derived from Paul’s teaching, and “Food is meant for the stomach and the stomach for food”—that is, since the body works this way, it must be the Creator’s purpose. Paul qualifies rather than contradicts their slogans. Freedom is subordinate to other goals (6:12, 20). The body is not made to be used as we wish, but is to be dedicated to the Lord, as the doctrine of the resurrection demonstrates (vv 13-14).<\/p>\n<p>Furthermore, sexual intercourse is an act of the whole person, unlike eating (Paul cites Gn 2:24; cf. Jesus in Mt 19:5). Therefore, this act takes a member (i.e., the person) from the body of Christ and makes him a unity with a prostitute (1 Cor 6:15-17). Thus immorality is unlike other sins that are external to the self, for it changes the self and thus defiles the body, the place where the Holy Spirit dwells. It disregards the fact that Christ has redeemed the body, and that the whole of the Christian belongs to God, not to the Christian.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Answers to the Corinthians, 7:1–16:4<\/h5>\n<p>Now Paul turns to the Corinthians’ own issues, building on the answers he has already given to questions they did not ask.<\/p>\n<p>The first issue is that of marriage (7:1-24). The slogan of the ascetic party in Corinth (perhaps a reaction against the libertines of ch 6) was “It is good for a man not to touch a woman” (7:1, <span>kjv<\/span>). The Corinthians applied this slogan to both married and unmarried, arguing that married Christians should abstain from sexual relations. Paul clarified the matter with three points. First, he said that this was totally unrealistic, for total abstinence would lead to immorality (vv 2, 7-9). Second, when people get married they no longer own their own bodies; their bodies belong to each other for their mutual benefit (vv 3-4). Sexual refusal denies a spouse what rightly belongs to him or her. Third, abstinence is allowed for limited periods by mutual agreement as a type of fast to help focus on Christ (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>While Paul will address the issue of the unmarried more fully in 7:25-40, in a side remark he indicates that he is himself content to be unmarried. But since some do not have this gift, full sexual expression in marriage is far better than fighting passion (7:7-9). Once two Christians are married, divorce is unthinkable. A clear word of Christ proves this (Mt 5:31-32; Mk 10:11-12; Lk 16:18 and parallels), so there are no exceptions (Paul either does not know of the exception clause in Mt 19:9 or he understands it as referring to something like premarital unchastity discovered before the wedding, not to adultery after the wedding). Although in some cases a Christian couple must live separately, it is always with a view to reconciliation. The teaching of Jesus does not allow him to think of the marriage as ending (1 Cor 7:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>But what if the spouse is not a Christian? Paul applies his principles to a situation for which Jesus did not leave a clear word. First, since Jesus told Christians not to divorce, even in this situation the Christian may not initiate a divorce (7:12-13). Second, since Christians are not to control or judge non-Christians (6:12-13), the Christian does not need to continue the relationship if the non-Christian insists on a divorce (7:15). Third, far from defiling the Christian (as the relationship in 6:15 does), the Christian will make the relationship holy, with positive results for the children and the possible salvation of the spouse (7:14, 16). While this is no call to remain in situations of physical or sexual abuse, it is a call to remain faithful to a mixed marriage situation.<\/p>\n<p>Paul does not believe that one normally needs to change one’s life situation to serve Christ (7:17-24). Therefore, normally each person should remain in that state of life in which he or she was when called to Christ. Paul’s examples show that he was thinking in terms of marriage or singleness, Jew (circumcision) or Gentile, slave or free, not in terms of situations that might be immoral in themselves. In the case of slaves, they can accept freedom if it becomes available, but it does not make an essential difference in their real state before God or their ability to serve Christ (vv 21-23).<\/p>\n<p>The second issue is that of the unmarried (7:25-40). Paul argues that single people and widows may marry—it is not wrong. Yet he advises them to remain single. Since all in this age is passing away, it would be good to stay single so as to avoid the extra suffering to which marriage exposes a person (vv 25-31). What is more, marriage always divides one’s attention between the Lord and the legitimate needs of the spouse. One must not abandon the spouse or ignore his or her needs in order to serve the Lord, but one can remain single so that the Lord can be the sole focus of life and devotion (vv 32-35). Finally, if one is in a situation in which marriage is expected, the person must make his own decision as to whether he should marry the woman for her sake (and perhaps that of the wider family) or whether he can and should simply care for her as a single person (vv 36-38). Paul closes this section by repeating his general principles (vv 39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The third issue Paul deals with is that of food that has been offered to idols (8:1–11:1). Most meat that was available in the marketplace came either from animals slaughtered as sacrifices in the temples or from groups of animals from which one was offered as a dedicatory sacrifice. To scrupulous Jews, all of this meat would be untouched. Furthermore, pagans invited Christians to feasts in their homes and to private feasts held in the precincts of pagan temples, where trade guilds also held feasts. Paul discusses these issues and uses them to teach wider principles of Christian conduct.<\/p>\n<p>First, love, not knowledge, is the key to correct behavior (8:1-13). Some Corinthians felt superior because they were convinced that idols had no reality (there is only one God), and therefore any food offered to them was still fit to eat. Paul again accepts their slogans, but counters with the statement, “Knowledge puffs up, but love builds up” (v 1, <span>niv<\/span>). God is not concerned with what we know or eat, but he is concerned with whether or not we love our fellow Christians. The concern is not that a fellow Christian might become enraged because one indulged, but that he or she might have a vulnerable conscience and indulge himself, even though he believed it wrong and thus in his own eyes apostasizes from the faith (i.e., rebels against Christ). Such leading astray is not love. It would be better never to eat meat than to lead a fellow Christian into sin.<\/p>\n<p>Second, he points out that one should subordinate one’s own interests to those of others, especially those of Christ and his gospel (9:1-23). Both the examples of the apostles, who expected the church to support them and their families (cf. Lk 10:5-7), and Scripture prove that Paul had the right to demand support from the Corinthians. This had not been his practice, for he had normally made tents to support his ministry, though he did accept gifts from other churches. Paul did this to prevent people from thinking he was peddling religion for profit (9:12) and for the personal satisfaction of doing more than he had to do (vv 16-17). This was part of Paul’s larger policy of subordinating his own personal preferences and interests to those of Christ and his gospel (vv 19-23).<\/p>\n<p>Third, the bravado of the strong who demonstrate their liberty with disregard of fellow Christians is spiritually dangerous (9:24–10:22). It is not who begins but who completes the Christian life that counts; therefore, it is a life of discipline, not relaxed license (9:24-27). Israel in the wilderness presents an example of failure in this regard. They had “baptism” and “the Lord’s Supper” (10:2-4), just like the church, yet most of them did not make it to the Promised Land. The reason God destroyed them was simple: they turned to sin. Likewise, the Christian has to be careful not to be so proud about faith and freedom that he becomes careless about sin and falls from the faith (v 12). On the other hand, Christians need not be fearful, for the temptation is not more powerful than they are; God has provided a way of escape, if they will take it (v 13).<\/p>\n<p>Another link between the Israelites and the Corinthians pertains to partaking of a sacrificial meal (10:14-22). In the Lord’s Supper there is a sharing of the blood and body of Christ, just as real as Israel’s sacrifices on the altar. Food offered to idols is also a sharing, not with the supposed god, but with the real demon that is behind the idol. To try to share at both tables is to provoke God’s jealousy just as Israel did (v 22).<\/p>\n<p>A summary of the discussion draws the three chapters together (10:23–11:1). Since the food is not changed by being offered to idols, and since all food really belongs to God, one may eat anything sold in the market—do not ask any questions (10:25-26). Likewise, the Christian may eat anything served at a dinner in the home of an unbeliever. However, if someone points out that the food was offered to idols, the Christian should pass it by, not because it would hurt him, but because it is an issue with the person who raised the question, and the Christian is concerned about the good of his neighbor (vv 27-30). In other words, follow Paul’s example as he patterns himself in turn after Christ, who served others rather than himself. Act so that God’s reputation and character shine through even in what one eats (v 31); try to offend no one but to benefit each person in moving him toward salvation (v 32).<\/p>\n<p>The fourth issue Paul deals with is that of order in church meetings (11:2–14:40). The Corinthians’ house churches had lively meetings, but rather than showing unity in Christ, they demonstrated selfishness. Paul had no desire to change what they did; he did want to change how they did it.<\/p>\n<p>The first problem in the meetings was the behavior of married women (11:1-16). The sign of marriage in that day was the wearing of a veil or distinctive hairstyle, as a ring is today. Women praying and delivering prophecies in church was no issue for Paul, but the women may have felt that this loosed them from their husbands (cf. Mk 12:25) and therefore was a reason to set aside their veils. Paul argues that husband and wife are intimately joined, just as humans are to God (1 Cor 11:3). Therefore as humans should not shame but glorify God, so the wife should act toward her husband. Thus, while Paul approves of ministry by women, he puts marriage first.<\/p>\n<p>The second problem in the meetings was that of making class distinctions (11:17-34). Until the weekly Lord’s Supper began to be turned into the sacrifice of the Mass in the third and fourth centuries, it was a full shared meal. Middle- and upper-class Christians could come earlier to the church gatherings and also provide better food and drink for themselves. Following the customs of pagan clubs, they had no scruples against starting early and feasting as befit their class, so long as at least simple food was provided for the slaves and peasants who could not come as early (v 21). This shamed the poorer Christians and made them feel class distinctions keenly (v 22). This, argues Paul, is not the Lord’s Supper but a sham (v 20).<\/p>\n<p>Paul repeats the words of institution to point out that they all are participating in Christ’s body and blood (cf. 10:16-17), not their own meal. To do it in an unworthy manner, with divisions and class distinctions among them, is to profane his meal by failing to demonstrate the unity of his body, the church (11:29), and thus invite his judgment, which they were already experiencing. Instead, they should examine their own motives and truly gather as one to eat this common meal.<\/p>\n<p>The third problem in their meetings was the use of spiritual gifts (12:1–14:40). It is possible that some people in these house churches, under the influence of Gnostic ideas in which the spiritual is good and the material evil, and feeling inspired by a spirit, cried out, “Jesus [meaning the human Jesus as opposed to the spiritual Christ] be cursed.” It is not the Spirit of God saying this, argues Paul, for the Spirit in us cries the basic Christian confession, “Jesus is Lord.”<\/p>\n<p>Others in these churches were exalting their own particular gift, especially the gift of tongues, shouting down others or refusing to give them a turn. There is only one Spirit and he gives all the gifts, Paul argues (12:4-6). The Spirit manifests himself sovereignly in each Christian, not simply for the Christian’s own benefit, but for the good of all (v 7). Since it is the Spirit, not a given manifestation, that the Christian has, the gifts manifested could change from meeting to meeting.<\/p>\n<p>That same Spirit has made all Christians into one organic unity in Christ (12:12-13). Thus not only does the one Spirit give all the gifts—all are equally inspired—but all the gifts are equally needed for the proper functioning of the body of Christ (vv 14-26). No one can say that his lack of a given gift makes him less a part of the body; indeed, the less noticeable gifts may well be the more important. Thus, within the body of Christ, there are not only different manifestations of the Spirit through individuals in a given meeting, but different ministries or functions of individuals in the body (vv 27-31).<\/p>\n<p>Therefore, it is not the demonstration of a particular gift that shows one’s spirituality, but how one demonstrates it—that is, whether one manifests it with love (13:1-13). Any gift exercised for selfish purposes may be a genuine gift of the Spirit, but it is worthless to the individual (vv 1-3). This is because love is the opposite of selfishness (vv 4-7). In fact, the gifts of the Spirit are only for the period between Jesus’ first coming and his second coming, when the kingdom of God will be perfectly revealed and the King will be present in person, and thus the intermediary gifts of the Spirit will be no longer necessary (vv 10, 12). It is not giftedness but faith and hope that will have a reward then, and love, which is the greatest, because it will continue as Christians live in perfect love with each other and with Jesus (v 13).<\/p>\n<p>Applying this to Corinth, Paul argues that while one should desire all the gifts, love dictates that prophecy should be the gift of choice in the church meetings (14:1-25). The Corinthians had evidently been stressing tongues. Tongues without interpretation is of little value to anyone except to the speaker himself. It does not build anyone up; its confusion seems madness to outsiders. Outside the church meetings there is a role for tongues, both as a sign of judgment (v 21) and for private devotion (v 18), but inside, only with interpretation. Prophecy, however, both builds up and convicts, and thus is to be sought in the meetings.<\/p>\n<p>In the church meetings, then, both gifts and order are to prevail (14:26-40). All types of gifts are allowed expression with a goal of mutual edification, not selfish demonstration (v 26). Tongues speakers must have an interpreter; both they and prophets must speak in turn, with time being taken to evaluate the utterances after every few speakers (vv 27-33). Furthermore, the women, who were perhaps chatting in the service (perhaps due to habits learned in Jewish synagogues, where they were segregated and did not participate) are to cease their chattering, pay attention, and learn, asking questions at home if they do not understand (vv 34-36). In his concluding summary, Paul states that all should be done in an orderly manner (vv 37-40).<\/p>\n<p>The fifth issue Paul deals with is that of the resurrection of the dead (ch 15). Some of the problems mentioned earlier concerning loose morals (chs 5–6), ascetic denial, sexuality (ch 7), or feeling one was resurrected already (ch 11) point to the fact that some Corinthians did not believe in the resurrection of the body, though they apparently believed in the resurrection of Jesus and the immortality of the human soul.<\/p>\n<p>Paul reaffirms that the resurrection of Jesus is an essential part of the gospel message (15:1-19). The unified voice of the church was that Jesus not only died but rose again and appeared to numerous witnesses (vv 3-11). If they were consistent in their antiresurrection argument, Christ could not have been raised. Yet if this were the case, the whole gospel message is false and all their hopes for salvation are in vain (vv 12-19).<\/p>\n<p>Since Christ has been raised, Christians will also be raised because of their solidarity with him (15:20-28). As they had experienced the results of being in Adam, so now they will experience the results of being in Christ. But resurrection does not happen at once. There are progressive stages: (a) Christ was first; (b) Christians will be raised at his coming; (c) Christ must reign until he extends kingdom rule over the whole world, destroying all demonic powers (including death itself); and (d) then he will turn over the perfected kingdom to the Father (vv 23-28).<\/p>\n<p>Resurrection hope also explains Christian practices such as baptizing people on behalf of others who had died (probably people who had turned to Christ but had died before they could be baptized, 15:29), and willingness to risk death for Christ (vv 30-32).<\/p>\n<p>Paul admits that there are intellectual problems involved, but these are solved when one realizes that resurrection includes both continuity and discontinuity (15:35-50). Just as seed and plant are the same and yet different, and just as many types of bodies exist, so it is with the resurrection. What was perishable, dishonorable, weak, and physical (i.e., in Adam) will be raised imperishable, glorious, powerful, and spiritual (i.e., in Christ). Indeed, it is only as Christians thus become like Christ, the heavenly man, that they can become part of God’s kingdom.<\/p>\n<p>With excitement Paul shares his real hope, that of transformation (15:51-58). At the coming of Christ the dead will be raised and transformed. But the living will also need transformation, and this will happen in a split second, making all of them impervious to death. Then they will truly know the victory already present in Jesus’ resurrection (vv 54-57). A concluding summary draws the practical conclusion that this teaching should give them assurance of a reward for anything done for Christ now (v 58).<\/p>\n<p>The sixth issue Paul deals with is that of the collection for the needy Jerusalem church (16:1-4). Because of famine in Judea in the 40s, the church there had become impoverished. Partly because of the need and partly to further the unity of the church, Paul took up a collection in some of his churches for the Judean church. He answers the Corinthians’ practical queries by stating that the collection should be made weekly according to ability, not all at once when Paul arrives (16:2). When he comes, he will send off the money with their own messengers. Paul remains vague about whether or not he will accompany them, allaying suspicions that somehow he plans to profit from it (cf. 2 Cor 8–9).<\/p>\n<h5>Final Remarks and Closing, 16:5-24<\/h5>\n<p>Having come to the end, Paul discusses his travel plans, including his intention for a lengthy visit whenever he leaves Ephesus (cf. 2 Cor 1). Timothy was either coming with the letter or else would arrive shortly after another mission; they were to respect him and help him return. Paul points out that he urged Apollos to visit Corinth, in case some suspect Paul is against him. A closing formal exhortation to firm faith and love leads into his final customary greetings. He praises the Corinthian messengers who had brought him their letter (16:15-18) and sends greetings from Aquila and Prisca (Priscilla), his comissionaries who had helped him found the church in Corinth (Acts 18:2-3, 18). Referring to the customary greeting in the church, he tells them to greet each other with a kiss on each cheek (16:20). Paul then takes the pen from the scribe, as was normal, and writes the closing exhortation—placing a curse on those who do not love Jesus, the common Aramaic expression used in the church “Come, O Lord” (<em>Marana tha,<\/em> perhaps used to close services), and providing an assurance of his own love for them (vv 21-24).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Corinth; Corinthians, Second Letter to the; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CORINTHIANS, First Letter to the Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author There is no doubt about who wrote 1 Corinthians, for all scholars agree that the apostle Paul wrote it on his third missionary journey while he was living in Ephesus. By this time Paul was a mature, middle-aged (perhaps 55 years old) missionary, fully seasoned from planting churches around a quarter of the Mediterranean world. Date and Origin Paul worked in Corinth from abo...","summary_en":"CORINTHIANS, First Letter to the Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author There is no doubt about who wrote 1 Corinthians, for all scholars agree that the apostle Paul wrote it on his third missionary journey while he was living in Ephesus. By this time Paul was a mature, middle-aged (perhaps 55 years old) missionary, fully seasoned from planting churches around a quarter of the Mediterranean world. Date and Origin Paul worked in Corinth from abo...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10878,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter to the Ephesians","title_en":"Letter to the Ephesians","content_ro":"<h3>EPHESIANS, Letter to the<\/h3>\n<p>Letter to the Christians in Ephesus and the surrouding churches written with a magnificence that both instructs and inspires the reader. It provides a sweeping view of the role of the church as history moves toward the ultimate recognition of the universal headship of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Date and Origin<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The writer of the letter identifies himself as the apostle Paul (Eph 1:1; 3:1). He also describes his own ministry in terms that reflect what we know of Paul (3:7, 13; 4:1; 6:19-20). This claim is confirmed by the testimonies of Irenaeus, Origen, Polycarp, Tertullian, and Ignatius, who in his own espistle to the Ephesians alludes to the frequent and affectionate mention made by Paul of the Christian state, privileges, and persons of the Ephesians.<\/p>\n<p>There are some characteristics of the letter, however, that have caused many scholars to question its clear claim to Pauline authorship. Some of these characteristics would be a problem only if the letter were intended exclusively for people in Ephesus, but such was probably not the case. Otherwise, it would be hard to understand why, after establishing the church there over a three-year period, Paul would write as though author and recipients had only a secondhand knowledge of each other. It would also be strange that the warm personal words of greeting to various individuals that are found in other Pauline letters are missing here. There is instead only a general greeting to “the brothers” (6:23). But all this can be easily explained once it is understood that the epistle was an encyclical for several churches.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Destination\">Destination<\/p>\n<p>This epistle was addressed, most probably, to several churches in the district around Ephesus—namely, Asia. The Epistle to the Ephesians, so-called, was not really intended to be only for the church at Ephesus. Most modern scholars are convinced that it was an encyclical that went to several churches in Asia, including Ephesus. There are several reasons to affirm this. First, the earliest manuscripts (the Chester Beatty Papyrus—P46, Codex Sinaiticus, Codex Vaticanus) do not contain the words “in Ephesus” in Ephesians 1:1. It appears that Paul purposely left the name of the locality out, so as to be filled in later as the letter circulated to each locality. (The Greek construction in 1:1 calls for a prepositional phrase designating a locality to be present in the sentence.) Since Ephesus was the leading city of Asia, it was quite natural for scribes to assign this epistle to the church at Ephesus. Second, the Epistle to the Ephesians has all the marks of being a general treatise rather than an epistle to a specific local church. Paul had lived with the believers at Ephesus for three years (Acts 20:31). He knew them intimately, yet in this epistle there are no personal greetings or specific exhortations. When we consider Paul’s manner in many of his other epistles, it would be quite unlike him to have excluded these personal expressions. Quite the contrary, Paul speaks to the saints whom he has only heard about and who have only heard about him (see Eph 1:15; 3:1). It is possible that this epistle was the one sent to Laodicea.<\/p>\n\n<p>In all fairness it must be said that the encyclical theory has been opposed by some scholars. For example, Henry Alford makes the following objections to this theory: (1) It is at variance with the spirit of the epistle, which is clearly addressed to one set of persons throughout, coexisting in one place and as one body and under the same circumstances. (2) It is improbable that the apostle, who in two of his epistles (2 Corinthians and Galatians) has so plainly specified their encyclical character, should have here omitted such specification. (3) The absence of personal greetings is not an argument for either of the two theories, for similarly there are none in Galatians, Philippians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and 1 Timothy. The better he knows the parties addressed, and the more general and solemn the subject, the less he seems to give of these individual notices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateandOrigin\">Date and Origin<\/p>\n<p>Ephesians 3:1, 4:1, and 6:20 indicate that the letter was written while Paul was a prisoner. Since he was imprisoned several times, it is necessary to narrow the options. The first major imprisonment may have been at Ephesus itself, but this is obviously not in consideration. The second was at Caesarea for two years (Acts 24:27; cf. 23:23-24, 33). It is possible that Paul wrote some letters at that time, but most scholars think that Ephesians (along with Colossians, Philemon, and probably Philippians) was written during Paul’s imprisonment at Rome (28:16, 30). This probably took place sometime between <span>AD<\/span> 59 and 63 and lasted for two years. This period of time, following about 25 years of spiritual growth and 12 years or so of missionary experience, gave Paul a splendid opportunity for reflection and writing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Ephesus was the most important city in Asia Minor, located on the Cayster River, with a harbor on the Aegean Sea. With this location it became a center for commercial travel, and major trade routes led to it from several directions. A great pagan temple dedicated to the goddess Artemis (Diana) was located in Ephesus. Paul made the city a center of evangelistic and church-building ministry (Acts 19), spending three years there (20:31). It was natural, therefore, for a letter intended for a wide readership in that part of Asia Minor to have Ephesus as its main destination.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s first visit to Ephesus (on the seacoast of Lydia, near the river Cayster) is related in Acts 18:19-21. The work, begun by his disputations with the Jews in his short visit, was carried on by Apollos (vv 24-26) and Aquila and Priscilla (18:26). At his second visit, after his journey to Jerusalem, and thence to the east regions of Asia Minor, he remained at Ephesus “three years” (19:10—the “two years” in this verse are only <em>part<\/em> of the time—and 20:31); therefore, the founding and rearing of this church occupied an unusually large portion of the apostle’s time and care. The language in the epistle shows a warmth of feeling and a free outpouring of thought, and a union in spiritual privileges and hope between him and them, such as are natural from one so long and so intimately associated with those whom he addresses. On his last journey to Jerusalem, he sailed by Ephesus and summoned the elders of the Ephesian church to meet him at Miletus, where he delivered his remarkable farewell charge (20:18-35).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>It may be said that the purpose of Ephesians is “doxological”; that is, it should cause the readers to glorify God, both in grateful praise and in manner of life. This is seen in the opening section, which is like a hymn in style: “Praise God, the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ” (Eph 1:3; cf. the Doxology often sung in church). Paul says three times in the first chapter that the result of God’s blessings should be praise (vv 6, 12, 14).<\/p>\n<p>While the letter contains much doctrinal and moral instruction (with the latter solidly based on the former), its purpose is not only teaching or exhortation, important as these are. It is rather to lift up its readers to a new vantage point that will help them to identify with the risen, ascended Christ and to share his perspective on the church and its role in the world.<\/p>\n<p>In this connection a significant term occurs in 1:3 and elsewhere. It is perhaps best translated “heavenly realms.” It is different in form from the usual word for “heaven” and seems to have a special significance in Ephesians as the realm of Jesus’ victorious reign in the present age. This is seen in 1:20, read in the context of verses 19-23. Whatever beings there may be, Christ is above them all. The believer, although obviously on earth physically, “sits with Christ” in the heavenly realms (2:6) and is “blessed” (1:3), drawing on the unlimited resources of heaven for his daily life. It is also in this realm that the spiritual conflict takes place (6:12).<\/p>\n<p>Paul thus makes it clear that Christians are not to have a limited or merely earthly viewpoint. Those who do, mistakenly think that their enemies are people (6:12) and our resources human (2 Cor 10:3-4). With this orientation to the heavenly world of the Lord’s present exaltation, the reader is prepared to understand that the church does not function merely to carry out routine activities here, but that it displays the wisdom of God to beings who exist in the heavenly realms (Eph 3:10). Even the function of church leaders is discussed in terms of the gifts of the Christ who has ascended to the heavens (4:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>There is a strong sense of ultimate purpose in Ephesians. The first chapter contains a number of different expressions of purpose. The great goal of history is expressed in 1:10. The sense of purpose is never lost. The church is even seen, in chapter 3, as the expression of God’s eternal, secret plan. There is also a movement throughout the letter, from (1) reconciliation of individuals to God, to (2) their reconciliation to each other, to (3) their life together in the church. There is no arguing of points along the way, such as one finds in most of the letters, but rather a connected series of affirmations, each leading the reader on to the next.<\/p>\n<p>Paul discusses a number of topics from this heavenly perspective and the sense of purpose this provides. These topics will be discussed below in such a way as to show their interconnection, rather than necessarily in the order of their importance or prominence in Ephesians.<\/p>\n<h5>The Church<\/h5>\n<p>Paul employs a number of figures of speech to describe the church, including a household, a temple, and a body (1:22-23; 2:19-22). Actually, it may be insufficient to call the word “body” a figure of speech, because it seems to be more than that. There is a sense in which Christ and the church have an actual organic relationship, in which he functions as the head and believers as parts of his body.<\/p>\n<p>The church is the result of the reconciling work of Christ, whose death has made peace between mutually hostile Jews and Gentiles (2:11-18). The ensuing unity was long planned by God (3:2-6), and is furthered by a proper attitude and mutual ministry (ch 4).<\/p>\n<p>An especially remarkable feature of Ephesians is the parallel drawn between the relationship between a husband and wife and that between Christ and the church (5:22-33). In this comparison the prior reality is not marriage, with the relationship of Christ and the church only providing an illustration. Rather, the essential reality is Christ and the church.<\/p>\n<h5>The Headship of Christ<\/h5>\n<p>Not only is Christ the head of the church, but he is head over all things to the church’s benefit (1:22). The meaning of 1:10 is that the presently disparate parts and beings of the universe will be brought into order under the headship of Christ. This universal headship is anticipated in the ascension and present exaltation of Christ. The expression of universal domination—“God has put all things under his feet” (1:22, from Ps 8:6)—fortifies this expectation.<\/p>\n<h5>The “Mystery” or “Secret Plan”<\/h5>\n<p>The Greek word “mystery” has a special meaning in early Jewish and Christian literature. It refers to the private eternal decisions of God concerning his saving work and his ultimate purposes in history, which are revealed stage by stage. The term is used in connection with the kingdom in the Gospels (Mt 13:11), with the preaching of the gospel in 1 Corinthians 1:18–2:16, with the destiny of Israel in Romans 11:25, and elsewhere with differing applications. Finally, Revelation 10:6-7 declares that there will be no more delay, but that God’s “mystery,” initially announced by the prophets, will reach its completion.<\/p>\n<p>The aspect of God’s plan that Paul presents in Ephesians 3:3-6 is not only the inclusion of Gentiles among God’s people but their complete integration with Jews in the church. The extent of this was not revealed prior to the time of Paul’s ministry.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Divine Purpose: The Glory and Headship of Christ (1:1-14)<\/h5>\n<p>This whole section constitutes a “doxology.” Paul reminds readers, by expressing his own prayer of praise, of all the blessings God has given believers. These include being chosen to live in God’s presence without guilt (v 4), being given the destiny of full sonship (v 5), and being forgiven because Christ died for them.<\/p>\n<p>But Paul is not only giving a recitation of what God has done; he interweaves a number of words and phrases indicating <em>why<\/em> God has acted, that is, what God’s <em>purposes<\/em> are. Various translations use different English words to represent Greek expressions of purpose, such as “chose,” “predestined,” “plan,” “will,” “secret reason,” “good pleasure,” “purpose” (vv 4-10). Perhaps the most comprehensive statement is in verses 11-12.<\/p>\n<p>It is clear from this that the ultimate purpose of God’s saving work is not merely the happiness of believers but the glory of God through the Lord Jesus Christ. The Spirit is given to guarantee not only the believer’s security but also God’s investment, so to speak, in the believer.<\/p>\n<h5>Prayer That Christians May Realize God’s Purpose and Power (1:15-23)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul’s prayer issues from his opening section, constituting a request that believers may appropriate all that is contained in that statement. It is here that the fact of Jesus’ death, resurrection, and ascension is cited as the basis for the believer’s present vantage point and power.<\/p>\n<h5>Steps toward the Fulfillment of God’s Purpose (2:1–3:21)<\/h5>\n<p>The first step was the death of Christ in order to save individuals from sin and death (2:1-10). Since this was at God’s initiative, not man’s, and since man was spiritually “dead” and helpless, salvation can only be by grace.<\/p>\n<p>The second step was the reconciliation of people not only to God but to each other (2:11-18). Paul thus moves from the individual to the corporate aspect of salvation. This was particularly significant for Gentiles, who previously did not have even a formal relationship with God. One of the key words in this section is “peace” (vv 14-17).<\/p>\n<p>Step three goes beyond reconciliation to the actual uniting of Jews and Gentiles in one “household” (2:19-22). God has not only brought people individually to himself, and to each other as individuals, but has formed a new corporate entity, a new society that is described both in political and family terms. Ultimately, believers together form a corporate body in whom God is exalted.<\/p>\n<p>This third step is amplified in a fourth step, the revelation of God’s eternal purpose in the formation of this one body, the church (3:1-13). Using the biblical concept of the “mystery,” Paul shows how the church displays the wisdom of God to all who may be looking on throughout the universe. This immediately gives the believer a new awareness of the reason for his salvation and participation in the church. Self-centeredness and boredom with the routine of church activity give way to a sense of meaning and purpose.<\/p>\n<p>These steps are now summarized in a second prayer (3:14-21). An exalted series of petitions culminate in another “doxology.” This expresses Paul’s awe over the infinite power of God to accomplish all that he has described in the epistle thus far, and his desire that this will indeed result in great glory to God both in the church and in Christ.<\/p>\n<h5>Practical Ways to Fulfill God’s Purpose in the Church (4:1–6:20)<\/h5>\n<p>Doctrine and life are never separated in Paul’s thinking, but in Ephesians the connection is even more vital than usual. The believer’s life is to be lived in a manner worthy of the great purposes of God. The believer’s “calling” is not merely to be saved or eternally happy, but to participate with the entire body, the church, in bringing glory to God. This contributes to the realization of the prayer in 3:20-21.<\/p>\n<p>The first way to fulfill God’s purpose is to maintain the unity he established in the church. This is accomplished by recognizing the strong basis for unity (“one Lord, one faith,” etc., 4:5-6). Then believers must acknowledge diversity in that unity, remembering that God has given each one special abilities (vv 7-8). These abilities are to be used to bring the church both individually and corporately to maturity. This diversity in unity constitutes the second way in which God’s purpose is fulfilled. Christian maturity enables the individual members of the church to relate to each other in love (v 16).<\/p>\n<p>The third way to accomplish the purposes of God is by renewal of personal life (4:17–5:21). Paul emphasizes the kind of lifestyle that is expected of a Christian by contrasting the behavior patterns that had characterized the believers before their conversion. But the new life of the believer is not simply structured as a reaction against the old. Rather, the Lord has given both his teachings and the example of his own sacrificial love (4:20-21, 32; 5:1-2). The believer should cast off his old way of life, his old self or character. (The actual term is “old man” in Paul’s wording, not, as is often thought, “old nature.”) He should at the same time put on the “new man,” which, in Paul’s words in verse 24, is “created according to God” (<span>niv<\/span> “created to be like God”). The section closes with the important exhortation to be filled with the Spirit (5:18).<\/p>\n<p>The expression of the new character in interpersonal relations is the fourth way in which believers can forward the purposes of God in the church. Unity is either achieved or broken in accordance with the presence or absence of the proper submission described in 5:22–6:9. The basic principle of submission is first expressed by verse 21 as a result of the Spirit’s full control.<\/p>\n<p>Marriage then provides the first example of mutual submission. The wife submits to the husband, and this in turn is an expression of her submission, along with that of the whole church, to the Lord. The husband loves his wife as Christ loved the church. While the husband’s love is not described as submission, in effect, love does cost the lover his freedom. Jesus thus expressed his love for the church by his death (5:25). Further, husband and wife are bound together in a unity, just as God intended at the time of creation (Gn 2:24, quoted here in 5:31). This unity portrays that spiritual unity that exists between Christ and the church.<\/p>\n<p>It should be noted that this list of examples is similar to a pattern used elsewhere in the NT (e.g., Col 3:18–4:1; 1 Pt 3:1-7). Thus, following the example of marriage, Paul turns to the relationship that should exist between parent and child. The child obeys the father; the father refrains from excessive reactions (6:1-4). The last example is that of slaves and masters.<\/p>\n\n<p>The final way in which believers forward God’s great purposes is to carry on the spiritual conflict by depending on spiritual resources (Eph 6:10-20). Drawing on imagery both from the OT and from contemporary Roman warfare, Paul shows that the heavenly perspective is essential for victory. This includes dependence on God as expressed in prayer (vv 18-20). He acknowledges his own need in this respect.<\/p>\n<p>The conclusion to the letter (6:21-24) is a word of encouragement and an explanation of Paul’s decision to send the letter in the good hands of Tychicus. One of the concluding words is “grace,” a word that underlies the entire divine process described in Ephesians.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Colossians, Letter to the; Ephesus; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EPHESIANS, Letter to the<\/h3>\n<p>Letter to the Christians in Ephesus and the surrouding churches written with a magnificence that both instructs and inspires the reader. It provides a sweeping view of the role of the church as history moves toward the ultimate recognition of the universal headship of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Date and Origin<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The writer of the letter identifies himself as the apostle Paul (Eph 1:1; 3:1). He also describes his own ministry in terms that reflect what we know of Paul (3:7, 13; 4:1; 6:19-20). This claim is confirmed by the testimonies of Irenaeus, Origen, Polycarp, Tertullian, and Ignatius, who in his own espistle to the Ephesians alludes to the frequent and affectionate mention made by Paul of the Christian state, privileges, and persons of the Ephesians.<\/p>\n<p>There are some characteristics of the letter, however, that have caused many scholars to question its clear claim to Pauline authorship. Some of these characteristics would be a problem only if the letter were intended exclusively for people in Ephesus, but such was probably not the case. Otherwise, it would be hard to understand why, after establishing the church there over a three-year period, Paul would write as though author and recipients had only a secondhand knowledge of each other. It would also be strange that the warm personal words of greeting to various individuals that are found in other Pauline letters are missing here. There is instead only a general greeting to “the brothers” (6:23). But all this can be easily explained once it is understood that the epistle was an encyclical for several churches.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Destination\">Destination<\/p>\n<p>This epistle was addressed, most probably, to several churches in the district around Ephesus—namely, Asia. The Epistle to the Ephesians, so-called, was not really intended to be only for the church at Ephesus. Most modern scholars are convinced that it was an encyclical that went to several churches in Asia, including Ephesus. There are several reasons to affirm this. First, the earliest manuscripts (the Chester Beatty Papyrus—P46, Codex Sinaiticus, Codex Vaticanus) do not contain the words “in Ephesus” in Ephesians 1:1. It appears that Paul purposely left the name of the locality out, so as to be filled in later as the letter circulated to each locality. (The Greek construction in 1:1 calls for a prepositional phrase designating a locality to be present in the sentence.) Since Ephesus was the leading city of Asia, it was quite natural for scribes to assign this epistle to the church at Ephesus. Second, the Epistle to the Ephesians has all the marks of being a general treatise rather than an epistle to a specific local church. Paul had lived with the believers at Ephesus for three years (Acts 20:31). He knew them intimately, yet in this epistle there are no personal greetings or specific exhortations. When we consider Paul’s manner in many of his other epistles, it would be quite unlike him to have excluded these personal expressions. Quite the contrary, Paul speaks to the saints whom he has only heard about and who have only heard about him (see Eph 1:15; 3:1). It is possible that this epistle was the one sent to Laodicea.<\/p>\n\n<p>In all fairness it must be said that the encyclical theory has been opposed by some scholars. For example, Henry Alford makes the following objections to this theory: (1) It is at variance with the spirit of the epistle, which is clearly addressed to one set of persons throughout, coexisting in one place and as one body and under the same circumstances. (2) It is improbable that the apostle, who in two of his epistles (2 Corinthians and Galatians) has so plainly specified their encyclical character, should have here omitted such specification. (3) The absence of personal greetings is not an argument for either of the two theories, for similarly there are none in Galatians, Philippians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and 1 Timothy. The better he knows the parties addressed, and the more general and solemn the subject, the less he seems to give of these individual notices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateandOrigin\">Date and Origin<\/p>\n<p>Ephesians 3:1, 4:1, and 6:20 indicate that the letter was written while Paul was a prisoner. Since he was imprisoned several times, it is necessary to narrow the options. The first major imprisonment may have been at Ephesus itself, but this is obviously not in consideration. The second was at Caesarea for two years (Acts 24:27; cf. 23:23-24, 33). It is possible that Paul wrote some letters at that time, but most scholars think that Ephesians (along with Colossians, Philemon, and probably Philippians) was written during Paul’s imprisonment at Rome (28:16, 30). This probably took place sometime between <span>AD<\/span> 59 and 63 and lasted for two years. This period of time, following about 25 years of spiritual growth and 12 years or so of missionary experience, gave Paul a splendid opportunity for reflection and writing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Ephesus was the most important city in Asia Minor, located on the Cayster River, with a harbor on the Aegean Sea. With this location it became a center for commercial travel, and major trade routes led to it from several directions. A great pagan temple dedicated to the goddess Artemis (Diana) was located in Ephesus. Paul made the city a center of evangelistic and church-building ministry (Acts 19), spending three years there (20:31). It was natural, therefore, for a letter intended for a wide readership in that part of Asia Minor to have Ephesus as its main destination.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s first visit to Ephesus (on the seacoast of Lydia, near the river Cayster) is related in Acts 18:19-21. The work, begun by his disputations with the Jews in his short visit, was carried on by Apollos (vv 24-26) and Aquila and Priscilla (18:26). At his second visit, after his journey to Jerusalem, and thence to the east regions of Asia Minor, he remained at Ephesus “three years” (19:10—the “two years” in this verse are only <em>part<\/em> of the time—and 20:31); therefore, the founding and rearing of this church occupied an unusually large portion of the apostle’s time and care. The language in the epistle shows a warmth of feeling and a free outpouring of thought, and a union in spiritual privileges and hope between him and them, such as are natural from one so long and so intimately associated with those whom he addresses. On his last journey to Jerusalem, he sailed by Ephesus and summoned the elders of the Ephesian church to meet him at Miletus, where he delivered his remarkable farewell charge (20:18-35).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>It may be said that the purpose of Ephesians is “doxological”; that is, it should cause the readers to glorify God, both in grateful praise and in manner of life. This is seen in the opening section, which is like a hymn in style: “Praise God, the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ” (Eph 1:3; cf. the Doxology often sung in church). Paul says three times in the first chapter that the result of God’s blessings should be praise (vv 6, 12, 14).<\/p>\n<p>While the letter contains much doctrinal and moral instruction (with the latter solidly based on the former), its purpose is not only teaching or exhortation, important as these are. It is rather to lift up its readers to a new vantage point that will help them to identify with the risen, ascended Christ and to share his perspective on the church and its role in the world.<\/p>\n<p>In this connection a significant term occurs in 1:3 and elsewhere. It is perhaps best translated “heavenly realms.” It is different in form from the usual word for “heaven” and seems to have a special significance in Ephesians as the realm of Jesus’ victorious reign in the present age. This is seen in 1:20, read in the context of verses 19-23. Whatever beings there may be, Christ is above them all. The believer, although obviously on earth physically, “sits with Christ” in the heavenly realms (2:6) and is “blessed” (1:3), drawing on the unlimited resources of heaven for his daily life. It is also in this realm that the spiritual conflict takes place (6:12).<\/p>\n<p>Paul thus makes it clear that Christians are not to have a limited or merely earthly viewpoint. Those who do, mistakenly think that their enemies are people (6:12) and our resources human (2 Cor 10:3-4). With this orientation to the heavenly world of the Lord’s present exaltation, the reader is prepared to understand that the church does not function merely to carry out routine activities here, but that it displays the wisdom of God to beings who exist in the heavenly realms (Eph 3:10). Even the function of church leaders is discussed in terms of the gifts of the Christ who has ascended to the heavens (4:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>There is a strong sense of ultimate purpose in Ephesians. The first chapter contains a number of different expressions of purpose. The great goal of history is expressed in 1:10. The sense of purpose is never lost. The church is even seen, in chapter 3, as the expression of God’s eternal, secret plan. There is also a movement throughout the letter, from (1) reconciliation of individuals to God, to (2) their reconciliation to each other, to (3) their life together in the church. There is no arguing of points along the way, such as one finds in most of the letters, but rather a connected series of affirmations, each leading the reader on to the next.<\/p>\n<p>Paul discusses a number of topics from this heavenly perspective and the sense of purpose this provides. These topics will be discussed below in such a way as to show their interconnection, rather than necessarily in the order of their importance or prominence in Ephesians.<\/p>\n<h5>The Church<\/h5>\n<p>Paul employs a number of figures of speech to describe the church, including a household, a temple, and a body (1:22-23; 2:19-22). Actually, it may be insufficient to call the word “body” a figure of speech, because it seems to be more than that. There is a sense in which Christ and the church have an actual organic relationship, in which he functions as the head and believers as parts of his body.<\/p>\n<p>The church is the result of the reconciling work of Christ, whose death has made peace between mutually hostile Jews and Gentiles (2:11-18). The ensuing unity was long planned by God (3:2-6), and is furthered by a proper attitude and mutual ministry (ch 4).<\/p>\n<p>An especially remarkable feature of Ephesians is the parallel drawn between the relationship between a husband and wife and that between Christ and the church (5:22-33). In this comparison the prior reality is not marriage, with the relationship of Christ and the church only providing an illustration. Rather, the essential reality is Christ and the church.<\/p>\n<h5>The Headship of Christ<\/h5>\n<p>Not only is Christ the head of the church, but he is head over all things to the church’s benefit (1:22). The meaning of 1:10 is that the presently disparate parts and beings of the universe will be brought into order under the headship of Christ. This universal headship is anticipated in the ascension and present exaltation of Christ. The expression of universal domination—“God has put all things under his feet” (1:22, from Ps 8:6)—fortifies this expectation.<\/p>\n<h5>The “Mystery” or “Secret Plan”<\/h5>\n<p>The Greek word “mystery” has a special meaning in early Jewish and Christian literature. It refers to the private eternal decisions of God concerning his saving work and his ultimate purposes in history, which are revealed stage by stage. The term is used in connection with the kingdom in the Gospels (Mt 13:11), with the preaching of the gospel in 1 Corinthians 1:18–2:16, with the destiny of Israel in Romans 11:25, and elsewhere with differing applications. Finally, Revelation 10:6-7 declares that there will be no more delay, but that God’s “mystery,” initially announced by the prophets, will reach its completion.<\/p>\n<p>The aspect of God’s plan that Paul presents in Ephesians 3:3-6 is not only the inclusion of Gentiles among God’s people but their complete integration with Jews in the church. The extent of this was not revealed prior to the time of Paul’s ministry.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Divine Purpose: The Glory and Headship of Christ (1:1-14)<\/h5>\n<p>This whole section constitutes a “doxology.” Paul reminds readers, by expressing his own prayer of praise, of all the blessings God has given believers. These include being chosen to live in God’s presence without guilt (v 4), being given the destiny of full sonship (v 5), and being forgiven because Christ died for them.<\/p>\n<p>But Paul is not only giving a recitation of what God has done; he interweaves a number of words and phrases indicating <em>why<\/em> God has acted, that is, what God’s <em>purposes<\/em> are. Various translations use different English words to represent Greek expressions of purpose, such as “chose,” “predestined,” “plan,” “will,” “secret reason,” “good pleasure,” “purpose” (vv 4-10). Perhaps the most comprehensive statement is in verses 11-12.<\/p>\n<p>It is clear from this that the ultimate purpose of God’s saving work is not merely the happiness of believers but the glory of God through the Lord Jesus Christ. The Spirit is given to guarantee not only the believer’s security but also God’s investment, so to speak, in the believer.<\/p>\n<h5>Prayer That Christians May Realize God’s Purpose and Power (1:15-23)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul’s prayer issues from his opening section, constituting a request that believers may appropriate all that is contained in that statement. It is here that the fact of Jesus’ death, resurrection, and ascension is cited as the basis for the believer’s present vantage point and power.<\/p>\n<h5>Steps toward the Fulfillment of God’s Purpose (2:1–3:21)<\/h5>\n<p>The first step was the death of Christ in order to save individuals from sin and death (2:1-10). Since this was at God’s initiative, not man’s, and since man was spiritually “dead” and helpless, salvation can only be by grace.<\/p>\n<p>The second step was the reconciliation of people not only to God but to each other (2:11-18). Paul thus moves from the individual to the corporate aspect of salvation. This was particularly significant for Gentiles, who previously did not have even a formal relationship with God. One of the key words in this section is “peace” (vv 14-17).<\/p>\n<p>Step three goes beyond reconciliation to the actual uniting of Jews and Gentiles in one “household” (2:19-22). God has not only brought people individually to himself, and to each other as individuals, but has formed a new corporate entity, a new society that is described both in political and family terms. Ultimately, believers together form a corporate body in whom God is exalted.<\/p>\n<p>This third step is amplified in a fourth step, the revelation of God’s eternal purpose in the formation of this one body, the church (3:1-13). Using the biblical concept of the “mystery,” Paul shows how the church displays the wisdom of God to all who may be looking on throughout the universe. This immediately gives the believer a new awareness of the reason for his salvation and participation in the church. Self-centeredness and boredom with the routine of church activity give way to a sense of meaning and purpose.<\/p>\n<p>These steps are now summarized in a second prayer (3:14-21). An exalted series of petitions culminate in another “doxology.” This expresses Paul’s awe over the infinite power of God to accomplish all that he has described in the epistle thus far, and his desire that this will indeed result in great glory to God both in the church and in Christ.<\/p>\n<h5>Practical Ways to Fulfill God’s Purpose in the Church (4:1–6:20)<\/h5>\n<p>Doctrine and life are never separated in Paul’s thinking, but in Ephesians the connection is even more vital than usual. The believer’s life is to be lived in a manner worthy of the great purposes of God. The believer’s “calling” is not merely to be saved or eternally happy, but to participate with the entire body, the church, in bringing glory to God. This contributes to the realization of the prayer in 3:20-21.<\/p>\n<p>The first way to fulfill God’s purpose is to maintain the unity he established in the church. This is accomplished by recognizing the strong basis for unity (“one Lord, one faith,” etc., 4:5-6). Then believers must acknowledge diversity in that unity, remembering that God has given each one special abilities (vv 7-8). These abilities are to be used to bring the church both individually and corporately to maturity. This diversity in unity constitutes the second way in which God’s purpose is fulfilled. Christian maturity enables the individual members of the church to relate to each other in love (v 16).<\/p>\n<p>The third way to accomplish the purposes of God is by renewal of personal life (4:17–5:21). Paul emphasizes the kind of lifestyle that is expected of a Christian by contrasting the behavior patterns that had characterized the believers before their conversion. But the new life of the believer is not simply structured as a reaction against the old. Rather, the Lord has given both his teachings and the example of his own sacrificial love (4:20-21, 32; 5:1-2). The believer should cast off his old way of life, his old self or character. (The actual term is “old man” in Paul’s wording, not, as is often thought, “old nature.”) He should at the same time put on the “new man,” which, in Paul’s words in verse 24, is “created according to God” (<span>niv<\/span> “created to be like God”). The section closes with the important exhortation to be filled with the Spirit (5:18).<\/p>\n<p>The expression of the new character in interpersonal relations is the fourth way in which believers can forward the purposes of God in the church. Unity is either achieved or broken in accordance with the presence or absence of the proper submission described in 5:22–6:9. The basic principle of submission is first expressed by verse 21 as a result of the Spirit’s full control.<\/p>\n<p>Marriage then provides the first example of mutual submission. The wife submits to the husband, and this in turn is an expression of her submission, along with that of the whole church, to the Lord. The husband loves his wife as Christ loved the church. While the husband’s love is not described as submission, in effect, love does cost the lover his freedom. Jesus thus expressed his love for the church by his death (5:25). Further, husband and wife are bound together in a unity, just as God intended at the time of creation (Gn 2:24, quoted here in 5:31). This unity portrays that spiritual unity that exists between Christ and the church.<\/p>\n<p>It should be noted that this list of examples is similar to a pattern used elsewhere in the NT (e.g., Col 3:18–4:1; 1 Pt 3:1-7). Thus, following the example of marriage, Paul turns to the relationship that should exist between parent and child. The child obeys the father; the father refrains from excessive reactions (6:1-4). The last example is that of slaves and masters.<\/p>\n\n<p>The final way in which believers forward God’s great purposes is to carry on the spiritual conflict by depending on spiritual resources (Eph 6:10-20). Drawing on imagery both from the OT and from contemporary Roman warfare, Paul shows that the heavenly perspective is essential for victory. This includes dependence on God as expressed in prayer (vv 18-20). He acknowledges his own need in this respect.<\/p>\n<p>The conclusion to the letter (6:21-24) is a word of encouragement and an explanation of Paul’s decision to send the letter in the good hands of Tychicus. One of the concluding words is “grace,” a word that underlies the entire divine process described in Ephesians.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Colossians, Letter to the; Ephesus; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EPHESIANS, Letter to the Letter to the Christians in Ephesus and the surrouding churches written with a magnificence that both instructs and inspires the reader. It provides a sweeping view of the role of the church as history moves toward the ultimate recognition of the universal headship of Christ. Preview • Author • Destination • Date and Origin • Background • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author The writer of the letter identifies himself as the apostle Paul (Eph 1:1; 3:1). H...","summary_en":"EPHESIANS, Letter to the Letter to the Christians in Ephesus and the surrouding churches written with a magnificence that both instructs and inspires the reader. It provides a sweeping view of the role of the church as history moves toward the ultimate recognition of the universal headship of Christ. Preview • Author • Destination • Date and Origin • Background • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author The writer of the letter identifies himself as the apostle Paul (Eph 1:1; 3:1). H...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29232,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Paul, the Apostle","title_en":"Paul, the Apostle","content_ro":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","summary_en":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30204,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter to the Philippians","title_en":"Letter to the Philippians","content_ro":"<h3>PHILIPPIANS, L<span>etter to the<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>One of Paul’s Prison Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date and Origin<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Theological Themes<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Philippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateandOrigin\">Date and Origin<\/p>\n<p>While it is clear that Paul was writing from prison (Phil 1:12-13), it is not clear where he was imprisoned. The most likely possibility is Rome, in which case the date would be around <span>AD<\/span> 62. But some have thought that all the journeys implied in 4:14 and 2:25-26 make such a distant place unlikely (the Philippians hear that Paul is in prison and send a gift by Epaphroditus; Epaphroditus hears in Rome that the Philippians have heard that he has been ill). So the alternatives of Ephesus (c. <span>AD<\/span> 55) and Caesarea (c. <span>AD<\/span> 58) have been proposed. We know that Paul was imprisoned in Caesarea (Acts 23:33-35), but the greeting “from those of Caesar’s household” is difficult to explain if it was written there, in spite of the coincidence of name. Ephesus is certainly near enough to Philippi for plenty of interchange, but no imprisonment is recorded in the account of Paul’s ministry there in Acts. So we would have to assume that Luke’s account in Acts 19 is not complete and that Paul had been placed in protective custody at the time of the riot (see esp. 19:30-31). But such an imprisonment could hardly have led Paul to wonder whether his time “to depart and be with Christ” had now come (Phil 1:23). At the time of writing, he was clearly facing a capital charge.<\/p>\n<p>The traditional location (Rome) seems the most satisfactory, especially when one reflects that Paul was imprisoned there for at least two years (Acts 28:30), and that it took about three weeks to travel from Rome to Philippi.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Philippi had the distinction of being a Roman colony (Acts 16:12), a privilege accorded to only a few cities outside Italy. Some 90 years before the gospel arrived there (c. <span>AD<\/span> 50), the city had been greatly expanded by large numbers of Roman soldiers, who were settled there by their commanding officers. As a consequence, the town acquired its coveted status as a colony, which meant that for all intents and purposes its citizens were treated as if they lived in Italy, and the town had a fully Roman administration. Paul alludes to this status in Philippians 3:20, where he teaches that Christians likewise are citizens of another city, the heavenly one, while yet residents elsewhere. It was a rich and busy place, one of the main centers of life in Macedonia, and consequently was “home” to the adherents of many different religions, from both east and west. There was a strong Jewish community there, as well as pagans of many sorts.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalThemes\">Theological Themes<\/p>\n<p>In a sense Paul’s imprisonment is not just background material but lies at the heart of the letter’s message. In his imprisonment he was experiencing the abasement that he mentions in 4:12, using there the same word found in 2:8 to describe the self-humbling of Christ unto death. The pattern of the ministry of Jesus described in the great “hymn” of 2:6-11—humiliation followed by glorification—becomes the pattern of Paul’s own life and of the vision he holds out before the Philippians. So alongside abasement and suffering, joy is the other great theme of the letter. Within suffering and self-sacrifice, true joy is born. In fact, Philippians could justly be titled “The Epistle of Joy.” Other prominent themes include the gospel, the Day of the Lord, and in addition to the famous “hymn” in chapter 2, a comparison of Paul’s Jewish past with his present Christian experience (3:4-16).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting and Opening Prayer (1:1-11)<\/h5>\n<p>In the opening paragraph of his letter, Paul presents the themes that will be uppermost in his mind throughout. His personal warmth toward the Philippians is immediately striking: “I have you in my heart. . . . I long for all of you” (1:7-8), and this thought of outgoing and suffering love undergirds the whole letter. It is notable, too, that the letter begins and ends with the themes of “grace” and of “the saints” (1:1-2; 4:21-23). The grace of Christ, which reaches out to sinful people and transforms them, separating them from the world, occupies Paul throughout. “The saints” are the ones who, touched by that grace, are transformed in heart and mind, so that their love abounds more and more in knowledge and depth of insight (1:9).<\/p>\n<p>Two more great themes appear here. The Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">phroneo<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to think,” is used more in Philippians than in any other letter of Paul, no fewer than nine times (as against seven in Romans). Unfortunately, it is not uniformly translated in the English versions, and so it is hard for the English reader to notice its repeated appearance and the emphasis on the right use of the mind that goes with it. But for Paul this is vital: the way we think is at the heart of the Christian life, and in these opening verses he makes it clear that the love he feels for the Philippians is actually the Christian way of thinking about them (v 7: literally, “It is right for me to think this way about you”). This leads naturally to another emphasis—growth. For the “Christian mind” does not appear overnight. So Paul prays that this mind may grow, giving the Philippians powers of discernment that will transform their character and prepare them for “the day of Christ” (vv 10-11; cf. v 6).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, we note in this opening prayer the twin emphases on the gospel and on fellowship—linked in Paul’s prayer of thanksgiving for the Philippians’ partnership in the gospel (v 5; cf. v 7)—and also the introduction of the great theme of joy (v 4). All three are vital to the whole letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul and His Imprisonment: Christ Exalted (1:12-26)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul writes about his own situation to present the heart of his message. For when he writes, “For me to live is Christ” (v 21), he means more than that his every waking moment is taken up by fellowship with his Lord and service for him. He means also that, in his own person and experience, he displays Christ and “lives” him. Later he will say, “Keep putting into practice all you learned from me and heard from me and saw me doing” (4:9, <span>nlt<\/span>). Few Christian ministers would dare make such a claim today! Yet Paul believed that, as an apostle of Christ, it was his privilege not just to speak on Christ’s behalf but also to live out Christ’s life in his own person, even if that meant suffering and humiliation.<\/p>\n<p>There are two historical difficulties here. First, it is hard to reconstruct the situation to which Paul refers in 1:12-18. The church in Rome (if that is where he is) was clearly divided about his imprisonment—some believers actually being glad that he was behind bars. It seems as though they were prompted by his imprisonment to get on with preaching their own version of the gospel. Far from being upset by this, Paul is delighted! “What does it matter?” he asks (v 18). Whether by friend or foe, Christ is being proclaimed in a new way as a result of his imprisonment (v 14). He was normally quick to defend the purity of the Word proclaimed, so these rivals of Paul could not have been heretics.<\/p>\n<p>The other historical difficulty surrounds verses 19-26. At one moment Paul seems not to know what the outcome of imprisonment will be (vv 19-21). Yet he then suggests that he can choose whether to live or die (v 22), and finally tells the Philippians that he is sure he will remain alive (v 25). The best explanation is that Paul believed he had received a personal assurance from the Holy Spirit that his imprisonment would not end with his execution.<\/p>\n<p>At any rate, his attitude about his own death is most moving. He expected deliverance, whether by life or by death (vv 19-20), and had an unshakeable confidence that to die is “better by far” (v 23), because it means being “with Christ.” This section ends with a note of joy.<\/p>\n<h5>The Life Worthy of the Gospel (1:27–2:18)<\/h5>\n<p>This section ends with “joy,” just as the last did, and its whole message is summed up in the opening exhortation of verse 27. Paul wanted the Philippians to be people in whom there is no gap between profession and practice, in whom the gospel believed is the gospel lived. The section falls into four portions, which might be entitled as follows: (1) 1:27-30—the worthy life in a hostile world; (2) 2:1-4—the worthy life in Christian fellowship; (3) 2:5-11—the gospel that inspires us; (4) 2:12-18—priorities for lives worthy of the gospel.<\/p>\n<p>Paul refused to let the Philippians feel that he was worse off than they. He wrote, “We are in this fight together. You have seen me suffer for him in the past, and you know that I am still in the midst of this great struggle” (1:30, <span>nlt<\/span>). For suffering at the hands of a hostile world is part and parcel of Christian discipleship. If we profess to believe a gospel about one who, though equal with God, left aside the glory of heaven and submitted not just to incarnation but also to a horrible death (2:6-8), then we must think of suffering not as an unfortunate necessity but as a privilege! “For you have been given not only the privilege of trusting in Christ but also the privilege of suffering for him” (1:29, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The essential quality the believers need, in order to face successfully the hostility of the world, is unity. They must be “standing side by side, fighting together for the Good News” (1:27), and believing one gospel will produce a united front against the world—and not a purely defensive front, either. The theme of unity continues into chapter 2, where Paul turns to life within the fellowship (2:1-4), as if to say that external unity before the world will not be possible unless their hearts and minds are truly united in one love, spirit, and purpose (v 2), whatever their outward situation. Such a unity will come only if there is tenderness and compassion among them (v 1). The lovely progression in verse 1 reaches a climax with this phrase, and that in turn leads into the famous “hymn” in 2:6-11. Such tenderness will not find its home in their hearts unless they believe the gospel about which the hymn sings.<\/p>\n<p>Whether 2:6-11 was in fact a real hymn, sung in the context of early Christian worship, is now impossible to know for sure. Certainly Paul’s language here takes on a hymnic quality, though it is not in poetic form. Many scholars have thought that Paul did not write these verses himself but was quoting a well-known piece of liturgy. All one can say for certain is that his language changes in style, and he expressed here ideas that are unique in his writings.<\/p>\n<p>The hymn blends in with its context beautifully, and in fact forms the core of the whole letter. For we see here how the experience of imprisonment and deliverance, and of suffering and joy, is an entering into the experience of Jesus himself, who died and rose, was humbled and glorified.<\/p>\n<h5>Two Worthy Examples and Friends (2:19-30)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul again writes about his own situation and plans, but as before, this section is not just concerned with practical arrangements. On the face of it, he was simply explaining why he was sending the letter by the hand of Epaphroditus instead of Timothy. But actually he was holding them up as practical examples of the life lived by the gospel, about which he had just written. Timothy “genuinely cares about your welfare” (2:20), because, unlike everyone else, he did not seek his own interests but those of Jesus Christ (v 21). He lived the gospel! He was committed to the work of the gospel (v 22). And Epaphroditus was the same, though in a different way. His union with Jesus was expressed not so much in his self-giving service for the gospel and his fellow saints, as in the illness that he suffered and the pains of separation that he endured. Like Jesus, he put his life on the line (v 30), and like Jesus, he was restored to life again (v 27). Now he was to be restored to his beloved Philippians, and the joy that they would experience together would be a further outworking of the gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>Pressing Forward and Standing Firm (3:1–4:1)<\/h5>\n<p>This section also begins and ends on the note of joy (3:1; 4:1)—not accidentally. The way of the cross that Paul describes is also the way of joy (cf. Heb 12:2). It begins and ends also with the address “dear brothers and sisters,” and this, too, is not accidental, for once again in this passage Paul writes about himself, and once again the underlying thought is that his experience is typical and that his readers should expect and seek to see the same pattern in their lives. He wrote, “Dear brothers and sisters, pattern your lives after mine, and learn from those who follow our example” (3:17, <span>nlt<\/span>). Having put forward Timothy and Epaphroditus as examples in 2:19-30, Paul now does the same with himself.<\/p>\n<p>The tone seems to change dramatically in 3:2, as Paul turns to warn the Philippians against “those dogs,” who are probably the same as those to whom he refers in 1:28 as “your enemies.” There, he was much concerned about the inner foundation of the Philippians’ stand against them, so he did not specify who they were. But now he examines them more closely, in order to show the Philippians that the Christian life entails a complete reversal of the values held by their opponents.<\/p>\n<p>It seems that they were Jews, the sort in Acts 17:5 who opposed Paul’s ministry in nearby Thessalonica. They believed that they were God’s chosen race, but Paul thought that was nothing more than placing confidence in the flesh (Phil 3:4). They thought they knew the way of righteousness—it is the way of rigorous and disciplined obedience to God’s law in every detail of life. But Paul thought that was to seek a righteousness of one’s own (v 9), having nothing to do with the righteousness that God wants to give. The true way to be God’s people, he movingly insists, is the way of self-renunciation, so that all he previously held dear as a Jew came to be seen as rubbish (v 8), considered as loss for the sake of Christ (v 7). The only way to attain righteousness is through faith in Christ (v 9), for Christians must become like him in his death if they are to know the power of his resurrection (v 10). For Paul, dying with Christ meant not just suffering imprisonment and many other indignities for Christ’s sake but also renouncing all the prized possessions that his Judaism had given him.<\/p>\n<h5>Thinking, Rejoicing, Sharing (4:2-23)<\/h5>\n<p>Again, the tone changes suddenly (both at 4:2 and at 4:10)—so much so that some scholars have suggested that Philippians was compiled by an editor using several different letters. But when Paul turns (in v 2) to address Euodia and Syntyche, he was not really changing the subject. The link with the last section is the same as that between 1:27-30 and the first paragraph in chapter 2: how can Christians expect to be able to hold their own in the face of some enemies of the cross of Christ (3:18) if they are disunited and at odds with each other? For if there is just one gospel, disharmony between Christians means that the gospel is not having its full effect. So Euodia and Syntyche are urged (literally) to “think the same thing in the Lord” (4:2), and are then reminded of how they once found a wonderful unity in striving side by side in the cause of the gospel (v 3).<\/p>\n<p>The agreement that Paul urges them to come to does not mean complete identity of opinions on all subjects. It means a oneness of heart in a common love for Christ and the gospel. In the rest of the letter Paul spells out what this oneness means in practice—both what it should mean and what it has meant for the Philippians. The use of the mind is vital, and in verses 4-9 Paul paints a picture of the Christian life in which careful and intelligent prayer (vv 6-7) and the deliberate directing of the mind toward “whatever is true and honorable” (v 8) will produce a life marked by the two qualities of peace and joy, whatever the circumstances.<\/p>\n<p>That leads to the final paragraph, in which Paul gives thanks that, in spite of the disharmony evident in one part of the Philippian church, the church as a whole has already displayed this true Christian “mind.” For they have shown their oneness with Paul in the cause of the gospel by sending him a gift by Epaphroditus. “You have done well to share with me in my present difficulty,” Paul writes (4:14), and our thoughts go back again to the hymn in 2:6-11. From the gospel about the one who came from heaven to bear our burdens comes this mutual sharing—and so does Paul’s wonderful attitude to his circumstances: “I know how to be humbled [the same word as in 2:8], and I know how to abound” (4:12). Joined to Christ, we do not anxiously seek provision for our needs (v 17; cf. v 6), but share with him and with others whatever humiliation and exaltation he sends, confident that God will meet all our needs “from his glorious riches, which have been given to us in Christ Jesus” (4:19, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Philippi.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PHILIPPIANS, L<span>etter to the<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>One of Paul’s Prison Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date and Origin<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Theological Themes<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Philippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateandOrigin\">Date and Origin<\/p>\n<p>While it is clear that Paul was writing from prison (Phil 1:12-13), it is not clear where he was imprisoned. The most likely possibility is Rome, in which case the date would be around <span>AD<\/span> 62. But some have thought that all the journeys implied in 4:14 and 2:25-26 make such a distant place unlikely (the Philippians hear that Paul is in prison and send a gift by Epaphroditus; Epaphroditus hears in Rome that the Philippians have heard that he has been ill). So the alternatives of Ephesus (c. <span>AD<\/span> 55) and Caesarea (c. <span>AD<\/span> 58) have been proposed. We know that Paul was imprisoned in Caesarea (Acts 23:33-35), but the greeting “from those of Caesar’s household” is difficult to explain if it was written there, in spite of the coincidence of name. Ephesus is certainly near enough to Philippi for plenty of interchange, but no imprisonment is recorded in the account of Paul’s ministry there in Acts. So we would have to assume that Luke’s account in Acts 19 is not complete and that Paul had been placed in protective custody at the time of the riot (see esp. 19:30-31). But such an imprisonment could hardly have led Paul to wonder whether his time “to depart and be with Christ” had now come (Phil 1:23). At the time of writing, he was clearly facing a capital charge.<\/p>\n<p>The traditional location (Rome) seems the most satisfactory, especially when one reflects that Paul was imprisoned there for at least two years (Acts 28:30), and that it took about three weeks to travel from Rome to Philippi.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Philippi had the distinction of being a Roman colony (Acts 16:12), a privilege accorded to only a few cities outside Italy. Some 90 years before the gospel arrived there (c. <span>AD<\/span> 50), the city had been greatly expanded by large numbers of Roman soldiers, who were settled there by their commanding officers. As a consequence, the town acquired its coveted status as a colony, which meant that for all intents and purposes its citizens were treated as if they lived in Italy, and the town had a fully Roman administration. Paul alludes to this status in Philippians 3:20, where he teaches that Christians likewise are citizens of another city, the heavenly one, while yet residents elsewhere. It was a rich and busy place, one of the main centers of life in Macedonia, and consequently was “home” to the adherents of many different religions, from both east and west. There was a strong Jewish community there, as well as pagans of many sorts.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalThemes\">Theological Themes<\/p>\n<p>In a sense Paul’s imprisonment is not just background material but lies at the heart of the letter’s message. In his imprisonment he was experiencing the abasement that he mentions in 4:12, using there the same word found in 2:8 to describe the self-humbling of Christ unto death. The pattern of the ministry of Jesus described in the great “hymn” of 2:6-11—humiliation followed by glorification—becomes the pattern of Paul’s own life and of the vision he holds out before the Philippians. So alongside abasement and suffering, joy is the other great theme of the letter. Within suffering and self-sacrifice, true joy is born. In fact, Philippians could justly be titled “The Epistle of Joy.” Other prominent themes include the gospel, the Day of the Lord, and in addition to the famous “hymn” in chapter 2, a comparison of Paul’s Jewish past with his present Christian experience (3:4-16).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting and Opening Prayer (1:1-11)<\/h5>\n<p>In the opening paragraph of his letter, Paul presents the themes that will be uppermost in his mind throughout. His personal warmth toward the Philippians is immediately striking: “I have you in my heart. . . . I long for all of you” (1:7-8), and this thought of outgoing and suffering love undergirds the whole letter. It is notable, too, that the letter begins and ends with the themes of “grace” and of “the saints” (1:1-2; 4:21-23). The grace of Christ, which reaches out to sinful people and transforms them, separating them from the world, occupies Paul throughout. “The saints” are the ones who, touched by that grace, are transformed in heart and mind, so that their love abounds more and more in knowledge and depth of insight (1:9).<\/p>\n<p>Two more great themes appear here. The Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">phroneo<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to think,” is used more in Philippians than in any other letter of Paul, no fewer than nine times (as against seven in Romans). Unfortunately, it is not uniformly translated in the English versions, and so it is hard for the English reader to notice its repeated appearance and the emphasis on the right use of the mind that goes with it. But for Paul this is vital: the way we think is at the heart of the Christian life, and in these opening verses he makes it clear that the love he feels for the Philippians is actually the Christian way of thinking about them (v 7: literally, “It is right for me to think this way about you”). This leads naturally to another emphasis—growth. For the “Christian mind” does not appear overnight. So Paul prays that this mind may grow, giving the Philippians powers of discernment that will transform their character and prepare them for “the day of Christ” (vv 10-11; cf. v 6).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, we note in this opening prayer the twin emphases on the gospel and on fellowship—linked in Paul’s prayer of thanksgiving for the Philippians’ partnership in the gospel (v 5; cf. v 7)—and also the introduction of the great theme of joy (v 4). All three are vital to the whole letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul and His Imprisonment: Christ Exalted (1:12-26)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul writes about his own situation to present the heart of his message. For when he writes, “For me to live is Christ” (v 21), he means more than that his every waking moment is taken up by fellowship with his Lord and service for him. He means also that, in his own person and experience, he displays Christ and “lives” him. Later he will say, “Keep putting into practice all you learned from me and heard from me and saw me doing” (4:9, <span>nlt<\/span>). Few Christian ministers would dare make such a claim today! Yet Paul believed that, as an apostle of Christ, it was his privilege not just to speak on Christ’s behalf but also to live out Christ’s life in his own person, even if that meant suffering and humiliation.<\/p>\n<p>There are two historical difficulties here. First, it is hard to reconstruct the situation to which Paul refers in 1:12-18. The church in Rome (if that is where he is) was clearly divided about his imprisonment—some believers actually being glad that he was behind bars. It seems as though they were prompted by his imprisonment to get on with preaching their own version of the gospel. Far from being upset by this, Paul is delighted! “What does it matter?” he asks (v 18). Whether by friend or foe, Christ is being proclaimed in a new way as a result of his imprisonment (v 14). He was normally quick to defend the purity of the Word proclaimed, so these rivals of Paul could not have been heretics.<\/p>\n<p>The other historical difficulty surrounds verses 19-26. At one moment Paul seems not to know what the outcome of imprisonment will be (vv 19-21). Yet he then suggests that he can choose whether to live or die (v 22), and finally tells the Philippians that he is sure he will remain alive (v 25). The best explanation is that Paul believed he had received a personal assurance from the Holy Spirit that his imprisonment would not end with his execution.<\/p>\n<p>At any rate, his attitude about his own death is most moving. He expected deliverance, whether by life or by death (vv 19-20), and had an unshakeable confidence that to die is “better by far” (v 23), because it means being “with Christ.” This section ends with a note of joy.<\/p>\n<h5>The Life Worthy of the Gospel (1:27–2:18)<\/h5>\n<p>This section ends with “joy,” just as the last did, and its whole message is summed up in the opening exhortation of verse 27. Paul wanted the Philippians to be people in whom there is no gap between profession and practice, in whom the gospel believed is the gospel lived. The section falls into four portions, which might be entitled as follows: (1) 1:27-30—the worthy life in a hostile world; (2) 2:1-4—the worthy life in Christian fellowship; (3) 2:5-11—the gospel that inspires us; (4) 2:12-18—priorities for lives worthy of the gospel.<\/p>\n<p>Paul refused to let the Philippians feel that he was worse off than they. He wrote, “We are in this fight together. You have seen me suffer for him in the past, and you know that I am still in the midst of this great struggle” (1:30, <span>nlt<\/span>). For suffering at the hands of a hostile world is part and parcel of Christian discipleship. If we profess to believe a gospel about one who, though equal with God, left aside the glory of heaven and submitted not just to incarnation but also to a horrible death (2:6-8), then we must think of suffering not as an unfortunate necessity but as a privilege! “For you have been given not only the privilege of trusting in Christ but also the privilege of suffering for him” (1:29, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The essential quality the believers need, in order to face successfully the hostility of the world, is unity. They must be “standing side by side, fighting together for the Good News” (1:27), and believing one gospel will produce a united front against the world—and not a purely defensive front, either. The theme of unity continues into chapter 2, where Paul turns to life within the fellowship (2:1-4), as if to say that external unity before the world will not be possible unless their hearts and minds are truly united in one love, spirit, and purpose (v 2), whatever their outward situation. Such a unity will come only if there is tenderness and compassion among them (v 1). The lovely progression in verse 1 reaches a climax with this phrase, and that in turn leads into the famous “hymn” in 2:6-11. Such tenderness will not find its home in their hearts unless they believe the gospel about which the hymn sings.<\/p>\n<p>Whether 2:6-11 was in fact a real hymn, sung in the context of early Christian worship, is now impossible to know for sure. Certainly Paul’s language here takes on a hymnic quality, though it is not in poetic form. Many scholars have thought that Paul did not write these verses himself but was quoting a well-known piece of liturgy. All one can say for certain is that his language changes in style, and he expressed here ideas that are unique in his writings.<\/p>\n<p>The hymn blends in with its context beautifully, and in fact forms the core of the whole letter. For we see here how the experience of imprisonment and deliverance, and of suffering and joy, is an entering into the experience of Jesus himself, who died and rose, was humbled and glorified.<\/p>\n<h5>Two Worthy Examples and Friends (2:19-30)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul again writes about his own situation and plans, but as before, this section is not just concerned with practical arrangements. On the face of it, he was simply explaining why he was sending the letter by the hand of Epaphroditus instead of Timothy. But actually he was holding them up as practical examples of the life lived by the gospel, about which he had just written. Timothy “genuinely cares about your welfare” (2:20), because, unlike everyone else, he did not seek his own interests but those of Jesus Christ (v 21). He lived the gospel! He was committed to the work of the gospel (v 22). And Epaphroditus was the same, though in a different way. His union with Jesus was expressed not so much in his self-giving service for the gospel and his fellow saints, as in the illness that he suffered and the pains of separation that he endured. Like Jesus, he put his life on the line (v 30), and like Jesus, he was restored to life again (v 27). Now he was to be restored to his beloved Philippians, and the joy that they would experience together would be a further outworking of the gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>Pressing Forward and Standing Firm (3:1–4:1)<\/h5>\n<p>This section also begins and ends on the note of joy (3:1; 4:1)—not accidentally. The way of the cross that Paul describes is also the way of joy (cf. Heb 12:2). It begins and ends also with the address “dear brothers and sisters,” and this, too, is not accidental, for once again in this passage Paul writes about himself, and once again the underlying thought is that his experience is typical and that his readers should expect and seek to see the same pattern in their lives. He wrote, “Dear brothers and sisters, pattern your lives after mine, and learn from those who follow our example” (3:17, <span>nlt<\/span>). Having put forward Timothy and Epaphroditus as examples in 2:19-30, Paul now does the same with himself.<\/p>\n<p>The tone seems to change dramatically in 3:2, as Paul turns to warn the Philippians against “those dogs,” who are probably the same as those to whom he refers in 1:28 as “your enemies.” There, he was much concerned about the inner foundation of the Philippians’ stand against them, so he did not specify who they were. But now he examines them more closely, in order to show the Philippians that the Christian life entails a complete reversal of the values held by their opponents.<\/p>\n<p>It seems that they were Jews, the sort in Acts 17:5 who opposed Paul’s ministry in nearby Thessalonica. They believed that they were God’s chosen race, but Paul thought that was nothing more than placing confidence in the flesh (Phil 3:4). They thought they knew the way of righteousness—it is the way of rigorous and disciplined obedience to God’s law in every detail of life. But Paul thought that was to seek a righteousness of one’s own (v 9), having nothing to do with the righteousness that God wants to give. The true way to be God’s people, he movingly insists, is the way of self-renunciation, so that all he previously held dear as a Jew came to be seen as rubbish (v 8), considered as loss for the sake of Christ (v 7). The only way to attain righteousness is through faith in Christ (v 9), for Christians must become like him in his death if they are to know the power of his resurrection (v 10). For Paul, dying with Christ meant not just suffering imprisonment and many other indignities for Christ’s sake but also renouncing all the prized possessions that his Judaism had given him.<\/p>\n<h5>Thinking, Rejoicing, Sharing (4:2-23)<\/h5>\n<p>Again, the tone changes suddenly (both at 4:2 and at 4:10)—so much so that some scholars have suggested that Philippians was compiled by an editor using several different letters. But when Paul turns (in v 2) to address Euodia and Syntyche, he was not really changing the subject. The link with the last section is the same as that between 1:27-30 and the first paragraph in chapter 2: how can Christians expect to be able to hold their own in the face of some enemies of the cross of Christ (3:18) if they are disunited and at odds with each other? For if there is just one gospel, disharmony between Christians means that the gospel is not having its full effect. So Euodia and Syntyche are urged (literally) to “think the same thing in the Lord” (4:2), and are then reminded of how they once found a wonderful unity in striving side by side in the cause of the gospel (v 3).<\/p>\n<p>The agreement that Paul urges them to come to does not mean complete identity of opinions on all subjects. It means a oneness of heart in a common love for Christ and the gospel. In the rest of the letter Paul spells out what this oneness means in practice—both what it should mean and what it has meant for the Philippians. The use of the mind is vital, and in verses 4-9 Paul paints a picture of the Christian life in which careful and intelligent prayer (vv 6-7) and the deliberate directing of the mind toward “whatever is true and honorable” (v 8) will produce a life marked by the two qualities of peace and joy, whatever the circumstances.<\/p>\n<p>That leads to the final paragraph, in which Paul gives thanks that, in spite of the disharmony evident in one part of the Philippian church, the church as a whole has already displayed this true Christian “mind.” For they have shown their oneness with Paul in the cause of the gospel by sending him a gift by Epaphroditus. “You have done well to share with me in my present difficulty,” Paul writes (4:14), and our thoughts go back again to the hymn in 2:6-11. From the gospel about the one who came from heaven to bear our burdens comes this mutual sharing—and so does Paul’s wonderful attitude to his circumstances: “I know how to be humbled [the same word as in 2:8], and I know how to abound” (4:12). Joined to Christ, we do not anxiously seek provision for our needs (v 17; cf. v 6), but share with him and with others whatever humiliation and exaltation he sends, confident that God will meet all our needs “from his glorious riches, which have been given to us in Christ Jesus” (4:19, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Philippi.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the One of Paul’s Prison Epistles. Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Theological Themes • Content Author Philippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary. Date and Origin While it is clear ...","summary_en":"PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the One of Paul’s Prison Epistles. Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Theological Themes • Content Author Philippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary. Date and Origin While it is clear ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36145,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Spirit of God","title_en":"Spirit of God","content_ro":"<h3>SPIRIT OF GOD<\/h3>\n<p>Description of God in action, God in motion. The word “spirit” (Hebrew, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ruach<\/span><em>;<\/em> Greek, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">pneuma<\/span>) is the word used from ancient times to describe and explain the experience of divine power working in, upon, and around people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>There are three basic meanings evident in the use of “spirit” from the earliest Hebrew writings: It was a wind from God, it was the breath of life, and it was a spirit of ecstasy.<\/p>\n<p>First, it was a wind from God (the same Hebrew word translated “Spirit” in Gn 1:2) that caused the waters of the Flood to subside (8:1). A wind from God blew locusts over Egypt (Ex 10:13) and quail over the camp of Israel. The blast of his nostrils separated the waters of the Red Sea at the exodus (14:21).<\/p>\n<p>Second, it was the breath of God that made man a living being (Gn 2:7). It is one of the earliest perceptions of Hebrew faith that humans live only because of the stirring of the divine breath or spirit within them (Gn 6:3; Jb 33:4; 34:14-15; Ps 104:29-30). Later, a clearer distinction was drawn between divine Spirit and human spirit, and between spirit and soul, but at the earliest stage these were all more or less perceived to be synonymous manifestations of the same divine power, the source of all life—animal as well as human (Gn 7:15, 22; see Eccl 3:19-21).<\/p>\n<p>Third, there were occasions when this divine power seemed to overtake and possess an individual fully, so that his or her words or actions far transcended those of normal behavior. Such a person was clearly marked as an agent of God’s purpose and given respect. This was apparently how leaders were recognized in the premonarchy period—Othniel (Jgs 3:10), Gideon (6:34), Jephthah (11:29), and the first king, Saul (1 Sm 11:6), as well. So, too, the earliest prophets were those whose inspiration came in ecstasy (1 Sm 19:20-24).<\/p>\n<p>In the earlier stages of Hebrew thought, ecstatic experience was seen as the direct effect of divine power. This was true even when the ecstasy was recognized as evil in character, as in the case of Saul’s seizure by the Spirit (1 Sm 16:14-16). A spirit from God could be for evil as well as for good (see Jgs 9:23; 1 Kgs 22:19-23).<\/p>\n<h5>In the Writings of the Prophets<\/h5>\n<p>For Isaiah, the spirit was that which characterized God and distinguished him and his actions from human affairs (Is 31:3). Later, the adjective “holy” appeared as that which distinguished the Spirit of God from any other spirit, human or divine (Ps 51:11; Is 63:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>The problem of false prophecy emphasized the danger of assuming that every message delivered in ecstasy was the word of the Lord. Thus, tests of prophecy evaluated the content of the message delivered or the character of the prophet’s life, not the degree or quality of inspiration (see Dt 13:1-5; 18:22; Jer 23:14; Mi 3:5). This sense of a need to discriminate between true and false inspiration and to distinguish the word of God from the merely ecstatic oracle may help to explain the otherwise puzzling reluctance of the major eighth- and seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> prophets to attribute their inspiration to the Spirit.<\/p>\n<h5>In the Exilic and Postexilic Writings<\/h5>\n<p>In exilic and postexilic literature, the role of the Spirit is narrowed to two major functions: that of the prophetic Spirit and that of the Spirit of the age to come.<\/p>\n<p>The later prophets again spoke of the Spirit in explicit terms as the inspirer of prophecy (see Ez 3:1-4, 22-24; Hg 2:5; Zec 4:6). As they looked back to the preexilic period, these prophets freely attributed the inspiration of “the former prophets” to the Spirit as well (Zec 7:12).<\/p>\n<p>This tendency to exalt the Spirit’s role as the inspirer of prophecy became steadily stronger in the period between the OT and NT, until in rabbinic Judaism the Spirit was almost exclusively the inspirer of the prophetic writings now regarded as Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>The other understanding of the Spirit’s role during exilic and postexilic times was that the Spirit would be the manifestation of the power of God in the age to come. That eschatological hope of divine power effecting a final cleansing and a renewed creation is rooted principally in Isaiah’s prophecies (Is 4:4; 32:15; 44:3-4). Isaiah speaks of one anointed by the Spirit to accomplish complete and final salvation (11:2; 42:1; 61:1). Elsewhere, the same longing is expressed in terms of the Spirit being freely dispensed to all Israel (Ez 39:29; Jl 2:28-29; Zec 12:10) in the new covenant (Jer 31:31-34; Ez 36:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>In the period prior to Jesus, the understanding of the Spirit as the Spirit of prophecy and as the Spirit of the age to come had developed into the widespread dogma that the Spirit was no longer to be experienced in the present. The Spirit had been known in the past as the inspirer of prophetic writings, but after Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, the Spirit had withdrawn (1 Macc 4:44-46; 9:27; 2 Bar 85:1-3; see also Ps 74:9; Zec 13:2-6). The Spirit would be known again in the age of the Messiah, but in the interim the Spirit was absent from Israel. Even the great Hillel (learned Jewish leader and teacher, 60? <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 20?), a near contemporary of Jesus, had not received the Spirit—though if anyone was worthy of the Spirit, it was he. There is a tradition that at a meeting of Hillel and other wise men, a voice from heaven said, “Among those here present is one who would have deserved the Holy Spirit to rest upon him, if his time had been worthy of it.” The wise men all looked at Hillel.<\/p>\n<p>The consequence of this accepted dearth of the Spirit was that the Spirit in effect became subordinated to the law. The Spirit was the inspirer of the law, but since the Spirit could no longer be experienced directly, the law became the sole voice of the Spirit. It was this increasing dominance of the law and its authoritative interpreters that provided the background for the mission of Jesus and the initial spread of Christianity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>If we are to understand the NT’s teaching on the Spirit, we must recognize both its continuity and discontinuity with the OT. At many points NT usage cannot be fully understood except against the background of OT concepts or passages. For example, the ambiguity of John 3:8 (“wind,” “Spirit”), 2 Thessalonians 2:8 (“breath”), and Revelation 11:11 (“breath of life”) takes us back to the basic Hebrew meanings of “spirit.” Acts 8:39 and Revelation 17:3 and 21:10 reflect the same conception of the Spirit that we find in 1 Kings 18:12, 2 Kings 2:16, and Ezekiel 3:14. The NT writers generally share the rabbinic view that Scripture has the authority of the Spirit behind it (see Mk 12:36; Acts 28:25; Heb 3:7; 2 Pt 1:21). The principal continuity is that the NT brings the fulfillment of what the OT writers looked forward to. At the same time, Christianity is not simply fulfilled Judaism. Jesus’ coming and his giving of his Spirit to live within his believers marks off the new faith as something new and distinct.<\/p>\n<h5>The Spirit of the New Age<\/h5>\n<p>The most striking feature of Jesus’ ministry and of the message of the earliest Christians was their conviction and proclamation that the blessings of the new age were already present, that the eschatological Spirit had already been poured out. With the exception of the Essenes at Qumran, no other group or individual within the Jewish religion of that time had dared to make such a bold claim. The prophets and the rabbis looked for a messianic age yet to come, and the apocalyptic writers warned of its imminent arrival, but none thought of it as already present. Even John the Baptist spoke only of one about to come and of the Spirit’s operation in the imminent future (Mk 1:8). But for Jesus and first-century Christians, the longed for hope was a living reality, and the claim carried with it the exciting sense of being in “the last days.” Without some recognition of that eschatological dimension of the Christians’ faith and life, we cannot understand this teaching on, and experience of, the Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus clearly thought of his teachings and healings as fulfillment of the prophetic hope (Mt 12:41-42; 13:16-17; Lk 17:20-21). In particular, he saw himself as the one anointed by the Spirit to provide salvation (Mt 5:3-6; 11:5; Lk 4:17-19). So, too, Jesus understood his exorcisms as the effect of the power of God and as manifestations of the end-time rule of God (Mt 12:27-28; Mk 3:22-26). The Gospel writers, especially Luke, emphasize the eschatological character of Jesus’ life and ministry by stressing the role of the Spirit in his birth (Mt 1:18; Lk 1:35, 41, 67; 2:25-27), his baptism (Mk 1:9-10; Acts 10:38), and his ministry (Mt 4:1; 12:18; Mk 1:12; Lk 4:1, 14; 10:21; Jn 3:34).<\/p>\n<p>The Christian church began with the in-breathing of the Holy Spirit on the day of Christ’s resurrection (Jn 20:22), followed by the outpouring of the Spirit at Pentecost “in the last days.” The overwhelming experience of vision and inspired utterance was taken as proof positive that the new age prophesied by Joel had now arrived (Acts 2:2-5, 17-18). Similarly, in Hebrews the gift of the Spirit is spoken of as “the powers of the age to come” (Heb 6:4-5). More striking still is Paul’s understanding of the Spirit as the guarantee of God’s complete salvation (2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Eph 1:13-14), and as the first installment of the believer’s inheritance of God’s kingdom (Rom 8:15-17; 1 Cor 6:9-11; 15:42-50; Gal 4:6-7; 5:16-18, 21-23; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit is here again thought of as the power of the age to come, as that power (which will characterize God’s rule at the end of time) already shaping and transforming the lives of believers.<\/p>\n<p>For Paul, this means also that the gift of the Spirit is but the beginning of a lifelong process that will not end until the believer’s whole person is brought under the Spirit’s power (Rom 8:11, 23; 1 Cor 15:44-49; 2 Cor 3:18; 5:1-5). It also means that the present experience of faith is one of lifelong tension between what God has already begun to bring about in the believer’s life and what has not yet been brought under God’s grace (Phil 1:6). It is this tension between life “in the Spirit” and life “in the flesh” (see Gal 2:20) that comes to poignant expression in Romans 7:24 and 2 Corinthians 5:2-4.<\/p>\n<h5>The Spirit of New Life<\/h5>\n<p>Since the Spirit is the mark of the new age, it is not surprising that the NT writers understood the gift of the Spirit to be that which brings an individual into the new age. John the Baptist described the way the coming one would baptize with the Holy Spirit and with fire (Mt 3:11). According to Acts 1:5 and 11:16, this imagery was taken up by Jesus, and the promise is seen as fulfilled at Pentecost—the outpouring of the Spirit here being understood as the risen Christ’s action in drawing his disciples into the new age (Acts 2:17, 33).<\/p>\n<p>It seems to be one of Luke’s aims in the book of Acts to highlight the central importance of the gift of the Spirit in conversion-initiation—it is that decisive “gift of the Holy Spirit” that makes one a Christian (Acts 2:38-39). People could have been followers of Jesus on earth, but it was only when they received the gift of the Spirit that they could be said to have “believed in the Lord Jesus Christ” (11:16-17). When the Spirit’s presence was manifested in and upon a person’s life, that was recognized by Peter as proof enough that God had accepted that person, even though he or she had not yet made any formal profession of faith or been baptized (10:44-48; 11:15-18; 15:7-9). So too Apollos, already aglow with the Spirit (18:25), even though his knowledge of “the way of God” was slightly defective (vv 24-26), apparently was not required to supplement his “baptism of John” with Christian baptism. However, the 12 so-called disciples at Ephesus proved by their very ignorance of the Spirit that they were not yet disciples of the Lord Jesus (19:1-6). Paul asked these 12 men, “Did you receive the Holy Spirit when you believed?” (19:2).<\/p>\n<p>This accords with Paul’s emphasis in his letters. Belief and reception of the Spirit go together: to receive the Spirit is to begin the Christian life (Gal 3:2-3); to be baptized in the Spirit is to become a member of the body of Christ (1 Cor 12:13); to “have the Spirit of Christ” is to belong to Christ (Rom 8:9-11); to receive the Spirit is tantamount to becoming a child of God (Rom 8:14-17; Gal 4:6-7). The Spirit so characterizes the new age and the life of the new age that only the gift of the Spirit can bring a person into the new age to experience the life of the new age. For the Spirit is distinctively and peculiarly the life-giver; the Spirit indeed <em>is<\/em> the life of the new age (Rom 8:2, 6, 10; 1 Cor 15:45; 2 Cor 3:6; Gal 5:25).<\/p>\n<p>In just the same way in John’s writings, the Spirit is characteristically the life-giving Spirit (Jn 6:63), the power from above, the seed of divine life that brings about the new birth (Jn 3:3-8; 1 Jn 3:9), and a river of living water that brings life when one believes in Christ (Jn 7:37-39; so also 4:10, 14). Or again, reception of the Spirit in John 20:22 is depicted as a new creation analogous to Genesis 2:7. Consequently, in 1 John 3:24 and 4:13, possession and experience of the Spirit count as one of the “tests of life” listed in that letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Manifestations of the Spirit<\/h5>\n<p>It will be clear from what has already been said that when the first Christians, like the ancient Hebrews, spoke of the Spirit, they were thinking of experiences of divine power. In the NT, as in the OT, “Spirit” is the word used to explain the experience of new life and vitality (see above), of liberation from legalism (e.g., Rom 8:2; 2 Cor 3:17), of spiritual refreshing and renewal (cf. e.g., Is 32:15; Ez 39:29 with Jn 7:37-39; Rom 5:5; 1 Cor 12:13; 1 Tm 3:5-6). It is important to realize how wide a range of experiences were attributed to the Spirit: ecstatic experiences (Acts 2:24; 10:43-47; 19:6; cf. 10:10; 22:17—“in ecstasy”; 2 Cor 12:1-4; Rv 1:10), emotional experiences (e.g., love—Rom 5:5; joy—Acts 13:52; 1 Thes 1:6; see also Gal 5:22; Phil 2:1-2), experiences of illumination (2 Cor 3:14-17; Eph 1:17-18; Heb 6:4-5; 1 Jn 2:20-21), and experiences issuing in moral transformation (1 Cor 6:9-11). Likewise, when Paul speaks of spiritual gifts, called <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">charismata<\/span> (acts or words that bring divine grace to concrete expression), he evidently has a wide range of actual events in mind: inspired speech (1 Cor 12:8-10; 1 Thes 1:5), miracles and healings (1 Cor 12:9; Gal 3:5; cf. Heb 2:4), and various acts of service and help, of counsel and administration, and of aid and mercy (Rom 12:7-8; 1 Cor 12:28).<\/p>\n<p>In talking thus of the Spirit in terms of experience, we should not overemphasize particular experiences or manifestations, as though earliest Christianity consisted of a sequence of mountaintop experiences or spiritual highs. There clearly were such experiences, indeed a wide range of experiences, but no one experience is singled out to be sought by all (except prophecy). There is no distinctively second (or third) experience of the Spirit in the NT, and Paul warned against overvaluing particular manifestations of the Spirit (1 Cor 14:6-19; 2 Cor 12:1-10; cf. Mk 8:11-13). Where particular experiences are valued, it is as manifestations of a more sustained experience, particular expressions of an underlying relationship (cf. Acts 6:3-5; 11:24—“full of the Spirit”; Eph 5:18). What we are in touch with here is the vigor of the experiential dimension of earliest Christianity. If the Spirit is the breath of the new life in Christ (cf. Ez 37:9-10, 14; Jn 20:22; 1 Cor 15:45), then presumably the analogy extends further, and the experience of the Spirit is like the experience of breathing: one is not conscious of it all the time, but if one is not conscious of it, at least sometimes, something is wrong.<\/p>\n<h5>The Fellowship of the Spirit<\/h5>\n<p>It was out of this shared experience of the Spirit that the earliest Christian community grew and developed, for this is what “the fellowship [<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">koinonia<\/span>] of the Spirit” properly means: common participation in the same Spirit (Phil 2:1; cf. Acts 2:42; 1 Cor 1:4-9). It was the gift of the Spirit that brought those in Samaria, Caesarea, and elsewhere effectively into the community of the Spirit (Act 8, 10). So also, it was the experience of the one Spirit that provided the unifying bond in the churches of Paul’s mission (1 Cor 12:13; Eph 4:3-4; Phil 2:1-2). Here we see the real importance of the divine manifestations of the Spirit for Paul: it is out of the diversity of these particular manifestations that the body of Christ grows in unity (Rom 12:4-8; 1 Cor 12:12-17; Eph 4:4-16).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SPIRIT OF GOD<\/h3>\n<p>Description of God in action, God in motion. The word “spirit” (Hebrew, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ruach<\/span><em>;<\/em> Greek, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">pneuma<\/span>) is the word used from ancient times to describe and explain the experience of divine power working in, upon, and around people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>There are three basic meanings evident in the use of “spirit” from the earliest Hebrew writings: It was a wind from God, it was the breath of life, and it was a spirit of ecstasy.<\/p>\n<p>First, it was a wind from God (the same Hebrew word translated “Spirit” in Gn 1:2) that caused the waters of the Flood to subside (8:1). A wind from God blew locusts over Egypt (Ex 10:13) and quail over the camp of Israel. The blast of his nostrils separated the waters of the Red Sea at the exodus (14:21).<\/p>\n<p>Second, it was the breath of God that made man a living being (Gn 2:7). It is one of the earliest perceptions of Hebrew faith that humans live only because of the stirring of the divine breath or spirit within them (Gn 6:3; Jb 33:4; 34:14-15; Ps 104:29-30). Later, a clearer distinction was drawn between divine Spirit and human spirit, and between spirit and soul, but at the earliest stage these were all more or less perceived to be synonymous manifestations of the same divine power, the source of all life—animal as well as human (Gn 7:15, 22; see Eccl 3:19-21).<\/p>\n<p>Third, there were occasions when this divine power seemed to overtake and possess an individual fully, so that his or her words or actions far transcended those of normal behavior. Such a person was clearly marked as an agent of God’s purpose and given respect. This was apparently how leaders were recognized in the premonarchy period—Othniel (Jgs 3:10), Gideon (6:34), Jephthah (11:29), and the first king, Saul (1 Sm 11:6), as well. So, too, the earliest prophets were those whose inspiration came in ecstasy (1 Sm 19:20-24).<\/p>\n<p>In the earlier stages of Hebrew thought, ecstatic experience was seen as the direct effect of divine power. This was true even when the ecstasy was recognized as evil in character, as in the case of Saul’s seizure by the Spirit (1 Sm 16:14-16). A spirit from God could be for evil as well as for good (see Jgs 9:23; 1 Kgs 22:19-23).<\/p>\n<h5>In the Writings of the Prophets<\/h5>\n<p>For Isaiah, the spirit was that which characterized God and distinguished him and his actions from human affairs (Is 31:3). Later, the adjective “holy” appeared as that which distinguished the Spirit of God from any other spirit, human or divine (Ps 51:11; Is 63:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>The problem of false prophecy emphasized the danger of assuming that every message delivered in ecstasy was the word of the Lord. Thus, tests of prophecy evaluated the content of the message delivered or the character of the prophet’s life, not the degree or quality of inspiration (see Dt 13:1-5; 18:22; Jer 23:14; Mi 3:5). This sense of a need to discriminate between true and false inspiration and to distinguish the word of God from the merely ecstatic oracle may help to explain the otherwise puzzling reluctance of the major eighth- and seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> prophets to attribute their inspiration to the Spirit.<\/p>\n<h5>In the Exilic and Postexilic Writings<\/h5>\n<p>In exilic and postexilic literature, the role of the Spirit is narrowed to two major functions: that of the prophetic Spirit and that of the Spirit of the age to come.<\/p>\n<p>The later prophets again spoke of the Spirit in explicit terms as the inspirer of prophecy (see Ez 3:1-4, 22-24; Hg 2:5; Zec 4:6). As they looked back to the preexilic period, these prophets freely attributed the inspiration of “the former prophets” to the Spirit as well (Zec 7:12).<\/p>\n<p>This tendency to exalt the Spirit’s role as the inspirer of prophecy became steadily stronger in the period between the OT and NT, until in rabbinic Judaism the Spirit was almost exclusively the inspirer of the prophetic writings now regarded as Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>The other understanding of the Spirit’s role during exilic and postexilic times was that the Spirit would be the manifestation of the power of God in the age to come. That eschatological hope of divine power effecting a final cleansing and a renewed creation is rooted principally in Isaiah’s prophecies (Is 4:4; 32:15; 44:3-4). Isaiah speaks of one anointed by the Spirit to accomplish complete and final salvation (11:2; 42:1; 61:1). Elsewhere, the same longing is expressed in terms of the Spirit being freely dispensed to all Israel (Ez 39:29; Jl 2:28-29; Zec 12:10) in the new covenant (Jer 31:31-34; Ez 36:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>In the period prior to Jesus, the understanding of the Spirit as the Spirit of prophecy and as the Spirit of the age to come had developed into the widespread dogma that the Spirit was no longer to be experienced in the present. The Spirit had been known in the past as the inspirer of prophetic writings, but after Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, the Spirit had withdrawn (1 Macc 4:44-46; 9:27; 2 Bar 85:1-3; see also Ps 74:9; Zec 13:2-6). The Spirit would be known again in the age of the Messiah, but in the interim the Spirit was absent from Israel. Even the great Hillel (learned Jewish leader and teacher, 60? <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 20?), a near contemporary of Jesus, had not received the Spirit—though if anyone was worthy of the Spirit, it was he. There is a tradition that at a meeting of Hillel and other wise men, a voice from heaven said, “Among those here present is one who would have deserved the Holy Spirit to rest upon him, if his time had been worthy of it.” The wise men all looked at Hillel.<\/p>\n<p>The consequence of this accepted dearth of the Spirit was that the Spirit in effect became subordinated to the law. The Spirit was the inspirer of the law, but since the Spirit could no longer be experienced directly, the law became the sole voice of the Spirit. It was this increasing dominance of the law and its authoritative interpreters that provided the background for the mission of Jesus and the initial spread of Christianity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>If we are to understand the NT’s teaching on the Spirit, we must recognize both its continuity and discontinuity with the OT. At many points NT usage cannot be fully understood except against the background of OT concepts or passages. For example, the ambiguity of John 3:8 (“wind,” “Spirit”), 2 Thessalonians 2:8 (“breath”), and Revelation 11:11 (“breath of life”) takes us back to the basic Hebrew meanings of “spirit.” Acts 8:39 and Revelation 17:3 and 21:10 reflect the same conception of the Spirit that we find in 1 Kings 18:12, 2 Kings 2:16, and Ezekiel 3:14. The NT writers generally share the rabbinic view that Scripture has the authority of the Spirit behind it (see Mk 12:36; Acts 28:25; Heb 3:7; 2 Pt 1:21). The principal continuity is that the NT brings the fulfillment of what the OT writers looked forward to. At the same time, Christianity is not simply fulfilled Judaism. Jesus’ coming and his giving of his Spirit to live within his believers marks off the new faith as something new and distinct.<\/p>\n<h5>The Spirit of the New Age<\/h5>\n<p>The most striking feature of Jesus’ ministry and of the message of the earliest Christians was their conviction and proclamation that the blessings of the new age were already present, that the eschatological Spirit had already been poured out. With the exception of the Essenes at Qumran, no other group or individual within the Jewish religion of that time had dared to make such a bold claim. The prophets and the rabbis looked for a messianic age yet to come, and the apocalyptic writers warned of its imminent arrival, but none thought of it as already present. Even John the Baptist spoke only of one about to come and of the Spirit’s operation in the imminent future (Mk 1:8). But for Jesus and first-century Christians, the longed for hope was a living reality, and the claim carried with it the exciting sense of being in “the last days.” Without some recognition of that eschatological dimension of the Christians’ faith and life, we cannot understand this teaching on, and experience of, the Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus clearly thought of his teachings and healings as fulfillment of the prophetic hope (Mt 12:41-42; 13:16-17; Lk 17:20-21). In particular, he saw himself as the one anointed by the Spirit to provide salvation (Mt 5:3-6; 11:5; Lk 4:17-19). So, too, Jesus understood his exorcisms as the effect of the power of God and as manifestations of the end-time rule of God (Mt 12:27-28; Mk 3:22-26). The Gospel writers, especially Luke, emphasize the eschatological character of Jesus’ life and ministry by stressing the role of the Spirit in his birth (Mt 1:18; Lk 1:35, 41, 67; 2:25-27), his baptism (Mk 1:9-10; Acts 10:38), and his ministry (Mt 4:1; 12:18; Mk 1:12; Lk 4:1, 14; 10:21; Jn 3:34).<\/p>\n<p>The Christian church began with the in-breathing of the Holy Spirit on the day of Christ’s resurrection (Jn 20:22), followed by the outpouring of the Spirit at Pentecost “in the last days.” The overwhelming experience of vision and inspired utterance was taken as proof positive that the new age prophesied by Joel had now arrived (Acts 2:2-5, 17-18). Similarly, in Hebrews the gift of the Spirit is spoken of as “the powers of the age to come” (Heb 6:4-5). More striking still is Paul’s understanding of the Spirit as the guarantee of God’s complete salvation (2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Eph 1:13-14), and as the first installment of the believer’s inheritance of God’s kingdom (Rom 8:15-17; 1 Cor 6:9-11; 15:42-50; Gal 4:6-7; 5:16-18, 21-23; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit is here again thought of as the power of the age to come, as that power (which will characterize God’s rule at the end of time) already shaping and transforming the lives of believers.<\/p>\n<p>For Paul, this means also that the gift of the Spirit is but the beginning of a lifelong process that will not end until the believer’s whole person is brought under the Spirit’s power (Rom 8:11, 23; 1 Cor 15:44-49; 2 Cor 3:18; 5:1-5). It also means that the present experience of faith is one of lifelong tension between what God has already begun to bring about in the believer’s life and what has not yet been brought under God’s grace (Phil 1:6). It is this tension between life “in the Spirit” and life “in the flesh” (see Gal 2:20) that comes to poignant expression in Romans 7:24 and 2 Corinthians 5:2-4.<\/p>\n<h5>The Spirit of New Life<\/h5>\n<p>Since the Spirit is the mark of the new age, it is not surprising that the NT writers understood the gift of the Spirit to be that which brings an individual into the new age. John the Baptist described the way the coming one would baptize with the Holy Spirit and with fire (Mt 3:11). According to Acts 1:5 and 11:16, this imagery was taken up by Jesus, and the promise is seen as fulfilled at Pentecost—the outpouring of the Spirit here being understood as the risen Christ’s action in drawing his disciples into the new age (Acts 2:17, 33).<\/p>\n<p>It seems to be one of Luke’s aims in the book of Acts to highlight the central importance of the gift of the Spirit in conversion-initiation—it is that decisive “gift of the Holy Spirit” that makes one a Christian (Acts 2:38-39). People could have been followers of Jesus on earth, but it was only when they received the gift of the Spirit that they could be said to have “believed in the Lord Jesus Christ” (11:16-17). When the Spirit’s presence was manifested in and upon a person’s life, that was recognized by Peter as proof enough that God had accepted that person, even though he or she had not yet made any formal profession of faith or been baptized (10:44-48; 11:15-18; 15:7-9). So too Apollos, already aglow with the Spirit (18:25), even though his knowledge of “the way of God” was slightly defective (vv 24-26), apparently was not required to supplement his “baptism of John” with Christian baptism. However, the 12 so-called disciples at Ephesus proved by their very ignorance of the Spirit that they were not yet disciples of the Lord Jesus (19:1-6). Paul asked these 12 men, “Did you receive the Holy Spirit when you believed?” (19:2).<\/p>\n<p>This accords with Paul’s emphasis in his letters. Belief and reception of the Spirit go together: to receive the Spirit is to begin the Christian life (Gal 3:2-3); to be baptized in the Spirit is to become a member of the body of Christ (1 Cor 12:13); to “have the Spirit of Christ” is to belong to Christ (Rom 8:9-11); to receive the Spirit is tantamount to becoming a child of God (Rom 8:14-17; Gal 4:6-7). The Spirit so characterizes the new age and the life of the new age that only the gift of the Spirit can bring a person into the new age to experience the life of the new age. For the Spirit is distinctively and peculiarly the life-giver; the Spirit indeed <em>is<\/em> the life of the new age (Rom 8:2, 6, 10; 1 Cor 15:45; 2 Cor 3:6; Gal 5:25).<\/p>\n<p>In just the same way in John’s writings, the Spirit is characteristically the life-giving Spirit (Jn 6:63), the power from above, the seed of divine life that brings about the new birth (Jn 3:3-8; 1 Jn 3:9), and a river of living water that brings life when one believes in Christ (Jn 7:37-39; so also 4:10, 14). Or again, reception of the Spirit in John 20:22 is depicted as a new creation analogous to Genesis 2:7. Consequently, in 1 John 3:24 and 4:13, possession and experience of the Spirit count as one of the “tests of life” listed in that letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Manifestations of the Spirit<\/h5>\n<p>It will be clear from what has already been said that when the first Christians, like the ancient Hebrews, spoke of the Spirit, they were thinking of experiences of divine power. In the NT, as in the OT, “Spirit” is the word used to explain the experience of new life and vitality (see above), of liberation from legalism (e.g., Rom 8:2; 2 Cor 3:17), of spiritual refreshing and renewal (cf. e.g., Is 32:15; Ez 39:29 with Jn 7:37-39; Rom 5:5; 1 Cor 12:13; 1 Tm 3:5-6). It is important to realize how wide a range of experiences were attributed to the Spirit: ecstatic experiences (Acts 2:24; 10:43-47; 19:6; cf. 10:10; 22:17—“in ecstasy”; 2 Cor 12:1-4; Rv 1:10), emotional experiences (e.g., love—Rom 5:5; joy—Acts 13:52; 1 Thes 1:6; see also Gal 5:22; Phil 2:1-2), experiences of illumination (2 Cor 3:14-17; Eph 1:17-18; Heb 6:4-5; 1 Jn 2:20-21), and experiences issuing in moral transformation (1 Cor 6:9-11). Likewise, when Paul speaks of spiritual gifts, called <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">charismata<\/span> (acts or words that bring divine grace to concrete expression), he evidently has a wide range of actual events in mind: inspired speech (1 Cor 12:8-10; 1 Thes 1:5), miracles and healings (1 Cor 12:9; Gal 3:5; cf. Heb 2:4), and various acts of service and help, of counsel and administration, and of aid and mercy (Rom 12:7-8; 1 Cor 12:28).<\/p>\n<p>In talking thus of the Spirit in terms of experience, we should not overemphasize particular experiences or manifestations, as though earliest Christianity consisted of a sequence of mountaintop experiences or spiritual highs. There clearly were such experiences, indeed a wide range of experiences, but no one experience is singled out to be sought by all (except prophecy). There is no distinctively second (or third) experience of the Spirit in the NT, and Paul warned against overvaluing particular manifestations of the Spirit (1 Cor 14:6-19; 2 Cor 12:1-10; cf. Mk 8:11-13). Where particular experiences are valued, it is as manifestations of a more sustained experience, particular expressions of an underlying relationship (cf. Acts 6:3-5; 11:24—“full of the Spirit”; Eph 5:18). What we are in touch with here is the vigor of the experiential dimension of earliest Christianity. If the Spirit is the breath of the new life in Christ (cf. Ez 37:9-10, 14; Jn 20:22; 1 Cor 15:45), then presumably the analogy extends further, and the experience of the Spirit is like the experience of breathing: one is not conscious of it all the time, but if one is not conscious of it, at least sometimes, something is wrong.<\/p>\n<h5>The Fellowship of the Spirit<\/h5>\n<p>It was out of this shared experience of the Spirit that the earliest Christian community grew and developed, for this is what “the fellowship [<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">koinonia<\/span>] of the Spirit” properly means: common participation in the same Spirit (Phil 2:1; cf. Acts 2:42; 1 Cor 1:4-9). It was the gift of the Spirit that brought those in Samaria, Caesarea, and elsewhere effectively into the community of the Spirit (Act 8, 10). So also, it was the experience of the one Spirit that provided the unifying bond in the churches of Paul’s mission (1 Cor 12:13; Eph 4:3-4; Phil 2:1-2). Here we see the real importance of the divine manifestations of the Spirit for Paul: it is out of the diversity of these particular manifestations that the body of Christ grows in unity (Rom 12:4-8; 1 Cor 12:12-17; Eph 4:4-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"SPIRIT OF GOD Description of God in action, God in motion. The word “spirit” (Hebrew, ruach; Greek, pneuma) is the word used from ancient times to describe and explain the experience of divine power working in, upon, and around people. In the Old Testament There are three basic meanings evident in the use of “spirit” from the earliest Hebrew writings: It was a wind from God, it was the breath of life, and it was a spirit of ecstasy. First, it was a wind from God (the same Hebrew word translat...","summary_en":"SPIRIT OF GOD Description of God in action, God in motion. The word “spirit” (Hebrew, ruach; Greek, pneuma) is the word used from ancient times to describe and explain the experience of divine power working in, upon, and around people. In the Old Testament There are three basic meanings evident in the use of “spirit” from the earliest Hebrew writings: It was a wind from God, it was the breath of life, and it was a spirit of ecstasy. First, it was a wind from God (the same Hebrew word translat...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37350,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"First Letter to Timothy","title_en":"First Letter to Timothy","content_ro":"<h3>TIMOTHY, First Letter to<\/h3>\n<p>The first of Paul’s epistles to his young coworker Timothy.<\/p>\n<p>The authorship, date, and background of 1 Timothy must be considered together with those of the other two Pastoral Epistles, 2 Timothy and Titus, which were written to two young coworkers to help them deal with pastoral problems in the churches of Ephesus and Crete.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Theology<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>In 1 Timothy, as in 2 Timothy and Titus, Paul is named as the author in the first verse. And Paul’s name is the only one assigned as author in the tradition of the early church since the time of Irenaeus (c. <span>AD<\/span> 185). Throughout all three letters are many personal references to the life of Paul, which constitute strong evidence that he was truly the author.<\/p>\n<p>However, some scholars object to Pauline authorship on the following grounds:<\/p>\n<p>1. The Greek vocabulary contains a large number of words that are not found in the other Pauline letters.<\/p>\n<p>But the subject matter in these letters is also different. In the Pastoral Epistles the author is dealing with the more technical matters of church organization and discipline—a church leader writing to other leaders. Paul was a highly educated man, with a large vocabulary at his disposal. None of the words peculiar to the Pastoral Letters would have been beyond Paul’s own vocabulary. And if these weren’t his words, they may have come from the scribes that Paul regularly used to compose his epistles.<\/p>\n<li>2. There are notes about Paul’s journeys that do not fit into the journeys described in the book of Acts.<\/li>\n<p>To believe that Paul wrote the Pastorals and did the things described in them, he must have been released from Roman imprisonment and then traveled to Crete, Ephesus, and Macedonia. These later journeys may not have been mentioned in Acts because the writer of Acts concluded this book with Paul’s imprisonment in Rome. There is some legal evidence that Paul would automatically have been released after two years, if he had not been convicted by that time.<\/p>\n<li>3. The advanced development of the church described in the pastorals proves a date later than the life of Paul. Elders, bishops, and deacons are mentioned.<\/li>\n<p>However, elders existed in OT times and bishops, as officers within local churches, are almost certainly the same as elders. In addition, Paul refers to deacons elsewhere in his letters, such as Philippians 1:1.<\/p>\n<p>Most conservative scholars, and many others as well, believe very strongly that Paul did write all three of the Pastoral Letters.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Assuming that Paul wrote the Pastorals, 1 Timothy would have been written after his release from the first Roman imprisonment, about <span>AD<\/span> 61 or 62, and before his second Roman imprisonment, somewhere between 64 and 67, the date of the death of Nero. As to the place, Paul left Timothy in Ephesus and then went on to Macedonia (1 Tm 1:3), where he may have written 1 Timothy. The letter was, of course, written to Timothy at Ephesus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul left Timothy in charge of the church at Ephesus (1:2-3). Paul wanted to go to the Roman province of Asia, of which Ephesus was the chief city, on his second missionary journey, but the Spirit did not allow him to do so. He went on to Macedonia and Greece (Acts 16:6). He briefly visited Ephesus as he was completing his second journey (18:19-20). Then on his third journey he made Ephesus the center of his activity and spent three years there (19:1–20:1). During his first Roman imprisonment, he wrote an encyclical letter to Ephesus and the nearby churches. Only a few years later, he wrote 1 Timothy to Timothy at Ephesus.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Theology\">Theology<\/p>\n<p>In general, the theology of 1 Timothy is consistent with that of the other Pauline letters and of the NT as a whole. The sovereignty and love of God are clearly presented time and again throughout the letter. Jesus is always presented as being truly God as well as man. Salvation is by faith in God through Christ. The law will not save a person, because all people have broken it. Yet the law is good and is God’s guide for the saved person in living a life pleasing to God.<\/p>\n<p>The church occupies a large place in the letter. All Christians should be a part of the church. They gain much from the church for the development of Christian character, and they can serve God far more effectively in the church than apart from it. The church needs organization to do its work effectively. And the church must strive always to avoid heresy and to teach the truths of the gospel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Salutation (1:1-2)<\/h5>\n<p>The author names himself, Paul, and describes himself as an apostle, chosen by God and authorized by God the Father and his Son, Christ Jesus. Paul had the right to speak words of authority to the young pastor and to the church.<\/p>\n<p>The letter is written to Timothy, Paul’s beloved spiritual child, to whom Paul gave his triple blessing—grace, mercy, and peace from God.<\/p>\n<h5>Dealing with Heresy (1:3-20)<\/h5>\n<p>One of the reasons Paul left Timothy in Ephesus was that he wanted him to “stop those who are teaching wrong doctrine” (1:3). Paul believed that what a person believed was as important as what he did. The heresy here is described as an early form of the Gnostic heresy, a dangerous heresy plaguing the church for centuries.<\/p>\n<p>These early Gnostics claimed to have a deeper insight into truth than the average Christian. They separated God as Spirit from man as matter. For Gnostics, the bridge between the two was made up of innumerable angels of various ranks, emanations, aeons, and such, rather than the one mediator, Jesus Christ. They argued about myths and fables. They sought salvation by finding favor with an endless chain of angels rather than by accepting God’s salvation by faith. But only the grace of God can save sinners, as Paul himself knew well.<\/p>\n<h5>Correct Worship in the Church (2:1-15)<\/h5>\n<p>“I urge that supplications, prayers, intercessions, and thanksgivings be made for all men” (2:1, <span>rsv<\/span>). Prayer is an exceedingly important part of the worship of the Christian church. Paul emphasized the importance of special prayer for persons in high places of authority in the state (even though the state was the Roman Empire with Nero as its emperor). Paul had taught this clearly in Romans 13, and Jesus had told his disciples to give to Caesar the things that belonged to him (Mt 22:17).<\/p>\n<p>Christian men and women should pray to God, lifting up holy hands to him, hands free from sin and anger and resentment. Paul specifically urged the sisters as follows: “And I want women to be modest in their appearance. They should wear decent and appropriate clothing and not draw attention to themselves by the way they fix their hair or by wearing gold or pearls or expensive clothes. For women who claim to be devoted to God should make themselves attractive by the good things they do” (1 Tm 2:9-10, <span>nlt<\/span>). Then Paul said, “I do not let women teach men or have authority over them” (v 12). This did not mean, however, that they could not function orally in the church meetings. According to Acts and 1 Corinthians, it is quite clear that women prayed, prophesied, and testified in church meetings. But teaching was reserved for the men because it was the duty of the elders (who were male) to be the teachers. Thus, teaching and exercising authority went hand in hand.<\/p>\n<h5>Proper Organization in the Church (3:1–5:25)<\/h5>\n<p>The first issue to resolve about the organization of the early church had to do with who the bishops were. The first verse of this section reads, “If any one aspires to the office of bishop, he desires a noble task” (3:1, <span>rsv<\/span>). In all the Pastoral Epistles, the bishop is clearly an officer within a local church rather than an official over a group of churches, such as the office of the episcopal bishop, which developed in the early second century. And in the light of Titus 1:4-6, where Paul passed directly from elders to bishops, most scholars believe that Paul used the two terms interchangeably. Timothy himself would be the closest thing to a modern pastor in the church, and there were elders (bishops) and deacons assisting him in governing the church.<\/p>\n<p>To be an elder in the church is a worthy aspiration. But a person must have high qualifications to be elected to such a responsible position. He should be respected by other members of the church and by those outside the church. Most of the qualifications are quite clear but several of them deserve some attention.<\/p>\n<p>“Now a bishop must be above reproach, the husband of one wife” (3:2, <span>rsv<\/span>). The Greek says literally, “a man of one woman.” That would clearly prohibit polygamy and eliminate a man who was unfaithful to his wife. It would probably eliminate neither a man who had been divorced and remarried nor a bachelor who had never had a wife. The church should insist that its official leaders conform to a high view of sexual morality.<\/p>\n<p>The elder should be able to discipline his own family life if he is to exert discipline in the church. The man also should not be a drunkard. Paul did not demand total abstinence, but he clearly demanded that an elder not be a person under the domination of strong drink. And a person occupying the high office of elder should not be a new Christian (lit. a neophyte), lest this go to his head and keep him from being a good elder. All in all, only a person of excellent character should be elected to the high office of elder, or bishop, in the church.<\/p>\n<p>Then Paul went on to speak about the office of the deacon: “In the same way, deacons must be people who are respected and have integrity” (3:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). The qualifications for the deacons are virtually the same as those for elders. Before being elected as deacons, they should have experience in church work. First Timothy 3:11 applies the same qualifications to women aspiring to be deacons and\/or to wives of deacons (<span>nlt<\/span> mg). Verse 12 continues with the qualifications of deacons in general.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 4 Paul urges Timothy to exercise his leadership in the church, especially in his relation to the heretics. Some of the Gnostic heretics taught a false kind of asceticism, forbidding marriage and the eating of various foods. But God has given these things to be used and appreciated for God’s glory. Timothy’s pastoral duty was to teach his people God’s truths and not to allow himself to be caught up in arguing about the heretics’ godless and silly myths (4:7). Paul urged Timothy to keep his spirit fit by constant spiritual exercise, which was even more important than exercise of the body.<\/p>\n<p>Paul recognized that Timothy was a young man, and that some of the older Christians might be tempted to look down upon his youth. Timothy should strive even harder to deserve their admiration—“in speech and conduct, in love, in faith, in purity” (4:12). Because God had called Timothy and the church had ordained him by the laying on of hands, Timothy should strive to live up to these high responsibilities.<\/p>\n<p>Paul gave Timothy practical advice as to how a young preacher should deal with the different age and sex groups in the church. He should treat the older men as his own father, the older women as his mother, the younger men as his brothers, and the younger women as his sisters—adding significantly, “in all purity” (5:2).<\/p>\n<p>Paul also told Timothy how to deal with the problem of widows. At that time, when few women could work and before the days of insurance and Social Security, women who had lost their husbands were in a hopeless situation. The early church developed a roll for widows that would enable it to minister to their needs. Younger widows were to be encouraged to marry again and get new husbands to support them. Able families should recognize their responsibility to take care of their own needy ones. The church, then, would have the responsibility of taking care of the older widows who had no families to take care of them. The church, with its charitable obligations, must use its limited means responsibly, wisely, and fairly so that the greatest possible good can result.<\/p>\n<p>Even in the early church, church leaders were paid for their work. Paul said that they should “be considered worthy of double honor” (5:17). Church leaders should not be chosen or ordained too quickly. Their sins should not be overlooked. Even Timothy himself was warned to keep himself free from sin. The section ends with another treatment of the sins of church leaders (vv 24-25). When the sins are clear, the sinner must be disciplined by the church. At times, a person’s sins are not evident to other people, but God knows them and will deal with them. Conversely, the same is true about the many good deeds of the leaders.<\/p>\n<h5>Some Practical Teaching about the Christian Life (6:1-21)<\/h5>\n<p>Slavery was a recognized institution in those days. Christian slaves should be good slaves, and Christian masters should be good masters. After many centuries, Christian principles would bring slavery to an end, but it would have been impossible for Paul or anyone else at that time to lead a crusade for the abolition of slavery.<\/p>\n<p>Timothy was urged to avoid the teaching of the heretics but to be faithful in teaching the positive truths of the gospel.<\/p>\n<p>Two sections (6:6-10, 17-19) deal with the Christian’s attitude toward wealth. Here Paul closely followed the teachings of Jesus. Money can be made into a false god and bring all kinds of evil to the church member. But it can also be used in the service of God and be changed into treasure stored in heaven.<\/p>\n<p>Finally, in two sections (6:11-16, 20-21), Paul encouraged Timothy to strive to do his very best to be truly God’s man. He should fight a good fight as a soldier of God. This life will often be hard, but Timothy should keep his eyes fixed on the second coming of the glorious Christ.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Timothy, Second Letter to; Titus, Letter to.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TIMOTHY, First Letter to<\/h3>\n<p>The first of Paul’s epistles to his young coworker Timothy.<\/p>\n<p>The authorship, date, and background of 1 Timothy must be considered together with those of the other two Pastoral Epistles, 2 Timothy and Titus, which were written to two young coworkers to help them deal with pastoral problems in the churches of Ephesus and Crete.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Theology<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>In 1 Timothy, as in 2 Timothy and Titus, Paul is named as the author in the first verse. And Paul’s name is the only one assigned as author in the tradition of the early church since the time of Irenaeus (c. <span>AD<\/span> 185). Throughout all three letters are many personal references to the life of Paul, which constitute strong evidence that he was truly the author.<\/p>\n<p>However, some scholars object to Pauline authorship on the following grounds:<\/p>\n<p>1. The Greek vocabulary contains a large number of words that are not found in the other Pauline letters.<\/p>\n<p>But the subject matter in these letters is also different. In the Pastoral Epistles the author is dealing with the more technical matters of church organization and discipline—a church leader writing to other leaders. Paul was a highly educated man, with a large vocabulary at his disposal. None of the words peculiar to the Pastoral Letters would have been beyond Paul’s own vocabulary. And if these weren’t his words, they may have come from the scribes that Paul regularly used to compose his epistles.<\/p>\n<li>2. There are notes about Paul’s journeys that do not fit into the journeys described in the book of Acts.<\/li>\n<p>To believe that Paul wrote the Pastorals and did the things described in them, he must have been released from Roman imprisonment and then traveled to Crete, Ephesus, and Macedonia. These later journeys may not have been mentioned in Acts because the writer of Acts concluded this book with Paul’s imprisonment in Rome. There is some legal evidence that Paul would automatically have been released after two years, if he had not been convicted by that time.<\/p>\n<li>3. The advanced development of the church described in the pastorals proves a date later than the life of Paul. Elders, bishops, and deacons are mentioned.<\/li>\n<p>However, elders existed in OT times and bishops, as officers within local churches, are almost certainly the same as elders. In addition, Paul refers to deacons elsewhere in his letters, such as Philippians 1:1.<\/p>\n<p>Most conservative scholars, and many others as well, believe very strongly that Paul did write all three of the Pastoral Letters.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Assuming that Paul wrote the Pastorals, 1 Timothy would have been written after his release from the first Roman imprisonment, about <span>AD<\/span> 61 or 62, and before his second Roman imprisonment, somewhere between 64 and 67, the date of the death of Nero. As to the place, Paul left Timothy in Ephesus and then went on to Macedonia (1 Tm 1:3), where he may have written 1 Timothy. The letter was, of course, written to Timothy at Ephesus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul left Timothy in charge of the church at Ephesus (1:2-3). Paul wanted to go to the Roman province of Asia, of which Ephesus was the chief city, on his second missionary journey, but the Spirit did not allow him to do so. He went on to Macedonia and Greece (Acts 16:6). He briefly visited Ephesus as he was completing his second journey (18:19-20). Then on his third journey he made Ephesus the center of his activity and spent three years there (19:1–20:1). During his first Roman imprisonment, he wrote an encyclical letter to Ephesus and the nearby churches. Only a few years later, he wrote 1 Timothy to Timothy at Ephesus.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Theology\">Theology<\/p>\n<p>In general, the theology of 1 Timothy is consistent with that of the other Pauline letters and of the NT as a whole. The sovereignty and love of God are clearly presented time and again throughout the letter. Jesus is always presented as being truly God as well as man. Salvation is by faith in God through Christ. The law will not save a person, because all people have broken it. Yet the law is good and is God’s guide for the saved person in living a life pleasing to God.<\/p>\n<p>The church occupies a large place in the letter. All Christians should be a part of the church. They gain much from the church for the development of Christian character, and they can serve God far more effectively in the church than apart from it. The church needs organization to do its work effectively. And the church must strive always to avoid heresy and to teach the truths of the gospel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Salutation (1:1-2)<\/h5>\n<p>The author names himself, Paul, and describes himself as an apostle, chosen by God and authorized by God the Father and his Son, Christ Jesus. Paul had the right to speak words of authority to the young pastor and to the church.<\/p>\n<p>The letter is written to Timothy, Paul’s beloved spiritual child, to whom Paul gave his triple blessing—grace, mercy, and peace from God.<\/p>\n<h5>Dealing with Heresy (1:3-20)<\/h5>\n<p>One of the reasons Paul left Timothy in Ephesus was that he wanted him to “stop those who are teaching wrong doctrine” (1:3). Paul believed that what a person believed was as important as what he did. The heresy here is described as an early form of the Gnostic heresy, a dangerous heresy plaguing the church for centuries.<\/p>\n<p>These early Gnostics claimed to have a deeper insight into truth than the average Christian. They separated God as Spirit from man as matter. For Gnostics, the bridge between the two was made up of innumerable angels of various ranks, emanations, aeons, and such, rather than the one mediator, Jesus Christ. They argued about myths and fables. They sought salvation by finding favor with an endless chain of angels rather than by accepting God’s salvation by faith. But only the grace of God can save sinners, as Paul himself knew well.<\/p>\n<h5>Correct Worship in the Church (2:1-15)<\/h5>\n<p>“I urge that supplications, prayers, intercessions, and thanksgivings be made for all men” (2:1, <span>rsv<\/span>). Prayer is an exceedingly important part of the worship of the Christian church. Paul emphasized the importance of special prayer for persons in high places of authority in the state (even though the state was the Roman Empire with Nero as its emperor). Paul had taught this clearly in Romans 13, and Jesus had told his disciples to give to Caesar the things that belonged to him (Mt 22:17).<\/p>\n<p>Christian men and women should pray to God, lifting up holy hands to him, hands free from sin and anger and resentment. Paul specifically urged the sisters as follows: “And I want women to be modest in their appearance. They should wear decent and appropriate clothing and not draw attention to themselves by the way they fix their hair or by wearing gold or pearls or expensive clothes. For women who claim to be devoted to God should make themselves attractive by the good things they do” (1 Tm 2:9-10, <span>nlt<\/span>). Then Paul said, “I do not let women teach men or have authority over them” (v 12). This did not mean, however, that they could not function orally in the church meetings. According to Acts and 1 Corinthians, it is quite clear that women prayed, prophesied, and testified in church meetings. But teaching was reserved for the men because it was the duty of the elders (who were male) to be the teachers. Thus, teaching and exercising authority went hand in hand.<\/p>\n<h5>Proper Organization in the Church (3:1–5:25)<\/h5>\n<p>The first issue to resolve about the organization of the early church had to do with who the bishops were. The first verse of this section reads, “If any one aspires to the office of bishop, he desires a noble task” (3:1, <span>rsv<\/span>). In all the Pastoral Epistles, the bishop is clearly an officer within a local church rather than an official over a group of churches, such as the office of the episcopal bishop, which developed in the early second century. And in the light of Titus 1:4-6, where Paul passed directly from elders to bishops, most scholars believe that Paul used the two terms interchangeably. Timothy himself would be the closest thing to a modern pastor in the church, and there were elders (bishops) and deacons assisting him in governing the church.<\/p>\n<p>To be an elder in the church is a worthy aspiration. But a person must have high qualifications to be elected to such a responsible position. He should be respected by other members of the church and by those outside the church. Most of the qualifications are quite clear but several of them deserve some attention.<\/p>\n<p>“Now a bishop must be above reproach, the husband of one wife” (3:2, <span>rsv<\/span>). The Greek says literally, “a man of one woman.” That would clearly prohibit polygamy and eliminate a man who was unfaithful to his wife. It would probably eliminate neither a man who had been divorced and remarried nor a bachelor who had never had a wife. The church should insist that its official leaders conform to a high view of sexual morality.<\/p>\n<p>The elder should be able to discipline his own family life if he is to exert discipline in the church. The man also should not be a drunkard. Paul did not demand total abstinence, but he clearly demanded that an elder not be a person under the domination of strong drink. And a person occupying the high office of elder should not be a new Christian (lit. a neophyte), lest this go to his head and keep him from being a good elder. All in all, only a person of excellent character should be elected to the high office of elder, or bishop, in the church.<\/p>\n<p>Then Paul went on to speak about the office of the deacon: “In the same way, deacons must be people who are respected and have integrity” (3:8, <span>nlt<\/span>). The qualifications for the deacons are virtually the same as those for elders. Before being elected as deacons, they should have experience in church work. First Timothy 3:11 applies the same qualifications to women aspiring to be deacons and\/or to wives of deacons (<span>nlt<\/span> mg). Verse 12 continues with the qualifications of deacons in general.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 4 Paul urges Timothy to exercise his leadership in the church, especially in his relation to the heretics. Some of the Gnostic heretics taught a false kind of asceticism, forbidding marriage and the eating of various foods. But God has given these things to be used and appreciated for God’s glory. Timothy’s pastoral duty was to teach his people God’s truths and not to allow himself to be caught up in arguing about the heretics’ godless and silly myths (4:7). Paul urged Timothy to keep his spirit fit by constant spiritual exercise, which was even more important than exercise of the body.<\/p>\n<p>Paul recognized that Timothy was a young man, and that some of the older Christians might be tempted to look down upon his youth. Timothy should strive even harder to deserve their admiration—“in speech and conduct, in love, in faith, in purity” (4:12). Because God had called Timothy and the church had ordained him by the laying on of hands, Timothy should strive to live up to these high responsibilities.<\/p>\n<p>Paul gave Timothy practical advice as to how a young preacher should deal with the different age and sex groups in the church. He should treat the older men as his own father, the older women as his mother, the younger men as his brothers, and the younger women as his sisters—adding significantly, “in all purity” (5:2).<\/p>\n<p>Paul also told Timothy how to deal with the problem of widows. At that time, when few women could work and before the days of insurance and Social Security, women who had lost their husbands were in a hopeless situation. The early church developed a roll for widows that would enable it to minister to their needs. Younger widows were to be encouraged to marry again and get new husbands to support them. Able families should recognize their responsibility to take care of their own needy ones. The church, then, would have the responsibility of taking care of the older widows who had no families to take care of them. The church, with its charitable obligations, must use its limited means responsibly, wisely, and fairly so that the greatest possible good can result.<\/p>\n<p>Even in the early church, church leaders were paid for their work. Paul said that they should “be considered worthy of double honor” (5:17). Church leaders should not be chosen or ordained too quickly. Their sins should not be overlooked. Even Timothy himself was warned to keep himself free from sin. The section ends with another treatment of the sins of church leaders (vv 24-25). When the sins are clear, the sinner must be disciplined by the church. At times, a person’s sins are not evident to other people, but God knows them and will deal with them. Conversely, the same is true about the many good deeds of the leaders.<\/p>\n<h5>Some Practical Teaching about the Christian Life (6:1-21)<\/h5>\n<p>Slavery was a recognized institution in those days. Christian slaves should be good slaves, and Christian masters should be good masters. After many centuries, Christian principles would bring slavery to an end, but it would have been impossible for Paul or anyone else at that time to lead a crusade for the abolition of slavery.<\/p>\n<p>Timothy was urged to avoid the teaching of the heretics but to be faithful in teaching the positive truths of the gospel.<\/p>\n<p>Two sections (6:6-10, 17-19) deal with the Christian’s attitude toward wealth. Here Paul closely followed the teachings of Jesus. Money can be made into a false god and bring all kinds of evil to the church member. But it can also be used in the service of God and be changed into treasure stored in heaven.<\/p>\n<p>Finally, in two sections (6:11-16, 20-21), Paul encouraged Timothy to strive to do his very best to be truly God’s man. He should fight a good fight as a soldier of God. This life will often be hard, but Timothy should keep his eyes fixed on the second coming of the glorious Christ.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Timothy, Second Letter to; Titus, Letter to.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TIMOTHY, First Letter to The first of Paul’s epistles to his young coworker Timothy. The authorship, date, and background of 1 Timothy must be considered together with those of the other two Pastoral Epistles, 2 Timothy and Titus, which were written to two young coworkers to help them deal with pastoral problems in the churches of Ephesus and Crete. Preview • Author • Date • Background • Theology • Content Author In 1 Timothy, as in 2 Timothy and Titus, Paul is named as the author in the firs...","summary_en":"TIMOTHY, First Letter to The first of Paul’s epistles to his young coworker Timothy. The authorship, date, and background of 1 Timothy must be considered together with those of the other two Pastoral Epistles, 2 Timothy and Titus, which were written to two young coworkers to help them deal with pastoral problems in the churches of Ephesus and Crete. Preview • Author • Date • Background • Theology • Content Author In 1 Timothy, as in 2 Timothy and Titus, Paul is named as the author in the firs...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57046,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:1","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:1-7<\/strong> <em>Paul traveled<\/em> to <em>Ephesus<\/em> after <em>Apollos<\/em> had left. Subsequently, Apollos returned to Ephesus while Paul was still working there (1 Cor 16:12). The two men had different personalities, gifts, and roles, but God worked through both of them. • Some <em>believers<\/em> in Ephesus still had an inadequate understanding of the Christian faith (cp. Acts 18:26) and did not <em>receive the Holy Spirit when<\/em> they <em>believed<\/em>. They had accepted <em>John’s baptism<\/em><em>,<\/em> which <em>called for repentance from sin<\/em><em>,<\/em> but had not received Christian baptism, which included the gift of the Holy Spirit. When Paul had instructed them further, they were able to receive Christian baptism (19:5) and the Holy Spirit (19:6).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:1-7<\/strong> <em>Paul traveled<\/em> to <em>Ephesus<\/em> after <em>Apollos<\/em> had left. Subsequently, Apollos returned to Ephesus while Paul was still working there (1 Cor 16:12). The two men had different personalities, gifts, and roles, but God worked through both of them. • Some <em>believers<\/em> in Ephesus still had an inadequate understanding of the Christian faith (cp. Acts 18:26) and did not <em>receive the Holy Spirit when<\/em> they <em>believed<\/em>. They had accepted <em>John’s baptism<\/em><em>,<\/em> which <em>called for repentance from sin<\/em><em>,<\/em> but had not received Christian baptism, which included the gift of the Holy Spirit. When Paul had instructed them further, they were able to receive Christian baptism (19:5) and the Holy Spirit (19:6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:1-7 Paul traveled to Ephesus after Apollos had left. Subsequently, Apollos returned to Ephesus while Paul was still working there (1 Cor 16:12). The two men had different personalities, gifts, and roles, but God worked through both of them. • Some believers in Ephesus still had an inadequate understanding of the Christian faith (cp. Acts 18:26) and did not receive the Holy Spirit when they believed. They had accepted John’s baptism, which called for repentance from sin, but had not receive...","summary_en":"19:1-7 Paul traveled to Ephesus after Apollos had left. Subsequently, Apollos returned to Ephesus while Paul was still working there (1 Cor 16:12). The two men had different personalities, gifts, and roles, but God worked through both of them. • Some believers in Ephesus still had an inadequate understanding of the Christian faith (cp. Acts 18:26) and did not receive the Holy Spirit when they believed. They had accepted John’s baptism, which called for repentance from sin, but had not receive...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84672,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:1","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:1-7<\/strong> <em>Paul traveled<\/em> to <em>Ephesus<\/em> after <em>Apollos<\/em> had left. Subsequently, Apollos returned to Ephesus while Paul was still working there (1 Cor 16:12). The two men had different personalities, gifts, and roles, but God worked through both of them. • Some <em>believers<\/em> in Ephesus still had an inadequate understanding of the Christian faith (cp. Acts 18:26) and did not <em>receive the Holy Spirit when<\/em> they <em>believed<\/em>. They had accepted <em>John’s baptism<\/em><em>,<\/em> which <em>called for repentance from sin<\/em><em>,<\/em> but had not received Christian baptism, which included the gift of the Holy Spirit. When Paul had instructed them further, they were able to receive Christian baptism (19:5) and the Holy Spirit (19:6).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:1-7<\/strong> <em>Paul traveled<\/em> to <em>Ephesus<\/em> after <em>Apollos<\/em> had left. Subsequently, Apollos returned to Ephesus while Paul was still working there (1 Cor 16:12). The two men had different personalities, gifts, and roles, but God worked through both of them. • Some <em>believers<\/em> in Ephesus still had an inadequate understanding of the Christian faith (cp. Acts 18:26) and did not <em>receive the Holy Spirit when<\/em> they <em>believed<\/em>. They had accepted <em>John’s baptism<\/em><em>,<\/em> which <em>called for repentance from sin<\/em><em>,<\/em> but had not received Christian baptism, which included the gift of the Holy Spirit. When Paul had instructed them further, they were able to receive Christian baptism (19:5) and the Holy Spirit (19:6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:1-7 Paul traveled to Ephesus after Apollos had left. Subsequently, Apollos returned to Ephesus while Paul was still working there (1 Cor 16:12). The two men had different personalities, gifts, and roles, but God worked through both of them. • Some believers in Ephesus still had an inadequate understanding of the Christian faith (cp. Acts 18:26) and did not receive the Holy Spirit when they believed. They had accepted John’s baptism, which called for repentance from sin, but had not receive...","summary_en":"19:1-7 Paul traveled to Ephesus after Apollos had left. Subsequently, Apollos returned to Ephesus while Paul was still working there (1 Cor 16:12). The two men had different personalities, gifts, and roles, but God worked through both of them. • Some believers in Ephesus still had an inadequate understanding of the Christian faith (cp. Acts 18:26) and did not receive the Holy Spirit when they believed. They had accepted John’s baptism, which called for repentance from sin, but had not receive...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112298,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:1","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:1-7<\/strong> <em>Paul traveled<\/em> to <em>Ephesus<\/em> after <em>Apollos<\/em> had left. Subsequently, Apollos returned to Ephesus while Paul was still working there (1 Cor 16:12). The two men had different personalities, gifts, and roles, but God worked through both of them. • Some <em>believers<\/em> in Ephesus still had an inadequate understanding of the Christian faith (cp. Acts 18:26) and did not <em>receive the Holy Spirit when<\/em> they <em>believed<\/em>. They had accepted <em>John’s baptism<\/em><em>,<\/em> which <em>called for repentance from sin<\/em><em>,<\/em> but had not received Christian baptism, which included the gift of the Holy Spirit. When Paul had instructed them further, they were able to receive Christian baptism (19:5) and the Holy Spirit (19:6).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:1-7<\/strong> <em>Paul traveled<\/em> to <em>Ephesus<\/em> after <em>Apollos<\/em> had left. Subsequently, Apollos returned to Ephesus while Paul was still working there (1 Cor 16:12). The two men had different personalities, gifts, and roles, but God worked through both of them. • Some <em>believers<\/em> in Ephesus still had an inadequate understanding of the Christian faith (cp. Acts 18:26) and did not <em>receive the Holy Spirit when<\/em> they <em>believed<\/em>. They had accepted <em>John’s baptism<\/em><em>,<\/em> which <em>called for repentance from sin<\/em><em>,<\/em> but had not received Christian baptism, which included the gift of the Holy Spirit. When Paul had instructed them further, they were able to receive Christian baptism (19:5) and the Holy Spirit (19:6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:1-7 Paul traveled to Ephesus after Apollos had left. Subsequently, Apollos returned to Ephesus while Paul was still working there (1 Cor 16:12). The two men had different personalities, gifts, and roles, but God worked through both of them. • Some believers in Ephesus still had an inadequate understanding of the Christian faith (cp. Acts 18:26) and did not receive the Holy Spirit when they believed. They had accepted John’s baptism, which called for repentance from sin, but had not receive...","summary_en":"19:1-7 Paul traveled to Ephesus after Apollos had left. Subsequently, Apollos returned to Ephesus while Paul was still working there (1 Cor 16:12). The two men had different personalities, gifts, and roles, but God worked through both of them. • Some believers in Ephesus still had an inadequate understanding of the Christian faith (cp. Acts 18:26) and did not receive the Holy Spirit when they believed. They had accepted John’s baptism, which called for repentance from sin, but had not receive...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139924,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:1","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:1-7<\/strong> <em>Paul traveled<\/em> to <em>Ephesus<\/em> after <em>Apollos<\/em> had left. Subsequently, Apollos returned to Ephesus while Paul was still working there (1 Cor 16:12). The two men had different personalities, gifts, and roles, but God worked through both of them. • Some <em>believers<\/em> in Ephesus still had an inadequate understanding of the Christian faith (cp. Acts 18:26) and did not <em>receive the Holy Spirit when<\/em> they <em>believed<\/em>. They had accepted <em>John’s baptism<\/em><em>,<\/em> which <em>called for repentance from sin<\/em><em>,<\/em> but had not received Christian baptism, which included the gift of the Holy Spirit. When Paul had instructed them further, they were able to receive Christian baptism (19:5) and the Holy Spirit (19:6).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:1-7<\/strong> <em>Paul traveled<\/em> to <em>Ephesus<\/em> after <em>Apollos<\/em> had left. Subsequently, Apollos returned to Ephesus while Paul was still working there (1 Cor 16:12). The two men had different personalities, gifts, and roles, but God worked through both of them. • Some <em>believers<\/em> in Ephesus still had an inadequate understanding of the Christian faith (cp. Acts 18:26) and did not <em>receive the Holy Spirit when<\/em> they <em>believed<\/em>. They had accepted <em>John’s baptism<\/em><em>,<\/em> which <em>called for repentance from sin<\/em><em>,<\/em> but had not received Christian baptism, which included the gift of the Holy Spirit. When Paul had instructed them further, they were able to receive Christian baptism (19:5) and the Holy Spirit (19:6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:1-7 Paul traveled to Ephesus after Apollos had left. Subsequently, Apollos returned to Ephesus while Paul was still working there (1 Cor 16:12). The two men had different personalities, gifts, and roles, but God worked through both of them. • Some believers in Ephesus still had an inadequate understanding of the Christian faith (cp. Acts 18:26) and did not receive the Holy Spirit when they believed. They had accepted John’s baptism, which called for repentance from sin, but had not receive...","summary_en":"19:1-7 Paul traveled to Ephesus after Apollos had left. Subsequently, Apollos returned to Ephesus while Paul was still working there (1 Cor 16:12). The two men had different personalities, gifts, and roles, but God worked through both of them. • Some believers in Ephesus still had an inadequate understanding of the Christian faith (cp. Acts 18:26) and did not receive the Holy Spirit when they believed. They had accepted John’s baptism, which called for repentance from sin, but had not receive...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66249,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Baptism","title_en":"Baptism","content_ro":"<h3>Baptism<\/h3>\n<p>Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of their Gentile background. This ritual cleansing was often done in special baths created for purification, called mikvahs. Mikvahs were located at many synagogues, and the Temple in Jerusalem had a large number of mikvahs, which suggests that those who approached for worship would ritually bathe.<\/p>\n<p>John preached “that people should be baptized to show that they had repented of their sins and turned to God to be forgiven” (Luke 3:3). John’s baptism was an aspect of his role in preparing people’s hearts to receive the Messiah (Luke 3:4-6), and those who had received his baptism and repented of their sins were those who were prepared for Jesus’ message (Luke 7:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>After his resurrection, Jesus commanded his disciples to baptize new converts (Matt 28:19). Christian baptism is understood as dying and rising with Christ, signifying the death of the old life and the beginning of the new (Rom 6:1-4; Col 2:12) and also signifying a Christian’s spiritual union with Christ (Gal 3:27) and with his church. Baptism thus became the rite of initiation in the Christian community. For this reason, many interpreters see baptism as the Christian equivalent of circumcision, the rite that initiated membership into the nation of Israel under the old covenant (see Col 2:11-12). Whatever the connection with OT circumcision, baptism signifies a changed heart and a clean conscience that come from God’s forgiveness (1 Pet 3:21; cp. Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>As a ritual cleansing, Christian baptism signifies both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 10:43; 13:38; 26:17-18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (2:38; 9:17-18; 10:47-48; 11:15-17; 19:5-7; Luke 3:16). Many interpreters see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” of the Spirit, whose presence is a “guarantee” of the eternal inheritance that awaits God’s faithful people (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Titus 3:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 3:6-16; 21:25; 28:19; Mark 1:4-9; 10:38-39; 11:30; 16:16; Luke 3:3-22; 7:29-30; 12:50; 20:4; John 1:25-36; 3:22-23, 26; 4:1-2; 10:40; Acts 1:5, 22; 2:38, 41; 8:12-13, 16-17, 36-38; 9:18; 10:37, 47-48; 11:16; 13:24; 16:15, 33; 18:8, 25; 19:1-7; 22:16; Rom 6:3-4; 1 Cor 1:13-17; 10:2; 12:13; 15:29; Gal 3:27; Eph 4:5; Col 2:12; Heb 6:2; 1 Pet 3:21; 1 Jn 5:6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Baptism<\/h3>\n<p>Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of their Gentile background. This ritual cleansing was often done in special baths created for purification, called mikvahs. Mikvahs were located at many synagogues, and the Temple in Jerusalem had a large number of mikvahs, which suggests that those who approached for worship would ritually bathe.<\/p>\n<p>John preached “that people should be baptized to show that they had repented of their sins and turned to God to be forgiven” (Luke 3:3). John’s baptism was an aspect of his role in preparing people’s hearts to receive the Messiah (Luke 3:4-6), and those who had received his baptism and repented of their sins were those who were prepared for Jesus’ message (Luke 7:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>After his resurrection, Jesus commanded his disciples to baptize new converts (Matt 28:19). Christian baptism is understood as dying and rising with Christ, signifying the death of the old life and the beginning of the new (Rom 6:1-4; Col 2:12) and also signifying a Christian’s spiritual union with Christ (Gal 3:27) and with his church. Baptism thus became the rite of initiation in the Christian community. For this reason, many interpreters see baptism as the Christian equivalent of circumcision, the rite that initiated membership into the nation of Israel under the old covenant (see Col 2:11-12). Whatever the connection with OT circumcision, baptism signifies a changed heart and a clean conscience that come from God’s forgiveness (1 Pet 3:21; cp. Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>As a ritual cleansing, Christian baptism signifies both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 10:43; 13:38; 26:17-18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (2:38; 9:17-18; 10:47-48; 11:15-17; 19:5-7; Luke 3:16). Many interpreters see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” of the Spirit, whose presence is a “guarantee” of the eternal inheritance that awaits God’s faithful people (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Titus 3:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 3:6-16; 21:25; 28:19; Mark 1:4-9; 10:38-39; 11:30; 16:16; Luke 3:3-22; 7:29-30; 12:50; 20:4; John 1:25-36; 3:22-23, 26; 4:1-2; 10:40; Acts 1:5, 22; 2:38, 41; 8:12-13, 16-17, 36-38; 9:18; 10:37, 47-48; 11:16; 13:24; 16:15, 33; 18:8, 25; 19:1-7; 22:16; Rom 6:3-4; 1 Cor 1:13-17; 10:2; 12:13; 15:29; Gal 3:27; Eph 4:5; Col 2:12; Heb 6:2; 1 Pet 3:21; 1 Jn 5:6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Baptism Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a...","summary_en":"Baptism Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":93875,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Baptism","title_en":"Baptism","content_ro":"<h3>Baptism<\/h3>\n<p>Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of their Gentile background. This ritual cleansing was often done in special baths created for purification, called mikvahs. Mikvahs were located at many synagogues, and the Temple in Jerusalem had a large number of mikvahs, which suggests that those who approached for worship would ritually bathe.<\/p>\n<p>John preached “that people should be baptized to show that they had repented of their sins and turned to God to be forgiven” (Luke 3:3). John’s baptism was an aspect of his role in preparing people’s hearts to receive the Messiah (Luke 3:4-6), and those who had received his baptism and repented of their sins were those who were prepared for Jesus’ message (Luke 7:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>After his resurrection, Jesus commanded his disciples to baptize new converts (Matt 28:19). Christian baptism is understood as dying and rising with Christ, signifying the death of the old life and the beginning of the new (Rom 6:1-4; Col 2:12) and also signifying a Christian’s spiritual union with Christ (Gal 3:27) and with his church. Baptism thus became the rite of initiation in the Christian community. For this reason, many interpreters see baptism as the Christian equivalent of circumcision, the rite that initiated membership into the nation of Israel under the old covenant (see Col 2:11-12). Whatever the connection with OT circumcision, baptism signifies a changed heart and a clean conscience that come from God’s forgiveness (1 Pet 3:21; cp. Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>As a ritual cleansing, Christian baptism signifies both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 10:43; 13:38; 26:17-18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (2:38; 9:17-18; 10:47-48; 11:15-17; 19:5-7; Luke 3:16). Many interpreters see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” of the Spirit, whose presence is a “guarantee” of the eternal inheritance that awaits God’s faithful people (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Titus 3:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 3:6-16; 21:25; 28:19; Mark 1:4-9; 10:38-39; 11:30; 16:16; Luke 3:3-22; 7:29-30; 12:50; 20:4; John 1:25-36; 3:22-23, 26; 4:1-2; 10:40; Acts 1:5, 22; 2:38, 41; 8:12-13, 16-17, 36-38; 9:18; 10:37, 47-48; 11:16; 13:24; 16:15, 33; 18:8, 25; 19:1-7; 22:16; Rom 6:3-4; 1 Cor 1:13-17; 10:2; 12:13; 15:29; Gal 3:27; Eph 4:5; Col 2:12; Heb 6:2; 1 Pet 3:21; 1 Jn 5:6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Baptism<\/h3>\n<p>Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of their Gentile background. This ritual cleansing was often done in special baths created for purification, called mikvahs. Mikvahs were located at many synagogues, and the Temple in Jerusalem had a large number of mikvahs, which suggests that those who approached for worship would ritually bathe.<\/p>\n<p>John preached “that people should be baptized to show that they had repented of their sins and turned to God to be forgiven” (Luke 3:3). John’s baptism was an aspect of his role in preparing people’s hearts to receive the Messiah (Luke 3:4-6), and those who had received his baptism and repented of their sins were those who were prepared for Jesus’ message (Luke 7:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>After his resurrection, Jesus commanded his disciples to baptize new converts (Matt 28:19). Christian baptism is understood as dying and rising with Christ, signifying the death of the old life and the beginning of the new (Rom 6:1-4; Col 2:12) and also signifying a Christian’s spiritual union with Christ (Gal 3:27) and with his church. Baptism thus became the rite of initiation in the Christian community. For this reason, many interpreters see baptism as the Christian equivalent of circumcision, the rite that initiated membership into the nation of Israel under the old covenant (see Col 2:11-12). Whatever the connection with OT circumcision, baptism signifies a changed heart and a clean conscience that come from God’s forgiveness (1 Pet 3:21; cp. Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>As a ritual cleansing, Christian baptism signifies both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 10:43; 13:38; 26:17-18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (2:38; 9:17-18; 10:47-48; 11:15-17; 19:5-7; Luke 3:16). Many interpreters see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” of the Spirit, whose presence is a “guarantee” of the eternal inheritance that awaits God’s faithful people (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Titus 3:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 3:6-16; 21:25; 28:19; Mark 1:4-9; 10:38-39; 11:30; 16:16; Luke 3:3-22; 7:29-30; 12:50; 20:4; John 1:25-36; 3:22-23, 26; 4:1-2; 10:40; Acts 1:5, 22; 2:38, 41; 8:12-13, 16-17, 36-38; 9:18; 10:37, 47-48; 11:16; 13:24; 16:15, 33; 18:8, 25; 19:1-7; 22:16; Rom 6:3-4; 1 Cor 1:13-17; 10:2; 12:13; 15:29; Gal 3:27; Eph 4:5; Col 2:12; Heb 6:2; 1 Pet 3:21; 1 Jn 5:6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Baptism Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a...","summary_en":"Baptism Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121501,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Baptism","title_en":"Baptism","content_ro":"<h3>Baptism<\/h3>\n<p>Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of their Gentile background. This ritual cleansing was often done in special baths created for purification, called mikvahs. Mikvahs were located at many synagogues, and the Temple in Jerusalem had a large number of mikvahs, which suggests that those who approached for worship would ritually bathe.<\/p>\n<p>John preached “that people should be baptized to show that they had repented of their sins and turned to God to be forgiven” (Luke 3:3). John’s baptism was an aspect of his role in preparing people’s hearts to receive the Messiah (Luke 3:4-6), and those who had received his baptism and repented of their sins were those who were prepared for Jesus’ message (Luke 7:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>After his resurrection, Jesus commanded his disciples to baptize new converts (Matt 28:19). Christian baptism is understood as dying and rising with Christ, signifying the death of the old life and the beginning of the new (Rom 6:1-4; Col 2:12) and also signifying a Christian’s spiritual union with Christ (Gal 3:27) and with his church. Baptism thus became the rite of initiation in the Christian community. For this reason, many interpreters see baptism as the Christian equivalent of circumcision, the rite that initiated membership into the nation of Israel under the old covenant (see Col 2:11-12). Whatever the connection with OT circumcision, baptism signifies a changed heart and a clean conscience that come from God’s forgiveness (1 Pet 3:21; cp. Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>As a ritual cleansing, Christian baptism signifies both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 10:43; 13:38; 26:17-18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (2:38; 9:17-18; 10:47-48; 11:15-17; 19:5-7; Luke 3:16). Many interpreters see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” of the Spirit, whose presence is a “guarantee” of the eternal inheritance that awaits God’s faithful people (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Titus 3:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 3:6-16; 21:25; 28:19; Mark 1:4-9; 10:38-39; 11:30; 16:16; Luke 3:3-22; 7:29-30; 12:50; 20:4; John 1:25-36; 3:22-23, 26; 4:1-2; 10:40; Acts 1:5, 22; 2:38, 41; 8:12-13, 16-17, 36-38; 9:18; 10:37, 47-48; 11:16; 13:24; 16:15, 33; 18:8, 25; 19:1-7; 22:16; Rom 6:3-4; 1 Cor 1:13-17; 10:2; 12:13; 15:29; Gal 3:27; Eph 4:5; Col 2:12; Heb 6:2; 1 Pet 3:21; 1 Jn 5:6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Baptism<\/h3>\n<p>Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of their Gentile background. This ritual cleansing was often done in special baths created for purification, called mikvahs. Mikvahs were located at many synagogues, and the Temple in Jerusalem had a large number of mikvahs, which suggests that those who approached for worship would ritually bathe.<\/p>\n<p>John preached “that people should be baptized to show that they had repented of their sins and turned to God to be forgiven” (Luke 3:3). John’s baptism was an aspect of his role in preparing people’s hearts to receive the Messiah (Luke 3:4-6), and those who had received his baptism and repented of their sins were those who were prepared for Jesus’ message (Luke 7:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>After his resurrection, Jesus commanded his disciples to baptize new converts (Matt 28:19). Christian baptism is understood as dying and rising with Christ, signifying the death of the old life and the beginning of the new (Rom 6:1-4; Col 2:12) and also signifying a Christian’s spiritual union with Christ (Gal 3:27) and with his church. Baptism thus became the rite of initiation in the Christian community. For this reason, many interpreters see baptism as the Christian equivalent of circumcision, the rite that initiated membership into the nation of Israel under the old covenant (see Col 2:11-12). Whatever the connection with OT circumcision, baptism signifies a changed heart and a clean conscience that come from God’s forgiveness (1 Pet 3:21; cp. Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>As a ritual cleansing, Christian baptism signifies both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 10:43; 13:38; 26:17-18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (2:38; 9:17-18; 10:47-48; 11:15-17; 19:5-7; Luke 3:16). Many interpreters see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” of the Spirit, whose presence is a “guarantee” of the eternal inheritance that awaits God’s faithful people (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Titus 3:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 3:6-16; 21:25; 28:19; Mark 1:4-9; 10:38-39; 11:30; 16:16; Luke 3:3-22; 7:29-30; 12:50; 20:4; John 1:25-36; 3:22-23, 26; 4:1-2; 10:40; Acts 1:5, 22; 2:38, 41; 8:12-13, 16-17, 36-38; 9:18; 10:37, 47-48; 11:16; 13:24; 16:15, 33; 18:8, 25; 19:1-7; 22:16; Rom 6:3-4; 1 Cor 1:13-17; 10:2; 12:13; 15:29; Gal 3:27; Eph 4:5; Col 2:12; Heb 6:2; 1 Pet 3:21; 1 Jn 5:6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Baptism Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a...","summary_en":"Baptism Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149127,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Baptism","title_en":"Baptism","content_ro":"<h3>Baptism<\/h3>\n<p>Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of their Gentile background. This ritual cleansing was often done in special baths created for purification, called mikvahs. Mikvahs were located at many synagogues, and the Temple in Jerusalem had a large number of mikvahs, which suggests that those who approached for worship would ritually bathe.<\/p>\n<p>John preached “that people should be baptized to show that they had repented of their sins and turned to God to be forgiven” (Luke 3:3). John’s baptism was an aspect of his role in preparing people’s hearts to receive the Messiah (Luke 3:4-6), and those who had received his baptism and repented of their sins were those who were prepared for Jesus’ message (Luke 7:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>After his resurrection, Jesus commanded his disciples to baptize new converts (Matt 28:19). Christian baptism is understood as dying and rising with Christ, signifying the death of the old life and the beginning of the new (Rom 6:1-4; Col 2:12) and also signifying a Christian’s spiritual union with Christ (Gal 3:27) and with his church. Baptism thus became the rite of initiation in the Christian community. For this reason, many interpreters see baptism as the Christian equivalent of circumcision, the rite that initiated membership into the nation of Israel under the old covenant (see Col 2:11-12). Whatever the connection with OT circumcision, baptism signifies a changed heart and a clean conscience that come from God’s forgiveness (1 Pet 3:21; cp. Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>As a ritual cleansing, Christian baptism signifies both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 10:43; 13:38; 26:17-18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (2:38; 9:17-18; 10:47-48; 11:15-17; 19:5-7; Luke 3:16). Many interpreters see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” of the Spirit, whose presence is a “guarantee” of the eternal inheritance that awaits God’s faithful people (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Titus 3:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 3:6-16; 21:25; 28:19; Mark 1:4-9; 10:38-39; 11:30; 16:16; Luke 3:3-22; 7:29-30; 12:50; 20:4; John 1:25-36; 3:22-23, 26; 4:1-2; 10:40; Acts 1:5, 22; 2:38, 41; 8:12-13, 16-17, 36-38; 9:18; 10:37, 47-48; 11:16; 13:24; 16:15, 33; 18:8, 25; 19:1-7; 22:16; Rom 6:3-4; 1 Cor 1:13-17; 10:2; 12:13; 15:29; Gal 3:27; Eph 4:5; Col 2:12; Heb 6:2; 1 Pet 3:21; 1 Jn 5:6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Baptism<\/h3>\n<p>Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of their Gentile background. This ritual cleansing was often done in special baths created for purification, called mikvahs. Mikvahs were located at many synagogues, and the Temple in Jerusalem had a large number of mikvahs, which suggests that those who approached for worship would ritually bathe.<\/p>\n<p>John preached “that people should be baptized to show that they had repented of their sins and turned to God to be forgiven” (Luke 3:3). John’s baptism was an aspect of his role in preparing people’s hearts to receive the Messiah (Luke 3:4-6), and those who had received his baptism and repented of their sins were those who were prepared for Jesus’ message (Luke 7:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>After his resurrection, Jesus commanded his disciples to baptize new converts (Matt 28:19). Christian baptism is understood as dying and rising with Christ, signifying the death of the old life and the beginning of the new (Rom 6:1-4; Col 2:12) and also signifying a Christian’s spiritual union with Christ (Gal 3:27) and with his church. Baptism thus became the rite of initiation in the Christian community. For this reason, many interpreters see baptism as the Christian equivalent of circumcision, the rite that initiated membership into the nation of Israel under the old covenant (see Col 2:11-12). Whatever the connection with OT circumcision, baptism signifies a changed heart and a clean conscience that come from God’s forgiveness (1 Pet 3:21; cp. Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>As a ritual cleansing, Christian baptism signifies both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 10:43; 13:38; 26:17-18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (2:38; 9:17-18; 10:47-48; 11:15-17; 19:5-7; Luke 3:16). Many interpreters see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” of the Spirit, whose presence is a “guarantee” of the eternal inheritance that awaits God’s faithful people (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Titus 3:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 3:6-16; 21:25; 28:19; Mark 1:4-9; 10:38-39; 11:30; 16:16; Luke 3:3-22; 7:29-30; 12:50; 20:4; John 1:25-36; 3:22-23, 26; 4:1-2; 10:40; Acts 1:5, 22; 2:38, 41; 8:12-13, 16-17, 36-38; 9:18; 10:37, 47-48; 11:16; 13:24; 16:15, 33; 18:8, 25; 19:1-7; 22:16; Rom 6:3-4; 1 Cor 1:13-17; 10:2; 12:13; 15:29; Gal 3:27; Eph 4:5; Col 2:12; Heb 6:2; 1 Pet 3:21; 1 Jn 5:6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Baptism Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a...","summary_en":"Baptism Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":408,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of the Acts of the Apostles","title_en":"Book of the Acts of the Apostles","content_ro":"<h3>ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, B<span>ook of the<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>NT book presenting the history of the early church and written as a sequel to the Gospel of Luke. In the arrangement of the NT books, Acts comes after the four Gospels and before the Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background and Content<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts does not state clearly who its writer is, but the general consensus is that Luke was its author.<\/p>\n<p>Early church tradition from the second century states that Acts (as well as the third Gospel) was written by a traveling companion and fellow worker of the apostle Paul. That companion is identified in Colossians 4:14 as “Luke, the beloved physician” (<span>nasb<\/span>) and mentioned among Paul’s coworkers (Col 4:10-17; see also 2 Tm 4:11; Phlm 1:24).<\/p>\n<p>Strong support for the tradition that the author of Acts was a companion of Paul comes from the second half of the book recounting Paul’s ministry. There, several narratives are told in the first person plural:<\/p>\n<p>1. “That night Paul had a vision. He saw a man from Macedonia in northern Greece, pleading with him, ‘Come over here and help us.’ So we decided to leave for Macedonia at once, for we could only conclude that God was calling us to preach the Good News there” (16:9-10, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<li>2. “They went ahead and waited for us at Troas . . . we boarded a ship at Philippi in Macedonia and five days later arrived in Troas, where we stayed a week” (20:5-6, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>3. “When the time came, we set sail for Italy” (27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n<p>These “we” sections (16:9-18; 20:5–21:18; 27:1–28:16) sound like part of a travel narrative or diary written by an eyewitness who accompanied Paul from Troas to Philippi on his second missionary journey; from Philippi to Miletus on the third; from Miletus to Jerusalem; and from Caesarea to Rome. Since the style and vocabulary of these travel narratives resemble those of the rest of the book, it is highly probably that the diarist was also the author of the entire book.<\/p>\n<p>The sophisticated literary style and polished use of the Greek language in the book, as well as the fact that it is addressed to someone called Theophilus (possibly a high-ranking Roman official), provide strong support for the tradition that Luke was a gentile convert to Christianity. His consistent and frequent use of the Greek OT may indicate that he had been a gentile “God-fearer” before conversion to the new faith.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginDestination\">Date, Origin, Destination<\/p>\n\n<p>The question of the date and place of the origin of Acts continues to be debated. There are no clear indications in the book itself. With regard to its destination, however, Luke did not leave any doubt. In the opening verse he addresses a certain Theophilus, to whom he had already written an earlier book about the life of Jesus. There can be no doubt that he was referring to the work we know as the Gospel of Luke. In the preface to that Gospel (Lk 1:1-4), Luke clearly stated his purpose for writing and addressed his account to the “most honorable Theophilus.” It is not clear who that person was. Some interpreters think that Theophilus (which means “dear to God” or “lover of God”) stands for Christian readers in general rather than any specific individual. However, the designation “most honorable” argues against such an assumption. That ascription was a common title of honor, designating a person with official standing in the Roman sociopolitical order (cf. use of the title for Felix, Acts 23:26; 24:2; and for Festus, 26:25). It is thus likely that Luke intended his two-volume work for an official representative of Roman society.<\/p>\n<p>When was Acts written? Some scholars date it in the last quarter of the first century. Since the Gospel was written first, and since Luke based his story of Jesus on eyewitness accounts and written sources (among which was possibly the Gospel of Mark, probably written in the 60s), Acts should not be dated much before <span>AD<\/span> 85. Proponents of such a late date claim support from the theology of Acts, which they see as picturing a Christian church settled into history, adjusted to the prospect of a lengthy period before the Lord’s return. Since expectation of the Lord’s imminent return was fanned into a living flame by the Jewish revolt and the fall of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 70, time must be allowed for that flame to have died down a bit.<\/p>\n<p>Other scholars date Acts around <span>AD<\/span> 70 or shortly thereafter. The Jewish rebellion of <span>AD<\/span> 66–70, which culminated in the destruction of Jerusalem, brought the Jewish faith—legal until then—into disrepute. The Christian movement, which had been accepted as a Jewish sect, became suspect. Christians were increasingly charged with being enemies of Rome. A study of Acts shows that among a number of purposes (see below), Luke seems to have been defending the Christians against the charge of hostility toward the state. He showed how Roman officials repeatedly testified to the complete innocence of Christians and above all else of Paul (16:39; 18:14-17; 19:37; 23:29; 25:25; 26:32). Luke also made it clear that Paul was allowed to carry on his mission with full approval of Roman officials in the very heart of the imperial capital (28:16-31).<\/p>\n<p>A still earlier date, closer to Paul’s Roman imprisonment (early 60s), has been advocated by a number of scholars. There are two compelling reasons: (1) The abrupt ending of Acts, describing Paul carrying on a ministry in Rome before his trial had commenced, may indicate that Luke was writing at that point. It is possible, of course, that Luke ended his story with Paul preaching the gospel in Rome because one of his purposes had been accomplished: namely, showing how the gospel spread from Jerusalem to Rome. But it seems highly unlikely that Luke would close his history without Paul’s defense of the gospel before Caesar himself if that had already happened. (2) The most appropriate period for Luke’s history, with its defense of the Christian movement against all kinds of accusations from both Jews and Gentiles, is the period when Christianity was becoming suspect but was not yet proscribed. That was the time before the start of the persecutions under Nero in <span>AD<\/span> 64. The early date would correspond with the contention that Luke was with Paul during his Roman imprisonment and that he wrote his history in Rome while waiting for Paul’s trial to begin. It is possible that Luke’s work was partially intended to influence the verdict. Luke presented a picture of Christianity and of Paul that he hoped would enable Paul to continue his work among the Gentiles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BackgroundandContent\">Background and Content<\/p>\n<p>Luke grounds his documentary of the rapid expansion of Christianity in the history of the Roman Empire and Palestine during the three decades from <span>AD<\/span> 30 to 60. Some brief historical and geographical considerations will aid in understanding Luke’s history.<\/p>\n<p>Acts 1–12 reports the beginnings of the Christian movement within the imperial province of Syria, which included Judea and Samaria. In the first century <span>AD<\/span>, those regions were generally governed by Roman procurators or puppet kings. At the time of Jesus’ death and resurrection (c. <span>AD<\/span> 30), Pontius Pilate was procurator in Judea and Samaria (<span>AD<\/span> 26–36). Galilee was ruled by King Herod Antipas (4 <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 39). Tiberius was emperor of the Roman Empire (<span>AD<\/span> 14–37). The account of Acts 1–12 took place in the period <span>AD<\/span> 30–44.<\/p>\n<p>The conversion of Saul (Acts 9) is generally dated in <span>AD <\/span>33. After Saul’s conversion and departure to his native Tarsus, the church evidently enjoyed a period of tranquility, consolidating its gains and growing steadily (9:31–11:26). It can be assumed, from Galatians 1:18-21 and the existence of Christian communities that Paul and Silas visited on the second missionary tour (Acts 15:40-41), that Paul was not idle during that decade, but intensely involved in the mission to the Gentiles. (After Acts 13:9, the name “Saul” is dropped from the narrative.)<\/p>\n<p>In <span>AD<\/span> 41, Claudius became emperor of Rome and installed Herod Agrippa I as king of the Jews. (The procurator Pontius Pilate had been removed several years earlier for inept administration of the region.) Agrippa I was grandson of Herod the Great and his Jewish princess Mariamne. Because of his Jewish roots, he was more popular with his subjects than the former Herods. No doubt it was his desire to increase that popularity and gain the support of the Jewish religious authorities that led to a renewed outbreak of violence against the Jerusalem church. Acts 12 recounts the execution of James (the brother of the apostle John) and the imprisonment of Peter. The story of Agrippa I’s death (12:20-23) is paralleled in an account by the Jewish historian Josephus, who dates the event in <span>AD<\/span> 44.<\/p>\n<p>A second event providing a time reference for the unfolding story of the early church is the collection of famine relief in Antioch for Christians in Judea (11:27-29). Luke stated that a severe famine took place (v 28) during the reign of Emperor Claudius (<span>AD<\/span> 41–54). Josephus, writing his <em>Antiquities<\/em> at the end of the first century, spoke of a severe famine in Palestine between the years <span>AD<\/span> 44 and 48. According to Acts 12:25, Barnabas and Paul finished their mission to famine-stricken Christians in Judea after the death of Agrippa I, making it possible to date their mission about <span>AD<\/span> 45.<\/p>\n<p>At that point in the narrative of Acts, Paul is launched officially into his mission to the Gentiles (13:1-3), for which the history and geography of the larger Roman Empire form the backdrop. The official Roman policy toward the various religions in the empire was one of toleration. That policy, plus use of the Greek language throughout the empire and a phenomenal network of roads and sea routes, paved the way for Paul’s far-ranging missionary work.<\/p>\n<p>The first tour (<span>AD<\/span> 46–47) took Paul and Barnabas through the island province of Cyprus in the northeastern tip of the Mediterranean Sea and into the province of Galatia, where churches were established in several cities of southern Galatia (Antioch of Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra, Derbe). Galatia is located in Asia Minor, bordered by the Black Sea, the Aegean Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea on its northern, western, and southern sides. Those cities, important colonial outposts for the Romans, contained mixed populations, including large Jewish communities. It was in the synagogues of those communities that Paul launched his missionary efforts, almost always meeting with considerable opposition (chs 13–14).<\/p>\n<p>The deliberation of the Jerusalem Council about differences between Jewish and gentile Christians (ch 15) can be dated in the year <span>AD<\/span> 48. It was followed by Paul’s second missionary journey, which led him through the already evangelized territory of his native Cilicia, Galatia, and through Troas on the Aegean coast to Macedonia and down into Achaia, the Greek Peninsula (15:40–18:22). Churches were established in the important Macedonian cities of Philippi, Thessalonica, and Beroea.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s one and a half years in Corinth (18:11) can be dated with some certainty in <span>AD<\/span> 51–52. An ancient inscription among the ruins of Delphi, a city in central Greece, states that Gallio became proconsul of Achaia in 51. Acts 18:12-17 tells how Paul was accused by antagonistic Jews before Gallio. The implication is that Paul’s adversaries in Corinth felt that a new proconsul could be persuaded to side with their cause. Thus, Paul’s stay in Corinth can be dated around the beginning of Gallio’s proconsulship.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s account of Paul’s return to Palestine and the beginning of his third missionary tour brings up a fascinating historical question about what happened to the followers of John the Baptist (13:13–19:7). Acts 18:24-28 refers to a learned Jew, Apollos, who was actively teaching about Jesus in the synagogue at Ephesus, but who was apparently not a member of a distinctively Christian community, not having been baptized in the name of Jesus. He was acquainted only with the baptism of repentance practiced by John the Baptist. After Apollos went to Corinth to minister to the young congregation that Paul founded the previous year, Paul went to Ephesus. There he met several disciples of Jesus who, like Apollos, had experienced John’s baptism of repentance, but who had not been baptized as Christians.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s reference to Apollos and those disciples, as well as several passages in the Gospels, indicate that the movement begun by John the Baptist did not simply come to an end when Jesus began his ministry. Evidently John continued to baptize until his death (Jn 3:22-24), and many of his disciples maintained John’s work after his death. Probably both Apollos and the disciples at Ephesus were products of the continuing ministry of John’s disciples. Eventually they were introduced to “the way of the Lord” (18:25). Their lack of knowledge about a distinctive Christian baptism or about the reality of the Holy Spirit (19:2-4) shows how much diversity in both belief and practice existed in early Christianity.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s third missionary tour began with a three-year ministry in Ephesus (19:1–20:1), continued with a visit to churches established on the previous journey (20:2-12), and came to a climax with his arrest in Jerusalem (Acts 21). It took place in the mid-50s (<span>AD<\/span> 53–57). Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem and arraignment before the provincial governor, Felix, in Caesarea (23:23–24:23) must be dated about 57. After Paul had spent two years under house arrest, no doubt prolonged by Felix to gain favor with Jewish subjects, Felix was replaced by Porcius Festus (<span>AD<\/span> 59–60). Josephus noted that Felix was recalled because of an outbreak of civil strife between Jewish and gentile inhabitants of Caesarea and Felix’s unwise handling of the situation.<\/p>\n<p>The new procurator, Festus, was uncertain about what to do with his prisoner. The Jewish leadership sought to seize that opportunity, aware of the desire of new procurators to gain popularity with their subjects (25:1-9). Realizing the threat, Paul appealed his case to the highest court of the empire, presided over by Caesar himself (25:10-12).<\/p>\n<p>Festus was then left with a problem. He had to send with his prisoner a report to the emperor, clearly outlining the charges. Since he did not really comprehend the case (25:25-27), he sought the advice of Herod Agrippa II, who with his sister had come to Caesarea to pay their respects to the new imperial governor of Palestine (25:13). Agrippa II was the son of Herod Agrippa I and, at least in theory, a Jew. He ruled over parts of Palestine from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 100 and had been given the right to appoint the Jewish high priests. His familiarity with Jewish religious traditions and the Law thus put him in a better position to understand Jerusalem’s case against Paul. The outcome of Paul’s appearance before Festus and Agrippa (26:1-29) was recognition of Paul’s innocence (26:31). Yet Paul’s appeal to Rome had to be honored; the law governing such cases had to be followed (26:32).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s relative freedom during the next two-year period (28:30) seems unusual but was a rather common practice in Roman judicial proceedings, especially for Roman citizens who had appealed to the emperor. There is no good reason to believe that Paul was executed at the time when Luke’s narrative ends (c. <span>AD<\/span> 61–62). The great fire of Rome and Nero’s subsequent persecution of Christians were still a few years away (<span>AD<\/span> 64). It is likely that the case against Paul was dismissed, especially in light of the favorable verdict by Festus and King Agrippa. It is also likely that Paul was executed during the later, more general persecution of Christians. Such a sequence would correspond with the tradition cited by Eusebius, a fourth-century church historian, that Paul resumed his ministry and later suffered martyrdom under Nero.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>In the preface to the Gospel, intended to cover the second volume also, Luke told Theophilus (and the audience he represented) that he had set out to write an accurate, orderly account about the beginnings of the Christian movement in the ministry of Jesus of Nazareth (Lk 1:1-4). The opening lines in Acts indicate that the narrative beginning with Jesus of Nazareth (vol 1) is continuing and that Luke’s second volume intends to trace the story from Palestine to Rome (Acts 1:1-8).<\/p>\n<p>While recounting this story, Luke attempted to defend the Christian movement against false charges brought against it. A number of misconceptions attended the birth and growth of the Christian movement. One concerned the relationship between the new faith and Judaism. Many, both within the church and among Roman officials, understood the Christian faith as no more than a particular expression of, or sect within, Judaism. Against that restricted notion, Luke-Acts strikes a universal note. The Gospel proclaims Jesus as Savior of the world (Lk 2:29-32). In Acts, Stephen’s defense before the Jewish council (ch 7), Peter’s experience in Joppa with Cornelius (ch 10), and Paul’s speech at Athens (ch 17) all demonstrate that Christianity is not merely a Jewish sect, some narrow messianic movement, but rather a universal faith. Another problem was popular identification of the new faith with the various religious cults and mystery religions in the Roman Empire. The accounts of the early church’s conflict with Simon the magician (ch 8) and of Paul and Barnabas’s rejection of an attempt to worship them at Lystra (ch 14) undermine the popular charge of superstition. Also, Christianity is not a mystery cult in which esoteric, secret rites bring a worshiper into union with the divine. The Lord worshiped by Christians, said Luke, belongs to real history; he lived his life in Palestine in the then-recent past, openly, for all to observe (see the speeches of Peter and Paul in Acts 2; 10; 13).<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s major purpose, however, was defense of Christianity against the charge that it posed a threat to the order and stability of the Roman Empire. There were, of course, grounds for such suspicions. After all, the founder of the movement had been crucified on a charge of sedition by a Roman procurator, and the movement that claimed his name seemed to evoke tumult, disorder, and riots wherever it spread. Luke’s account met those problems head-on. In the Gospel he presented the trial of Jesus as a serious miscarriage of justice. Pilate had handed Jesus over for crucifixion, but he had found Jesus not guilty. Herod Antipas likewise found no substance in the charges against Jesus (Lk 23:13-16; Acts 13:28). A neutral or even friendly attitude of Roman officials toward leading Christians and the movement as a whole is documented throughout Acts. The Roman proconsul of Cyprus, Sergius Paulus, gladly received Paul and Barnabas and responded positively to their message (Acts 13:7-12). The chief magistrate in Philippi apologized for the illegal beating and imprisonment of Paul and Silas (16:37-39). The proconsul of Achaia, Gallio, found Paul guiltless in the eyes of Roman law (18:12-16). In Ephesus the magistrate intervened in a crowd’s attack on Paul and his companions, rejecting the charges against them (19:35-39). A tribune of the Roman military contingent in Jerusalem arrested Paul, but it turned out that he really saved the apostle from the wrath of a mob; in his letter to the procurator Felix, the tribune acknowledged that Paul was not guilty by Roman law (23:26-29). The same verdict was repeated after Paul’s arraignment before Felix, his successor Festus, and Herod Agrippa II: “This man hasn’t done anything worthy of death or imprisonment” (26:31, <span>nlt<\/span>). Luke climaxed his story by telling how Paul carried on his missionary activity in Rome, the very heart of the empire, and with the permission of the imperial guards (28:30-31). It is clear throughout Luke’s defense that the strife that attended the beginnings and progress of Christianity was not due primarily to anything within the movement, but rather to Jewish opposition and falsification.<\/p>\n<p>Within his lengthy apology for the integrity of Christianity, Luke’s specific theological perspectives can be clearly seen. The two volume work presents a grand scheme of the history of redemption, extending from the <em>time of Israel<\/em> (Lk 1–2) through the <em>time of Jesus,<\/em> and continuing through the <em>time of the church,<\/em> when the good news for Israel is extended to all nations. Paralleling that emphasis is an insistence that God is present in the redemptive story through the Holy Spirit. In the Gospel, Jesus is presented as the Man of the Spirit; the reality of the Spirit empowered him for his work (Lk 3:22; 4:1, 14, 18). In Acts, the fellowship of Jesus’ disciples is presented as the community of the Spirit (1:8; 2:1-8). What Jesus in the power of the Spirit had begun in his own ministry, the church in the power of the Spirit continues to do.<\/p>\n<p>For Luke, the empowering presence of God’s Spirit was a reality that gave the new faith its power, integrity, and perseverance. It enabled faithful witness (1:8) and created genuine community (2:44-47; 4:32-37), something for which the ancient world desperately longed. The Spirit in the new community produced courage and boldness (see Peter’s defenses in chs 2–5), empowered for service (ch 6), overcame prejudice as in the mission in Samaria (ch 8), broke down walls as in the Cornelius episode (chs 10–11), and sent believers out on missions (ch 13).<\/p>\n<p>The entire story is also punctuated by the centrality of Jesus’ resurrection. Luke, like Paul (see 1 Cor 15:12-21), must have been convinced that without the resurrection of Jesus there would be no Christian faith at all. More than that, the resurrection put God’s stamp of approval on Jesus’ life and ministry, authenticating the truth of his claims. Luke announced his interest in that theme at the outset: the ultimate criterion for an apostolic replacement for Judas was that he must have been, with the other disciples, a witness to Jesus’ resurrection. Throughout Acts, from Peter’s Pentecost sermon and defenses before the Sanhedrin to Paul’s speeches before Felix and Agrippa, the church is shown bearing witness to Jesus’ resurrection as a great reversal executed by God (2:22-24, 36; 3:14-15; 5:30-31; 10:39-42).<\/p>\n<p>Acts falls naturally into two parts, chapters 1–12, and 13–28. The first part, roughly speaking, contains the “acts of Peter.” Part two is largely concerned with the “acts of Paul.” In the first 12 chapters, Peter is the central figure who initiates the choosing of a replacement for Judas Iscariot (ch 1); addresses the multitudes at Pentecost (ch 2); interprets the significance of the healing of a lame man to a temple crowd (ch 3); delivers a defense of the Christian proclamation before the supreme Jewish council (ch 4); leads the apostles in a healing ministry and speaks for them (ch 5); stands in the forefront of conflict with a Samaritan magician, “Simon the Great” (ch 8); launches—though somewhat unwillingly—the movement of the gospel to the Gentiles through Cornelius (chs 10–11); and draws the fire of Herod’s campaign against the church but is miraculously delivered from prison (ch 12).<\/p>\n<p>Proclamation of the gospel to the Gentiles through Paul’s ministry is the theme of part two of Acts (chs 13–28). The story primarily concerns three major missionary tours, each of which moved the gospel into yet untouched territory and expanded earlier missionary efforts. The account of Paul’s life and work climaxes in his arrest in Jerusalem (chs 21–22), a lengthy imprisonment in Caesarea (chs 23–26), and a voyage to Rome (chs 27–28).<\/p>\n<p>Another way of getting at the structure and content of Acts is thematic. It has its starting point in Jesus’ statement, “You shall receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you; and you shall be my witnesses in Jerusalem and in all Judea and Samaria and to the ends of the earth” (1:8). Acts can be seen as the story of the fulfillment of that “Great Commission,” unfolding essentially in three stages: (1) witness to Judaism, focused in Jerusalem but also expanding into surrounding Judea and north into Galilee (chs 1–7); (2) witness to Samaria through Philip, Peter, and John (8:1–9:31); (3) witness to the gentile world, first haltingly through Peter (9:32–12:25), and then decisively through Paul (chs 13–28).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Luke (Person); Paul, The Apostle; Simon Peter; Theophilus #1; Chronology of the Bible (New Testament).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, B<span>ook of the<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>NT book presenting the history of the early church and written as a sequel to the Gospel of Luke. In the arrangement of the NT books, Acts comes after the four Gospels and before the Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background and Content<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts does not state clearly who its writer is, but the general consensus is that Luke was its author.<\/p>\n<p>Early church tradition from the second century states that Acts (as well as the third Gospel) was written by a traveling companion and fellow worker of the apostle Paul. That companion is identified in Colossians 4:14 as “Luke, the beloved physician” (<span>nasb<\/span>) and mentioned among Paul’s coworkers (Col 4:10-17; see also 2 Tm 4:11; Phlm 1:24).<\/p>\n<p>Strong support for the tradition that the author of Acts was a companion of Paul comes from the second half of the book recounting Paul’s ministry. There, several narratives are told in the first person plural:<\/p>\n<p>1. “That night Paul had a vision. He saw a man from Macedonia in northern Greece, pleading with him, ‘Come over here and help us.’ So we decided to leave for Macedonia at once, for we could only conclude that God was calling us to preach the Good News there” (16:9-10, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<li>2. “They went ahead and waited for us at Troas . . . we boarded a ship at Philippi in Macedonia and five days later arrived in Troas, where we stayed a week” (20:5-6, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>3. “When the time came, we set sail for Italy” (27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n<p>These “we” sections (16:9-18; 20:5–21:18; 27:1–28:16) sound like part of a travel narrative or diary written by an eyewitness who accompanied Paul from Troas to Philippi on his second missionary journey; from Philippi to Miletus on the third; from Miletus to Jerusalem; and from Caesarea to Rome. Since the style and vocabulary of these travel narratives resemble those of the rest of the book, it is highly probably that the diarist was also the author of the entire book.<\/p>\n<p>The sophisticated literary style and polished use of the Greek language in the book, as well as the fact that it is addressed to someone called Theophilus (possibly a high-ranking Roman official), provide strong support for the tradition that Luke was a gentile convert to Christianity. His consistent and frequent use of the Greek OT may indicate that he had been a gentile “God-fearer” before conversion to the new faith.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginDestination\">Date, Origin, Destination<\/p>\n\n<p>The question of the date and place of the origin of Acts continues to be debated. There are no clear indications in the book itself. With regard to its destination, however, Luke did not leave any doubt. In the opening verse he addresses a certain Theophilus, to whom he had already written an earlier book about the life of Jesus. There can be no doubt that he was referring to the work we know as the Gospel of Luke. In the preface to that Gospel (Lk 1:1-4), Luke clearly stated his purpose for writing and addressed his account to the “most honorable Theophilus.” It is not clear who that person was. Some interpreters think that Theophilus (which means “dear to God” or “lover of God”) stands for Christian readers in general rather than any specific individual. However, the designation “most honorable” argues against such an assumption. That ascription was a common title of honor, designating a person with official standing in the Roman sociopolitical order (cf. use of the title for Felix, Acts 23:26; 24:2; and for Festus, 26:25). It is thus likely that Luke intended his two-volume work for an official representative of Roman society.<\/p>\n<p>When was Acts written? Some scholars date it in the last quarter of the first century. Since the Gospel was written first, and since Luke based his story of Jesus on eyewitness accounts and written sources (among which was possibly the Gospel of Mark, probably written in the 60s), Acts should not be dated much before <span>AD<\/span> 85. Proponents of such a late date claim support from the theology of Acts, which they see as picturing a Christian church settled into history, adjusted to the prospect of a lengthy period before the Lord’s return. Since expectation of the Lord’s imminent return was fanned into a living flame by the Jewish revolt and the fall of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 70, time must be allowed for that flame to have died down a bit.<\/p>\n<p>Other scholars date Acts around <span>AD<\/span> 70 or shortly thereafter. The Jewish rebellion of <span>AD<\/span> 66–70, which culminated in the destruction of Jerusalem, brought the Jewish faith—legal until then—into disrepute. The Christian movement, which had been accepted as a Jewish sect, became suspect. Christians were increasingly charged with being enemies of Rome. A study of Acts shows that among a number of purposes (see below), Luke seems to have been defending the Christians against the charge of hostility toward the state. He showed how Roman officials repeatedly testified to the complete innocence of Christians and above all else of Paul (16:39; 18:14-17; 19:37; 23:29; 25:25; 26:32). Luke also made it clear that Paul was allowed to carry on his mission with full approval of Roman officials in the very heart of the imperial capital (28:16-31).<\/p>\n<p>A still earlier date, closer to Paul’s Roman imprisonment (early 60s), has been advocated by a number of scholars. There are two compelling reasons: (1) The abrupt ending of Acts, describing Paul carrying on a ministry in Rome before his trial had commenced, may indicate that Luke was writing at that point. It is possible, of course, that Luke ended his story with Paul preaching the gospel in Rome because one of his purposes had been accomplished: namely, showing how the gospel spread from Jerusalem to Rome. But it seems highly unlikely that Luke would close his history without Paul’s defense of the gospel before Caesar himself if that had already happened. (2) The most appropriate period for Luke’s history, with its defense of the Christian movement against all kinds of accusations from both Jews and Gentiles, is the period when Christianity was becoming suspect but was not yet proscribed. That was the time before the start of the persecutions under Nero in <span>AD<\/span> 64. The early date would correspond with the contention that Luke was with Paul during his Roman imprisonment and that he wrote his history in Rome while waiting for Paul’s trial to begin. It is possible that Luke’s work was partially intended to influence the verdict. Luke presented a picture of Christianity and of Paul that he hoped would enable Paul to continue his work among the Gentiles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BackgroundandContent\">Background and Content<\/p>\n<p>Luke grounds his documentary of the rapid expansion of Christianity in the history of the Roman Empire and Palestine during the three decades from <span>AD<\/span> 30 to 60. Some brief historical and geographical considerations will aid in understanding Luke’s history.<\/p>\n<p>Acts 1–12 reports the beginnings of the Christian movement within the imperial province of Syria, which included Judea and Samaria. In the first century <span>AD<\/span>, those regions were generally governed by Roman procurators or puppet kings. At the time of Jesus’ death and resurrection (c. <span>AD<\/span> 30), Pontius Pilate was procurator in Judea and Samaria (<span>AD<\/span> 26–36). Galilee was ruled by King Herod Antipas (4 <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 39). Tiberius was emperor of the Roman Empire (<span>AD<\/span> 14–37). The account of Acts 1–12 took place in the period <span>AD<\/span> 30–44.<\/p>\n<p>The conversion of Saul (Acts 9) is generally dated in <span>AD <\/span>33. After Saul’s conversion and departure to his native Tarsus, the church evidently enjoyed a period of tranquility, consolidating its gains and growing steadily (9:31–11:26). It can be assumed, from Galatians 1:18-21 and the existence of Christian communities that Paul and Silas visited on the second missionary tour (Acts 15:40-41), that Paul was not idle during that decade, but intensely involved in the mission to the Gentiles. (After Acts 13:9, the name “Saul” is dropped from the narrative.)<\/p>\n<p>In <span>AD<\/span> 41, Claudius became emperor of Rome and installed Herod Agrippa I as king of the Jews. (The procurator Pontius Pilate had been removed several years earlier for inept administration of the region.) Agrippa I was grandson of Herod the Great and his Jewish princess Mariamne. Because of his Jewish roots, he was more popular with his subjects than the former Herods. No doubt it was his desire to increase that popularity and gain the support of the Jewish religious authorities that led to a renewed outbreak of violence against the Jerusalem church. Acts 12 recounts the execution of James (the brother of the apostle John) and the imprisonment of Peter. The story of Agrippa I’s death (12:20-23) is paralleled in an account by the Jewish historian Josephus, who dates the event in <span>AD<\/span> 44.<\/p>\n<p>A second event providing a time reference for the unfolding story of the early church is the collection of famine relief in Antioch for Christians in Judea (11:27-29). Luke stated that a severe famine took place (v 28) during the reign of Emperor Claudius (<span>AD<\/span> 41–54). Josephus, writing his <em>Antiquities<\/em> at the end of the first century, spoke of a severe famine in Palestine between the years <span>AD<\/span> 44 and 48. According to Acts 12:25, Barnabas and Paul finished their mission to famine-stricken Christians in Judea after the death of Agrippa I, making it possible to date their mission about <span>AD<\/span> 45.<\/p>\n<p>At that point in the narrative of Acts, Paul is launched officially into his mission to the Gentiles (13:1-3), for which the history and geography of the larger Roman Empire form the backdrop. The official Roman policy toward the various religions in the empire was one of toleration. That policy, plus use of the Greek language throughout the empire and a phenomenal network of roads and sea routes, paved the way for Paul’s far-ranging missionary work.<\/p>\n<p>The first tour (<span>AD<\/span> 46–47) took Paul and Barnabas through the island province of Cyprus in the northeastern tip of the Mediterranean Sea and into the province of Galatia, where churches were established in several cities of southern Galatia (Antioch of Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra, Derbe). Galatia is located in Asia Minor, bordered by the Black Sea, the Aegean Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea on its northern, western, and southern sides. Those cities, important colonial outposts for the Romans, contained mixed populations, including large Jewish communities. It was in the synagogues of those communities that Paul launched his missionary efforts, almost always meeting with considerable opposition (chs 13–14).<\/p>\n<p>The deliberation of the Jerusalem Council about differences between Jewish and gentile Christians (ch 15) can be dated in the year <span>AD<\/span> 48. It was followed by Paul’s second missionary journey, which led him through the already evangelized territory of his native Cilicia, Galatia, and through Troas on the Aegean coast to Macedonia and down into Achaia, the Greek Peninsula (15:40–18:22). Churches were established in the important Macedonian cities of Philippi, Thessalonica, and Beroea.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s one and a half years in Corinth (18:11) can be dated with some certainty in <span>AD<\/span> 51–52. An ancient inscription among the ruins of Delphi, a city in central Greece, states that Gallio became proconsul of Achaia in 51. Acts 18:12-17 tells how Paul was accused by antagonistic Jews before Gallio. The implication is that Paul’s adversaries in Corinth felt that a new proconsul could be persuaded to side with their cause. Thus, Paul’s stay in Corinth can be dated around the beginning of Gallio’s proconsulship.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s account of Paul’s return to Palestine and the beginning of his third missionary tour brings up a fascinating historical question about what happened to the followers of John the Baptist (13:13–19:7). Acts 18:24-28 refers to a learned Jew, Apollos, who was actively teaching about Jesus in the synagogue at Ephesus, but who was apparently not a member of a distinctively Christian community, not having been baptized in the name of Jesus. He was acquainted only with the baptism of repentance practiced by John the Baptist. After Apollos went to Corinth to minister to the young congregation that Paul founded the previous year, Paul went to Ephesus. There he met several disciples of Jesus who, like Apollos, had experienced John’s baptism of repentance, but who had not been baptized as Christians.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s reference to Apollos and those disciples, as well as several passages in the Gospels, indicate that the movement begun by John the Baptist did not simply come to an end when Jesus began his ministry. Evidently John continued to baptize until his death (Jn 3:22-24), and many of his disciples maintained John’s work after his death. Probably both Apollos and the disciples at Ephesus were products of the continuing ministry of John’s disciples. Eventually they were introduced to “the way of the Lord” (18:25). Their lack of knowledge about a distinctive Christian baptism or about the reality of the Holy Spirit (19:2-4) shows how much diversity in both belief and practice existed in early Christianity.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s third missionary tour began with a three-year ministry in Ephesus (19:1–20:1), continued with a visit to churches established on the previous journey (20:2-12), and came to a climax with his arrest in Jerusalem (Acts 21). It took place in the mid-50s (<span>AD<\/span> 53–57). Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem and arraignment before the provincial governor, Felix, in Caesarea (23:23–24:23) must be dated about 57. After Paul had spent two years under house arrest, no doubt prolonged by Felix to gain favor with Jewish subjects, Felix was replaced by Porcius Festus (<span>AD<\/span> 59–60). Josephus noted that Felix was recalled because of an outbreak of civil strife between Jewish and gentile inhabitants of Caesarea and Felix’s unwise handling of the situation.<\/p>\n<p>The new procurator, Festus, was uncertain about what to do with his prisoner. The Jewish leadership sought to seize that opportunity, aware of the desire of new procurators to gain popularity with their subjects (25:1-9). Realizing the threat, Paul appealed his case to the highest court of the empire, presided over by Caesar himself (25:10-12).<\/p>\n<p>Festus was then left with a problem. He had to send with his prisoner a report to the emperor, clearly outlining the charges. Since he did not really comprehend the case (25:25-27), he sought the advice of Herod Agrippa II, who with his sister had come to Caesarea to pay their respects to the new imperial governor of Palestine (25:13). Agrippa II was the son of Herod Agrippa I and, at least in theory, a Jew. He ruled over parts of Palestine from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 100 and had been given the right to appoint the Jewish high priests. His familiarity with Jewish religious traditions and the Law thus put him in a better position to understand Jerusalem’s case against Paul. The outcome of Paul’s appearance before Festus and Agrippa (26:1-29) was recognition of Paul’s innocence (26:31). Yet Paul’s appeal to Rome had to be honored; the law governing such cases had to be followed (26:32).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s relative freedom during the next two-year period (28:30) seems unusual but was a rather common practice in Roman judicial proceedings, especially for Roman citizens who had appealed to the emperor. There is no good reason to believe that Paul was executed at the time when Luke’s narrative ends (c. <span>AD<\/span> 61–62). The great fire of Rome and Nero’s subsequent persecution of Christians were still a few years away (<span>AD<\/span> 64). It is likely that the case against Paul was dismissed, especially in light of the favorable verdict by Festus and King Agrippa. It is also likely that Paul was executed during the later, more general persecution of Christians. Such a sequence would correspond with the tradition cited by Eusebius, a fourth-century church historian, that Paul resumed his ministry and later suffered martyrdom under Nero.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>In the preface to the Gospel, intended to cover the second volume also, Luke told Theophilus (and the audience he represented) that he had set out to write an accurate, orderly account about the beginnings of the Christian movement in the ministry of Jesus of Nazareth (Lk 1:1-4). The opening lines in Acts indicate that the narrative beginning with Jesus of Nazareth (vol 1) is continuing and that Luke’s second volume intends to trace the story from Palestine to Rome (Acts 1:1-8).<\/p>\n<p>While recounting this story, Luke attempted to defend the Christian movement against false charges brought against it. A number of misconceptions attended the birth and growth of the Christian movement. One concerned the relationship between the new faith and Judaism. Many, both within the church and among Roman officials, understood the Christian faith as no more than a particular expression of, or sect within, Judaism. Against that restricted notion, Luke-Acts strikes a universal note. The Gospel proclaims Jesus as Savior of the world (Lk 2:29-32). In Acts, Stephen’s defense before the Jewish council (ch 7), Peter’s experience in Joppa with Cornelius (ch 10), and Paul’s speech at Athens (ch 17) all demonstrate that Christianity is not merely a Jewish sect, some narrow messianic movement, but rather a universal faith. Another problem was popular identification of the new faith with the various religious cults and mystery religions in the Roman Empire. The accounts of the early church’s conflict with Simon the magician (ch 8) and of Paul and Barnabas’s rejection of an attempt to worship them at Lystra (ch 14) undermine the popular charge of superstition. Also, Christianity is not a mystery cult in which esoteric, secret rites bring a worshiper into union with the divine. The Lord worshiped by Christians, said Luke, belongs to real history; he lived his life in Palestine in the then-recent past, openly, for all to observe (see the speeches of Peter and Paul in Acts 2; 10; 13).<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s major purpose, however, was defense of Christianity against the charge that it posed a threat to the order and stability of the Roman Empire. There were, of course, grounds for such suspicions. After all, the founder of the movement had been crucified on a charge of sedition by a Roman procurator, and the movement that claimed his name seemed to evoke tumult, disorder, and riots wherever it spread. Luke’s account met those problems head-on. In the Gospel he presented the trial of Jesus as a serious miscarriage of justice. Pilate had handed Jesus over for crucifixion, but he had found Jesus not guilty. Herod Antipas likewise found no substance in the charges against Jesus (Lk 23:13-16; Acts 13:28). A neutral or even friendly attitude of Roman officials toward leading Christians and the movement as a whole is documented throughout Acts. The Roman proconsul of Cyprus, Sergius Paulus, gladly received Paul and Barnabas and responded positively to their message (Acts 13:7-12). The chief magistrate in Philippi apologized for the illegal beating and imprisonment of Paul and Silas (16:37-39). The proconsul of Achaia, Gallio, found Paul guiltless in the eyes of Roman law (18:12-16). In Ephesus the magistrate intervened in a crowd’s attack on Paul and his companions, rejecting the charges against them (19:35-39). A tribune of the Roman military contingent in Jerusalem arrested Paul, but it turned out that he really saved the apostle from the wrath of a mob; in his letter to the procurator Felix, the tribune acknowledged that Paul was not guilty by Roman law (23:26-29). The same verdict was repeated after Paul’s arraignment before Felix, his successor Festus, and Herod Agrippa II: “This man hasn’t done anything worthy of death or imprisonment” (26:31, <span>nlt<\/span>). Luke climaxed his story by telling how Paul carried on his missionary activity in Rome, the very heart of the empire, and with the permission of the imperial guards (28:30-31). It is clear throughout Luke’s defense that the strife that attended the beginnings and progress of Christianity was not due primarily to anything within the movement, but rather to Jewish opposition and falsification.<\/p>\n<p>Within his lengthy apology for the integrity of Christianity, Luke’s specific theological perspectives can be clearly seen. The two volume work presents a grand scheme of the history of redemption, extending from the <em>time of Israel<\/em> (Lk 1–2) through the <em>time of Jesus,<\/em> and continuing through the <em>time of the church,<\/em> when the good news for Israel is extended to all nations. Paralleling that emphasis is an insistence that God is present in the redemptive story through the Holy Spirit. In the Gospel, Jesus is presented as the Man of the Spirit; the reality of the Spirit empowered him for his work (Lk 3:22; 4:1, 14, 18). In Acts, the fellowship of Jesus’ disciples is presented as the community of the Spirit (1:8; 2:1-8). What Jesus in the power of the Spirit had begun in his own ministry, the church in the power of the Spirit continues to do.<\/p>\n<p>For Luke, the empowering presence of God’s Spirit was a reality that gave the new faith its power, integrity, and perseverance. It enabled faithful witness (1:8) and created genuine community (2:44-47; 4:32-37), something for which the ancient world desperately longed. The Spirit in the new community produced courage and boldness (see Peter’s defenses in chs 2–5), empowered for service (ch 6), overcame prejudice as in the mission in Samaria (ch 8), broke down walls as in the Cornelius episode (chs 10–11), and sent believers out on missions (ch 13).<\/p>\n<p>The entire story is also punctuated by the centrality of Jesus’ resurrection. Luke, like Paul (see 1 Cor 15:12-21), must have been convinced that without the resurrection of Jesus there would be no Christian faith at all. More than that, the resurrection put God’s stamp of approval on Jesus’ life and ministry, authenticating the truth of his claims. Luke announced his interest in that theme at the outset: the ultimate criterion for an apostolic replacement for Judas was that he must have been, with the other disciples, a witness to Jesus’ resurrection. Throughout Acts, from Peter’s Pentecost sermon and defenses before the Sanhedrin to Paul’s speeches before Felix and Agrippa, the church is shown bearing witness to Jesus’ resurrection as a great reversal executed by God (2:22-24, 36; 3:14-15; 5:30-31; 10:39-42).<\/p>\n<p>Acts falls naturally into two parts, chapters 1–12, and 13–28. The first part, roughly speaking, contains the “acts of Peter.” Part two is largely concerned with the “acts of Paul.” In the first 12 chapters, Peter is the central figure who initiates the choosing of a replacement for Judas Iscariot (ch 1); addresses the multitudes at Pentecost (ch 2); interprets the significance of the healing of a lame man to a temple crowd (ch 3); delivers a defense of the Christian proclamation before the supreme Jewish council (ch 4); leads the apostles in a healing ministry and speaks for them (ch 5); stands in the forefront of conflict with a Samaritan magician, “Simon the Great” (ch 8); launches—though somewhat unwillingly—the movement of the gospel to the Gentiles through Cornelius (chs 10–11); and draws the fire of Herod’s campaign against the church but is miraculously delivered from prison (ch 12).<\/p>\n<p>Proclamation of the gospel to the Gentiles through Paul’s ministry is the theme of part two of Acts (chs 13–28). The story primarily concerns three major missionary tours, each of which moved the gospel into yet untouched territory and expanded earlier missionary efforts. The account of Paul’s life and work climaxes in his arrest in Jerusalem (chs 21–22), a lengthy imprisonment in Caesarea (chs 23–26), and a voyage to Rome (chs 27–28).<\/p>\n<p>Another way of getting at the structure and content of Acts is thematic. It has its starting point in Jesus’ statement, “You shall receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you; and you shall be my witnesses in Jerusalem and in all Judea and Samaria and to the ends of the earth” (1:8). Acts can be seen as the story of the fulfillment of that “Great Commission,” unfolding essentially in three stages: (1) witness to Judaism, focused in Jerusalem but also expanding into surrounding Judea and north into Galilee (chs 1–7); (2) witness to Samaria through Philip, Peter, and John (8:1–9:31); (3) witness to the gentile world, first haltingly through Peter (9:32–12:25), and then decisively through Paul (chs 13–28).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Luke (Person); Paul, The Apostle; Simon Peter; Theophilus #1; Chronology of the Bible (New Testament).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, Book of the NT book presenting the history of the early church and written as a sequel to the Gospel of Luke. In the arrangement of the NT books, Acts comes after the four Gospels and before the Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, Destination • Background and Content • Purpose Author The book of Acts does not state clearly who its writer is, but the general consensus is that Luke was its author. Early church tradition from the second century states that Acts (as w...","summary_en":"ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, Book of the NT book presenting the history of the early church and written as a sequel to the Gospel of Luke. In the arrangement of the NT books, Acts comes after the four Gospels and before the Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, Destination • Background and Content • Purpose Author The book of Acts does not state clearly who its writer is, but the general consensus is that Luke was its author. Early church tradition from the second century states that Acts (as w...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36146,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Spirit of God","title_en":"Spirit of God","content_ro":"<h3>SPIRIT OF GOD<\/h3>\n<p>Description of God in action, God in motion. The word “spirit” (Hebrew, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ruach<\/span><em>;<\/em> Greek, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">pneuma<\/span>) is the word used from ancient times to describe and explain the experience of divine power working in, upon, and around people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>There are three basic meanings evident in the use of “spirit” from the earliest Hebrew writings: It was a wind from God, it was the breath of life, and it was a spirit of ecstasy.<\/p>\n<p>First, it was a wind from God (the same Hebrew word translated “Spirit” in Gn 1:2) that caused the waters of the Flood to subside (8:1). A wind from God blew locusts over Egypt (Ex 10:13) and quail over the camp of Israel. The blast of his nostrils separated the waters of the Red Sea at the exodus (14:21).<\/p>\n<p>Second, it was the breath of God that made man a living being (Gn 2:7). It is one of the earliest perceptions of Hebrew faith that humans live only because of the stirring of the divine breath or spirit within them (Gn 6:3; Jb 33:4; 34:14-15; Ps 104:29-30). Later, a clearer distinction was drawn between divine Spirit and human spirit, and between spirit and soul, but at the earliest stage these were all more or less perceived to be synonymous manifestations of the same divine power, the source of all life—animal as well as human (Gn 7:15, 22; see Eccl 3:19-21).<\/p>\n<p>Third, there were occasions when this divine power seemed to overtake and possess an individual fully, so that his or her words or actions far transcended those of normal behavior. Such a person was clearly marked as an agent of God’s purpose and given respect. This was apparently how leaders were recognized in the premonarchy period—Othniel (Jgs 3:10), Gideon (6:34), Jephthah (11:29), and the first king, Saul (1 Sm 11:6), as well. So, too, the earliest prophets were those whose inspiration came in ecstasy (1 Sm 19:20-24).<\/p>\n<p>In the earlier stages of Hebrew thought, ecstatic experience was seen as the direct effect of divine power. This was true even when the ecstasy was recognized as evil in character, as in the case of Saul’s seizure by the Spirit (1 Sm 16:14-16). A spirit from God could be for evil as well as for good (see Jgs 9:23; 1 Kgs 22:19-23).<\/p>\n<h5>In the Writings of the Prophets<\/h5>\n<p>For Isaiah, the spirit was that which characterized God and distinguished him and his actions from human affairs (Is 31:3). Later, the adjective “holy” appeared as that which distinguished the Spirit of God from any other spirit, human or divine (Ps 51:11; Is 63:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>The problem of false prophecy emphasized the danger of assuming that every message delivered in ecstasy was the word of the Lord. Thus, tests of prophecy evaluated the content of the message delivered or the character of the prophet’s life, not the degree or quality of inspiration (see Dt 13:1-5; 18:22; Jer 23:14; Mi 3:5). This sense of a need to discriminate between true and false inspiration and to distinguish the word of God from the merely ecstatic oracle may help to explain the otherwise puzzling reluctance of the major eighth- and seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> prophets to attribute their inspiration to the Spirit.<\/p>\n<h5>In the Exilic and Postexilic Writings<\/h5>\n<p>In exilic and postexilic literature, the role of the Spirit is narrowed to two major functions: that of the prophetic Spirit and that of the Spirit of the age to come.<\/p>\n<p>The later prophets again spoke of the Spirit in explicit terms as the inspirer of prophecy (see Ez 3:1-4, 22-24; Hg 2:5; Zec 4:6). As they looked back to the preexilic period, these prophets freely attributed the inspiration of “the former prophets” to the Spirit as well (Zec 7:12).<\/p>\n<p>This tendency to exalt the Spirit’s role as the inspirer of prophecy became steadily stronger in the period between the OT and NT, until in rabbinic Judaism the Spirit was almost exclusively the inspirer of the prophetic writings now regarded as Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>The other understanding of the Spirit’s role during exilic and postexilic times was that the Spirit would be the manifestation of the power of God in the age to come. That eschatological hope of divine power effecting a final cleansing and a renewed creation is rooted principally in Isaiah’s prophecies (Is 4:4; 32:15; 44:3-4). Isaiah speaks of one anointed by the Spirit to accomplish complete and final salvation (11:2; 42:1; 61:1). Elsewhere, the same longing is expressed in terms of the Spirit being freely dispensed to all Israel (Ez 39:29; Jl 2:28-29; Zec 12:10) in the new covenant (Jer 31:31-34; Ez 36:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>In the period prior to Jesus, the understanding of the Spirit as the Spirit of prophecy and as the Spirit of the age to come had developed into the widespread dogma that the Spirit was no longer to be experienced in the present. The Spirit had been known in the past as the inspirer of prophetic writings, but after Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, the Spirit had withdrawn (1 Macc 4:44-46; 9:27; 2 Bar 85:1-3; see also Ps 74:9; Zec 13:2-6). The Spirit would be known again in the age of the Messiah, but in the interim the Spirit was absent from Israel. Even the great Hillel (learned Jewish leader and teacher, 60? <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 20?), a near contemporary of Jesus, had not received the Spirit—though if anyone was worthy of the Spirit, it was he. There is a tradition that at a meeting of Hillel and other wise men, a voice from heaven said, “Among those here present is one who would have deserved the Holy Spirit to rest upon him, if his time had been worthy of it.” The wise men all looked at Hillel.<\/p>\n<p>The consequence of this accepted dearth of the Spirit was that the Spirit in effect became subordinated to the law. The Spirit was the inspirer of the law, but since the Spirit could no longer be experienced directly, the law became the sole voice of the Spirit. It was this increasing dominance of the law and its authoritative interpreters that provided the background for the mission of Jesus and the initial spread of Christianity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>If we are to understand the NT’s teaching on the Spirit, we must recognize both its continuity and discontinuity with the OT. At many points NT usage cannot be fully understood except against the background of OT concepts or passages. For example, the ambiguity of John 3:8 (“wind,” “Spirit”), 2 Thessalonians 2:8 (“breath”), and Revelation 11:11 (“breath of life”) takes us back to the basic Hebrew meanings of “spirit.” Acts 8:39 and Revelation 17:3 and 21:10 reflect the same conception of the Spirit that we find in 1 Kings 18:12, 2 Kings 2:16, and Ezekiel 3:14. The NT writers generally share the rabbinic view that Scripture has the authority of the Spirit behind it (see Mk 12:36; Acts 28:25; Heb 3:7; 2 Pt 1:21). The principal continuity is that the NT brings the fulfillment of what the OT writers looked forward to. At the same time, Christianity is not simply fulfilled Judaism. Jesus’ coming and his giving of his Spirit to live within his believers marks off the new faith as something new and distinct.<\/p>\n<h5>The Spirit of the New Age<\/h5>\n<p>The most striking feature of Jesus’ ministry and of the message of the earliest Christians was their conviction and proclamation that the blessings of the new age were already present, that the eschatological Spirit had already been poured out. With the exception of the Essenes at Qumran, no other group or individual within the Jewish religion of that time had dared to make such a bold claim. The prophets and the rabbis looked for a messianic age yet to come, and the apocalyptic writers warned of its imminent arrival, but none thought of it as already present. Even John the Baptist spoke only of one about to come and of the Spirit’s operation in the imminent future (Mk 1:8). But for Jesus and first-century Christians, the longed for hope was a living reality, and the claim carried with it the exciting sense of being in “the last days.” Without some recognition of that eschatological dimension of the Christians’ faith and life, we cannot understand this teaching on, and experience of, the Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus clearly thought of his teachings and healings as fulfillment of the prophetic hope (Mt 12:41-42; 13:16-17; Lk 17:20-21). In particular, he saw himself as the one anointed by the Spirit to provide salvation (Mt 5:3-6; 11:5; Lk 4:17-19). So, too, Jesus understood his exorcisms as the effect of the power of God and as manifestations of the end-time rule of God (Mt 12:27-28; Mk 3:22-26). The Gospel writers, especially Luke, emphasize the eschatological character of Jesus’ life and ministry by stressing the role of the Spirit in his birth (Mt 1:18; Lk 1:35, 41, 67; 2:25-27), his baptism (Mk 1:9-10; Acts 10:38), and his ministry (Mt 4:1; 12:18; Mk 1:12; Lk 4:1, 14; 10:21; Jn 3:34).<\/p>\n<p>The Christian church began with the in-breathing of the Holy Spirit on the day of Christ’s resurrection (Jn 20:22), followed by the outpouring of the Spirit at Pentecost “in the last days.” The overwhelming experience of vision and inspired utterance was taken as proof positive that the new age prophesied by Joel had now arrived (Acts 2:2-5, 17-18). Similarly, in Hebrews the gift of the Spirit is spoken of as “the powers of the age to come” (Heb 6:4-5). More striking still is Paul’s understanding of the Spirit as the guarantee of God’s complete salvation (2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Eph 1:13-14), and as the first installment of the believer’s inheritance of God’s kingdom (Rom 8:15-17; 1 Cor 6:9-11; 15:42-50; Gal 4:6-7; 5:16-18, 21-23; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit is here again thought of as the power of the age to come, as that power (which will characterize God’s rule at the end of time) already shaping and transforming the lives of believers.<\/p>\n<p>For Paul, this means also that the gift of the Spirit is but the beginning of a lifelong process that will not end until the believer’s whole person is brought under the Spirit’s power (Rom 8:11, 23; 1 Cor 15:44-49; 2 Cor 3:18; 5:1-5). It also means that the present experience of faith is one of lifelong tension between what God has already begun to bring about in the believer’s life and what has not yet been brought under God’s grace (Phil 1:6). It is this tension between life “in the Spirit” and life “in the flesh” (see Gal 2:20) that comes to poignant expression in Romans 7:24 and 2 Corinthians 5:2-4.<\/p>\n<h5>The Spirit of New Life<\/h5>\n<p>Since the Spirit is the mark of the new age, it is not surprising that the NT writers understood the gift of the Spirit to be that which brings an individual into the new age. John the Baptist described the way the coming one would baptize with the Holy Spirit and with fire (Mt 3:11). According to Acts 1:5 and 11:16, this imagery was taken up by Jesus, and the promise is seen as fulfilled at Pentecost—the outpouring of the Spirit here being understood as the risen Christ’s action in drawing his disciples into the new age (Acts 2:17, 33).<\/p>\n<p>It seems to be one of Luke’s aims in the book of Acts to highlight the central importance of the gift of the Spirit in conversion-initiation—it is that decisive “gift of the Holy Spirit” that makes one a Christian (Acts 2:38-39). People could have been followers of Jesus on earth, but it was only when they received the gift of the Spirit that they could be said to have “believed in the Lord Jesus Christ” (11:16-17). When the Spirit’s presence was manifested in and upon a person’s life, that was recognized by Peter as proof enough that God had accepted that person, even though he or she had not yet made any formal profession of faith or been baptized (10:44-48; 11:15-18; 15:7-9). So too Apollos, already aglow with the Spirit (18:25), even though his knowledge of “the way of God” was slightly defective (vv 24-26), apparently was not required to supplement his “baptism of John” with Christian baptism. However, the 12 so-called disciples at Ephesus proved by their very ignorance of the Spirit that they were not yet disciples of the Lord Jesus (19:1-6). Paul asked these 12 men, “Did you receive the Holy Spirit when you believed?” (19:2).<\/p>\n<p>This accords with Paul’s emphasis in his letters. Belief and reception of the Spirit go together: to receive the Spirit is to begin the Christian life (Gal 3:2-3); to be baptized in the Spirit is to become a member of the body of Christ (1 Cor 12:13); to “have the Spirit of Christ” is to belong to Christ (Rom 8:9-11); to receive the Spirit is tantamount to becoming a child of God (Rom 8:14-17; Gal 4:6-7). The Spirit so characterizes the new age and the life of the new age that only the gift of the Spirit can bring a person into the new age to experience the life of the new age. For the Spirit is distinctively and peculiarly the life-giver; the Spirit indeed <em>is<\/em> the life of the new age (Rom 8:2, 6, 10; 1 Cor 15:45; 2 Cor 3:6; Gal 5:25).<\/p>\n<p>In just the same way in John’s writings, the Spirit is characteristically the life-giving Spirit (Jn 6:63), the power from above, the seed of divine life that brings about the new birth (Jn 3:3-8; 1 Jn 3:9), and a river of living water that brings life when one believes in Christ (Jn 7:37-39; so also 4:10, 14). Or again, reception of the Spirit in John 20:22 is depicted as a new creation analogous to Genesis 2:7. Consequently, in 1 John 3:24 and 4:13, possession and experience of the Spirit count as one of the “tests of life” listed in that letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Manifestations of the Spirit<\/h5>\n<p>It will be clear from what has already been said that when the first Christians, like the ancient Hebrews, spoke of the Spirit, they were thinking of experiences of divine power. In the NT, as in the OT, “Spirit” is the word used to explain the experience of new life and vitality (see above), of liberation from legalism (e.g., Rom 8:2; 2 Cor 3:17), of spiritual refreshing and renewal (cf. e.g., Is 32:15; Ez 39:29 with Jn 7:37-39; Rom 5:5; 1 Cor 12:13; 1 Tm 3:5-6). It is important to realize how wide a range of experiences were attributed to the Spirit: ecstatic experiences (Acts 2:24; 10:43-47; 19:6; cf. 10:10; 22:17—“in ecstasy”; 2 Cor 12:1-4; Rv 1:10), emotional experiences (e.g., love—Rom 5:5; joy—Acts 13:52; 1 Thes 1:6; see also Gal 5:22; Phil 2:1-2), experiences of illumination (2 Cor 3:14-17; Eph 1:17-18; Heb 6:4-5; 1 Jn 2:20-21), and experiences issuing in moral transformation (1 Cor 6:9-11). Likewise, when Paul speaks of spiritual gifts, called <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">charismata<\/span> (acts or words that bring divine grace to concrete expression), he evidently has a wide range of actual events in mind: inspired speech (1 Cor 12:8-10; 1 Thes 1:5), miracles and healings (1 Cor 12:9; Gal 3:5; cf. Heb 2:4), and various acts of service and help, of counsel and administration, and of aid and mercy (Rom 12:7-8; 1 Cor 12:28).<\/p>\n<p>In talking thus of the Spirit in terms of experience, we should not overemphasize particular experiences or manifestations, as though earliest Christianity consisted of a sequence of mountaintop experiences or spiritual highs. There clearly were such experiences, indeed a wide range of experiences, but no one experience is singled out to be sought by all (except prophecy). There is no distinctively second (or third) experience of the Spirit in the NT, and Paul warned against overvaluing particular manifestations of the Spirit (1 Cor 14:6-19; 2 Cor 12:1-10; cf. Mk 8:11-13). Where particular experiences are valued, it is as manifestations of a more sustained experience, particular expressions of an underlying relationship (cf. Acts 6:3-5; 11:24—“full of the Spirit”; Eph 5:18). What we are in touch with here is the vigor of the experiential dimension of earliest Christianity. If the Spirit is the breath of the new life in Christ (cf. Ez 37:9-10, 14; Jn 20:22; 1 Cor 15:45), then presumably the analogy extends further, and the experience of the Spirit is like the experience of breathing: one is not conscious of it all the time, but if one is not conscious of it, at least sometimes, something is wrong.<\/p>\n<h5>The Fellowship of the Spirit<\/h5>\n<p>It was out of this shared experience of the Spirit that the earliest Christian community grew and developed, for this is what “the fellowship [<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">koinonia<\/span>] of the Spirit” properly means: common participation in the same Spirit (Phil 2:1; cf. Acts 2:42; 1 Cor 1:4-9). It was the gift of the Spirit that brought those in Samaria, Caesarea, and elsewhere effectively into the community of the Spirit (Act 8, 10). So also, it was the experience of the one Spirit that provided the unifying bond in the churches of Paul’s mission (1 Cor 12:13; Eph 4:3-4; Phil 2:1-2). Here we see the real importance of the divine manifestations of the Spirit for Paul: it is out of the diversity of these particular manifestations that the body of Christ grows in unity (Rom 12:4-8; 1 Cor 12:12-17; Eph 4:4-16).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SPIRIT OF GOD<\/h3>\n<p>Description of God in action, God in motion. The word “spirit” (Hebrew, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ruach<\/span><em>;<\/em> Greek, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">pneuma<\/span>) is the word used from ancient times to describe and explain the experience of divine power working in, upon, and around people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>There are three basic meanings evident in the use of “spirit” from the earliest Hebrew writings: It was a wind from God, it was the breath of life, and it was a spirit of ecstasy.<\/p>\n<p>First, it was a wind from God (the same Hebrew word translated “Spirit” in Gn 1:2) that caused the waters of the Flood to subside (8:1). A wind from God blew locusts over Egypt (Ex 10:13) and quail over the camp of Israel. The blast of his nostrils separated the waters of the Red Sea at the exodus (14:21).<\/p>\n<p>Second, it was the breath of God that made man a living being (Gn 2:7). It is one of the earliest perceptions of Hebrew faith that humans live only because of the stirring of the divine breath or spirit within them (Gn 6:3; Jb 33:4; 34:14-15; Ps 104:29-30). Later, a clearer distinction was drawn between divine Spirit and human spirit, and between spirit and soul, but at the earliest stage these were all more or less perceived to be synonymous manifestations of the same divine power, the source of all life—animal as well as human (Gn 7:15, 22; see Eccl 3:19-21).<\/p>\n<p>Third, there were occasions when this divine power seemed to overtake and possess an individual fully, so that his or her words or actions far transcended those of normal behavior. Such a person was clearly marked as an agent of God’s purpose and given respect. This was apparently how leaders were recognized in the premonarchy period—Othniel (Jgs 3:10), Gideon (6:34), Jephthah (11:29), and the first king, Saul (1 Sm 11:6), as well. So, too, the earliest prophets were those whose inspiration came in ecstasy (1 Sm 19:20-24).<\/p>\n<p>In the earlier stages of Hebrew thought, ecstatic experience was seen as the direct effect of divine power. This was true even when the ecstasy was recognized as evil in character, as in the case of Saul’s seizure by the Spirit (1 Sm 16:14-16). A spirit from God could be for evil as well as for good (see Jgs 9:23; 1 Kgs 22:19-23).<\/p>\n<h5>In the Writings of the Prophets<\/h5>\n<p>For Isaiah, the spirit was that which characterized God and distinguished him and his actions from human affairs (Is 31:3). Later, the adjective “holy” appeared as that which distinguished the Spirit of God from any other spirit, human or divine (Ps 51:11; Is 63:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>The problem of false prophecy emphasized the danger of assuming that every message delivered in ecstasy was the word of the Lord. Thus, tests of prophecy evaluated the content of the message delivered or the character of the prophet’s life, not the degree or quality of inspiration (see Dt 13:1-5; 18:22; Jer 23:14; Mi 3:5). This sense of a need to discriminate between true and false inspiration and to distinguish the word of God from the merely ecstatic oracle may help to explain the otherwise puzzling reluctance of the major eighth- and seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> prophets to attribute their inspiration to the Spirit.<\/p>\n<h5>In the Exilic and Postexilic Writings<\/h5>\n<p>In exilic and postexilic literature, the role of the Spirit is narrowed to two major functions: that of the prophetic Spirit and that of the Spirit of the age to come.<\/p>\n<p>The later prophets again spoke of the Spirit in explicit terms as the inspirer of prophecy (see Ez 3:1-4, 22-24; Hg 2:5; Zec 4:6). As they looked back to the preexilic period, these prophets freely attributed the inspiration of “the former prophets” to the Spirit as well (Zec 7:12).<\/p>\n<p>This tendency to exalt the Spirit’s role as the inspirer of prophecy became steadily stronger in the period between the OT and NT, until in rabbinic Judaism the Spirit was almost exclusively the inspirer of the prophetic writings now regarded as Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>The other understanding of the Spirit’s role during exilic and postexilic times was that the Spirit would be the manifestation of the power of God in the age to come. That eschatological hope of divine power effecting a final cleansing and a renewed creation is rooted principally in Isaiah’s prophecies (Is 4:4; 32:15; 44:3-4). Isaiah speaks of one anointed by the Spirit to accomplish complete and final salvation (11:2; 42:1; 61:1). Elsewhere, the same longing is expressed in terms of the Spirit being freely dispensed to all Israel (Ez 39:29; Jl 2:28-29; Zec 12:10) in the new covenant (Jer 31:31-34; Ez 36:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>In the period prior to Jesus, the understanding of the Spirit as the Spirit of prophecy and as the Spirit of the age to come had developed into the widespread dogma that the Spirit was no longer to be experienced in the present. The Spirit had been known in the past as the inspirer of prophetic writings, but after Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, the Spirit had withdrawn (1 Macc 4:44-46; 9:27; 2 Bar 85:1-3; see also Ps 74:9; Zec 13:2-6). The Spirit would be known again in the age of the Messiah, but in the interim the Spirit was absent from Israel. Even the great Hillel (learned Jewish leader and teacher, 60? <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 20?), a near contemporary of Jesus, had not received the Spirit—though if anyone was worthy of the Spirit, it was he. There is a tradition that at a meeting of Hillel and other wise men, a voice from heaven said, “Among those here present is one who would have deserved the Holy Spirit to rest upon him, if his time had been worthy of it.” The wise men all looked at Hillel.<\/p>\n<p>The consequence of this accepted dearth of the Spirit was that the Spirit in effect became subordinated to the law. The Spirit was the inspirer of the law, but since the Spirit could no longer be experienced directly, the law became the sole voice of the Spirit. It was this increasing dominance of the law and its authoritative interpreters that provided the background for the mission of Jesus and the initial spread of Christianity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>If we are to understand the NT’s teaching on the Spirit, we must recognize both its continuity and discontinuity with the OT. At many points NT usage cannot be fully understood except against the background of OT concepts or passages. For example, the ambiguity of John 3:8 (“wind,” “Spirit”), 2 Thessalonians 2:8 (“breath”), and Revelation 11:11 (“breath of life”) takes us back to the basic Hebrew meanings of “spirit.” Acts 8:39 and Revelation 17:3 and 21:10 reflect the same conception of the Spirit that we find in 1 Kings 18:12, 2 Kings 2:16, and Ezekiel 3:14. The NT writers generally share the rabbinic view that Scripture has the authority of the Spirit behind it (see Mk 12:36; Acts 28:25; Heb 3:7; 2 Pt 1:21). The principal continuity is that the NT brings the fulfillment of what the OT writers looked forward to. At the same time, Christianity is not simply fulfilled Judaism. Jesus’ coming and his giving of his Spirit to live within his believers marks off the new faith as something new and distinct.<\/p>\n<h5>The Spirit of the New Age<\/h5>\n<p>The most striking feature of Jesus’ ministry and of the message of the earliest Christians was their conviction and proclamation that the blessings of the new age were already present, that the eschatological Spirit had already been poured out. With the exception of the Essenes at Qumran, no other group or individual within the Jewish religion of that time had dared to make such a bold claim. The prophets and the rabbis looked for a messianic age yet to come, and the apocalyptic writers warned of its imminent arrival, but none thought of it as already present. Even John the Baptist spoke only of one about to come and of the Spirit’s operation in the imminent future (Mk 1:8). But for Jesus and first-century Christians, the longed for hope was a living reality, and the claim carried with it the exciting sense of being in “the last days.” Without some recognition of that eschatological dimension of the Christians’ faith and life, we cannot understand this teaching on, and experience of, the Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus clearly thought of his teachings and healings as fulfillment of the prophetic hope (Mt 12:41-42; 13:16-17; Lk 17:20-21). In particular, he saw himself as the one anointed by the Spirit to provide salvation (Mt 5:3-6; 11:5; Lk 4:17-19). So, too, Jesus understood his exorcisms as the effect of the power of God and as manifestations of the end-time rule of God (Mt 12:27-28; Mk 3:22-26). The Gospel writers, especially Luke, emphasize the eschatological character of Jesus’ life and ministry by stressing the role of the Spirit in his birth (Mt 1:18; Lk 1:35, 41, 67; 2:25-27), his baptism (Mk 1:9-10; Acts 10:38), and his ministry (Mt 4:1; 12:18; Mk 1:12; Lk 4:1, 14; 10:21; Jn 3:34).<\/p>\n<p>The Christian church began with the in-breathing of the Holy Spirit on the day of Christ’s resurrection (Jn 20:22), followed by the outpouring of the Spirit at Pentecost “in the last days.” The overwhelming experience of vision and inspired utterance was taken as proof positive that the new age prophesied by Joel had now arrived (Acts 2:2-5, 17-18). Similarly, in Hebrews the gift of the Spirit is spoken of as “the powers of the age to come” (Heb 6:4-5). More striking still is Paul’s understanding of the Spirit as the guarantee of God’s complete salvation (2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Eph 1:13-14), and as the first installment of the believer’s inheritance of God’s kingdom (Rom 8:15-17; 1 Cor 6:9-11; 15:42-50; Gal 4:6-7; 5:16-18, 21-23; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit is here again thought of as the power of the age to come, as that power (which will characterize God’s rule at the end of time) already shaping and transforming the lives of believers.<\/p>\n<p>For Paul, this means also that the gift of the Spirit is but the beginning of a lifelong process that will not end until the believer’s whole person is brought under the Spirit’s power (Rom 8:11, 23; 1 Cor 15:44-49; 2 Cor 3:18; 5:1-5). It also means that the present experience of faith is one of lifelong tension between what God has already begun to bring about in the believer’s life and what has not yet been brought under God’s grace (Phil 1:6). It is this tension between life “in the Spirit” and life “in the flesh” (see Gal 2:20) that comes to poignant expression in Romans 7:24 and 2 Corinthians 5:2-4.<\/p>\n<h5>The Spirit of New Life<\/h5>\n<p>Since the Spirit is the mark of the new age, it is not surprising that the NT writers understood the gift of the Spirit to be that which brings an individual into the new age. John the Baptist described the way the coming one would baptize with the Holy Spirit and with fire (Mt 3:11). According to Acts 1:5 and 11:16, this imagery was taken up by Jesus, and the promise is seen as fulfilled at Pentecost—the outpouring of the Spirit here being understood as the risen Christ’s action in drawing his disciples into the new age (Acts 2:17, 33).<\/p>\n<p>It seems to be one of Luke’s aims in the book of Acts to highlight the central importance of the gift of the Spirit in conversion-initiation—it is that decisive “gift of the Holy Spirit” that makes one a Christian (Acts 2:38-39). People could have been followers of Jesus on earth, but it was only when they received the gift of the Spirit that they could be said to have “believed in the Lord Jesus Christ” (11:16-17). When the Spirit’s presence was manifested in and upon a person’s life, that was recognized by Peter as proof enough that God had accepted that person, even though he or she had not yet made any formal profession of faith or been baptized (10:44-48; 11:15-18; 15:7-9). So too Apollos, already aglow with the Spirit (18:25), even though his knowledge of “the way of God” was slightly defective (vv 24-26), apparently was not required to supplement his “baptism of John” with Christian baptism. However, the 12 so-called disciples at Ephesus proved by their very ignorance of the Spirit that they were not yet disciples of the Lord Jesus (19:1-6). Paul asked these 12 men, “Did you receive the Holy Spirit when you believed?” (19:2).<\/p>\n<p>This accords with Paul’s emphasis in his letters. Belief and reception of the Spirit go together: to receive the Spirit is to begin the Christian life (Gal 3:2-3); to be baptized in the Spirit is to become a member of the body of Christ (1 Cor 12:13); to “have the Spirit of Christ” is to belong to Christ (Rom 8:9-11); to receive the Spirit is tantamount to becoming a child of God (Rom 8:14-17; Gal 4:6-7). The Spirit so characterizes the new age and the life of the new age that only the gift of the Spirit can bring a person into the new age to experience the life of the new age. For the Spirit is distinctively and peculiarly the life-giver; the Spirit indeed <em>is<\/em> the life of the new age (Rom 8:2, 6, 10; 1 Cor 15:45; 2 Cor 3:6; Gal 5:25).<\/p>\n<p>In just the same way in John’s writings, the Spirit is characteristically the life-giving Spirit (Jn 6:63), the power from above, the seed of divine life that brings about the new birth (Jn 3:3-8; 1 Jn 3:9), and a river of living water that brings life when one believes in Christ (Jn 7:37-39; so also 4:10, 14). Or again, reception of the Spirit in John 20:22 is depicted as a new creation analogous to Genesis 2:7. Consequently, in 1 John 3:24 and 4:13, possession and experience of the Spirit count as one of the “tests of life” listed in that letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Manifestations of the Spirit<\/h5>\n<p>It will be clear from what has already been said that when the first Christians, like the ancient Hebrews, spoke of the Spirit, they were thinking of experiences of divine power. In the NT, as in the OT, “Spirit” is the word used to explain the experience of new life and vitality (see above), of liberation from legalism (e.g., Rom 8:2; 2 Cor 3:17), of spiritual refreshing and renewal (cf. e.g., Is 32:15; Ez 39:29 with Jn 7:37-39; Rom 5:5; 1 Cor 12:13; 1 Tm 3:5-6). It is important to realize how wide a range of experiences were attributed to the Spirit: ecstatic experiences (Acts 2:24; 10:43-47; 19:6; cf. 10:10; 22:17—“in ecstasy”; 2 Cor 12:1-4; Rv 1:10), emotional experiences (e.g., love—Rom 5:5; joy—Acts 13:52; 1 Thes 1:6; see also Gal 5:22; Phil 2:1-2), experiences of illumination (2 Cor 3:14-17; Eph 1:17-18; Heb 6:4-5; 1 Jn 2:20-21), and experiences issuing in moral transformation (1 Cor 6:9-11). Likewise, when Paul speaks of spiritual gifts, called <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">charismata<\/span> (acts or words that bring divine grace to concrete expression), he evidently has a wide range of actual events in mind: inspired speech (1 Cor 12:8-10; 1 Thes 1:5), miracles and healings (1 Cor 12:9; Gal 3:5; cf. Heb 2:4), and various acts of service and help, of counsel and administration, and of aid and mercy (Rom 12:7-8; 1 Cor 12:28).<\/p>\n<p>In talking thus of the Spirit in terms of experience, we should not overemphasize particular experiences or manifestations, as though earliest Christianity consisted of a sequence of mountaintop experiences or spiritual highs. There clearly were such experiences, indeed a wide range of experiences, but no one experience is singled out to be sought by all (except prophecy). There is no distinctively second (or third) experience of the Spirit in the NT, and Paul warned against overvaluing particular manifestations of the Spirit (1 Cor 14:6-19; 2 Cor 12:1-10; cf. Mk 8:11-13). Where particular experiences are valued, it is as manifestations of a more sustained experience, particular expressions of an underlying relationship (cf. Acts 6:3-5; 11:24—“full of the Spirit”; Eph 5:18). What we are in touch with here is the vigor of the experiential dimension of earliest Christianity. If the Spirit is the breath of the new life in Christ (cf. Ez 37:9-10, 14; Jn 20:22; 1 Cor 15:45), then presumably the analogy extends further, and the experience of the Spirit is like the experience of breathing: one is not conscious of it all the time, but if one is not conscious of it, at least sometimes, something is wrong.<\/p>\n<h5>The Fellowship of the Spirit<\/h5>\n<p>It was out of this shared experience of the Spirit that the earliest Christian community grew and developed, for this is what “the fellowship [<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">koinonia<\/span>] of the Spirit” properly means: common participation in the same Spirit (Phil 2:1; cf. Acts 2:42; 1 Cor 1:4-9). It was the gift of the Spirit that brought those in Samaria, Caesarea, and elsewhere effectively into the community of the Spirit (Act 8, 10). So also, it was the experience of the one Spirit that provided the unifying bond in the churches of Paul’s mission (1 Cor 12:13; Eph 4:3-4; Phil 2:1-2). Here we see the real importance of the divine manifestations of the Spirit for Paul: it is out of the diversity of these particular manifestations that the body of Christ grows in unity (Rom 12:4-8; 1 Cor 12:12-17; Eph 4:4-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"SPIRIT OF GOD Description of God in action, God in motion. The word “spirit” (Hebrew, ruach; Greek, pneuma) is the word used from ancient times to describe and explain the experience of divine power working in, upon, and around people. In the Old Testament There are three basic meanings evident in the use of “spirit” from the earliest Hebrew writings: It was a wind from God, it was the breath of life, and it was a spirit of ecstasy. First, it was a wind from God (the same Hebrew word translat...","summary_en":"SPIRIT OF GOD Description of God in action, God in motion. The word “spirit” (Hebrew, ruach; Greek, pneuma) is the word used from ancient times to describe and explain the experience of divine power working in, upon, and around people. In the Old Testament There are three basic meanings evident in the use of “spirit” from the earliest Hebrew writings: It was a wind from God, it was the breath of life, and it was a spirit of ecstasy. First, it was a wind from God (the same Hebrew word translat...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"4":[{"id":20408,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"John the Baptist","title_en":"John the Baptist","content_ro":"<h3>JOHN THE BAPTIST<\/h3>\n<p>Forerunner of the Messiah who prepared the people for Jesus’ coming, proclaimed the need for forgiveness of sins, and offered a baptism symbolizing repentance. His ministry included the baptism of Jesus in the Jordan River, where he testified to Jesus being the Expected One from God. John was arrested and beheaded by Herod Antipas in approximately <span>AD<\/span> 29, while Jesus was still ministering.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Birth, Infancy, and Boyhood<\/p>\n<p>• Appearance and Identity<\/p>\n<p>• John’s Proclamation<\/p>\n<p>• John’s Baptism<\/p>\n<p>• John’s View of Jesus<\/p>\n<p>• Jesus’ View of John<\/p>\n<p>• Arrest, Imprisonment, and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>• The Disciples of John<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BirthInfancyandBoyhood\">Birth, Infancy, and Boyhood<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s Gospel is our only source of information concerning the birth and boyhood of John. The Gospel writer states that John was born in the hill country of Judah (Lk 1:39) of priestly descent, being the son of Zechariah, a priest of the order of Abijah, and Elizabeth, a descendant of Aaron (v 5). Both parents were righteous in the sight of God, following all the commandments closely (v 6). Like the birth of Jesus, only to a much lesser degree, the birth of John the Baptist is described in Luke as extraordinary. The angel Gabriel announced the coming birth to Zechariah in the temple; to the older, barren Elizabeth it came as an answer to prayer (vv 8-13). John’s name is announced to Zechariah by the angel, even as his purpose as forerunner is revealed before birth (vv 13-17). Such a consecration from birth is reminiscent of the call of the OT prophet Jeremiah (cf. Jer 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>There existed some familial relationship between the families of John and Jesus. Elizabeth is described as a relative of Mary (Lk 1:36), which may connote cousin or aunt, or may only mean being from the same tribe.<\/p>\n<p>John’s childhood, as that of Jesus, is left quite vague in the Gospel account. All that is said is that “John grew up and became strong in spirit. Then he lived out in the wilderness until he began his public ministry to Israel” (Lk 1:80, <span>nlt<\/span>). Some scholars have suggested that John might have been adopted as a boy by the Essenes (as was their practice) at Qumran and reared in their wilderness community, adjacent to the Dead Sea and near the Jordan River. There are some similarities between the activities of the Qumran sect, known through the Dead Sea Scrolls, and the later ministry of John the Baptist. Both practiced a type of asceticism and removed themselves from the life of Jerusalem. Both practiced baptism and associated this rite with initiation and repentance. Finally, John and the Qumran group were both eschatologically minded, awaiting God’s final end-time activity in history. Nevertheless, many significant differences exist between John and the Qumran sect.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AppearanceandIdentity\">Appearance and Identity<\/p>\n<p>Mark’s Gospel begins with an account of John the Baptist’s appearance: “John the Baptist . . . lived in the wilderness and was preaching that people should be baptized to show that they had turned from their sins and turned to God to be forgiven” (Mk 1:4, <span>nlt<\/span>). A rich OT background lies behind John’s association with the wilderness, in this case the wilderness of Judea. It was in the wilderness that God revealed himself to Moses (Ex 3), gave the law, and entered into the covenant with Israel (ch 19). It was also the site of refuge for David (1 Sm 23–26; Ps 63) and Elijah (1 Kgs 19), and in this light became the anticipated site of God’s future deliverance (Is 40:3-5; Ez 47:1-12; Hos 2:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>The unusual dress of John the Baptist—“clothing made of camel’s hair, with a leather belt around his waist” (Mk 1:6, <span>niv<\/span>)—may have suggested to his audience an association with Elijah in particular (2 Kgs 1:8) or with the prophets in general (Zec 13:4). His diet, “locusts and wild honey” (Mk 1:6), was Levitically clean, reflecting one who lived off the desert (such food was also eaten at Qumran) and formed part of the broader asceticism practiced by John and his disciples (Mt 9:14; 11:18).<\/p>\n<p>Who did John understand himself to be? In answer to questions by the multitude whether he was the Messiah, Elijah, or the expected prophet (Jn 1:20-23), John only identified himself as “a voice crying in the wilderness, ‘Prepare the way of the Lord’ ” (Is 40:3). The background for the question lies at the end of the OT period. Prophecy, on the one hand, was considered to have ceased (Zec 13:2-6); yet, on the other hand, it was expected to appear again before the coming of the messianic kingdom (see Jl 2:28-29; Mal 3:1-4). Some anticipated this final prophet to be one who was like Moses (Dt 18:15), others a returning Elijah as foretold in Malachi 4:5-6. While John personally refrained from identifying himself with these specific expectations (Jn 1:20-23), it is clear that his dress, lifestyle, and message caused the people to identify him with this end-time prophet (Mt 14:5; Mk 11:32). Jesus also saw John as this final “Elijah-like” prophet (Mt 11:7-15), who from Malachi’s prophecy was to be a forerunner to the coming of the Lord (Mal 3:1-4; 4:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JohnsProclamation\">John’s Proclamation<\/p>\n<p>John’s proclamation involved three elements: a warning of imminent judgment at the hands of the Coming One, a call for repentance in light of the coming kingdom of heaven, and a demand to express this repentance in concrete ethical terms. Many Jews looked forward confidently to the messianic judgment as a time of blessing for themselves and destruction for the gentile oppressors. John, however, warned that Jewish ancestry was false security in the coming judgment (Lk 3:8); true repentance was the only means of escaping destruction (Mt 3:2). John anticipated this judgment at the hands of the Coming One, who would baptize the nation with “the Holy Spirit and with fire” (Lk 3:16). Fire represented the OT means of destruction in the end time (Mal 4:1) as well as purification (Mal 3:1-4), while the outpouring of the Holy Spirit in the end time connoted blessing (Is 32:15; Ez 39:29; Jl 2:28) and purification (Is 4:2-4). The judgment anticipated by John was therefore twofold: destruction for the unrepentant, and blessing for the penitent and righteous (Mt 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>In light of this imminent event John called for repentance on the part of his listeners (Mt 3:2), a true “turning back” or “turning toward” God in obedience that would bring forgiveness of sin. Such a turnabout in an individual’s relation with God should be lived out in one’s everyday dealings: fairness on the part of tax collectors (Lk 3:12-13) and soldiers (v 14), and the general requirement of compassion for the poor (vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JohnsBaptism\">John’s Baptism<\/p>\n<p>The Gospels record that John baptized those repentant of their sins at several locations: the Jordan River (Mk 1:5), Bethany beyond the Jordan (Jn 1:28), and Aenon near Salim (Jn 3:23). This practice was an integral part of John’s call for repentance, given in light of the approaching judgment and the appearance of the Coming One. The baptism of the penitent symbolized desire for forgiveness of sin, a renunciation of past life, and a desire to be included in the coming messianic kingdom.<\/p>\n<p>What was the background for John’s practice of baptism? From the OT we know of ceremonial lustrations or washings that guaranteed ritual purity (Lv 14–15; Nm 19). Unlike John’s baptism, these washings were repetitive in nature and referred predominantly to ritual rather than moral cleansing. The prophets, however, urged a moral purification associated with the washing of water (Is 1:16-18; Jer 4:14). More significantly, the prophets anticipated a cleansing by God in the end times preceding the Day of Judgment (Ez 36:25; Zec 13:1; cf. Is 44:3), an eschatological element that John may have assumed was being fulfilled in his water baptism.<\/p>\n<p>Another precedent for John’s practice may have been proselyte baptism, a rite (along with circumcision and the offering of sacrifices) that constituted the conversion of a Gentile to Judaism. Common to both proselyte baptism and John’s baptism were the emphasis on an ethical break with the past, a once-for-all character, and the similarity of immersion. Notable differences were that John’s baptism was for Jews, not Gentile converts, and that it had a marked eschatological character as a preparation for the new age. Unless John, in light of the imminence of the messianic age, consciously treated all Jews as “pagan” in need of a baptism of repentance (cf. Mt 3:7-10), it is doubtful that proselyte baptism formed the primary background for John’s baptismal ministry.<\/p>\n<p>If John’s baptism had a clear association with the forgiveness of sin, the question naturally arises as to why Jesus, the Son of God, sought baptism from John. John himself asks this very question of Jesus (Mt 3:14), to which Jesus responds, “It must be done, because we must do everything that is right” (v 15, <span>nlt<\/span>). First, it is clear that Jesus’ baptism represented an act of obedience on his part to God’s will as he saw it. Second, by submitting to the baptism of John, Jesus was clearly validating the ministry and message of John. The imminent coming of the kingdom and its Messiah, and the need for repentance in anticipation of this event that John proclaimed, were affirmed by Jesus through baptism. Third, by being baptized, Jesus condemned the self-righteous for their lack of repentance and took a stand with the penitent publicans and sinners awaiting the kingdom of God (Lk 7:29-30). Fourth, Jesus stepped forward for baptism not as an individual in need of forgiveness but as one who represented the people of God. His baptism, therefore, demonstrated solidarity with the people in their need of deliverance, even as he is judged in their place on the cross. Finally, the voice from heaven (Mk 1:11) and the descent of the Spirit (Lk 3:21-22) signify the inauguration of Jesus’ own ministry through his baptism by John.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JohnsViewofJesus\">John’s View of Jesus<\/p>\n<p>Throughout his ministry John pointed beyond himself to one “who is far greater than I am—so much greater that I am not even worthy to be his slave” (Mk 1:7, <span>nlt<\/span>). His self-understanding apparently sprang from the application of Isaiah 40:3 to himself, that he was the preparer or forerunner for God’s coming activity through the Messiah (Lk 3:4-6). When asked by curious spectators, John firmly denied that he was the Messiah, and according to the Gospel accounts, subordinated himself to the Coming One (Mk 1:7-8; Jn 1:26-28; 3:28-31). The coming of Jesus to baptism seems to represent the first time John identified these expectations with Jesus himself (Jn 1:35-36). His recognition of Jesus as the Messiah prior to baptism (Mt 3:14) was confirmed by the descent of the Holy Spirit as a dove and the voice from heaven quoting a phrase from an OT messianic psalm (Mk 1:11a, from Ps 2:7), together with a phrase from a Suffering Servant song of Isaiah (Mk 1:11b, from Is 42:1). In the fourth Gospel, John the Baptist goes even further in acknowledging Jesus to be the “Lamb of God” (Jn 1:29), in anticipation of Jesus’ sacrificial role on the cross. And John recognized him as “God’s Chosen One” (v 34, <span>neb<\/span>—another term for the Messiah; Ps 2:7, see Mk 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>In light of John’s strong affirmation, it is at first difficult to understand his questioning of Jesus while imprisoned: “Are you he who is to come, or shall we look for another?” (Mt 11:3, <span>rsv<\/span>). Some have suggested that John was merely asking for the sake of his disciples, or that the question reflected John’s despondency with being imprisoned. It is more likely, however, that the question represents John’s own confusion with the activity expected of the Messiah. John had proclaimed a Coming One who would bring a baptism of fire and judgment upon the wicked (Lk 3:16). It may have been difficult for him to understand Jesus’ different emphases on forgiveness and acceptance of sinners (Mt 9:9-13) and his healing of the sick (Mt 8–9). When John’s disciples brought their master’s question to Jesus, asking whether or not he was the Messiah, Jesus responded by quoting Isaiah 35:5-6 (see also Is 61:1). This text proclaims the activities of healing and proclaiming salvation to the poor to be fulfillments of the Messiah’s role, even though they may not have been what John or countless other Jews expected.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JesusViewofJohn\">Jesus’ View of John<\/p>\n<p>That Jesus highly regarded John the Baptist is indicated by his baptism by John. It is also explicitly stated on several occasions. Jesus called him the greatest man to have ever lived (Lk 7:28). (Of course, he was not as great as Jesus, the God-man.) Jesus also said that John was a burning and shining lamp (Jn 5:33-35) and that he practiced a baptism divinely ordained (Lk 20:1-8).<\/p>\n<p>John’s uniqueness, however, lies in the fact that he stood at the turning of the ages. He was the last of the old era, the period of the law and the prophets (Lk 16:16), which was to precede the coming of the messianic age (the kingdom of God). John was the last of the prophets, the greatest of them, the Elijah figure who would prepare the way for the judgment of God (Mt 11:13-15; Lk 1:17). Because John belonged to the era of the law and the prophets, however, he was not as great as the “least” already in the kingdom of God (Mt 11:11)—that is, those who belonged to the era of the kingdom’s appearance in Jesus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ArrestImprisonmentandMartyrdom\">Arrest, Imprisonment, and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>To understand why John was arrested and beheaded by Herod Antipas, one has to grasp the messianic excitement caused by John’s appearance and message (Lk 3:15-18). Herod and other secular rulers were obviously suspicious of anyone who might stir up the crowds with predictions of a coming messianic ruler. Other messianic movements had arisen before John, which resulted in outbreaks of violence against the Roman-Herodian rulership. Moreover, Herod Antipas was under heavy criticism for his marriage with Herodias, the ex-wife of his brother Philip. His first marriage, with the daughter of Aretus II, constituted a political alliance between the Herodian family and the Nabatean kingdom of Perea. His new relationship with Herodias was perceived as a breach of the political alliance and led to friction between the two families. John’s denunciation of Herod’s new marriage (Mt 14:3-12) could thus have been interpreted by Herod as a subversive rousing of sentiment against his authority. The Jewish historian Josephus states that Herod did, in fact, arrest John because he feared John’s influence over the crowds. According to Josephus, John was imprisoned at the fortress Machaerus on the eastern side of the Dead Sea. That he was not killed immediately was due to Herod’s personal fear of the righteous John (Mk 6:2) and of the people’s reaction (Mt 14:5). On a point about which Josephus is silent, the Gospels record that it was Herodias’s feelings against John (Mk 6:17) and her plot, through the dancing of her daughter, which brought about the beheading of John (vv 21-29). John was beheaded at Herodias’s request in approximately <span>AD<\/span> 29 or 30.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheDisciplesofJohn\">The Disciples of John<\/p>\n<p>While it is clear that a band of disciples formed around John in his lifetime (Jn 1:35), to suggest that he intended to begin a continuing movement is contradicted by his message on the imminent Day of Judgment. Apparently, John’s disciples consisted of a small group of those who had been baptized by him and were awaiting the coming Messiah. Some transferred their loyalty to Jesus after John had identified Jesus as the Coming One (Jn 1:37). Others, however, apparently stayed on with their teacher, communicating with the imprisoned John concerning the activities of Jesus (Lk 7:18-23) and, after his death, taking the body for burial (Mk 6:29).<\/p>\n<p>We know little about the activities and practices of the band of disciples clustered around John. We do know, however, that fasting was one practice specifically associated with the group, and one that marked them as similar to the Pharisees (Mt 9:14). In this practice they no doubt followed the example of John himself (Lk 7:33). Prayer and fasting were often linked in late Judaism. The disciples of John were also known for the prayers taught by their master (11:1). Seeing this practice, the disciples of Jesus asked the Lord to teach them to pray, to which Jesus responded with the Lord’s Prayer (vv 2-4).<\/p>\n<p>After his death it is likely that other disciples of John joined the followers of Jesus (see Lk 7:29-30). Not all did so, however, as disciples of John were encountered by Paul and other Christians approximately 25 years later in Ephesus (Acts 18:24–29:7). Upon hearing witness to Jesus, these followers of John proclaimed Jesus as Messiah. When Paul baptized them in the name of Jesus they received the Holy Spirit (19:4-7). Even so, it is apparent from later documents that various groups continued to honor John, even considering him the Messiah, centuries after the NT period.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JOHN THE BAPTIST<\/h3>\n<p>Forerunner of the Messiah who prepared the people for Jesus’ coming, proclaimed the need for forgiveness of sins, and offered a baptism symbolizing repentance. His ministry included the baptism of Jesus in the Jordan River, where he testified to Jesus being the Expected One from God. John was arrested and beheaded by Herod Antipas in approximately <span>AD<\/span> 29, while Jesus was still ministering.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Birth, Infancy, and Boyhood<\/p>\n<p>• Appearance and Identity<\/p>\n<p>• John’s Proclamation<\/p>\n<p>• John’s Baptism<\/p>\n<p>• John’s View of Jesus<\/p>\n<p>• Jesus’ View of John<\/p>\n<p>• Arrest, Imprisonment, and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>• The Disciples of John<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BirthInfancyandBoyhood\">Birth, Infancy, and Boyhood<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s Gospel is our only source of information concerning the birth and boyhood of John. The Gospel writer states that John was born in the hill country of Judah (Lk 1:39) of priestly descent, being the son of Zechariah, a priest of the order of Abijah, and Elizabeth, a descendant of Aaron (v 5). Both parents were righteous in the sight of God, following all the commandments closely (v 6). Like the birth of Jesus, only to a much lesser degree, the birth of John the Baptist is described in Luke as extraordinary. The angel Gabriel announced the coming birth to Zechariah in the temple; to the older, barren Elizabeth it came as an answer to prayer (vv 8-13). John’s name is announced to Zechariah by the angel, even as his purpose as forerunner is revealed before birth (vv 13-17). Such a consecration from birth is reminiscent of the call of the OT prophet Jeremiah (cf. Jer 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>There existed some familial relationship between the families of John and Jesus. Elizabeth is described as a relative of Mary (Lk 1:36), which may connote cousin or aunt, or may only mean being from the same tribe.<\/p>\n<p>John’s childhood, as that of Jesus, is left quite vague in the Gospel account. All that is said is that “John grew up and became strong in spirit. Then he lived out in the wilderness until he began his public ministry to Israel” (Lk 1:80, <span>nlt<\/span>). Some scholars have suggested that John might have been adopted as a boy by the Essenes (as was their practice) at Qumran and reared in their wilderness community, adjacent to the Dead Sea and near the Jordan River. There are some similarities between the activities of the Qumran sect, known through the Dead Sea Scrolls, and the later ministry of John the Baptist. Both practiced a type of asceticism and removed themselves from the life of Jerusalem. Both practiced baptism and associated this rite with initiation and repentance. Finally, John and the Qumran group were both eschatologically minded, awaiting God’s final end-time activity in history. Nevertheless, many significant differences exist between John and the Qumran sect.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AppearanceandIdentity\">Appearance and Identity<\/p>\n<p>Mark’s Gospel begins with an account of John the Baptist’s appearance: “John the Baptist . . . lived in the wilderness and was preaching that people should be baptized to show that they had turned from their sins and turned to God to be forgiven” (Mk 1:4, <span>nlt<\/span>). A rich OT background lies behind John’s association with the wilderness, in this case the wilderness of Judea. It was in the wilderness that God revealed himself to Moses (Ex 3), gave the law, and entered into the covenant with Israel (ch 19). It was also the site of refuge for David (1 Sm 23–26; Ps 63) and Elijah (1 Kgs 19), and in this light became the anticipated site of God’s future deliverance (Is 40:3-5; Ez 47:1-12; Hos 2:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>The unusual dress of John the Baptist—“clothing made of camel’s hair, with a leather belt around his waist” (Mk 1:6, <span>niv<\/span>)—may have suggested to his audience an association with Elijah in particular (2 Kgs 1:8) or with the prophets in general (Zec 13:4). His diet, “locusts and wild honey” (Mk 1:6), was Levitically clean, reflecting one who lived off the desert (such food was also eaten at Qumran) and formed part of the broader asceticism practiced by John and his disciples (Mt 9:14; 11:18).<\/p>\n<p>Who did John understand himself to be? In answer to questions by the multitude whether he was the Messiah, Elijah, or the expected prophet (Jn 1:20-23), John only identified himself as “a voice crying in the wilderness, ‘Prepare the way of the Lord’ ” (Is 40:3). The background for the question lies at the end of the OT period. Prophecy, on the one hand, was considered to have ceased (Zec 13:2-6); yet, on the other hand, it was expected to appear again before the coming of the messianic kingdom (see Jl 2:28-29; Mal 3:1-4). Some anticipated this final prophet to be one who was like Moses (Dt 18:15), others a returning Elijah as foretold in Malachi 4:5-6. While John personally refrained from identifying himself with these specific expectations (Jn 1:20-23), it is clear that his dress, lifestyle, and message caused the people to identify him with this end-time prophet (Mt 14:5; Mk 11:32). Jesus also saw John as this final “Elijah-like” prophet (Mt 11:7-15), who from Malachi’s prophecy was to be a forerunner to the coming of the Lord (Mal 3:1-4; 4:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JohnsProclamation\">John’s Proclamation<\/p>\n<p>John’s proclamation involved three elements: a warning of imminent judgment at the hands of the Coming One, a call for repentance in light of the coming kingdom of heaven, and a demand to express this repentance in concrete ethical terms. Many Jews looked forward confidently to the messianic judgment as a time of blessing for themselves and destruction for the gentile oppressors. John, however, warned that Jewish ancestry was false security in the coming judgment (Lk 3:8); true repentance was the only means of escaping destruction (Mt 3:2). John anticipated this judgment at the hands of the Coming One, who would baptize the nation with “the Holy Spirit and with fire” (Lk 3:16). Fire represented the OT means of destruction in the end time (Mal 4:1) as well as purification (Mal 3:1-4), while the outpouring of the Holy Spirit in the end time connoted blessing (Is 32:15; Ez 39:29; Jl 2:28) and purification (Is 4:2-4). The judgment anticipated by John was therefore twofold: destruction for the unrepentant, and blessing for the penitent and righteous (Mt 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>In light of this imminent event John called for repentance on the part of his listeners (Mt 3:2), a true “turning back” or “turning toward” God in obedience that would bring forgiveness of sin. Such a turnabout in an individual’s relation with God should be lived out in one’s everyday dealings: fairness on the part of tax collectors (Lk 3:12-13) and soldiers (v 14), and the general requirement of compassion for the poor (vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JohnsBaptism\">John’s Baptism<\/p>\n<p>The Gospels record that John baptized those repentant of their sins at several locations: the Jordan River (Mk 1:5), Bethany beyond the Jordan (Jn 1:28), and Aenon near Salim (Jn 3:23). This practice was an integral part of John’s call for repentance, given in light of the approaching judgment and the appearance of the Coming One. The baptism of the penitent symbolized desire for forgiveness of sin, a renunciation of past life, and a desire to be included in the coming messianic kingdom.<\/p>\n<p>What was the background for John’s practice of baptism? From the OT we know of ceremonial lustrations or washings that guaranteed ritual purity (Lv 14–15; Nm 19). Unlike John’s baptism, these washings were repetitive in nature and referred predominantly to ritual rather than moral cleansing. The prophets, however, urged a moral purification associated with the washing of water (Is 1:16-18; Jer 4:14). More significantly, the prophets anticipated a cleansing by God in the end times preceding the Day of Judgment (Ez 36:25; Zec 13:1; cf. Is 44:3), an eschatological element that John may have assumed was being fulfilled in his water baptism.<\/p>\n<p>Another precedent for John’s practice may have been proselyte baptism, a rite (along with circumcision and the offering of sacrifices) that constituted the conversion of a Gentile to Judaism. Common to both proselyte baptism and John’s baptism were the emphasis on an ethical break with the past, a once-for-all character, and the similarity of immersion. Notable differences were that John’s baptism was for Jews, not Gentile converts, and that it had a marked eschatological character as a preparation for the new age. Unless John, in light of the imminence of the messianic age, consciously treated all Jews as “pagan” in need of a baptism of repentance (cf. Mt 3:7-10), it is doubtful that proselyte baptism formed the primary background for John’s baptismal ministry.<\/p>\n<p>If John’s baptism had a clear association with the forgiveness of sin, the question naturally arises as to why Jesus, the Son of God, sought baptism from John. John himself asks this very question of Jesus (Mt 3:14), to which Jesus responds, “It must be done, because we must do everything that is right” (v 15, <span>nlt<\/span>). First, it is clear that Jesus’ baptism represented an act of obedience on his part to God’s will as he saw it. Second, by submitting to the baptism of John, Jesus was clearly validating the ministry and message of John. The imminent coming of the kingdom and its Messiah, and the need for repentance in anticipation of this event that John proclaimed, were affirmed by Jesus through baptism. Third, by being baptized, Jesus condemned the self-righteous for their lack of repentance and took a stand with the penitent publicans and sinners awaiting the kingdom of God (Lk 7:29-30). Fourth, Jesus stepped forward for baptism not as an individual in need of forgiveness but as one who represented the people of God. His baptism, therefore, demonstrated solidarity with the people in their need of deliverance, even as he is judged in their place on the cross. Finally, the voice from heaven (Mk 1:11) and the descent of the Spirit (Lk 3:21-22) signify the inauguration of Jesus’ own ministry through his baptism by John.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JohnsViewofJesus\">John’s View of Jesus<\/p>\n<p>Throughout his ministry John pointed beyond himself to one “who is far greater than I am—so much greater that I am not even worthy to be his slave” (Mk 1:7, <span>nlt<\/span>). His self-understanding apparently sprang from the application of Isaiah 40:3 to himself, that he was the preparer or forerunner for God’s coming activity through the Messiah (Lk 3:4-6). When asked by curious spectators, John firmly denied that he was the Messiah, and according to the Gospel accounts, subordinated himself to the Coming One (Mk 1:7-8; Jn 1:26-28; 3:28-31). The coming of Jesus to baptism seems to represent the first time John identified these expectations with Jesus himself (Jn 1:35-36). His recognition of Jesus as the Messiah prior to baptism (Mt 3:14) was confirmed by the descent of the Holy Spirit as a dove and the voice from heaven quoting a phrase from an OT messianic psalm (Mk 1:11a, from Ps 2:7), together with a phrase from a Suffering Servant song of Isaiah (Mk 1:11b, from Is 42:1). In the fourth Gospel, John the Baptist goes even further in acknowledging Jesus to be the “Lamb of God” (Jn 1:29), in anticipation of Jesus’ sacrificial role on the cross. And John recognized him as “God’s Chosen One” (v 34, <span>neb<\/span>—another term for the Messiah; Ps 2:7, see Mk 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>In light of John’s strong affirmation, it is at first difficult to understand his questioning of Jesus while imprisoned: “Are you he who is to come, or shall we look for another?” (Mt 11:3, <span>rsv<\/span>). Some have suggested that John was merely asking for the sake of his disciples, or that the question reflected John’s despondency with being imprisoned. It is more likely, however, that the question represents John’s own confusion with the activity expected of the Messiah. John had proclaimed a Coming One who would bring a baptism of fire and judgment upon the wicked (Lk 3:16). It may have been difficult for him to understand Jesus’ different emphases on forgiveness and acceptance of sinners (Mt 9:9-13) and his healing of the sick (Mt 8–9). When John’s disciples brought their master’s question to Jesus, asking whether or not he was the Messiah, Jesus responded by quoting Isaiah 35:5-6 (see also Is 61:1). This text proclaims the activities of healing and proclaiming salvation to the poor to be fulfillments of the Messiah’s role, even though they may not have been what John or countless other Jews expected.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JesusViewofJohn\">Jesus’ View of John<\/p>\n<p>That Jesus highly regarded John the Baptist is indicated by his baptism by John. It is also explicitly stated on several occasions. Jesus called him the greatest man to have ever lived (Lk 7:28). (Of course, he was not as great as Jesus, the God-man.) Jesus also said that John was a burning and shining lamp (Jn 5:33-35) and that he practiced a baptism divinely ordained (Lk 20:1-8).<\/p>\n<p>John’s uniqueness, however, lies in the fact that he stood at the turning of the ages. He was the last of the old era, the period of the law and the prophets (Lk 16:16), which was to precede the coming of the messianic age (the kingdom of God). John was the last of the prophets, the greatest of them, the Elijah figure who would prepare the way for the judgment of God (Mt 11:13-15; Lk 1:17). Because John belonged to the era of the law and the prophets, however, he was not as great as the “least” already in the kingdom of God (Mt 11:11)—that is, those who belonged to the era of the kingdom’s appearance in Jesus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ArrestImprisonmentandMartyrdom\">Arrest, Imprisonment, and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>To understand why John was arrested and beheaded by Herod Antipas, one has to grasp the messianic excitement caused by John’s appearance and message (Lk 3:15-18). Herod and other secular rulers were obviously suspicious of anyone who might stir up the crowds with predictions of a coming messianic ruler. Other messianic movements had arisen before John, which resulted in outbreaks of violence against the Roman-Herodian rulership. Moreover, Herod Antipas was under heavy criticism for his marriage with Herodias, the ex-wife of his brother Philip. His first marriage, with the daughter of Aretus II, constituted a political alliance between the Herodian family and the Nabatean kingdom of Perea. His new relationship with Herodias was perceived as a breach of the political alliance and led to friction between the two families. John’s denunciation of Herod’s new marriage (Mt 14:3-12) could thus have been interpreted by Herod as a subversive rousing of sentiment against his authority. The Jewish historian Josephus states that Herod did, in fact, arrest John because he feared John’s influence over the crowds. According to Josephus, John was imprisoned at the fortress Machaerus on the eastern side of the Dead Sea. That he was not killed immediately was due to Herod’s personal fear of the righteous John (Mk 6:2) and of the people’s reaction (Mt 14:5). On a point about which Josephus is silent, the Gospels record that it was Herodias’s feelings against John (Mk 6:17) and her plot, through the dancing of her daughter, which brought about the beheading of John (vv 21-29). John was beheaded at Herodias’s request in approximately <span>AD<\/span> 29 or 30.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheDisciplesofJohn\">The Disciples of John<\/p>\n<p>While it is clear that a band of disciples formed around John in his lifetime (Jn 1:35), to suggest that he intended to begin a continuing movement is contradicted by his message on the imminent Day of Judgment. Apparently, John’s disciples consisted of a small group of those who had been baptized by him and were awaiting the coming Messiah. Some transferred their loyalty to Jesus after John had identified Jesus as the Coming One (Jn 1:37). Others, however, apparently stayed on with their teacher, communicating with the imprisoned John concerning the activities of Jesus (Lk 7:18-23) and, after his death, taking the body for burial (Mk 6:29).<\/p>\n<p>We know little about the activities and practices of the band of disciples clustered around John. We do know, however, that fasting was one practice specifically associated with the group, and one that marked them as similar to the Pharisees (Mt 9:14). In this practice they no doubt followed the example of John himself (Lk 7:33). Prayer and fasting were often linked in late Judaism. The disciples of John were also known for the prayers taught by their master (11:1). Seeing this practice, the disciples of Jesus asked the Lord to teach them to pray, to which Jesus responded with the Lord’s Prayer (vv 2-4).<\/p>\n<p>After his death it is likely that other disciples of John joined the followers of Jesus (see Lk 7:29-30). Not all did so, however, as disciples of John were encountered by Paul and other Christians approximately 25 years later in Ephesus (Acts 18:24–29:7). Upon hearing witness to Jesus, these followers of John proclaimed Jesus as Messiah. When Paul baptized them in the name of Jesus they received the Holy Spirit (19:4-7). Even so, it is apparent from later documents that various groups continued to honor John, even considering him the Messiah, centuries after the NT period.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JOHN THE BAPTIST Forerunner of the Messiah who prepared the people for Jesus’ coming, proclaimed the need for forgiveness of sins, and offered a baptism symbolizing repentance. His ministry included the baptism of Jesus in the Jordan River, where he testified to Jesus being the Expected One from God. John was arrested and beheaded by Herod Antipas in approximately AD 29, while Jesus was still ministering. Preview • Birth, Infancy, and Boyhood • Appearance and Identity • John’s Proclamation • ...","summary_en":"JOHN THE BAPTIST Forerunner of the Messiah who prepared the people for Jesus’ coming, proclaimed the need for forgiveness of sins, and offered a baptism symbolizing repentance. His ministry included the baptism of Jesus in the Jordan River, where he testified to Jesus being the Expected One from God. John was arrested and beheaded by Herod Antipas in approximately AD 29, while Jesus was still ministering. Preview • Birth, Infancy, and Boyhood • Appearance and Identity • John’s Proclamation • ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":3685,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Baptism","title_en":"Baptism","content_ro":"<h3>BAPTISM<\/h3>\n<p>Term generally meaning “to dip” or “immerse,” but representing a group of words employed to signify a religious rite for ritual cleansing. In the NT it became the rite of initiation into the Christian community, and it was interpreted theologically as a dying and rising with Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Baptism of John<\/p>\n<p>• The Baptism of Jesus<\/p>\n<p>• Jesus’ Resurrection Command to Baptize<\/p>\n<p>• Baptism in the Early Church<\/p>\n<p>• The Theology of Baptism in Paul’s and Peter’s Epistles<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheBaptismofJohn\">The Baptism of John<\/p>\n<p>John preached a “baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins” (Lk 3:3). The origins of his rite are difficult to trace. Some have claimed that his baptism modeled that practiced by those at Qumran; others have urged that his baptism modeled that practiced by Jews when initiating proselytes to Judaism. The members of the Qumran community viewed themselves as the covenant community of the last days and so dwelt in the desert, living an ascetic life and immersing themselves daily in acts of ceremonial cleansing. At the same time they taught that internal repentance must accompany the external act (1 QS 2:3). Its sacramental nature is seen in the fact that only a full member of the community could practice it, and then only after two probationary years (1 QS 5:6). Converts from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of the Gentile background.<\/p>\n<p>John’s baptism both parallels and differs with these forms of baptism. The genesis of his baptism may be found in the prophetic acted-out parable, which not only symbolized God’s message but also intended to bring it about. John’s practice had several theological ramifications: (1) It was intimately connected with radical repentance, not only of the Gentile but astoundingly (to his contemporaries) also of the Jew. (2) It was eschatological at the core, preparing for the Messiah, who would baptize with the Holy Spirit and with fire (Mt 3:11), and therefore looked to the final separation between God’s people and the wicked at the eschaton (i.e., “the End,” cf. Mt 3:12). (3) It symbolized moral purification and so prepared the people for the coming kingdom (Mt 3:2; Lk 3:7-14). In spite of the obvious connection between John’s ceremony and the early church, we cannot posit absolute dependence. In fact, it disappeared from Jesus’ ministry. At first, Jesus allowed his disciples to continue the rite (Jn 3:22), but later he seemingly discontinued the practice (Jn 4:1-3), probably for the following reasons: (1) John’s message was functional, while Jesus’ was personal\/ontological. (2) John’s was forward-looking, expecting the coming kingdom, while Jesus’ was backward-looking, celebrating that event. (3) John’s was an interim practice, while Jesus’ was sacramental. Jesus’ ministry fulfilled John’s, so he severed himself from the latter’s modus operandi.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheBaptismofJesus\">The Baptism of Jesus<\/p>\n<p>This event has its genesis in a complex interplay of motives, divine and human, within the messianic consciousness of Jesus (see Mk 1:9-11 and parallels). For John it was Jesus’ stamp of approval upon his message and ministry. Jesus was in continuity with John’s kingdom proclamation. For Jesus, it was also an anointing that signified the inauguration of his messianic ministry. As seen in God’s “heavenly voice” of Mark 1:11 and parallels, this has two aspects: (1) The voice alludes to Psalm 2:7, establishing Jesus’ unique sonship. (2) It alludes to Isaiah 42:1, establishing him as the messianic “servant of Yahweh.” (This is discussed at greater length in the article below.)<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JesusResurrectionCommandtoBaptize\">Jesus’ Resurrection Command to Baptize<\/p>\n<p>Here we find the true basis of the church’s practice (Mt 28:19). As already stated, the disciples stopped employing it, so it is here that we see the institution reconstituted as an ordinance based on the death and resurrection of Christ. It was no longer a forward-looking phenomenon but had now become a realized activity centering on the gospel message, certified by the risen Christ who is exalted to universal lordship. It also is an essential aspect of the discipling activity, as seen in the use of the participle “baptizing” after the main verb “make disciples.” Finally we might note that the act signifies the entrance of the believer “into” union with (literally “into the name of”) the triune Godhead.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BaptismintheEarlyChurch\">Baptism in the Early Church<\/p>\n<p>Acts 2:38 shows that baptism was a sacral institution from the very beginning. This takes it back to the earliest days of the church. In the primitive church it was an important part of the salvation process (Acts 2:38, “repent and be baptized”) and was accomplished via confession and prayer “in the name of Jesus Christ” (Acts 2:38; 8:16; 10:48; 19:5). Probably there was a question-and-answer period in which the believer confessed his faith and dedicated himself to Christ. The result was reception into and identification with the messianic community of the new covenant, signifying both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 5:31; 10:43; 13:38; 26:18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (Lk 3:16; Acts 2:38, 41; 9:17; 10:47-48; 11:16-17; 19:5-7). <em>See<\/em> Baptism of Fire; Baptism of Jesus; Baptism of the Spirit.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheTheologyofBaptisminPaulsandPetersEpistles\">The Theology of Baptism in Paul’s and Peter’s Epistles<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s basic statement is found in Galatians 3:27, “baptized into Christ.” The rite of baptism is christological at the heart, signifying union with Christ. This is clarified further by Romans 6:3-8, which equates baptism with dying and rising (cf. Col 2:12-13). At the same time baptism is related to the Spirit; 1 Corinthians 12:13 connects “baptism by the one Spirit” with being “given that same Spirit.” Many see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” by the Spirit (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13; 4:30). This leads us to the eschatological dimension of baptism. In its relation to the present work of Christ and the Spirit, it externalizes the outpouring of salvation in the age of fulfillment, because it is the initiatory rite signifying the believer’s entrance into the blessings of the new age (Ti 3:5).<\/p>\n<p>There is also a definite link between baptism and the OT covenants. The major connection is with the Abrahamic, especially with the circumcision that characterized it. Paul in Colossians 2:11-12 combines Jewish circumcision with Christian baptism as pictures of the redemptive work of Christ. The debate today centers on the degree of continuity between them—does baptism perform the same function in the New Covenant, i.e., forensic and imputative? Whatever the theological ramifications, Paul at least cannot be made to say this. Rather, he borrows here the Judeo-Christian imagery of the “circumcision of the heart” (Dt 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3). Christians experience the fulfillment of that which circumcision merely prefigured, a spiritual, totally efficacious reality.<\/p>\n<p>Baptism is also related to the Noahic covenant in 1 Peter 3:19-21. There Noah’s deliverance through the waters is considered a picture of the effects of baptism. The debate centers on the meaning of “baptism now saves you.” The answer is connected with the thrust of the ensuing clarification, “an appeal to God for a clear conscience” (<span>rsv<\/span>, lit. “of a good conscience”). While the developed dialogue between the sacramental and baptist views is considered below, we will simply comment here that the interpretation “appeal <em>by<\/em> a good conscience” best fits the emphatic position of this phrase and the picture in this verse of a pledging convert. Baptism is the seal of the salvation covenant, which itself has been accomplished beforehand by the act of Christ and the faith decision of the individual.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BAPTISM<\/h3>\n<p>Term generally meaning “to dip” or “immerse,” but representing a group of words employed to signify a religious rite for ritual cleansing. In the NT it became the rite of initiation into the Christian community, and it was interpreted theologically as a dying and rising with Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Baptism of John<\/p>\n<p>• The Baptism of Jesus<\/p>\n<p>• Jesus’ Resurrection Command to Baptize<\/p>\n<p>• Baptism in the Early Church<\/p>\n<p>• The Theology of Baptism in Paul’s and Peter’s Epistles<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheBaptismofJohn\">The Baptism of John<\/p>\n<p>John preached a “baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins” (Lk 3:3). The origins of his rite are difficult to trace. Some have claimed that his baptism modeled that practiced by those at Qumran; others have urged that his baptism modeled that practiced by Jews when initiating proselytes to Judaism. The members of the Qumran community viewed themselves as the covenant community of the last days and so dwelt in the desert, living an ascetic life and immersing themselves daily in acts of ceremonial cleansing. At the same time they taught that internal repentance must accompany the external act (1 QS 2:3). Its sacramental nature is seen in the fact that only a full member of the community could practice it, and then only after two probationary years (1 QS 5:6). Converts from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of the Gentile background.<\/p>\n<p>John’s baptism both parallels and differs with these forms of baptism. The genesis of his baptism may be found in the prophetic acted-out parable, which not only symbolized God’s message but also intended to bring it about. John’s practice had several theological ramifications: (1) It was intimately connected with radical repentance, not only of the Gentile but astoundingly (to his contemporaries) also of the Jew. (2) It was eschatological at the core, preparing for the Messiah, who would baptize with the Holy Spirit and with fire (Mt 3:11), and therefore looked to the final separation between God’s people and the wicked at the eschaton (i.e., “the End,” cf. Mt 3:12). (3) It symbolized moral purification and so prepared the people for the coming kingdom (Mt 3:2; Lk 3:7-14). In spite of the obvious connection between John’s ceremony and the early church, we cannot posit absolute dependence. In fact, it disappeared from Jesus’ ministry. At first, Jesus allowed his disciples to continue the rite (Jn 3:22), but later he seemingly discontinued the practice (Jn 4:1-3), probably for the following reasons: (1) John’s message was functional, while Jesus’ was personal\/ontological. (2) John’s was forward-looking, expecting the coming kingdom, while Jesus’ was backward-looking, celebrating that event. (3) John’s was an interim practice, while Jesus’ was sacramental. Jesus’ ministry fulfilled John’s, so he severed himself from the latter’s modus operandi.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheBaptismofJesus\">The Baptism of Jesus<\/p>\n<p>This event has its genesis in a complex interplay of motives, divine and human, within the messianic consciousness of Jesus (see Mk 1:9-11 and parallels). For John it was Jesus’ stamp of approval upon his message and ministry. Jesus was in continuity with John’s kingdom proclamation. For Jesus, it was also an anointing that signified the inauguration of his messianic ministry. As seen in God’s “heavenly voice” of Mark 1:11 and parallels, this has two aspects: (1) The voice alludes to Psalm 2:7, establishing Jesus’ unique sonship. (2) It alludes to Isaiah 42:1, establishing him as the messianic “servant of Yahweh.” (This is discussed at greater length in the article below.)<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JesusResurrectionCommandtoBaptize\">Jesus’ Resurrection Command to Baptize<\/p>\n<p>Here we find the true basis of the church’s practice (Mt 28:19). As already stated, the disciples stopped employing it, so it is here that we see the institution reconstituted as an ordinance based on the death and resurrection of Christ. It was no longer a forward-looking phenomenon but had now become a realized activity centering on the gospel message, certified by the risen Christ who is exalted to universal lordship. It also is an essential aspect of the discipling activity, as seen in the use of the participle “baptizing” after the main verb “make disciples.” Finally we might note that the act signifies the entrance of the believer “into” union with (literally “into the name of”) the triune Godhead.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BaptismintheEarlyChurch\">Baptism in the Early Church<\/p>\n<p>Acts 2:38 shows that baptism was a sacral institution from the very beginning. This takes it back to the earliest days of the church. In the primitive church it was an important part of the salvation process (Acts 2:38, “repent and be baptized”) and was accomplished via confession and prayer “in the name of Jesus Christ” (Acts 2:38; 8:16; 10:48; 19:5). Probably there was a question-and-answer period in which the believer confessed his faith and dedicated himself to Christ. The result was reception into and identification with the messianic community of the new covenant, signifying both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 5:31; 10:43; 13:38; 26:18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (Lk 3:16; Acts 2:38, 41; 9:17; 10:47-48; 11:16-17; 19:5-7). <em>See<\/em> Baptism of Fire; Baptism of Jesus; Baptism of the Spirit.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheTheologyofBaptisminPaulsandPetersEpistles\">The Theology of Baptism in Paul’s and Peter’s Epistles<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s basic statement is found in Galatians 3:27, “baptized into Christ.” The rite of baptism is christological at the heart, signifying union with Christ. This is clarified further by Romans 6:3-8, which equates baptism with dying and rising (cf. Col 2:12-13). At the same time baptism is related to the Spirit; 1 Corinthians 12:13 connects “baptism by the one Spirit” with being “given that same Spirit.” Many see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” by the Spirit (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13; 4:30). This leads us to the eschatological dimension of baptism. In its relation to the present work of Christ and the Spirit, it externalizes the outpouring of salvation in the age of fulfillment, because it is the initiatory rite signifying the believer’s entrance into the blessings of the new age (Ti 3:5).<\/p>\n<p>There is also a definite link between baptism and the OT covenants. The major connection is with the Abrahamic, especially with the circumcision that characterized it. Paul in Colossians 2:11-12 combines Jewish circumcision with Christian baptism as pictures of the redemptive work of Christ. The debate today centers on the degree of continuity between them—does baptism perform the same function in the New Covenant, i.e., forensic and imputative? Whatever the theological ramifications, Paul at least cannot be made to say this. Rather, he borrows here the Judeo-Christian imagery of the “circumcision of the heart” (Dt 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3). Christians experience the fulfillment of that which circumcision merely prefigured, a spiritual, totally efficacious reality.<\/p>\n<p>Baptism is also related to the Noahic covenant in 1 Peter 3:19-21. There Noah’s deliverance through the waters is considered a picture of the effects of baptism. The debate centers on the meaning of “baptism now saves you.” The answer is connected with the thrust of the ensuing clarification, “an appeal to God for a clear conscience” (<span>rsv<\/span>, lit. “of a good conscience”). While the developed dialogue between the sacramental and baptist views is considered below, we will simply comment here that the interpretation “appeal <em>by<\/em> a good conscience” best fits the emphatic position of this phrase and the picture in this verse of a pledging convert. Baptism is the seal of the salvation covenant, which itself has been accomplished beforehand by the act of Christ and the faith decision of the individual.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BAPTISM Term generally meaning “to dip” or “immerse,” but representing a group of words employed to signify a religious rite for ritual cleansing. In the NT it became the rite of initiation into the Christian community, and it was interpreted theologically as a dying and rising with Christ. Preview • The Baptism of John • The Baptism of Jesus • Jesus’ Resurrection Command to Baptize • Baptism in the Early Church • The Theology of Baptism in Paul’s and Peter’s Epistles The Baptism of John John...","summary_en":"BAPTISM Term generally meaning “to dip” or “immerse,” but representing a group of words employed to signify a religious rite for ritual cleansing. In the NT it became the rite of initiation into the Christian community, and it was interpreted theologically as a dying and rising with Christ. Preview • The Baptism of John • The Baptism of Jesus • Jesus’ Resurrection Command to Baptize • Baptism in the Early Church • The Theology of Baptism in Paul’s and Peter’s Epistles The Baptism of John John...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66216,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Baptism","title_en":"Baptism","content_ro":"<h3>Baptism<\/h3>\n<p>Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of their Gentile background. This ritual cleansing was often done in special baths created for purification, called mikvahs. Mikvahs were located at many synagogues, and the Temple in Jerusalem had a large number of mikvahs, which suggests that those who approached for worship would ritually bathe.<\/p>\n<p>John preached “that people should be baptized to show that they had repented of their sins and turned to God to be forgiven” (Luke 3:3). John’s baptism was an aspect of his role in preparing people’s hearts to receive the Messiah (Luke 3:4-6), and those who had received his baptism and repented of their sins were those who were prepared for Jesus’ message (Luke 7:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>After his resurrection, Jesus commanded his disciples to baptize new converts (Matt 28:19). Christian baptism is understood as dying and rising with Christ, signifying the death of the old life and the beginning of the new (Rom 6:1-4; Col 2:12) and also signifying a Christian’s spiritual union with Christ (Gal 3:27) and with his church. Baptism thus became the rite of initiation in the Christian community. For this reason, many interpreters see baptism as the Christian equivalent of circumcision, the rite that initiated membership into the nation of Israel under the old covenant (see Col 2:11-12). Whatever the connection with OT circumcision, baptism signifies a changed heart and a clean conscience that come from God’s forgiveness (1 Pet 3:21; cp. Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>As a ritual cleansing, Christian baptism signifies both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 10:43; 13:38; 26:17-18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (2:38; 9:17-18; 10:47-48; 11:15-17; 19:5-7; Luke 3:16). Many interpreters see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” of the Spirit, whose presence is a “guarantee” of the eternal inheritance that awaits God’s faithful people (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Titus 3:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 3:6-16; 21:25; 28:19; Mark 1:4-9; 10:38-39; 11:30; 16:16; Luke 3:3-22; 7:29-30; 12:50; 20:4; John 1:25-36; 3:22-23, 26; 4:1-2; 10:40; Acts 1:5, 22; 2:38, 41; 8:12-13, 16-17, 36-38; 9:18; 10:37, 47-48; 11:16; 13:24; 16:15, 33; 18:8, 25; 19:1-7; 22:16; Rom 6:3-4; 1 Cor 1:13-17; 10:2; 12:13; 15:29; Gal 3:27; Eph 4:5; Col 2:12; Heb 6:2; 1 Pet 3:21; 1 Jn 5:6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Baptism<\/h3>\n<p>Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of their Gentile background. This ritual cleansing was often done in special baths created for purification, called mikvahs. Mikvahs were located at many synagogues, and the Temple in Jerusalem had a large number of mikvahs, which suggests that those who approached for worship would ritually bathe.<\/p>\n<p>John preached “that people should be baptized to show that they had repented of their sins and turned to God to be forgiven” (Luke 3:3). John’s baptism was an aspect of his role in preparing people’s hearts to receive the Messiah (Luke 3:4-6), and those who had received his baptism and repented of their sins were those who were prepared for Jesus’ message (Luke 7:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>After his resurrection, Jesus commanded his disciples to baptize new converts (Matt 28:19). Christian baptism is understood as dying and rising with Christ, signifying the death of the old life and the beginning of the new (Rom 6:1-4; Col 2:12) and also signifying a Christian’s spiritual union with Christ (Gal 3:27) and with his church. Baptism thus became the rite of initiation in the Christian community. For this reason, many interpreters see baptism as the Christian equivalent of circumcision, the rite that initiated membership into the nation of Israel under the old covenant (see Col 2:11-12). Whatever the connection with OT circumcision, baptism signifies a changed heart and a clean conscience that come from God’s forgiveness (1 Pet 3:21; cp. Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>As a ritual cleansing, Christian baptism signifies both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 10:43; 13:38; 26:17-18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (2:38; 9:17-18; 10:47-48; 11:15-17; 19:5-7; Luke 3:16). Many interpreters see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” of the Spirit, whose presence is a “guarantee” of the eternal inheritance that awaits God’s faithful people (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Titus 3:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 3:6-16; 21:25; 28:19; Mark 1:4-9; 10:38-39; 11:30; 16:16; Luke 3:3-22; 7:29-30; 12:50; 20:4; John 1:25-36; 3:22-23, 26; 4:1-2; 10:40; Acts 1:5, 22; 2:38, 41; 8:12-13, 16-17, 36-38; 9:18; 10:37, 47-48; 11:16; 13:24; 16:15, 33; 18:8, 25; 19:1-7; 22:16; Rom 6:3-4; 1 Cor 1:13-17; 10:2; 12:13; 15:29; Gal 3:27; Eph 4:5; Col 2:12; Heb 6:2; 1 Pet 3:21; 1 Jn 5:6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Baptism Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a...","summary_en":"Baptism Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":93842,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Baptism","title_en":"Baptism","content_ro":"<h3>Baptism<\/h3>\n<p>Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of their Gentile background. This ritual cleansing was often done in special baths created for purification, called mikvahs. Mikvahs were located at many synagogues, and the Temple in Jerusalem had a large number of mikvahs, which suggests that those who approached for worship would ritually bathe.<\/p>\n<p>John preached “that people should be baptized to show that they had repented of their sins and turned to God to be forgiven” (Luke 3:3). John’s baptism was an aspect of his role in preparing people’s hearts to receive the Messiah (Luke 3:4-6), and those who had received his baptism and repented of their sins were those who were prepared for Jesus’ message (Luke 7:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>After his resurrection, Jesus commanded his disciples to baptize new converts (Matt 28:19). Christian baptism is understood as dying and rising with Christ, signifying the death of the old life and the beginning of the new (Rom 6:1-4; Col 2:12) and also signifying a Christian’s spiritual union with Christ (Gal 3:27) and with his church. Baptism thus became the rite of initiation in the Christian community. For this reason, many interpreters see baptism as the Christian equivalent of circumcision, the rite that initiated membership into the nation of Israel under the old covenant (see Col 2:11-12). Whatever the connection with OT circumcision, baptism signifies a changed heart and a clean conscience that come from God’s forgiveness (1 Pet 3:21; cp. Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>As a ritual cleansing, Christian baptism signifies both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 10:43; 13:38; 26:17-18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (2:38; 9:17-18; 10:47-48; 11:15-17; 19:5-7; Luke 3:16). Many interpreters see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” of the Spirit, whose presence is a “guarantee” of the eternal inheritance that awaits God’s faithful people (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Titus 3:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 3:6-16; 21:25; 28:19; Mark 1:4-9; 10:38-39; 11:30; 16:16; Luke 3:3-22; 7:29-30; 12:50; 20:4; John 1:25-36; 3:22-23, 26; 4:1-2; 10:40; Acts 1:5, 22; 2:38, 41; 8:12-13, 16-17, 36-38; 9:18; 10:37, 47-48; 11:16; 13:24; 16:15, 33; 18:8, 25; 19:1-7; 22:16; Rom 6:3-4; 1 Cor 1:13-17; 10:2; 12:13; 15:29; Gal 3:27; Eph 4:5; Col 2:12; Heb 6:2; 1 Pet 3:21; 1 Jn 5:6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Baptism<\/h3>\n<p>Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of their Gentile background. This ritual cleansing was often done in special baths created for purification, called mikvahs. Mikvahs were located at many synagogues, and the Temple in Jerusalem had a large number of mikvahs, which suggests that those who approached for worship would ritually bathe.<\/p>\n<p>John preached “that people should be baptized to show that they had repented of their sins and turned to God to be forgiven” (Luke 3:3). John’s baptism was an aspect of his role in preparing people’s hearts to receive the Messiah (Luke 3:4-6), and those who had received his baptism and repented of their sins were those who were prepared for Jesus’ message (Luke 7:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>After his resurrection, Jesus commanded his disciples to baptize new converts (Matt 28:19). Christian baptism is understood as dying and rising with Christ, signifying the death of the old life and the beginning of the new (Rom 6:1-4; Col 2:12) and also signifying a Christian’s spiritual union with Christ (Gal 3:27) and with his church. Baptism thus became the rite of initiation in the Christian community. For this reason, many interpreters see baptism as the Christian equivalent of circumcision, the rite that initiated membership into the nation of Israel under the old covenant (see Col 2:11-12). Whatever the connection with OT circumcision, baptism signifies a changed heart and a clean conscience that come from God’s forgiveness (1 Pet 3:21; cp. Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>As a ritual cleansing, Christian baptism signifies both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 10:43; 13:38; 26:17-18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (2:38; 9:17-18; 10:47-48; 11:15-17; 19:5-7; Luke 3:16). Many interpreters see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” of the Spirit, whose presence is a “guarantee” of the eternal inheritance that awaits God’s faithful people (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Titus 3:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 3:6-16; 21:25; 28:19; Mark 1:4-9; 10:38-39; 11:30; 16:16; Luke 3:3-22; 7:29-30; 12:50; 20:4; John 1:25-36; 3:22-23, 26; 4:1-2; 10:40; Acts 1:5, 22; 2:38, 41; 8:12-13, 16-17, 36-38; 9:18; 10:37, 47-48; 11:16; 13:24; 16:15, 33; 18:8, 25; 19:1-7; 22:16; Rom 6:3-4; 1 Cor 1:13-17; 10:2; 12:13; 15:29; Gal 3:27; Eph 4:5; Col 2:12; Heb 6:2; 1 Pet 3:21; 1 Jn 5:6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Baptism Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a...","summary_en":"Baptism Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121468,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Baptism","title_en":"Baptism","content_ro":"<h3>Baptism<\/h3>\n<p>Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of their Gentile background. This ritual cleansing was often done in special baths created for purification, called mikvahs. Mikvahs were located at many synagogues, and the Temple in Jerusalem had a large number of mikvahs, which suggests that those who approached for worship would ritually bathe.<\/p>\n<p>John preached “that people should be baptized to show that they had repented of their sins and turned to God to be forgiven” (Luke 3:3). John’s baptism was an aspect of his role in preparing people’s hearts to receive the Messiah (Luke 3:4-6), and those who had received his baptism and repented of their sins were those who were prepared for Jesus’ message (Luke 7:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>After his resurrection, Jesus commanded his disciples to baptize new converts (Matt 28:19). Christian baptism is understood as dying and rising with Christ, signifying the death of the old life and the beginning of the new (Rom 6:1-4; Col 2:12) and also signifying a Christian’s spiritual union with Christ (Gal 3:27) and with his church. Baptism thus became the rite of initiation in the Christian community. For this reason, many interpreters see baptism as the Christian equivalent of circumcision, the rite that initiated membership into the nation of Israel under the old covenant (see Col 2:11-12). Whatever the connection with OT circumcision, baptism signifies a changed heart and a clean conscience that come from God’s forgiveness (1 Pet 3:21; cp. Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>As a ritual cleansing, Christian baptism signifies both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 10:43; 13:38; 26:17-18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (2:38; 9:17-18; 10:47-48; 11:15-17; 19:5-7; Luke 3:16). Many interpreters see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” of the Spirit, whose presence is a “guarantee” of the eternal inheritance that awaits God’s faithful people (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Titus 3:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 3:6-16; 21:25; 28:19; Mark 1:4-9; 10:38-39; 11:30; 16:16; Luke 3:3-22; 7:29-30; 12:50; 20:4; John 1:25-36; 3:22-23, 26; 4:1-2; 10:40; Acts 1:5, 22; 2:38, 41; 8:12-13, 16-17, 36-38; 9:18; 10:37, 47-48; 11:16; 13:24; 16:15, 33; 18:8, 25; 19:1-7; 22:16; Rom 6:3-4; 1 Cor 1:13-17; 10:2; 12:13; 15:29; Gal 3:27; Eph 4:5; Col 2:12; Heb 6:2; 1 Pet 3:21; 1 Jn 5:6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Baptism<\/h3>\n<p>Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of their Gentile background. This ritual cleansing was often done in special baths created for purification, called mikvahs. Mikvahs were located at many synagogues, and the Temple in Jerusalem had a large number of mikvahs, which suggests that those who approached for worship would ritually bathe.<\/p>\n<p>John preached “that people should be baptized to show that they had repented of their sins and turned to God to be forgiven” (Luke 3:3). John’s baptism was an aspect of his role in preparing people’s hearts to receive the Messiah (Luke 3:4-6), and those who had received his baptism and repented of their sins were those who were prepared for Jesus’ message (Luke 7:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>After his resurrection, Jesus commanded his disciples to baptize new converts (Matt 28:19). Christian baptism is understood as dying and rising with Christ, signifying the death of the old life and the beginning of the new (Rom 6:1-4; Col 2:12) and also signifying a Christian’s spiritual union with Christ (Gal 3:27) and with his church. Baptism thus became the rite of initiation in the Christian community. For this reason, many interpreters see baptism as the Christian equivalent of circumcision, the rite that initiated membership into the nation of Israel under the old covenant (see Col 2:11-12). Whatever the connection with OT circumcision, baptism signifies a changed heart and a clean conscience that come from God’s forgiveness (1 Pet 3:21; cp. Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>As a ritual cleansing, Christian baptism signifies both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 10:43; 13:38; 26:17-18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (2:38; 9:17-18; 10:47-48; 11:15-17; 19:5-7; Luke 3:16). Many interpreters see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” of the Spirit, whose presence is a “guarantee” of the eternal inheritance that awaits God’s faithful people (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Titus 3:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 3:6-16; 21:25; 28:19; Mark 1:4-9; 10:38-39; 11:30; 16:16; Luke 3:3-22; 7:29-30; 12:50; 20:4; John 1:25-36; 3:22-23, 26; 4:1-2; 10:40; Acts 1:5, 22; 2:38, 41; 8:12-13, 16-17, 36-38; 9:18; 10:37, 47-48; 11:16; 13:24; 16:15, 33; 18:8, 25; 19:1-7; 22:16; Rom 6:3-4; 1 Cor 1:13-17; 10:2; 12:13; 15:29; Gal 3:27; Eph 4:5; Col 2:12; Heb 6:2; 1 Pet 3:21; 1 Jn 5:6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Baptism Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a...","summary_en":"Baptism Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149094,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Baptism","title_en":"Baptism","content_ro":"<h3>Baptism<\/h3>\n<p>Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of their Gentile background. This ritual cleansing was often done in special baths created for purification, called mikvahs. Mikvahs were located at many synagogues, and the Temple in Jerusalem had a large number of mikvahs, which suggests that those who approached for worship would ritually bathe.<\/p>\n<p>John preached “that people should be baptized to show that they had repented of their sins and turned to God to be forgiven” (Luke 3:3). John’s baptism was an aspect of his role in preparing people’s hearts to receive the Messiah (Luke 3:4-6), and those who had received his baptism and repented of their sins were those who were prepared for Jesus’ message (Luke 7:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>After his resurrection, Jesus commanded his disciples to baptize new converts (Matt 28:19). Christian baptism is understood as dying and rising with Christ, signifying the death of the old life and the beginning of the new (Rom 6:1-4; Col 2:12) and also signifying a Christian’s spiritual union with Christ (Gal 3:27) and with his church. Baptism thus became the rite of initiation in the Christian community. For this reason, many interpreters see baptism as the Christian equivalent of circumcision, the rite that initiated membership into the nation of Israel under the old covenant (see Col 2:11-12). Whatever the connection with OT circumcision, baptism signifies a changed heart and a clean conscience that come from God’s forgiveness (1 Pet 3:21; cp. Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>As a ritual cleansing, Christian baptism signifies both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 10:43; 13:38; 26:17-18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (2:38; 9:17-18; 10:47-48; 11:15-17; 19:5-7; Luke 3:16). Many interpreters see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” of the Spirit, whose presence is a “guarantee” of the eternal inheritance that awaits God’s faithful people (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Titus 3:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 3:6-16; 21:25; 28:19; Mark 1:4-9; 10:38-39; 11:30; 16:16; Luke 3:3-22; 7:29-30; 12:50; 20:4; John 1:25-36; 3:22-23, 26; 4:1-2; 10:40; Acts 1:5, 22; 2:38, 41; 8:12-13, 16-17, 36-38; 9:18; 10:37, 47-48; 11:16; 13:24; 16:15, 33; 18:8, 25; 19:1-7; 22:16; Rom 6:3-4; 1 Cor 1:13-17; 10:2; 12:13; 15:29; Gal 3:27; Eph 4:5; Col 2:12; Heb 6:2; 1 Pet 3:21; 1 Jn 5:6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Baptism<\/h3>\n<p>Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of their Gentile background. This ritual cleansing was often done in special baths created for purification, called mikvahs. Mikvahs were located at many synagogues, and the Temple in Jerusalem had a large number of mikvahs, which suggests that those who approached for worship would ritually bathe.<\/p>\n<p>John preached “that people should be baptized to show that they had repented of their sins and turned to God to be forgiven” (Luke 3:3). John’s baptism was an aspect of his role in preparing people’s hearts to receive the Messiah (Luke 3:4-6), and those who had received his baptism and repented of their sins were those who were prepared for Jesus’ message (Luke 7:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>After his resurrection, Jesus commanded his disciples to baptize new converts (Matt 28:19). Christian baptism is understood as dying and rising with Christ, signifying the death of the old life and the beginning of the new (Rom 6:1-4; Col 2:12) and also signifying a Christian’s spiritual union with Christ (Gal 3:27) and with his church. Baptism thus became the rite of initiation in the Christian community. For this reason, many interpreters see baptism as the Christian equivalent of circumcision, the rite that initiated membership into the nation of Israel under the old covenant (see Col 2:11-12). Whatever the connection with OT circumcision, baptism signifies a changed heart and a clean conscience that come from God’s forgiveness (1 Pet 3:21; cp. Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>As a ritual cleansing, Christian baptism signifies both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 10:43; 13:38; 26:17-18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (2:38; 9:17-18; 10:47-48; 11:15-17; 19:5-7; Luke 3:16). Many interpreters see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” of the Spirit, whose presence is a “guarantee” of the eternal inheritance that awaits God’s faithful people (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Titus 3:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 3:6-16; 21:25; 28:19; Mark 1:4-9; 10:38-39; 11:30; 16:16; Luke 3:3-22; 7:29-30; 12:50; 20:4; John 1:25-36; 3:22-23, 26; 4:1-2; 10:40; Acts 1:5, 22; 2:38, 41; 8:12-13, 16-17, 36-38; 9:18; 10:37, 47-48; 11:16; 13:24; 16:15, 33; 18:8, 25; 19:1-7; 22:16; Rom 6:3-4; 1 Cor 1:13-17; 10:2; 12:13; 15:29; Gal 3:27; Eph 4:5; Col 2:12; Heb 6:2; 1 Pet 3:21; 1 Jn 5:6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Baptism Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a...","summary_en":"Baptism Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":36167,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Spirit of God","title_en":"Spirit of God","content_ro":"<h3>SPIRIT OF GOD<\/h3>\n<p>Description of God in action, God in motion. The word “spirit” (Hebrew, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ruach<\/span><em>;<\/em> Greek, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">pneuma<\/span>) is the word used from ancient times to describe and explain the experience of divine power working in, upon, and around people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>There are three basic meanings evident in the use of “spirit” from the earliest Hebrew writings: It was a wind from God, it was the breath of life, and it was a spirit of ecstasy.<\/p>\n<p>First, it was a wind from God (the same Hebrew word translated “Spirit” in Gn 1:2) that caused the waters of the Flood to subside (8:1). A wind from God blew locusts over Egypt (Ex 10:13) and quail over the camp of Israel. The blast of his nostrils separated the waters of the Red Sea at the exodus (14:21).<\/p>\n<p>Second, it was the breath of God that made man a living being (Gn 2:7). It is one of the earliest perceptions of Hebrew faith that humans live only because of the stirring of the divine breath or spirit within them (Gn 6:3; Jb 33:4; 34:14-15; Ps 104:29-30). Later, a clearer distinction was drawn between divine Spirit and human spirit, and between spirit and soul, but at the earliest stage these were all more or less perceived to be synonymous manifestations of the same divine power, the source of all life—animal as well as human (Gn 7:15, 22; see Eccl 3:19-21).<\/p>\n<p>Third, there were occasions when this divine power seemed to overtake and possess an individual fully, so that his or her words or actions far transcended those of normal behavior. Such a person was clearly marked as an agent of God’s purpose and given respect. This was apparently how leaders were recognized in the premonarchy period—Othniel (Jgs 3:10), Gideon (6:34), Jephthah (11:29), and the first king, Saul (1 Sm 11:6), as well. So, too, the earliest prophets were those whose inspiration came in ecstasy (1 Sm 19:20-24).<\/p>\n<p>In the earlier stages of Hebrew thought, ecstatic experience was seen as the direct effect of divine power. This was true even when the ecstasy was recognized as evil in character, as in the case of Saul’s seizure by the Spirit (1 Sm 16:14-16). A spirit from God could be for evil as well as for good (see Jgs 9:23; 1 Kgs 22:19-23).<\/p>\n<h5>In the Writings of the Prophets<\/h5>\n<p>For Isaiah, the spirit was that which characterized God and distinguished him and his actions from human affairs (Is 31:3). Later, the adjective “holy” appeared as that which distinguished the Spirit of God from any other spirit, human or divine (Ps 51:11; Is 63:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>The problem of false prophecy emphasized the danger of assuming that every message delivered in ecstasy was the word of the Lord. Thus, tests of prophecy evaluated the content of the message delivered or the character of the prophet’s life, not the degree or quality of inspiration (see Dt 13:1-5; 18:22; Jer 23:14; Mi 3:5). This sense of a need to discriminate between true and false inspiration and to distinguish the word of God from the merely ecstatic oracle may help to explain the otherwise puzzling reluctance of the major eighth- and seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> prophets to attribute their inspiration to the Spirit.<\/p>\n<h5>In the Exilic and Postexilic Writings<\/h5>\n<p>In exilic and postexilic literature, the role of the Spirit is narrowed to two major functions: that of the prophetic Spirit and that of the Spirit of the age to come.<\/p>\n<p>The later prophets again spoke of the Spirit in explicit terms as the inspirer of prophecy (see Ez 3:1-4, 22-24; Hg 2:5; Zec 4:6). As they looked back to the preexilic period, these prophets freely attributed the inspiration of “the former prophets” to the Spirit as well (Zec 7:12).<\/p>\n<p>This tendency to exalt the Spirit’s role as the inspirer of prophecy became steadily stronger in the period between the OT and NT, until in rabbinic Judaism the Spirit was almost exclusively the inspirer of the prophetic writings now regarded as Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>The other understanding of the Spirit’s role during exilic and postexilic times was that the Spirit would be the manifestation of the power of God in the age to come. That eschatological hope of divine power effecting a final cleansing and a renewed creation is rooted principally in Isaiah’s prophecies (Is 4:4; 32:15; 44:3-4). Isaiah speaks of one anointed by the Spirit to accomplish complete and final salvation (11:2; 42:1; 61:1). Elsewhere, the same longing is expressed in terms of the Spirit being freely dispensed to all Israel (Ez 39:29; Jl 2:28-29; Zec 12:10) in the new covenant (Jer 31:31-34; Ez 36:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>In the period prior to Jesus, the understanding of the Spirit as the Spirit of prophecy and as the Spirit of the age to come had developed into the widespread dogma that the Spirit was no longer to be experienced in the present. The Spirit had been known in the past as the inspirer of prophetic writings, but after Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, the Spirit had withdrawn (1 Macc 4:44-46; 9:27; 2 Bar 85:1-3; see also Ps 74:9; Zec 13:2-6). The Spirit would be known again in the age of the Messiah, but in the interim the Spirit was absent from Israel. Even the great Hillel (learned Jewish leader and teacher, 60? <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 20?), a near contemporary of Jesus, had not received the Spirit—though if anyone was worthy of the Spirit, it was he. There is a tradition that at a meeting of Hillel and other wise men, a voice from heaven said, “Among those here present is one who would have deserved the Holy Spirit to rest upon him, if his time had been worthy of it.” The wise men all looked at Hillel.<\/p>\n<p>The consequence of this accepted dearth of the Spirit was that the Spirit in effect became subordinated to the law. The Spirit was the inspirer of the law, but since the Spirit could no longer be experienced directly, the law became the sole voice of the Spirit. It was this increasing dominance of the law and its authoritative interpreters that provided the background for the mission of Jesus and the initial spread of Christianity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>If we are to understand the NT’s teaching on the Spirit, we must recognize both its continuity and discontinuity with the OT. At many points NT usage cannot be fully understood except against the background of OT concepts or passages. For example, the ambiguity of John 3:8 (“wind,” “Spirit”), 2 Thessalonians 2:8 (“breath”), and Revelation 11:11 (“breath of life”) takes us back to the basic Hebrew meanings of “spirit.” Acts 8:39 and Revelation 17:3 and 21:10 reflect the same conception of the Spirit that we find in 1 Kings 18:12, 2 Kings 2:16, and Ezekiel 3:14. The NT writers generally share the rabbinic view that Scripture has the authority of the Spirit behind it (see Mk 12:36; Acts 28:25; Heb 3:7; 2 Pt 1:21). The principal continuity is that the NT brings the fulfillment of what the OT writers looked forward to. At the same time, Christianity is not simply fulfilled Judaism. Jesus’ coming and his giving of his Spirit to live within his believers marks off the new faith as something new and distinct.<\/p>\n<h5>The Spirit of the New Age<\/h5>\n<p>The most striking feature of Jesus’ ministry and of the message of the earliest Christians was their conviction and proclamation that the blessings of the new age were already present, that the eschatological Spirit had already been poured out. With the exception of the Essenes at Qumran, no other group or individual within the Jewish religion of that time had dared to make such a bold claim. The prophets and the rabbis looked for a messianic age yet to come, and the apocalyptic writers warned of its imminent arrival, but none thought of it as already present. Even John the Baptist spoke only of one about to come and of the Spirit’s operation in the imminent future (Mk 1:8). But for Jesus and first-century Christians, the longed for hope was a living reality, and the claim carried with it the exciting sense of being in “the last days.” Without some recognition of that eschatological dimension of the Christians’ faith and life, we cannot understand this teaching on, and experience of, the Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus clearly thought of his teachings and healings as fulfillment of the prophetic hope (Mt 12:41-42; 13:16-17; Lk 17:20-21). In particular, he saw himself as the one anointed by the Spirit to provide salvation (Mt 5:3-6; 11:5; Lk 4:17-19). So, too, Jesus understood his exorcisms as the effect of the power of God and as manifestations of the end-time rule of God (Mt 12:27-28; Mk 3:22-26). The Gospel writers, especially Luke, emphasize the eschatological character of Jesus’ life and ministry by stressing the role of the Spirit in his birth (Mt 1:18; Lk 1:35, 41, 67; 2:25-27), his baptism (Mk 1:9-10; Acts 10:38), and his ministry (Mt 4:1; 12:18; Mk 1:12; Lk 4:1, 14; 10:21; Jn 3:34).<\/p>\n<p>The Christian church began with the in-breathing of the Holy Spirit on the day of Christ’s resurrection (Jn 20:22), followed by the outpouring of the Spirit at Pentecost “in the last days.” The overwhelming experience of vision and inspired utterance was taken as proof positive that the new age prophesied by Joel had now arrived (Acts 2:2-5, 17-18). Similarly, in Hebrews the gift of the Spirit is spoken of as “the powers of the age to come” (Heb 6:4-5). More striking still is Paul’s understanding of the Spirit as the guarantee of God’s complete salvation (2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Eph 1:13-14), and as the first installment of the believer’s inheritance of God’s kingdom (Rom 8:15-17; 1 Cor 6:9-11; 15:42-50; Gal 4:6-7; 5:16-18, 21-23; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit is here again thought of as the power of the age to come, as that power (which will characterize God’s rule at the end of time) already shaping and transforming the lives of believers.<\/p>\n<p>For Paul, this means also that the gift of the Spirit is but the beginning of a lifelong process that will not end until the believer’s whole person is brought under the Spirit’s power (Rom 8:11, 23; 1 Cor 15:44-49; 2 Cor 3:18; 5:1-5). It also means that the present experience of faith is one of lifelong tension between what God has already begun to bring about in the believer’s life and what has not yet been brought under God’s grace (Phil 1:6). It is this tension between life “in the Spirit” and life “in the flesh” (see Gal 2:20) that comes to poignant expression in Romans 7:24 and 2 Corinthians 5:2-4.<\/p>\n<h5>The Spirit of New Life<\/h5>\n<p>Since the Spirit is the mark of the new age, it is not surprising that the NT writers understood the gift of the Spirit to be that which brings an individual into the new age. John the Baptist described the way the coming one would baptize with the Holy Spirit and with fire (Mt 3:11). According to Acts 1:5 and 11:16, this imagery was taken up by Jesus, and the promise is seen as fulfilled at Pentecost—the outpouring of the Spirit here being understood as the risen Christ’s action in drawing his disciples into the new age (Acts 2:17, 33).<\/p>\n<p>It seems to be one of Luke’s aims in the book of Acts to highlight the central importance of the gift of the Spirit in conversion-initiation—it is that decisive “gift of the Holy Spirit” that makes one a Christian (Acts 2:38-39). People could have been followers of Jesus on earth, but it was only when they received the gift of the Spirit that they could be said to have “believed in the Lord Jesus Christ” (11:16-17). When the Spirit’s presence was manifested in and upon a person’s life, that was recognized by Peter as proof enough that God had accepted that person, even though he or she had not yet made any formal profession of faith or been baptized (10:44-48; 11:15-18; 15:7-9). So too Apollos, already aglow with the Spirit (18:25), even though his knowledge of “the way of God” was slightly defective (vv 24-26), apparently was not required to supplement his “baptism of John” with Christian baptism. However, the 12 so-called disciples at Ephesus proved by their very ignorance of the Spirit that they were not yet disciples of the Lord Jesus (19:1-6). Paul asked these 12 men, “Did you receive the Holy Spirit when you believed?” (19:2).<\/p>\n<p>This accords with Paul’s emphasis in his letters. Belief and reception of the Spirit go together: to receive the Spirit is to begin the Christian life (Gal 3:2-3); to be baptized in the Spirit is to become a member of the body of Christ (1 Cor 12:13); to “have the Spirit of Christ” is to belong to Christ (Rom 8:9-11); to receive the Spirit is tantamount to becoming a child of God (Rom 8:14-17; Gal 4:6-7). The Spirit so characterizes the new age and the life of the new age that only the gift of the Spirit can bring a person into the new age to experience the life of the new age. For the Spirit is distinctively and peculiarly the life-giver; the Spirit indeed <em>is<\/em> the life of the new age (Rom 8:2, 6, 10; 1 Cor 15:45; 2 Cor 3:6; Gal 5:25).<\/p>\n<p>In just the same way in John’s writings, the Spirit is characteristically the life-giving Spirit (Jn 6:63), the power from above, the seed of divine life that brings about the new birth (Jn 3:3-8; 1 Jn 3:9), and a river of living water that brings life when one believes in Christ (Jn 7:37-39; so also 4:10, 14). Or again, reception of the Spirit in John 20:22 is depicted as a new creation analogous to Genesis 2:7. Consequently, in 1 John 3:24 and 4:13, possession and experience of the Spirit count as one of the “tests of life” listed in that letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Manifestations of the Spirit<\/h5>\n<p>It will be clear from what has already been said that when the first Christians, like the ancient Hebrews, spoke of the Spirit, they were thinking of experiences of divine power. In the NT, as in the OT, “Spirit” is the word used to explain the experience of new life and vitality (see above), of liberation from legalism (e.g., Rom 8:2; 2 Cor 3:17), of spiritual refreshing and renewal (cf. e.g., Is 32:15; Ez 39:29 with Jn 7:37-39; Rom 5:5; 1 Cor 12:13; 1 Tm 3:5-6). It is important to realize how wide a range of experiences were attributed to the Spirit: ecstatic experiences (Acts 2:24; 10:43-47; 19:6; cf. 10:10; 22:17—“in ecstasy”; 2 Cor 12:1-4; Rv 1:10), emotional experiences (e.g., love—Rom 5:5; joy—Acts 13:52; 1 Thes 1:6; see also Gal 5:22; Phil 2:1-2), experiences of illumination (2 Cor 3:14-17; Eph 1:17-18; Heb 6:4-5; 1 Jn 2:20-21), and experiences issuing in moral transformation (1 Cor 6:9-11). Likewise, when Paul speaks of spiritual gifts, called <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">charismata<\/span> (acts or words that bring divine grace to concrete expression), he evidently has a wide range of actual events in mind: inspired speech (1 Cor 12:8-10; 1 Thes 1:5), miracles and healings (1 Cor 12:9; Gal 3:5; cf. Heb 2:4), and various acts of service and help, of counsel and administration, and of aid and mercy (Rom 12:7-8; 1 Cor 12:28).<\/p>\n<p>In talking thus of the Spirit in terms of experience, we should not overemphasize particular experiences or manifestations, as though earliest Christianity consisted of a sequence of mountaintop experiences or spiritual highs. There clearly were such experiences, indeed a wide range of experiences, but no one experience is singled out to be sought by all (except prophecy). There is no distinctively second (or third) experience of the Spirit in the NT, and Paul warned against overvaluing particular manifestations of the Spirit (1 Cor 14:6-19; 2 Cor 12:1-10; cf. Mk 8:11-13). Where particular experiences are valued, it is as manifestations of a more sustained experience, particular expressions of an underlying relationship (cf. Acts 6:3-5; 11:24—“full of the Spirit”; Eph 5:18). What we are in touch with here is the vigor of the experiential dimension of earliest Christianity. If the Spirit is the breath of the new life in Christ (cf. Ez 37:9-10, 14; Jn 20:22; 1 Cor 15:45), then presumably the analogy extends further, and the experience of the Spirit is like the experience of breathing: one is not conscious of it all the time, but if one is not conscious of it, at least sometimes, something is wrong.<\/p>\n<h5>The Fellowship of the Spirit<\/h5>\n<p>It was out of this shared experience of the Spirit that the earliest Christian community grew and developed, for this is what “the fellowship [<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">koinonia<\/span>] of the Spirit” properly means: common participation in the same Spirit (Phil 2:1; cf. Acts 2:42; 1 Cor 1:4-9). It was the gift of the Spirit that brought those in Samaria, Caesarea, and elsewhere effectively into the community of the Spirit (Act 8, 10). So also, it was the experience of the one Spirit that provided the unifying bond in the churches of Paul’s mission (1 Cor 12:13; Eph 4:3-4; Phil 2:1-2). Here we see the real importance of the divine manifestations of the Spirit for Paul: it is out of the diversity of these particular manifestations that the body of Christ grows in unity (Rom 12:4-8; 1 Cor 12:12-17; Eph 4:4-16).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SPIRIT OF GOD<\/h3>\n<p>Description of God in action, God in motion. The word “spirit” (Hebrew, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ruach<\/span><em>;<\/em> Greek, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">pneuma<\/span>) is the word used from ancient times to describe and explain the experience of divine power working in, upon, and around people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>There are three basic meanings evident in the use of “spirit” from the earliest Hebrew writings: It was a wind from God, it was the breath of life, and it was a spirit of ecstasy.<\/p>\n<p>First, it was a wind from God (the same Hebrew word translated “Spirit” in Gn 1:2) that caused the waters of the Flood to subside (8:1). A wind from God blew locusts over Egypt (Ex 10:13) and quail over the camp of Israel. The blast of his nostrils separated the waters of the Red Sea at the exodus (14:21).<\/p>\n<p>Second, it was the breath of God that made man a living being (Gn 2:7). It is one of the earliest perceptions of Hebrew faith that humans live only because of the stirring of the divine breath or spirit within them (Gn 6:3; Jb 33:4; 34:14-15; Ps 104:29-30). Later, a clearer distinction was drawn between divine Spirit and human spirit, and between spirit and soul, but at the earliest stage these were all more or less perceived to be synonymous manifestations of the same divine power, the source of all life—animal as well as human (Gn 7:15, 22; see Eccl 3:19-21).<\/p>\n<p>Third, there were occasions when this divine power seemed to overtake and possess an individual fully, so that his or her words or actions far transcended those of normal behavior. Such a person was clearly marked as an agent of God’s purpose and given respect. This was apparently how leaders were recognized in the premonarchy period—Othniel (Jgs 3:10), Gideon (6:34), Jephthah (11:29), and the first king, Saul (1 Sm 11:6), as well. So, too, the earliest prophets were those whose inspiration came in ecstasy (1 Sm 19:20-24).<\/p>\n<p>In the earlier stages of Hebrew thought, ecstatic experience was seen as the direct effect of divine power. This was true even when the ecstasy was recognized as evil in character, as in the case of Saul’s seizure by the Spirit (1 Sm 16:14-16). A spirit from God could be for evil as well as for good (see Jgs 9:23; 1 Kgs 22:19-23).<\/p>\n<h5>In the Writings of the Prophets<\/h5>\n<p>For Isaiah, the spirit was that which characterized God and distinguished him and his actions from human affairs (Is 31:3). Later, the adjective “holy” appeared as that which distinguished the Spirit of God from any other spirit, human or divine (Ps 51:11; Is 63:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>The problem of false prophecy emphasized the danger of assuming that every message delivered in ecstasy was the word of the Lord. Thus, tests of prophecy evaluated the content of the message delivered or the character of the prophet’s life, not the degree or quality of inspiration (see Dt 13:1-5; 18:22; Jer 23:14; Mi 3:5). This sense of a need to discriminate between true and false inspiration and to distinguish the word of God from the merely ecstatic oracle may help to explain the otherwise puzzling reluctance of the major eighth- and seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> prophets to attribute their inspiration to the Spirit.<\/p>\n<h5>In the Exilic and Postexilic Writings<\/h5>\n<p>In exilic and postexilic literature, the role of the Spirit is narrowed to two major functions: that of the prophetic Spirit and that of the Spirit of the age to come.<\/p>\n<p>The later prophets again spoke of the Spirit in explicit terms as the inspirer of prophecy (see Ez 3:1-4, 22-24; Hg 2:5; Zec 4:6). As they looked back to the preexilic period, these prophets freely attributed the inspiration of “the former prophets” to the Spirit as well (Zec 7:12).<\/p>\n<p>This tendency to exalt the Spirit’s role as the inspirer of prophecy became steadily stronger in the period between the OT and NT, until in rabbinic Judaism the Spirit was almost exclusively the inspirer of the prophetic writings now regarded as Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>The other understanding of the Spirit’s role during exilic and postexilic times was that the Spirit would be the manifestation of the power of God in the age to come. That eschatological hope of divine power effecting a final cleansing and a renewed creation is rooted principally in Isaiah’s prophecies (Is 4:4; 32:15; 44:3-4). Isaiah speaks of one anointed by the Spirit to accomplish complete and final salvation (11:2; 42:1; 61:1). Elsewhere, the same longing is expressed in terms of the Spirit being freely dispensed to all Israel (Ez 39:29; Jl 2:28-29; Zec 12:10) in the new covenant (Jer 31:31-34; Ez 36:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>In the period prior to Jesus, the understanding of the Spirit as the Spirit of prophecy and as the Spirit of the age to come had developed into the widespread dogma that the Spirit was no longer to be experienced in the present. The Spirit had been known in the past as the inspirer of prophetic writings, but after Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, the Spirit had withdrawn (1 Macc 4:44-46; 9:27; 2 Bar 85:1-3; see also Ps 74:9; Zec 13:2-6). The Spirit would be known again in the age of the Messiah, but in the interim the Spirit was absent from Israel. Even the great Hillel (learned Jewish leader and teacher, 60? <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 20?), a near contemporary of Jesus, had not received the Spirit—though if anyone was worthy of the Spirit, it was he. There is a tradition that at a meeting of Hillel and other wise men, a voice from heaven said, “Among those here present is one who would have deserved the Holy Spirit to rest upon him, if his time had been worthy of it.” The wise men all looked at Hillel.<\/p>\n<p>The consequence of this accepted dearth of the Spirit was that the Spirit in effect became subordinated to the law. The Spirit was the inspirer of the law, but since the Spirit could no longer be experienced directly, the law became the sole voice of the Spirit. It was this increasing dominance of the law and its authoritative interpreters that provided the background for the mission of Jesus and the initial spread of Christianity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>If we are to understand the NT’s teaching on the Spirit, we must recognize both its continuity and discontinuity with the OT. At many points NT usage cannot be fully understood except against the background of OT concepts or passages. For example, the ambiguity of John 3:8 (“wind,” “Spirit”), 2 Thessalonians 2:8 (“breath”), and Revelation 11:11 (“breath of life”) takes us back to the basic Hebrew meanings of “spirit.” Acts 8:39 and Revelation 17:3 and 21:10 reflect the same conception of the Spirit that we find in 1 Kings 18:12, 2 Kings 2:16, and Ezekiel 3:14. The NT writers generally share the rabbinic view that Scripture has the authority of the Spirit behind it (see Mk 12:36; Acts 28:25; Heb 3:7; 2 Pt 1:21). The principal continuity is that the NT brings the fulfillment of what the OT writers looked forward to. At the same time, Christianity is not simply fulfilled Judaism. Jesus’ coming and his giving of his Spirit to live within his believers marks off the new faith as something new and distinct.<\/p>\n<h5>The Spirit of the New Age<\/h5>\n<p>The most striking feature of Jesus’ ministry and of the message of the earliest Christians was their conviction and proclamation that the blessings of the new age were already present, that the eschatological Spirit had already been poured out. With the exception of the Essenes at Qumran, no other group or individual within the Jewish religion of that time had dared to make such a bold claim. The prophets and the rabbis looked for a messianic age yet to come, and the apocalyptic writers warned of its imminent arrival, but none thought of it as already present. Even John the Baptist spoke only of one about to come and of the Spirit’s operation in the imminent future (Mk 1:8). But for Jesus and first-century Christians, the longed for hope was a living reality, and the claim carried with it the exciting sense of being in “the last days.” Without some recognition of that eschatological dimension of the Christians’ faith and life, we cannot understand this teaching on, and experience of, the Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus clearly thought of his teachings and healings as fulfillment of the prophetic hope (Mt 12:41-42; 13:16-17; Lk 17:20-21). In particular, he saw himself as the one anointed by the Spirit to provide salvation (Mt 5:3-6; 11:5; Lk 4:17-19). So, too, Jesus understood his exorcisms as the effect of the power of God and as manifestations of the end-time rule of God (Mt 12:27-28; Mk 3:22-26). The Gospel writers, especially Luke, emphasize the eschatological character of Jesus’ life and ministry by stressing the role of the Spirit in his birth (Mt 1:18; Lk 1:35, 41, 67; 2:25-27), his baptism (Mk 1:9-10; Acts 10:38), and his ministry (Mt 4:1; 12:18; Mk 1:12; Lk 4:1, 14; 10:21; Jn 3:34).<\/p>\n<p>The Christian church began with the in-breathing of the Holy Spirit on the day of Christ’s resurrection (Jn 20:22), followed by the outpouring of the Spirit at Pentecost “in the last days.” The overwhelming experience of vision and inspired utterance was taken as proof positive that the new age prophesied by Joel had now arrived (Acts 2:2-5, 17-18). Similarly, in Hebrews the gift of the Spirit is spoken of as “the powers of the age to come” (Heb 6:4-5). More striking still is Paul’s understanding of the Spirit as the guarantee of God’s complete salvation (2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Eph 1:13-14), and as the first installment of the believer’s inheritance of God’s kingdom (Rom 8:15-17; 1 Cor 6:9-11; 15:42-50; Gal 4:6-7; 5:16-18, 21-23; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit is here again thought of as the power of the age to come, as that power (which will characterize God’s rule at the end of time) already shaping and transforming the lives of believers.<\/p>\n<p>For Paul, this means also that the gift of the Spirit is but the beginning of a lifelong process that will not end until the believer’s whole person is brought under the Spirit’s power (Rom 8:11, 23; 1 Cor 15:44-49; 2 Cor 3:18; 5:1-5). It also means that the present experience of faith is one of lifelong tension between what God has already begun to bring about in the believer’s life and what has not yet been brought under God’s grace (Phil 1:6). It is this tension between life “in the Spirit” and life “in the flesh” (see Gal 2:20) that comes to poignant expression in Romans 7:24 and 2 Corinthians 5:2-4.<\/p>\n<h5>The Spirit of New Life<\/h5>\n<p>Since the Spirit is the mark of the new age, it is not surprising that the NT writers understood the gift of the Spirit to be that which brings an individual into the new age. John the Baptist described the way the coming one would baptize with the Holy Spirit and with fire (Mt 3:11). According to Acts 1:5 and 11:16, this imagery was taken up by Jesus, and the promise is seen as fulfilled at Pentecost—the outpouring of the Spirit here being understood as the risen Christ’s action in drawing his disciples into the new age (Acts 2:17, 33).<\/p>\n<p>It seems to be one of Luke’s aims in the book of Acts to highlight the central importance of the gift of the Spirit in conversion-initiation—it is that decisive “gift of the Holy Spirit” that makes one a Christian (Acts 2:38-39). People could have been followers of Jesus on earth, but it was only when they received the gift of the Spirit that they could be said to have “believed in the Lord Jesus Christ” (11:16-17). When the Spirit’s presence was manifested in and upon a person’s life, that was recognized by Peter as proof enough that God had accepted that person, even though he or she had not yet made any formal profession of faith or been baptized (10:44-48; 11:15-18; 15:7-9). So too Apollos, already aglow with the Spirit (18:25), even though his knowledge of “the way of God” was slightly defective (vv 24-26), apparently was not required to supplement his “baptism of John” with Christian baptism. However, the 12 so-called disciples at Ephesus proved by their very ignorance of the Spirit that they were not yet disciples of the Lord Jesus (19:1-6). Paul asked these 12 men, “Did you receive the Holy Spirit when you believed?” (19:2).<\/p>\n<p>This accords with Paul’s emphasis in his letters. Belief and reception of the Spirit go together: to receive the Spirit is to begin the Christian life (Gal 3:2-3); to be baptized in the Spirit is to become a member of the body of Christ (1 Cor 12:13); to “have the Spirit of Christ” is to belong to Christ (Rom 8:9-11); to receive the Spirit is tantamount to becoming a child of God (Rom 8:14-17; Gal 4:6-7). The Spirit so characterizes the new age and the life of the new age that only the gift of the Spirit can bring a person into the new age to experience the life of the new age. For the Spirit is distinctively and peculiarly the life-giver; the Spirit indeed <em>is<\/em> the life of the new age (Rom 8:2, 6, 10; 1 Cor 15:45; 2 Cor 3:6; Gal 5:25).<\/p>\n<p>In just the same way in John’s writings, the Spirit is characteristically the life-giving Spirit (Jn 6:63), the power from above, the seed of divine life that brings about the new birth (Jn 3:3-8; 1 Jn 3:9), and a river of living water that brings life when one believes in Christ (Jn 7:37-39; so also 4:10, 14). Or again, reception of the Spirit in John 20:22 is depicted as a new creation analogous to Genesis 2:7. Consequently, in 1 John 3:24 and 4:13, possession and experience of the Spirit count as one of the “tests of life” listed in that letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Manifestations of the Spirit<\/h5>\n<p>It will be clear from what has already been said that when the first Christians, like the ancient Hebrews, spoke of the Spirit, they were thinking of experiences of divine power. In the NT, as in the OT, “Spirit” is the word used to explain the experience of new life and vitality (see above), of liberation from legalism (e.g., Rom 8:2; 2 Cor 3:17), of spiritual refreshing and renewal (cf. e.g., Is 32:15; Ez 39:29 with Jn 7:37-39; Rom 5:5; 1 Cor 12:13; 1 Tm 3:5-6). It is important to realize how wide a range of experiences were attributed to the Spirit: ecstatic experiences (Acts 2:24; 10:43-47; 19:6; cf. 10:10; 22:17—“in ecstasy”; 2 Cor 12:1-4; Rv 1:10), emotional experiences (e.g., love—Rom 5:5; joy—Acts 13:52; 1 Thes 1:6; see also Gal 5:22; Phil 2:1-2), experiences of illumination (2 Cor 3:14-17; Eph 1:17-18; Heb 6:4-5; 1 Jn 2:20-21), and experiences issuing in moral transformation (1 Cor 6:9-11). Likewise, when Paul speaks of spiritual gifts, called <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">charismata<\/span> (acts or words that bring divine grace to concrete expression), he evidently has a wide range of actual events in mind: inspired speech (1 Cor 12:8-10; 1 Thes 1:5), miracles and healings (1 Cor 12:9; Gal 3:5; cf. Heb 2:4), and various acts of service and help, of counsel and administration, and of aid and mercy (Rom 12:7-8; 1 Cor 12:28).<\/p>\n<p>In talking thus of the Spirit in terms of experience, we should not overemphasize particular experiences or manifestations, as though earliest Christianity consisted of a sequence of mountaintop experiences or spiritual highs. There clearly were such experiences, indeed a wide range of experiences, but no one experience is singled out to be sought by all (except prophecy). There is no distinctively second (or third) experience of the Spirit in the NT, and Paul warned against overvaluing particular manifestations of the Spirit (1 Cor 14:6-19; 2 Cor 12:1-10; cf. Mk 8:11-13). Where particular experiences are valued, it is as manifestations of a more sustained experience, particular expressions of an underlying relationship (cf. Acts 6:3-5; 11:24—“full of the Spirit”; Eph 5:18). What we are in touch with here is the vigor of the experiential dimension of earliest Christianity. If the Spirit is the breath of the new life in Christ (cf. Ez 37:9-10, 14; Jn 20:22; 1 Cor 15:45), then presumably the analogy extends further, and the experience of the Spirit is like the experience of breathing: one is not conscious of it all the time, but if one is not conscious of it, at least sometimes, something is wrong.<\/p>\n<h5>The Fellowship of the Spirit<\/h5>\n<p>It was out of this shared experience of the Spirit that the earliest Christian community grew and developed, for this is what “the fellowship [<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">koinonia<\/span>] of the Spirit” properly means: common participation in the same Spirit (Phil 2:1; cf. Acts 2:42; 1 Cor 1:4-9). It was the gift of the Spirit that brought those in Samaria, Caesarea, and elsewhere effectively into the community of the Spirit (Act 8, 10). So also, it was the experience of the one Spirit that provided the unifying bond in the churches of Paul’s mission (1 Cor 12:13; Eph 4:3-4; Phil 2:1-2). Here we see the real importance of the divine manifestations of the Spirit for Paul: it is out of the diversity of these particular manifestations that the body of Christ grows in unity (Rom 12:4-8; 1 Cor 12:12-17; Eph 4:4-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"SPIRIT OF GOD Description of God in action, God in motion. The word “spirit” (Hebrew, ruach; Greek, pneuma) is the word used from ancient times to describe and explain the experience of divine power working in, upon, and around people. In the Old Testament There are three basic meanings evident in the use of “spirit” from the earliest Hebrew writings: It was a wind from God, it was the breath of life, and it was a spirit of ecstasy. First, it was a wind from God (the same Hebrew word translat...","summary_en":"SPIRIT OF GOD Description of God in action, God in motion. The word “spirit” (Hebrew, ruach; Greek, pneuma) is the word used from ancient times to describe and explain the experience of divine power working in, upon, and around people. In the Old Testament There are three basic meanings evident in the use of “spirit” from the earliest Hebrew writings: It was a wind from God, it was the breath of life, and it was a spirit of ecstasy. First, it was a wind from God (the same Hebrew word translat...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37534,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Speaking in Tongues","title_en":"Speaking in Tongues","content_ro":"<h3>TONGUES, Speaking in<\/h3>\n<p>Supernatural manifestation of speech in a language not known to the speaker; the Greek term is <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">glossolalia<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tongues-speaking was first manifested in the early church on the Day of Pentecost, when the Holy Spirit filled 120 Christians meeting together. They burst out in praise to God in a multitude of different languages. According to Acts 2:8-11, the audience of Jerusalem could understand them, since they were communicating the gospel in the hearers’ own languages. (Verses 9-11 list about 16 nations whose representatives in Jerusalem hear the disciples speaking in their own language.) In subsequent occurrences, when a group of people were baptized in the Holy Spirit, the book of Acts indicates that they spoke in tongues (10:46; 19:6). But not all spoke in tongues when they received the Spirit (see 8:15-17), so it wasn’t <em>the<\/em> unique sign for having received the Holy Spirit. The Scripture teaches that all believers are baptized by the Spirit as they become integrated into the body of Christ, the church (1 Cor 12:13). The genuine evidence of the work of the Holy Spirit is the “fruit of the Spirit” as defined in Galatians 5:22-23.<\/p>\n<p>In the days of the early church, some Christians spoke in tongues and some didn’t. According to Paul, speaking in tongues, when practiced in the church meetings, required interpretation. If no one could give an interpretation, it was to be practiced as a private devotional exercise, for one’s own edification. As a means of private worship, the practice of glossolalia is tantamount to speaking to oneself and to God (1 Cor 14:28). However, under certain conditions formulated by Paul, glossolalia may become one of the spiritual gifts to be used in ministry to the church for the common good. In this case, the main concern is that the public use of glossolalia not be reduced to praying in tongues or speaking in tongues without interpretation.<\/p>\n<p> In order to establish firmly the public practice of glossolalia as a ministry to the church and to prevent its abuse as a quest for personal fulfillment, Paul put forth a set of rules designed to control its corporate exercise (1 Cor 14:27-33):<\/p>\n<p>1. A limit of one, two, or three persons is set for participation in tongues per worship session.<\/p>\n<li>2. The one, two, or three tongues-speakers are to make their contribution in sequence, “one at a time” or “in turn,” never simultaneously.<\/li>\n<li>3. Before a worshiper decides to speak in tongues, he or she is to secure an interpreter. Should no such person be available, he or she is to refrain from speaking in tongues.<\/li>\n<li>4. The person speaking in tongues should not be the one to provide the interpretation (1 Cor 12:10).<\/li>\n<li>5. If there are too many believers speaking in tongues and not enough interpreters, the former should pray, instead, for the power to interpret (1 Cor 14:13).<\/li>\n<li>6. When the contribution in tongues has been interpreted in intelligible language, it becomes a prophecy that needs to be evaluated by the recipients.<\/li>\n<li>7. The genuineness of the experience is to be tested by those who have the ability to distinguish between spirits (1 Cor 12:10) so that they can test everything, hold fast to what is good, and abstain from every form of evil.<\/li>\n<p>Persons participating in worship should be in control of their conduct at all times. They may not appeal to ecstatic states to excuse disorderly conduct or infractions to the rules of worship. Disorder and confusion are not inspired by God, since he is a God of peace and unity.<\/p>\n<p>The gift of tongues is not to be desired or sought after. Only the “higher gifts” involving communication through directly intelligible speech are to be earnestly desired (1 Cor 12:31; 14:1, 5). However, should the gift of tongues be present, it should not be stifled, provided it can be used according to the rules and for the common good.<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Baptism of the Spirit; Spiritual Gifts.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TONGUES, Speaking in<\/h3>\n<p>Supernatural manifestation of speech in a language not known to the speaker; the Greek term is <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">glossolalia<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tongues-speaking was first manifested in the early church on the Day of Pentecost, when the Holy Spirit filled 120 Christians meeting together. They burst out in praise to God in a multitude of different languages. According to Acts 2:8-11, the audience of Jerusalem could understand them, since they were communicating the gospel in the hearers’ own languages. (Verses 9-11 list about 16 nations whose representatives in Jerusalem hear the disciples speaking in their own language.) In subsequent occurrences, when a group of people were baptized in the Holy Spirit, the book of Acts indicates that they spoke in tongues (10:46; 19:6). But not all spoke in tongues when they received the Spirit (see 8:15-17), so it wasn’t <em>the<\/em> unique sign for having received the Holy Spirit. The Scripture teaches that all believers are baptized by the Spirit as they become integrated into the body of Christ, the church (1 Cor 12:13). The genuine evidence of the work of the Holy Spirit is the “fruit of the Spirit” as defined in Galatians 5:22-23.<\/p>\n<p>In the days of the early church, some Christians spoke in tongues and some didn’t. According to Paul, speaking in tongues, when practiced in the church meetings, required interpretation. If no one could give an interpretation, it was to be practiced as a private devotional exercise, for one’s own edification. As a means of private worship, the practice of glossolalia is tantamount to speaking to oneself and to God (1 Cor 14:28). However, under certain conditions formulated by Paul, glossolalia may become one of the spiritual gifts to be used in ministry to the church for the common good. In this case, the main concern is that the public use of glossolalia not be reduced to praying in tongues or speaking in tongues without interpretation.<\/p>\n<p> In order to establish firmly the public practice of glossolalia as a ministry to the church and to prevent its abuse as a quest for personal fulfillment, Paul put forth a set of rules designed to control its corporate exercise (1 Cor 14:27-33):<\/p>\n<p>1. A limit of one, two, or three persons is set for participation in tongues per worship session.<\/p>\n<li>2. The one, two, or three tongues-speakers are to make their contribution in sequence, “one at a time” or “in turn,” never simultaneously.<\/li>\n<li>3. Before a worshiper decides to speak in tongues, he or she is to secure an interpreter. Should no such person be available, he or she is to refrain from speaking in tongues.<\/li>\n<li>4. The person speaking in tongues should not be the one to provide the interpretation (1 Cor 12:10).<\/li>\n<li>5. If there are too many believers speaking in tongues and not enough interpreters, the former should pray, instead, for the power to interpret (1 Cor 14:13).<\/li>\n<li>6. When the contribution in tongues has been interpreted in intelligible language, it becomes a prophecy that needs to be evaluated by the recipients.<\/li>\n<li>7. The genuineness of the experience is to be tested by those who have the ability to distinguish between spirits (1 Cor 12:10) so that they can test everything, hold fast to what is good, and abstain from every form of evil.<\/li>\n<p>Persons participating in worship should be in control of their conduct at all times. They may not appeal to ecstatic states to excuse disorderly conduct or infractions to the rules of worship. Disorder and confusion are not inspired by God, since he is a God of peace and unity.<\/p>\n<p>The gift of tongues is not to be desired or sought after. Only the “higher gifts” involving communication through directly intelligible speech are to be earnestly desired (1 Cor 12:31; 14:1, 5). However, should the gift of tongues be present, it should not be stifled, provided it can be used according to the rules and for the common good.<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Baptism of the Spirit; Spiritual Gifts.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TONGUES, Speaking in Supernatural manifestation of speech in a language not known to the speaker; the Greek term is glossolalia. Tongues-speaking was first manifested in the early church on the Day of Pentecost, when the Holy Spirit filled 120 Christians meeting together. They burst out in praise to God in a multitude of different languages. According to Acts 2:8-11, the audience of Jerusalem could understand them, since they were communicating the gospel in the hearers’ own languages. (Verse...","summary_en":"TONGUES, Speaking in Supernatural manifestation of speech in a language not known to the speaker; the Greek term is glossolalia. Tongues-speaking was first manifested in the early church on the Day of Pentecost, when the Holy Spirit filled 120 Christians meeting together. They burst out in praise to God in a multitude of different languages. According to Acts 2:8-11, the audience of Jerusalem could understand them, since they were communicating the gospel in the hearers’ own languages. (Verse...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57047,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:6","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:6<\/strong> When Paul <em>laid his hands on them<\/em> they received the <em>Holy Spirit, spoke in other tongues<\/em> and <em>prophesied<\/em><em>,<\/em> thereby experiencing the same filling with God’s power and presence that the disciples had received on the day of Pentecost (2:4, 11).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:6<\/strong> When Paul <em>laid his hands on them<\/em> they received the <em>Holy Spirit, spoke in other tongues<\/em> and <em>prophesied<\/em><em>,<\/em> thereby experiencing the same filling with God’s power and presence that the disciples had received on the day of Pentecost (2:4, 11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:6 When Paul laid his hands on them they received the Holy Spirit, spoke in other tongues and prophesied, thereby experiencing the same filling with God’s power and presence that the disciples had received on the day of Pentecost (2:4, 11).","summary_en":"19:6 When Paul laid his hands on them they received the Holy Spirit, spoke in other tongues and prophesied, thereby experiencing the same filling with God’s power and presence that the disciples had received on the day of Pentecost (2:4, 11).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84673,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:6","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:6<\/strong> When Paul <em>laid his hands on them<\/em> they received the <em>Holy Spirit, spoke in other tongues<\/em> and <em>prophesied<\/em><em>,<\/em> thereby experiencing the same filling with God’s power and presence that the disciples had received on the day of Pentecost (2:4, 11).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:6<\/strong> When Paul <em>laid his hands on them<\/em> they received the <em>Holy Spirit, spoke in other tongues<\/em> and <em>prophesied<\/em><em>,<\/em> thereby experiencing the same filling with God’s power and presence that the disciples had received on the day of Pentecost (2:4, 11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:6 When Paul laid his hands on them they received the Holy Spirit, spoke in other tongues and prophesied, thereby experiencing the same filling with God’s power and presence that the disciples had received on the day of Pentecost (2:4, 11).","summary_en":"19:6 When Paul laid his hands on them they received the Holy Spirit, spoke in other tongues and prophesied, thereby experiencing the same filling with God’s power and presence that the disciples had received on the day of Pentecost (2:4, 11).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112299,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:6","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:6<\/strong> When Paul <em>laid his hands on them<\/em> they received the <em>Holy Spirit, spoke in other tongues<\/em> and <em>prophesied<\/em><em>,<\/em> thereby experiencing the same filling with God’s power and presence that the disciples had received on the day of Pentecost (2:4, 11).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:6<\/strong> When Paul <em>laid his hands on them<\/em> they received the <em>Holy Spirit, spoke in other tongues<\/em> and <em>prophesied<\/em><em>,<\/em> thereby experiencing the same filling with God’s power and presence that the disciples had received on the day of Pentecost (2:4, 11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:6 When Paul laid his hands on them they received the Holy Spirit, spoke in other tongues and prophesied, thereby experiencing the same filling with God’s power and presence that the disciples had received on the day of Pentecost (2:4, 11).","summary_en":"19:6 When Paul laid his hands on them they received the Holy Spirit, spoke in other tongues and prophesied, thereby experiencing the same filling with God’s power and presence that the disciples had received on the day of Pentecost (2:4, 11).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139925,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:6","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:6<\/strong> When Paul <em>laid his hands on them<\/em> they received the <em>Holy Spirit, spoke in other tongues<\/em> and <em>prophesied<\/em><em>,<\/em> thereby experiencing the same filling with God’s power and presence that the disciples had received on the day of Pentecost (2:4, 11).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:6<\/strong> When Paul <em>laid his hands on them<\/em> they received the <em>Holy Spirit, spoke in other tongues<\/em> and <em>prophesied<\/em><em>,<\/em> thereby experiencing the same filling with God’s power and presence that the disciples had received on the day of Pentecost (2:4, 11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:6 When Paul laid his hands on them they received the Holy Spirit, spoke in other tongues and prophesied, thereby experiencing the same filling with God’s power and presence that the disciples had received on the day of Pentecost (2:4, 11).","summary_en":"19:6 When Paul laid his hands on them they received the Holy Spirit, spoke in other tongues and prophesied, thereby experiencing the same filling with God’s power and presence that the disciples had received on the day of Pentecost (2:4, 11).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":60641,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Spirit Empowerment","title_en":"Spirit Empowerment","content_ro":"<h3>Spirit Empowerment<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord redistributed the Spirit that Moses already possessed and empowered these men for service (Num 11:24-25).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua was empowered by the Lord’s Spirit as Moses’ successor (Num 27:18; cp. Deut 34:9). In the period of the Judges, the Spirit of the Lord came to the aid of Israel’s leaders as, for example, in the work of Othniel (Judg 3:10), Gideon (Judg 6:34), Jephthah (Judg 11:29), and Samson (Judg 13:25; 14:6, 19; 15:14). David had access to the strength of God’s presence, and his awareness of God’s actions—in history and in his own experience—made him a great leader (e.g., 1 Sam 16:13; 17:45; 18:12, 28). The prophets knew that their special ministry was possible because of the Spirit’s presence and power (e.g., Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Zech 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was filled with God’s Spirit and empowered for a unique ministry (see Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 10:38), and he spoke about the Spirit’s special role in the church (Acts 1:8). The arrival of the Spirit enabled the assembled believers to speak powerfully on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:4-5, 16-18; cp. Joel 2:28-29). The Spirit emboldened and empowered the church after Pentecost (Acts 4:31; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5) and remains with God’s people today. The Spirit moves as circumstances require to provide spiritual renewal and strength to God’s people, and the Spirit continues to equip God’s people for whatever tasks he calls them to do.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 11:16-30; 24:1-9; 27:18-23; Deut 34:10-12; Judg 3:9-10; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 16:13; Pss 23; 46:1; 94:16-19; 116:1-9; 121:1-8; 143:10-12; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Joel 2:28-29; Zech 4:6; Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 1:8; 2:4, 16-18; 4:31; 10:38; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Spirit Empowerment<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord redistributed the Spirit that Moses already possessed and empowered these men for service (Num 11:24-25).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua was empowered by the Lord’s Spirit as Moses’ successor (Num 27:18; cp. Deut 34:9). In the period of the Judges, the Spirit of the Lord came to the aid of Israel’s leaders as, for example, in the work of Othniel (Judg 3:10), Gideon (Judg 6:34), Jephthah (Judg 11:29), and Samson (Judg 13:25; 14:6, 19; 15:14). David had access to the strength of God’s presence, and his awareness of God’s actions—in history and in his own experience—made him a great leader (e.g., 1 Sam 16:13; 17:45; 18:12, 28). The prophets knew that their special ministry was possible because of the Spirit’s presence and power (e.g., Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Zech 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was filled with God’s Spirit and empowered for a unique ministry (see Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 10:38), and he spoke about the Spirit’s special role in the church (Acts 1:8). The arrival of the Spirit enabled the assembled believers to speak powerfully on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:4-5, 16-18; cp. Joel 2:28-29). The Spirit emboldened and empowered the church after Pentecost (Acts 4:31; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5) and remains with God’s people today. The Spirit moves as circumstances require to provide spiritual renewal and strength to God’s people, and the Spirit continues to equip God’s people for whatever tasks he calls them to do.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 11:16-30; 24:1-9; 27:18-23; Deut 34:10-12; Judg 3:9-10; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 16:13; Pss 23; 46:1; 94:16-19; 116:1-9; 121:1-8; 143:10-12; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Joel 2:28-29; Zech 4:6; Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 1:8; 2:4, 16-18; 4:31; 10:38; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Spirit Empowerment Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord re...","summary_en":"Spirit Empowerment Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord re...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66604,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy","title_en":"The Gift of Prophecy","content_ro":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\n<p>As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also <em>The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Philip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Although prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\n<p>Prophecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\n<p>As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also <em>The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Philip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Although prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\n<p>Prophecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","summary_en":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":88267,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Spirit Empowerment","title_en":"Spirit Empowerment","content_ro":"<h3>Spirit Empowerment<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord redistributed the Spirit that Moses already possessed and empowered these men for service (Num 11:24-25).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua was empowered by the Lord’s Spirit as Moses’ successor (Num 27:18; cp. Deut 34:9). In the period of the Judges, the Spirit of the Lord came to the aid of Israel’s leaders as, for example, in the work of Othniel (Judg 3:10), Gideon (Judg 6:34), Jephthah (Judg 11:29), and Samson (Judg 13:25; 14:6, 19; 15:14). David had access to the strength of God’s presence, and his awareness of God’s actions—in history and in his own experience—made him a great leader (e.g., 1 Sam 16:13; 17:45; 18:12, 28). The prophets knew that their special ministry was possible because of the Spirit’s presence and power (e.g., Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Zech 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was filled with God’s Spirit and empowered for a unique ministry (see Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 10:38), and he spoke about the Spirit’s special role in the church (Acts 1:8). The arrival of the Spirit enabled the assembled believers to speak powerfully on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:4-5, 16-18; cp. Joel 2:28-29). The Spirit emboldened and empowered the church after Pentecost (Acts 4:31; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5) and remains with God’s people today. The Spirit moves as circumstances require to provide spiritual renewal and strength to God’s people, and the Spirit continues to equip God’s people for whatever tasks he calls them to do.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 11:16-30; 24:1-9; 27:18-23; Deut 34:10-12; Judg 3:9-10; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 16:13; Pss 23; 46:1; 94:16-19; 116:1-9; 121:1-8; 143:10-12; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Joel 2:28-29; Zech 4:6; Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 1:8; 2:4, 16-18; 4:31; 10:38; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Spirit Empowerment<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord redistributed the Spirit that Moses already possessed and empowered these men for service (Num 11:24-25).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua was empowered by the Lord’s Spirit as Moses’ successor (Num 27:18; cp. Deut 34:9). In the period of the Judges, the Spirit of the Lord came to the aid of Israel’s leaders as, for example, in the work of Othniel (Judg 3:10), Gideon (Judg 6:34), Jephthah (Judg 11:29), and Samson (Judg 13:25; 14:6, 19; 15:14). David had access to the strength of God’s presence, and his awareness of God’s actions—in history and in his own experience—made him a great leader (e.g., 1 Sam 16:13; 17:45; 18:12, 28). The prophets knew that their special ministry was possible because of the Spirit’s presence and power (e.g., Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Zech 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was filled with God’s Spirit and empowered for a unique ministry (see Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 10:38), and he spoke about the Spirit’s special role in the church (Acts 1:8). The arrival of the Spirit enabled the assembled believers to speak powerfully on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:4-5, 16-18; cp. Joel 2:28-29). The Spirit emboldened and empowered the church after Pentecost (Acts 4:31; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5) and remains with God’s people today. The Spirit moves as circumstances require to provide spiritual renewal and strength to God’s people, and the Spirit continues to equip God’s people for whatever tasks he calls them to do.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 11:16-30; 24:1-9; 27:18-23; Deut 34:10-12; Judg 3:9-10; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 16:13; Pss 23; 46:1; 94:16-19; 116:1-9; 121:1-8; 143:10-12; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Joel 2:28-29; Zech 4:6; Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 1:8; 2:4, 16-18; 4:31; 10:38; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Spirit Empowerment Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord re...","summary_en":"Spirit Empowerment Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord re...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":94230,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy","title_en":"The Gift of Prophecy","content_ro":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\n<p>As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also <em>The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Philip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Although prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\n<p>Prophecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\n<p>As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also <em>The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Philip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Although prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\n<p>Prophecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","summary_en":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115893,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Spirit Empowerment","title_en":"Spirit Empowerment","content_ro":"<h3>Spirit Empowerment<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord redistributed the Spirit that Moses already possessed and empowered these men for service (Num 11:24-25).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua was empowered by the Lord’s Spirit as Moses’ successor (Num 27:18; cp. Deut 34:9). In the period of the Judges, the Spirit of the Lord came to the aid of Israel’s leaders as, for example, in the work of Othniel (Judg 3:10), Gideon (Judg 6:34), Jephthah (Judg 11:29), and Samson (Judg 13:25; 14:6, 19; 15:14). David had access to the strength of God’s presence, and his awareness of God’s actions—in history and in his own experience—made him a great leader (e.g., 1 Sam 16:13; 17:45; 18:12, 28). The prophets knew that their special ministry was possible because of the Spirit’s presence and power (e.g., Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Zech 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was filled with God’s Spirit and empowered for a unique ministry (see Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 10:38), and he spoke about the Spirit’s special role in the church (Acts 1:8). The arrival of the Spirit enabled the assembled believers to speak powerfully on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:4-5, 16-18; cp. Joel 2:28-29). The Spirit emboldened and empowered the church after Pentecost (Acts 4:31; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5) and remains with God’s people today. The Spirit moves as circumstances require to provide spiritual renewal and strength to God’s people, and the Spirit continues to equip God’s people for whatever tasks he calls them to do.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 11:16-30; 24:1-9; 27:18-23; Deut 34:10-12; Judg 3:9-10; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 16:13; Pss 23; 46:1; 94:16-19; 116:1-9; 121:1-8; 143:10-12; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Joel 2:28-29; Zech 4:6; Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 1:8; 2:4, 16-18; 4:31; 10:38; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Spirit Empowerment<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord redistributed the Spirit that Moses already possessed and empowered these men for service (Num 11:24-25).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua was empowered by the Lord’s Spirit as Moses’ successor (Num 27:18; cp. Deut 34:9). In the period of the Judges, the Spirit of the Lord came to the aid of Israel’s leaders as, for example, in the work of Othniel (Judg 3:10), Gideon (Judg 6:34), Jephthah (Judg 11:29), and Samson (Judg 13:25; 14:6, 19; 15:14). David had access to the strength of God’s presence, and his awareness of God’s actions—in history and in his own experience—made him a great leader (e.g., 1 Sam 16:13; 17:45; 18:12, 28). The prophets knew that their special ministry was possible because of the Spirit’s presence and power (e.g., Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Zech 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was filled with God’s Spirit and empowered for a unique ministry (see Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 10:38), and he spoke about the Spirit’s special role in the church (Acts 1:8). The arrival of the Spirit enabled the assembled believers to speak powerfully on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:4-5, 16-18; cp. Joel 2:28-29). The Spirit emboldened and empowered the church after Pentecost (Acts 4:31; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5) and remains with God’s people today. The Spirit moves as circumstances require to provide spiritual renewal and strength to God’s people, and the Spirit continues to equip God’s people for whatever tasks he calls them to do.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 11:16-30; 24:1-9; 27:18-23; Deut 34:10-12; Judg 3:9-10; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 16:13; Pss 23; 46:1; 94:16-19; 116:1-9; 121:1-8; 143:10-12; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Joel 2:28-29; Zech 4:6; Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 1:8; 2:4, 16-18; 4:31; 10:38; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Spirit Empowerment Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord re...","summary_en":"Spirit Empowerment Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord re...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121856,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy","title_en":"The Gift of Prophecy","content_ro":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\n<p>As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also <em>The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Philip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Although prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\n<p>Prophecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\n<p>As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also <em>The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Philip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Although prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\n<p>Prophecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","summary_en":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143519,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Spirit Empowerment","title_en":"Spirit Empowerment","content_ro":"<h3>Spirit Empowerment<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord redistributed the Spirit that Moses already possessed and empowered these men for service (Num 11:24-25).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua was empowered by the Lord’s Spirit as Moses’ successor (Num 27:18; cp. Deut 34:9). In the period of the Judges, the Spirit of the Lord came to the aid of Israel’s leaders as, for example, in the work of Othniel (Judg 3:10), Gideon (Judg 6:34), Jephthah (Judg 11:29), and Samson (Judg 13:25; 14:6, 19; 15:14). David had access to the strength of God’s presence, and his awareness of God’s actions—in history and in his own experience—made him a great leader (e.g., 1 Sam 16:13; 17:45; 18:12, 28). The prophets knew that their special ministry was possible because of the Spirit’s presence and power (e.g., Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Zech 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was filled with God’s Spirit and empowered for a unique ministry (see Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 10:38), and he spoke about the Spirit’s special role in the church (Acts 1:8). The arrival of the Spirit enabled the assembled believers to speak powerfully on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:4-5, 16-18; cp. Joel 2:28-29). The Spirit emboldened and empowered the church after Pentecost (Acts 4:31; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5) and remains with God’s people today. The Spirit moves as circumstances require to provide spiritual renewal and strength to God’s people, and the Spirit continues to equip God’s people for whatever tasks he calls them to do.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 11:16-30; 24:1-9; 27:18-23; Deut 34:10-12; Judg 3:9-10; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 16:13; Pss 23; 46:1; 94:16-19; 116:1-9; 121:1-8; 143:10-12; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Joel 2:28-29; Zech 4:6; Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 1:8; 2:4, 16-18; 4:31; 10:38; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Spirit Empowerment<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord redistributed the Spirit that Moses already possessed and empowered these men for service (Num 11:24-25).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua was empowered by the Lord’s Spirit as Moses’ successor (Num 27:18; cp. Deut 34:9). In the period of the Judges, the Spirit of the Lord came to the aid of Israel’s leaders as, for example, in the work of Othniel (Judg 3:10), Gideon (Judg 6:34), Jephthah (Judg 11:29), and Samson (Judg 13:25; 14:6, 19; 15:14). David had access to the strength of God’s presence, and his awareness of God’s actions—in history and in his own experience—made him a great leader (e.g., 1 Sam 16:13; 17:45; 18:12, 28). The prophets knew that their special ministry was possible because of the Spirit’s presence and power (e.g., Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Zech 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was filled with God’s Spirit and empowered for a unique ministry (see Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 10:38), and he spoke about the Spirit’s special role in the church (Acts 1:8). The arrival of the Spirit enabled the assembled believers to speak powerfully on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:4-5, 16-18; cp. Joel 2:28-29). The Spirit emboldened and empowered the church after Pentecost (Acts 4:31; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5) and remains with God’s people today. The Spirit moves as circumstances require to provide spiritual renewal and strength to God’s people, and the Spirit continues to equip God’s people for whatever tasks he calls them to do.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 11:16-30; 24:1-9; 27:18-23; Deut 34:10-12; Judg 3:9-10; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 16:13; Pss 23; 46:1; 94:16-19; 116:1-9; 121:1-8; 143:10-12; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Joel 2:28-29; Zech 4:6; Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 1:8; 2:4, 16-18; 4:31; 10:38; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Spirit Empowerment Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord re...","summary_en":"Spirit Empowerment Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord re...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149482,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy","title_en":"The Gift of Prophecy","content_ro":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\n<p>As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also <em>The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Philip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Although prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\n<p>Prophecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\n<p>As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also <em>The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Philip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Although prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\n<p>Prophecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","summary_en":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":6620,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Church Meetings","title_en":"Church Meetings","content_ro":"<h3>CHURCH MEETINGS<\/h3>\n<p>The assembling together of the believers. In the NT, the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> (usually translated “church”) is used primarily in two ways: (1) to describe a meeting or an assembly, and (2) to designate the people who participate in such assembling together—whether they are actually assembled or not. The NT contains a few places that speak of a secular Greek assembly (Acts 19:32, 41); every other instance speaks of a Christian assembly. Sometimes the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> is used to designate the actual meeting together of Christians. This is certainly what Paul intended in 1 Corinthians 14:19, 28, and 35, in that the expression <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">en ekklesia<\/span> must mean “in a meeting” and not “in the church.” To translate this phrase “in the church” (as is done in most modern English versions) is misleading, for most readers will think it means “in the church building.” The NT never once names the place of assembly a “church.” Aside from the few instances where the word clearly means the actual meeting together of believers, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> most often is used as a descriptor for the believers who constitute a local church (such as the church in Corinth, the church in Philippi, and the church in Colosse) or all the believers (past, present, and future) who constitute the universal church, the complete body of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>When reading the NT, Christians need to be aware of the various ways in which the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> (“church”) is used. On the most basic level, the <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> is any gathering of believers. On another level, the <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> is an organized local entity—comprised of all the believers in any given locality, under one pluralistic eldership. On another level, the <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> is the universal church whose constituents are all the believers who have ever been, are now existing, and will ever be. The word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> was used by the NT writers with these various aspects of meaning, though, at times, it is not possible to differentiate one from the other. Nevertheless, students of the NT could avoid some confusion if they used discrimination in their exegesis of the text. Some interpreters have taught that the smallest unit of the church is the local church, but the NT writers sometimes used the word “church” to indicate a small home gathering. Other interpreters confuse the local church with the universal church. But some things in the NT are addressed to a local church that do not necessarily apply to the whole church, and some great things are spoken of the universal church that could never be attained by any particular local group. The things Paul said about the church in the Epistle to the Ephesians (which was written as an encyclical for several churches and not just for the church in Ephesus) could never be attained by a local church. For example, what local church could attain to the fullness of the stature of Christ?<\/p>\n<p>There is much to be said about how interpreters have confused the local church with the universal church, but this article is devoted to clearing up the confusion about what constitutes the smallest unit of the church—the local church, or what could be called the house church or home gathering.<\/p>\n<p>The NT seems to present the fact that a particular local church (i.e., a church comprising all the believers in a given locality under one eldership) could and did have several <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span>—“meetings” or “assemblies” (carried on in homes of the local Christians). Thus, the smallest unit to comprise a “church” was one of these home meetings. However, there is no indication in the NT that each of these home meetings had its own eldership or was a distinct entity separate from the other gatherings <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span><em>)<\/em> in the same locality. According to Acts 14:23 and Titus 1:5, elders were appointed for every local church (compare the expressions “appointed elders in every church” and “appoint elders in every city”)—not for every house church. Nevertheless, it appears that every local church of some size had several such <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span> (“meetings”) going on within that locality.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Jerusalem must have had several home meetings (see Acts 2:46; 5:42; 8:3; 12:5, 12), as did the church in Rome (see Rom 16:3-5, 14-15 and comments below). A small local church may have had only one home gathering—as was probably the case with the church at Colosse (see Phlm 1:2 and comments below), but this would have been impossible for large local churches like those in Jerusalem, Rome, and Ephesus, in which there must have been several “house churches” (see 1 Cor 16:19-20 [1 Cor was written from Ephesus] and comments below). An examination of the passages that deal with the issue of the “house church” should affirm this. These passages are Romans 16:3-5, 14-15; 1 Corinthians 16:19-20; Colossians 4:15-16; and Philemon 1:1-2 (all quoted from the <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h4>Romans 16:3-5, 14-15<\/h4>\n<p>In the last chapter of Romans, Paul asked the believers in Rome, to whom he had written this epistle, to greet Priscilla and Aquila and the church that met in their home (16:3-5). The entire church in Rome could not have met in Priscilla and Aquila’s home, for the church was much too large to have assembled in a single home. Rather, the church in Priscilla and Aquila’s home must have been one among several such “house churches” in Rome. The following discussion should substantiate this position.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s Epistle to the Romans was addressed to “all God’s beloved in Rome” (1:7), not to “the church in Rome.” At the time of writing, Paul had not been to Rome—nor had any other apostle. The church was probably started there by Jewish Romans who had been converted during their visit to Jerusalem during Pentecost (Acts 2:10) and then returned to Rome. Since the church had not been started by an apostle, it could have been that there were no “ordained” elders in the church at Rome and that there were several gatherings of believers in various parts of Rome and its suburbs. Paul knew some of the saints in Rome (whom he addressed by name in the last chapter) and thus addressed an epistle to all the saints in that locality, instead of to the church in that locality—which was his usual practice (see 1 Cor 1:1; 2 Cor 1:1; 1 Thes 1:1; 2 Thes 1:1). Nonetheless, “all the saints in Rome” would comprise “the church in Rome” (cf. Phil 1:1, in which Paul addressed his epistle to all the saints in Philippi).<\/p>\n<p>In the final chapter of Romans, Paul asks all the believers in Rome (which equals the “local” church in Rome) to greet the church in Priscilla and Aquila’s house. Later in the chapter, Paul asks the church to greet Asyncritus, Phlegon, Hermas, Patrobas, Hermes, and the brothers with them; and then again he asks the church to greet Philologus, Julia, Nereus and his sister, Olympas, and all the saints with them (16:14-15). Evidently, Paul was identifying two other groups of believers who must have met together. (And perhaps Paul was referring to two more groups in 16:10-11, which in the Greek could mean the ones of Aristobulus’s and Narcissus’s <em>households<\/em> or the ones of their <em>fellowships.<\/em>) It seems that the church in Rome, like the church in Jerusalem and Ephesus, had several home <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span> (meetings).<\/p>\n<p>The Epistle to the Romans was written around <span>AD<\/span> 58. The Neronian persecution began around <span>AD<\/span> 64. Secular historians such as Tacitus tell us that a vast multitude <em>(ingens multitudo)<\/em> of Christians were tortured and killed during this persecution (<em>Annals<\/em> 15.44). Seutonius (in his book <em>Nero,<\/em> ch 16) said that the rapid increase of the Christians in Rome had made them unpopular. Indeed, at the time Paul penned the Epistle to the Romans he said their faith was known throughout the world (1:8), which indicates that the church in Rome had already made an impact on the Mediterranean world. When Paul came to Rome three years later (<span>AD<\/span> 61), he came to a city that had a large church there already. From Romans 15:23, we know that the church had been in existence for many years even before Paul wrote his epistle to them. In short, the church in Rome was a large church around the time Paul wrote his epistle to them. The entire church could not have met in the home of Aquila and Priscilla, who would have had only a modest-sized dwelling (for they were tentmakers). Besides, Paul greeted over 25 individuals by name in chapter 16—and he had not yet even been to Rome!<\/p>\n<p>There must have been several <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span> in Rome, i.e., several home churches all unified as the one local church in Rome. For example, the Christians in Rome apparently worshiped in numerous homes such as Priscilla and Aquila’s. Other churches in homes are mentioned in Colossians 4:15 and Philemon 1:2. Groups of Christians met in houses of prominent believers or in other available rooms (cf. Mt 26:16; Acts 12:12; 1 Cor 16:19; Col 4:15; Phlm 1:2). The church in Priscilla and Aquila’s house is the first of five groups of believers in Paul’s list, but the only one referred to definitely as a church (see Rom 16:5, 10-11, 14-15). Priscilla and Aquila opened their home for Christian meetings. The church mentioned there was obviously only a part of the total number of Christians in Rome. Verses 10-11 and 14-15 seem to refer to two other household churches in Rome. Apparently, there were at least three churches there, and probably more. Each house church could not have been a separate entity with a separate church government; rather, each house church must have been simply one home meeting of some of the saints in the one local church at Rome.<\/p>\n<h4>1 Corinthians 16:19-20<\/h4>\n<p>In this passage we again see Aquila and Priscilla and again discover that a church met in their house. According to Romans, their house church was, of course, in Rome. According to 1 Corinthians (written from Ephesus), their house church was in Ephesus. Many scholars think Aquila and Priscilla left Rome around <span>AD<\/span> 49 at the time of Claudius’s edict expelling Jews from Rome. They very well could have already been Christians at this time. According to Acts 18, they joined Paul in Corinth (where they all worked together in their craft of tentmaking) and then went on with him to Ephesus, during the time (around <span>AD<\/span> 51) the church in Ephesus was first established. Paul continued on with his second missionary journey, while Aquila and Priscilla remained in Ephesus. No doubt, the early church there first met in their home. Paul returned to Ephesus a few years later and remained there for two years (around <span>AD<\/span> 53–54). During this time, Paul’s proclamation of the gospel went out from Ephesus (as a center) to all of Asia Minor (see Acts 19:8-10). As this was going on, the church in Ephesus grew (see vv 18-20).<\/p>\n<p>It was during these years that Paul wrote to the Corinthians, in which he sent greetings from the churches in Asia, from Aquila and Priscilla—and the church in their house, and from all the brothers (1 Cor 16:19-20). In giving this kind of greeting, it seems that Paul was sending greetings from (1) all the churches in Asia Minor, (2) the church in Ephesus (equivalent to “all the brothers”), and (3) those believers who gathered with Aquila and Priscilla in their home. It would be hard to imagine that all the saints in Ephesus met at Aquila and Priscilla’s home. The church probably began that way, but as it grew, so did the number of home meetings. From other portions of the NT (specifically 1 Timothy, which was written around <span>AD<\/span> 64 by Paul to Timothy while Timothy was leading the church in Ephesus), we discover that there must have been several home meetings in Ephesus because there were so many saints there (see 1 Timothy 5–6, which reveal that there must have been a large number of saints in Ephesus—young men, young women, older men, widows, and so forth). At any rate, several saints must have hosted an <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span><em>,<\/em> a meeting, in their home. (Aquila and Priscilla left Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 56\/57 and returned to Rome, where again they hosted a church in their home. Others in Ephesus would have to open their homes.) But each such <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> did not have its own eldership; rather, all of the church in Ephesus was under one eldership—headed up by Timothy, Paul’s coworker.<\/p>\n<h4>Colossians 4:15-16<\/h4>\n<p>In this portion, we again read about a church existing in the home of one called Nymphas. In his final remarks to the church in Colosse, Paul asked the saints in Colosse to send his greetings to (1) the brothers that are in Laodicea, (2) Nymphas in particular, and (3) the church in Nymphas’s house. According to the structure of Colossians 4:15, it seems evident that the first greeting included all the believers in Laodicea (a neighboring church to Colosse), who would comprise the entire church in Laodicea (called “the church of the Laodiceans” in Col 4:16), and that the second and third greetings were to a specific individual (Nymphas) in the church in Laodicea and a church meeting in Nymphas’s house. This church meeting in Nymphas’s house would probably be one of several home meetings—all part of the one local church in Laodicea.<\/p>\n<p>There is a textual problem in this passage that could have some effect on the interpretation of it. Some manuscripts read “his house”; others read “her house”; still others read “their house.” Because it cannot be determined from the Greek text whether Nymphas was male or female, various scribes used different pronouns before “house.” Between the readings “her” and “his,” it is far more likely that the pronoun “her” was changed to “his” than vice versa. Some scholars say that “their” refers to “the brothers” at Laodicea. But that does not make sense if we understand that “the brothers in Laodicea” is equal to the church in Laodicea. How could the church in Laodicea have the church in their house? Other scholars indicate that the Greek word for “their” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">auton<\/span><em>)<\/em> refers to the ones with Nymphas—i.e., the members of his household. Whether the reading was “her house” or “their house,” a particular group of believers within the church of Laodicea met there. Their meeting could legitimately be called an <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span>—an assembling together.<\/p>\n<h4>Philemon 1:1-2<\/h4>\n<p>This is the last time in the NT we read about a church in a particular home. Paul wrote a short epistle to Philemon, an elder of the church in Colosse, on behalf of Onesimus, Philemon’s runaway slave converted by Paul to Christ. In his introduction to this short epistle, Paul sends his greetings to Philemon, Apphia, Archippus, and the church in Philemon’s house. It is important to note that Paul did not send greetings to all the saints in Colosse and then to the church in Philemon’s house (as is the pattern in 1 Cor 16:19-20 and Col 4:15); instead, he just sent greetings to Philemon and to the church in his house. Therefore, we can assume that the entire church in Colosse must have met at Philemon’s house.<\/p>\n<h4>Worship in the Home Meetings and Church Meetings<\/h4>\n<p>When the church first began in Jerusalem, the believers met in homes for fellowship and worship. Acts 2:42-47 tells us that the early Christians met in homes to hear the apostles’ teachings and to celebrate Communion (which is called “the breaking of bread”). During such gatherings, the Christians often shared meals with one another in what was called a love feast (2 Pt 2:13; Jude 1:12). At these meetings, the Christians recited Scripture, sang hymns and psalms, and joyfully praised the Lord (see Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16-17). Christians also gathered together in homes to pray (Acts 12:12) and read the Word.<\/p>\n<p>Small groups of believers met in homes for worship quite regularly; in a city where there were several such <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span><em>,<\/em> all the believers would gather together for special occasions. Scripture tells us that all the believers would come together to hear an epistle from the apostles read out loud (see Acts 15:30; Col 4:16), and we can surmise from the NT record that all the Christians in a city met together once a week on Sunday, which was called the Lord’s Day. First Corinthians provides several insights about how the early Christians worshiped together when all the believers in one city met together. We know that 1 Corinthians pertains to this larger gathering because in 11:20 Paul spoke of all the believers coming together in one place and in 14:23 he spoke of the whole church coming together in one place.<\/p>\n<p>Paul used this epistle to correct the Corinthians’ behavior in the celebration of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:17-34) and in the exercising of spiritual gifts during church meetings (ch 14). Paul’s adjustments reveal his perceptions of a model Christian meeting, and his preceptions were probably developed from actual experience in other church meetings. Paul urged the Corinthians to celebrate the Lord’s Supper together in a manner that reflected Jesus’ institution of that meal. They were to remember the Lord and his death for them, and they were to partake of the bread and wine with all seriousness. At the same time, they were to be conscious of the fact that they were members of the same body of Christ—joined to one another, and also to Christ.<\/p>\n<p>According to Paul’s presentation in chapter 14, this “body consciousness” should be evident in the way the believers worshiped together. One’s personal experience and liberty should not hinder the coordination of the body in worshiping God corporately. Thus, when the believers exercised their spiritual gifts—whether it be prophesying, speaking in tongues, providing interpretations of the tongues, or teaching—it should be done in good order and for the edification of the congregation, not personal edification. When all the church assembled together to worship God, it should be a display of spiritual unity.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Church.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CHURCH MEETINGS<\/h3>\n<p>The assembling together of the believers. In the NT, the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> (usually translated “church”) is used primarily in two ways: (1) to describe a meeting or an assembly, and (2) to designate the people who participate in such assembling together—whether they are actually assembled or not. The NT contains a few places that speak of a secular Greek assembly (Acts 19:32, 41); every other instance speaks of a Christian assembly. Sometimes the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> is used to designate the actual meeting together of Christians. This is certainly what Paul intended in 1 Corinthians 14:19, 28, and 35, in that the expression <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">en ekklesia<\/span> must mean “in a meeting” and not “in the church.” To translate this phrase “in the church” (as is done in most modern English versions) is misleading, for most readers will think it means “in the church building.” The NT never once names the place of assembly a “church.” Aside from the few instances where the word clearly means the actual meeting together of believers, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> most often is used as a descriptor for the believers who constitute a local church (such as the church in Corinth, the church in Philippi, and the church in Colosse) or all the believers (past, present, and future) who constitute the universal church, the complete body of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>When reading the NT, Christians need to be aware of the various ways in which the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> (“church”) is used. On the most basic level, the <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> is any gathering of believers. On another level, the <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> is an organized local entity—comprised of all the believers in any given locality, under one pluralistic eldership. On another level, the <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> is the universal church whose constituents are all the believers who have ever been, are now existing, and will ever be. The word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> was used by the NT writers with these various aspects of meaning, though, at times, it is not possible to differentiate one from the other. Nevertheless, students of the NT could avoid some confusion if they used discrimination in their exegesis of the text. Some interpreters have taught that the smallest unit of the church is the local church, but the NT writers sometimes used the word “church” to indicate a small home gathering. Other interpreters confuse the local church with the universal church. But some things in the NT are addressed to a local church that do not necessarily apply to the whole church, and some great things are spoken of the universal church that could never be attained by any particular local group. The things Paul said about the church in the Epistle to the Ephesians (which was written as an encyclical for several churches and not just for the church in Ephesus) could never be attained by a local church. For example, what local church could attain to the fullness of the stature of Christ?<\/p>\n<p>There is much to be said about how interpreters have confused the local church with the universal church, but this article is devoted to clearing up the confusion about what constitutes the smallest unit of the church—the local church, or what could be called the house church or home gathering.<\/p>\n<p>The NT seems to present the fact that a particular local church (i.e., a church comprising all the believers in a given locality under one eldership) could and did have several <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span>—“meetings” or “assemblies” (carried on in homes of the local Christians). Thus, the smallest unit to comprise a “church” was one of these home meetings. However, there is no indication in the NT that each of these home meetings had its own eldership or was a distinct entity separate from the other gatherings <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span><em>)<\/em> in the same locality. According to Acts 14:23 and Titus 1:5, elders were appointed for every local church (compare the expressions “appointed elders in every church” and “appoint elders in every city”)—not for every house church. Nevertheless, it appears that every local church of some size had several such <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span> (“meetings”) going on within that locality.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Jerusalem must have had several home meetings (see Acts 2:46; 5:42; 8:3; 12:5, 12), as did the church in Rome (see Rom 16:3-5, 14-15 and comments below). A small local church may have had only one home gathering—as was probably the case with the church at Colosse (see Phlm 1:2 and comments below), but this would have been impossible for large local churches like those in Jerusalem, Rome, and Ephesus, in which there must have been several “house churches” (see 1 Cor 16:19-20 [1 Cor was written from Ephesus] and comments below). An examination of the passages that deal with the issue of the “house church” should affirm this. These passages are Romans 16:3-5, 14-15; 1 Corinthians 16:19-20; Colossians 4:15-16; and Philemon 1:1-2 (all quoted from the <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h4>Romans 16:3-5, 14-15<\/h4>\n<p>In the last chapter of Romans, Paul asked the believers in Rome, to whom he had written this epistle, to greet Priscilla and Aquila and the church that met in their home (16:3-5). The entire church in Rome could not have met in Priscilla and Aquila’s home, for the church was much too large to have assembled in a single home. Rather, the church in Priscilla and Aquila’s home must have been one among several such “house churches” in Rome. The following discussion should substantiate this position.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s Epistle to the Romans was addressed to “all God’s beloved in Rome” (1:7), not to “the church in Rome.” At the time of writing, Paul had not been to Rome—nor had any other apostle. The church was probably started there by Jewish Romans who had been converted during their visit to Jerusalem during Pentecost (Acts 2:10) and then returned to Rome. Since the church had not been started by an apostle, it could have been that there were no “ordained” elders in the church at Rome and that there were several gatherings of believers in various parts of Rome and its suburbs. Paul knew some of the saints in Rome (whom he addressed by name in the last chapter) and thus addressed an epistle to all the saints in that locality, instead of to the church in that locality—which was his usual practice (see 1 Cor 1:1; 2 Cor 1:1; 1 Thes 1:1; 2 Thes 1:1). Nonetheless, “all the saints in Rome” would comprise “the church in Rome” (cf. Phil 1:1, in which Paul addressed his epistle to all the saints in Philippi).<\/p>\n<p>In the final chapter of Romans, Paul asks all the believers in Rome (which equals the “local” church in Rome) to greet the church in Priscilla and Aquila’s house. Later in the chapter, Paul asks the church to greet Asyncritus, Phlegon, Hermas, Patrobas, Hermes, and the brothers with them; and then again he asks the church to greet Philologus, Julia, Nereus and his sister, Olympas, and all the saints with them (16:14-15). Evidently, Paul was identifying two other groups of believers who must have met together. (And perhaps Paul was referring to two more groups in 16:10-11, which in the Greek could mean the ones of Aristobulus’s and Narcissus’s <em>households<\/em> or the ones of their <em>fellowships.<\/em>) It seems that the church in Rome, like the church in Jerusalem and Ephesus, had several home <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span> (meetings).<\/p>\n<p>The Epistle to the Romans was written around <span>AD<\/span> 58. The Neronian persecution began around <span>AD<\/span> 64. Secular historians such as Tacitus tell us that a vast multitude <em>(ingens multitudo)<\/em> of Christians were tortured and killed during this persecution (<em>Annals<\/em> 15.44). Seutonius (in his book <em>Nero,<\/em> ch 16) said that the rapid increase of the Christians in Rome had made them unpopular. Indeed, at the time Paul penned the Epistle to the Romans he said their faith was known throughout the world (1:8), which indicates that the church in Rome had already made an impact on the Mediterranean world. When Paul came to Rome three years later (<span>AD<\/span> 61), he came to a city that had a large church there already. From Romans 15:23, we know that the church had been in existence for many years even before Paul wrote his epistle to them. In short, the church in Rome was a large church around the time Paul wrote his epistle to them. The entire church could not have met in the home of Aquila and Priscilla, who would have had only a modest-sized dwelling (for they were tentmakers). Besides, Paul greeted over 25 individuals by name in chapter 16—and he had not yet even been to Rome!<\/p>\n<p>There must have been several <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span> in Rome, i.e., several home churches all unified as the one local church in Rome. For example, the Christians in Rome apparently worshiped in numerous homes such as Priscilla and Aquila’s. Other churches in homes are mentioned in Colossians 4:15 and Philemon 1:2. Groups of Christians met in houses of prominent believers or in other available rooms (cf. Mt 26:16; Acts 12:12; 1 Cor 16:19; Col 4:15; Phlm 1:2). The church in Priscilla and Aquila’s house is the first of five groups of believers in Paul’s list, but the only one referred to definitely as a church (see Rom 16:5, 10-11, 14-15). Priscilla and Aquila opened their home for Christian meetings. The church mentioned there was obviously only a part of the total number of Christians in Rome. Verses 10-11 and 14-15 seem to refer to two other household churches in Rome. Apparently, there were at least three churches there, and probably more. Each house church could not have been a separate entity with a separate church government; rather, each house church must have been simply one home meeting of some of the saints in the one local church at Rome.<\/p>\n<h4>1 Corinthians 16:19-20<\/h4>\n<p>In this passage we again see Aquila and Priscilla and again discover that a church met in their house. According to Romans, their house church was, of course, in Rome. According to 1 Corinthians (written from Ephesus), their house church was in Ephesus. Many scholars think Aquila and Priscilla left Rome around <span>AD<\/span> 49 at the time of Claudius’s edict expelling Jews from Rome. They very well could have already been Christians at this time. According to Acts 18, they joined Paul in Corinth (where they all worked together in their craft of tentmaking) and then went on with him to Ephesus, during the time (around <span>AD<\/span> 51) the church in Ephesus was first established. Paul continued on with his second missionary journey, while Aquila and Priscilla remained in Ephesus. No doubt, the early church there first met in their home. Paul returned to Ephesus a few years later and remained there for two years (around <span>AD<\/span> 53–54). During this time, Paul’s proclamation of the gospel went out from Ephesus (as a center) to all of Asia Minor (see Acts 19:8-10). As this was going on, the church in Ephesus grew (see vv 18-20).<\/p>\n<p>It was during these years that Paul wrote to the Corinthians, in which he sent greetings from the churches in Asia, from Aquila and Priscilla—and the church in their house, and from all the brothers (1 Cor 16:19-20). In giving this kind of greeting, it seems that Paul was sending greetings from (1) all the churches in Asia Minor, (2) the church in Ephesus (equivalent to “all the brothers”), and (3) those believers who gathered with Aquila and Priscilla in their home. It would be hard to imagine that all the saints in Ephesus met at Aquila and Priscilla’s home. The church probably began that way, but as it grew, so did the number of home meetings. From other portions of the NT (specifically 1 Timothy, which was written around <span>AD<\/span> 64 by Paul to Timothy while Timothy was leading the church in Ephesus), we discover that there must have been several home meetings in Ephesus because there were so many saints there (see 1 Timothy 5–6, which reveal that there must have been a large number of saints in Ephesus—young men, young women, older men, widows, and so forth). At any rate, several saints must have hosted an <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span><em>,<\/em> a meeting, in their home. (Aquila and Priscilla left Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 56\/57 and returned to Rome, where again they hosted a church in their home. Others in Ephesus would have to open their homes.) But each such <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> did not have its own eldership; rather, all of the church in Ephesus was under one eldership—headed up by Timothy, Paul’s coworker.<\/p>\n<h4>Colossians 4:15-16<\/h4>\n<p>In this portion, we again read about a church existing in the home of one called Nymphas. In his final remarks to the church in Colosse, Paul asked the saints in Colosse to send his greetings to (1) the brothers that are in Laodicea, (2) Nymphas in particular, and (3) the church in Nymphas’s house. According to the structure of Colossians 4:15, it seems evident that the first greeting included all the believers in Laodicea (a neighboring church to Colosse), who would comprise the entire church in Laodicea (called “the church of the Laodiceans” in Col 4:16), and that the second and third greetings were to a specific individual (Nymphas) in the church in Laodicea and a church meeting in Nymphas’s house. This church meeting in Nymphas’s house would probably be one of several home meetings—all part of the one local church in Laodicea.<\/p>\n<p>There is a textual problem in this passage that could have some effect on the interpretation of it. Some manuscripts read “his house”; others read “her house”; still others read “their house.” Because it cannot be determined from the Greek text whether Nymphas was male or female, various scribes used different pronouns before “house.” Between the readings “her” and “his,” it is far more likely that the pronoun “her” was changed to “his” than vice versa. Some scholars say that “their” refers to “the brothers” at Laodicea. But that does not make sense if we understand that “the brothers in Laodicea” is equal to the church in Laodicea. How could the church in Laodicea have the church in their house? Other scholars indicate that the Greek word for “their” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">auton<\/span><em>)<\/em> refers to the ones with Nymphas—i.e., the members of his household. Whether the reading was “her house” or “their house,” a particular group of believers within the church of Laodicea met there. Their meeting could legitimately be called an <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span>—an assembling together.<\/p>\n<h4>Philemon 1:1-2<\/h4>\n<p>This is the last time in the NT we read about a church in a particular home. Paul wrote a short epistle to Philemon, an elder of the church in Colosse, on behalf of Onesimus, Philemon’s runaway slave converted by Paul to Christ. In his introduction to this short epistle, Paul sends his greetings to Philemon, Apphia, Archippus, and the church in Philemon’s house. It is important to note that Paul did not send greetings to all the saints in Colosse and then to the church in Philemon’s house (as is the pattern in 1 Cor 16:19-20 and Col 4:15); instead, he just sent greetings to Philemon and to the church in his house. Therefore, we can assume that the entire church in Colosse must have met at Philemon’s house.<\/p>\n<h4>Worship in the Home Meetings and Church Meetings<\/h4>\n<p>When the church first began in Jerusalem, the believers met in homes for fellowship and worship. Acts 2:42-47 tells us that the early Christians met in homes to hear the apostles’ teachings and to celebrate Communion (which is called “the breaking of bread”). During such gatherings, the Christians often shared meals with one another in what was called a love feast (2 Pt 2:13; Jude 1:12). At these meetings, the Christians recited Scripture, sang hymns and psalms, and joyfully praised the Lord (see Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16-17). Christians also gathered together in homes to pray (Acts 12:12) and read the Word.<\/p>\n<p>Small groups of believers met in homes for worship quite regularly; in a city where there were several such <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span><em>,<\/em> all the believers would gather together for special occasions. Scripture tells us that all the believers would come together to hear an epistle from the apostles read out loud (see Acts 15:30; Col 4:16), and we can surmise from the NT record that all the Christians in a city met together once a week on Sunday, which was called the Lord’s Day. First Corinthians provides several insights about how the early Christians worshiped together when all the believers in one city met together. We know that 1 Corinthians pertains to this larger gathering because in 11:20 Paul spoke of all the believers coming together in one place and in 14:23 he spoke of the whole church coming together in one place.<\/p>\n<p>Paul used this epistle to correct the Corinthians’ behavior in the celebration of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:17-34) and in the exercising of spiritual gifts during church meetings (ch 14). Paul’s adjustments reveal his perceptions of a model Christian meeting, and his preceptions were probably developed from actual experience in other church meetings. Paul urged the Corinthians to celebrate the Lord’s Supper together in a manner that reflected Jesus’ institution of that meal. They were to remember the Lord and his death for them, and they were to partake of the bread and wine with all seriousness. At the same time, they were to be conscious of the fact that they were members of the same body of Christ—joined to one another, and also to Christ.<\/p>\n<p>According to Paul’s presentation in chapter 14, this “body consciousness” should be evident in the way the believers worshiped together. One’s personal experience and liberty should not hinder the coordination of the body in worshiping God corporately. Thus, when the believers exercised their spiritual gifts—whether it be prophesying, speaking in tongues, providing interpretations of the tongues, or teaching—it should be done in good order and for the edification of the congregation, not personal edification. When all the church assembled together to worship God, it should be a display of spiritual unity.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Church.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CHURCH MEETINGS The assembling together of the believers. In the NT, the Greek word ekklesia (usually translated “church”) is used primarily in two ways: (1) to describe a meeting or an assembly, and (2) to designate the people who participate in such assembling together—whether they are actually assembled or not. The NT contains a few places that speak of a secular Greek assembly (Acts 19:32, 41); every other instance speaks of a Christian assembly. Sometimes the word ekklesia is used to des...","summary_en":"CHURCH MEETINGS The assembling together of the believers. In the NT, the Greek word ekklesia (usually translated “church”) is used primarily in two ways: (1) to describe a meeting or an assembly, and (2) to designate the people who participate in such assembling together—whether they are actually assembled or not. The NT contains a few places that speak of a secular Greek assembly (Acts 19:32, 41); every other instance speaks of a Christian assembly. Sometimes the word ekklesia is used to des...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21919,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kingdom of Heaven Kingdom of God","title_en":"Kingdom of Heaven Kingdom of God","content_ro":"<h3>KINGDOM OF GOD, KINGDOM OF HEAVEN<\/h3>\n<p>The sovereign rule of God, initiated by Christ’s earthly ministry and consummated when the kingdom of the world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Introduction<\/p>\n<p>• Old Testament Background<\/p>\n<p>• In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/p>\n<p>According to the testimony of the first three Gospels, the proclamation of the kingdom of God was Jesus’ central message. Matthew summarizes the Galilean ministry with the words “Jesus traveled throughout Galilee teaching in the synagogues, preaching everywhere the Good News about the Kingdom” (Mt 4:23, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Sermon on the Mount is concerned with the righteousness that qualifies people to enter the kingdom of God (5:20). The collection of parables in Matthew 13 and Mark 4 illustrate the “mystery” of the kingdom of God (Mt 13:11; Mk 4:11). The establishment of the Lord’s Supper looks forward to the establishment of the kingdom of God (Mt 26:29; Mk 14:25).<\/p>\n<p>The NT reports two different forms of the expression: “the kingdom of God” and “the kingdom of the heavens.” The latter is found only in Matthew, but Matthew also has “the kingdom of God” four times (Mt 12:28; 19:24; 21:31, 43). “The kingdom of heaven” is a Semitic phrase that would have been meaningful to Jews but not to Greeks. The Jews, out of reverence for God, avoided uttering the divine name, and contemporary literature gives examples of substituting the word “heaven” for God (1 Macc 3:18, 50; 4:10; see Lk 15:18).<\/p>\n<p>The key to an understanding of the kingdom of God is that the basic meaning of the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span><em>,<\/em> as also of the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span><em>,<\/em> is rule, reign, dominion. We frequently find in the OT the expression “in the year of the kingdom of . . . ,” meaning in the year of the reign of a given king (e.g., 1 Chr 26:31; 2 Chr 3:2; 15:10; Ezr 7:1; 8:1; Est 2:16; Jer 10:7; 52:31). When we read that Solomon’s kingdom was firmly established (1 Kgs 2:12), we are to understand that his authority to reign was settled. To “turn the kingdom of Saul over to [David]” (1 Chr 12:23, <span>kjv<\/span>) indicates that the authority that had been Saul’s was given to David. As a result of having received legal authority, David became king. This abstract idea of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span> is evident when it is found in parallelisms with such ideas as power, might, glory, and dominion (Dn 4:34; 7:14).<\/p>\n<p>When <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span> is used of God, it almost always refers to his authority or to his rule as the heavenly King. “They will talk together about the glory of your kingdom; they will celebrate examples of your power. . . . For your kingdom is an everlasting kingdom. You rule generation after generation” (Ps 145:11, 13, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Further, if a king rules, there must be a realm or sphere over which he reigns. This is also called <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span><em>.<\/em> “So the realm of Jehoshaphat was quiet, for his God gave him rest round about” (2 Chr 20:30, <span>rsv<\/span>; see Est 3:6; Jer 10:7; Dn 9:1; 11:9).<\/p>\n<p>This same twofold use of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> is found in the NT. In fact, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> could be translated by the expression “kingly power” in Luke 23:42 (<span>niv<\/span> mg) and by “kingship” in John 18:36. When a nobleman went into a far country to get a “kingdom” (Luke 19:12, <span>nasb<\/span>) he went to the governing authority to get an appointment as king. When Jesus said, “My kingship is not of this world” (Jn 18:36, <span>rsv<\/span>), he did not mean to say that his rule has nothing to do with the world but rather that his kingship—his dominion—does not come from man but from God. Therefore, he rejects the use of worldly fighting to gain his ends.<\/p>\n<p>This central meaning of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> makes it easy to understand many sayings in the Gospels. In the Lord’s Prayer the petition “Thy kingdom come” (Mt 6:10) is a prayer for God to manifest his reign so that his will may be done on earth as it is in heaven. When we read that we are to “receive the kingdom of God like a child” (Mk 10:15, <span>rsv<\/span>), we must open our hearts and lives to the rule of God.<\/p>\n<p>Also in the NT are sayings about being <em>in<\/em> the kingdom or of <em>entering<\/em> the kingdom (Mt 8:11; Mk 9:47; 10:23-25; Lk 13:28). There is no philological or theological objection to understanding “the kingdom of God” first as the divine reign or rule and second as the sphere of blessing in which that reign is experienced.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentBackground\">Old Testament Background<\/p>\n<p>The expression “the kingdom of God” is not found in the OT, but the idea appears throughout the prophets. God is frequently spoken of as the King, both of Israel (Ex 15:18; Nm 23:21; Dt 33:5; Is 43:15) and of all the earth (2 Kgs 19:15; Pss 29:10; 47:2; 93:1-2; 96:10; 97:1-9; 99:1-4; 145:11-13; Is 6:5; Jer 46:18). Although God is not the earthly King of Israel, other references speak of a day when God shall become King and shall rule over his people (Is 24:23; 33:22; 52:7; Ob 1:21; Zep 3:15; Zec 14:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>This brief summary of God’s kingship provides the outline for the entire OT concept. While God is King over all the earth, he is in a special way King over his people, Israel. God’s rule is therefore something realized in Israel’s history. However, it is only partially and imperfectly realized. Israel again and again rebelled against the divine sovereignty. Furthermore, Israel was constantly plagued by wars with its pagan neighbors in which it was not always victorious. Again, there are evils in nature and the physical world that often bring suffering to God’s people. Therefore, the prophets look forward to a day when God’s rule will be fully experienced, not by Israel alone, but by all the world. The main emphasis of the prophets is on hope, the establishing of God’s perfect rule in the world.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets describe the final establishment of God’s kingdom in terms of a theophany—a divine visitation (Mi 1:3-4). Zechariah foresees a “Day of the Lord” when all nations will be gathered in battle against Jerusalem, when the Lord will go forth and fight against those nations (Zec 14:3, 5). Israel will be visited by the Lord (Is 29:6) and delivered from its enemies (35:4; 59:20). God’s coming will also mean judgment (2:21; 26:21). This final coming of God will mean the salvation of the Gentiles as well as of Israel (Zec 2:10-11; cf. Is 66:18-24).<\/p>\n<p>Behind this language is a distinct theology of “the God who comes.” It is a fact widely recognized in contemporary OT theology that the God of the OT is not a nature god, like the gods of other peoples, but a God of history—a God who visits his people in history to bless or to judge them. God visited Israel in Egypt to deliver them from bondage and to constitute them as his people. The rescue from Egypt was not merely an act of deliverance; it was an act through which God made himself known and through which Israel was to know and serve him.<\/p>\n<p>Because God has visited his people again and again in their history, he must finally come to them in the future to judge wickedness and to establish his kingdom. Israel’s hope is thus rooted in history, or rather in the God who works in history. God will finally break into history in a glorious theophany to establish his rule in all the earth. The source of the kingdom is not history itself but God.<\/p>\n<p>While the prophets visualize the kingdom as coming from God, the kingdom is always on earth. The divine irruption into the natural order is not designed to accomplish its destruction but to make way for a new, perfect order arising out of the old, imperfect one. The prophets do not present a single consistent picture of the new order. Sometimes the new order is described very much in this-worldly terms. “The terraced vineyards on the hills of Israel will drip with sweet wine” (Am 9:13, <span>nlt<\/span>). On the other hand, God will create new heavens and a new earth (Is 65:17; 66:22), where there will be untroubled joy, prosperity, peace, and righteousness. The final visitation of God will mean the redemption of the world, for a redeemed earth is the scene of the kingdom of God. The prophets look forward again and again to the deliverance of creation “from the bondage to decay.” The description is often couched in simple physical terms. The wilderness will become fruitful (32:15); the desert will blossom (35:2); sorrow and sighing will flee away (v 10). The burning sands will be cooled and the dry places become springs of water (v 7); peace will return to the animal world so that all injury and destruction are done away with (11:6). All this results because the earth becomes full of the knowledge of God (v 9).<\/p>\n<p>Such language is not mere poetry but reflects a profound theology of creation. Humans as creatures were made to dwell on the earth, and the earth shares in human destiny. The main point is that creation as such is good and not a hindrance to true spirituality, as was often true in Greek thought. Redemption always includes redemption of the earth, which then becomes the blessed environment God intended it to be. Salvation does not mean deliverance from creaturehood, for this is not an evil thing but an essential and permanent element of true, human existence. Salvation does not mean escape from bodily creaturely existence, as in some Greek thought. On the contrary, ultimate redemption will mean the redemption of the whole person. The emergence of the doctrine of bodily resurrection is a reflection of this theology of creaturehood. The corollary of this is that creation in its entirety must share in the blessing of redemption.<\/p>\n<p>A distinctive element in prophetic eschatology is the tension between history and eschatology. That is, as the prophets looked into the future, they saw an immediate historical judgment as well as a more remote eschatological visitation. For Amos, the Day of the Lord is both the immediate judgment of Israel by the Assyrians and a final eschatological salvation. Joel sees an imminent historical visitation of drought and locusts, but beyond this he sees the eschatological Day of the Lord. Zephaniah sees an imminent Day of the Lord in some undesignated historical visitation (Zep 1:2-18), but beyond it he sees the salvation of the Gentiles (3:9). The same God who acts in history to bless and judge his people will act at the end of history in an eschatological act of judgment and salvation. The prophets do not sharply distinguish between these two days, for it is one and the same God who is concerned to judge and save his people.<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological hope of the prophets is always an ethical hope. That is to say, the prophets are not interested in the future for its own sake but for the impact of the future on the present. The prophetic predictions were given that, in light of future judgment and salvation, Israel might be confronted in the present by the will of God. “Prepare to meet your God as he comes in judgment, you people of Israel” (Am 4:12, <span>nlt<\/span>) might well be taken as the keynote of all the prophets.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>The Synoptic Gospels<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus’ teachings about the kingdom of God embodied the same contrast between the present order and the future age as that of the prophets, and he expressed it in the idiom “this age and the age to come.” This fact is obscured in the <span>kjv<\/span>, which translates the word for “age” by “world.” These are, however, two different concepts. A rich man asked Jesus what he must do to inherit eternal life (Mk 10:17). The context makes it clear that he was asking about eschatological life—the life of the resurrection (Dn 12:2). Jesus speaks of the difficulty of entering the kingdom of God. (The parallel passage in Matthew 19:23-24 has both “kingdom of God” and “kingdom of heaven,” proving that they are interchangeable terms.) In their reaction the disciples ask, “Then who can be saved?” Jesus’ answer contrasts the lot of his disciples “in this time” with the “age to come” (Mk 10:29-30) when they would inherit eternal life. It is clear from this passage that in some sense the kingdom of God, the kingdom of heaven, salvation, and eternal life all belong to the age to come. So far as this saying is concerned, God’s people will not experience eternal life until they do so in the new age.<\/p>\n<p>Matthew alone records the expression “the close of the age.” This age will be terminated by the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 24:3) and by the judgment of humanity (13:39-42). Then the righteous will be separated from the wicked (v 49). The same expression occurs in the promise of the risen Jesus assuring his disciples of his presence until the consummation of the age (28:20). It follows that if this age is to come to its consummation, it must be followed by another age—the age to come.<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological kingdom will be inaugurated by an apocalyptic event—the glorious coming of the Son of Man. This is made clear by two of the parables about the kingdom of God. In the parable of the tares, “the Son of man will send his angels, and they will gather out of his kingdom all causes of sin and all evildoers, and throw them into the furnace of fire” (Mt 13:41-42, <span>rsv<\/span>). The parable of the sheep and goats reflects the same eschatology. When the Son of Man comes in his glory, he will sit on his glorious throne to judge the nations, separating the sheep from the goats. The righteous—the sheep—are to “inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world”; and entrance into the kingdom is synonymous with entrance into life (25:31-46, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological character of the kingdom of God is seen also in the other two parables of Matthew 25. “The kingdom of heaven shall be compared to ten maidens who took their lamps and went to meet the bridegroom” (v 1, <span>rsv<\/span>). However, five of them were foolish and did not provide an adequate supply of oil for their lamps. Thus they were late for the wedding and were excluded from the wedding feast—a symbol of the eschatological kingdom—while those properly prepared entered the kingdom. In the same way the two faithful servants who had been “faithful over a little” were granted to “enter into the joy of your master” (vv 21, 23), while the unfaithful servant was excluded from the kingdom and cast into outer darkness.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus almost never showed any interest in descriptions of the eschatological kingdom, but it is clear that its coming was constantly in his thoughts. The pure in heart will see God (Mt 5:8). The harvest will take place and the grain will be gathered into the barn (13:30, 39; Mk 4:29). Jesus frequently used the metaphor of a feast or table fellowship to describe life in the eschatological kingdom. He will drink wine again with his disciples in the kingdom of God. They will eat and drink at Jesus’ table in the kingdom (Lk 22:30). People will be gathered from all corners of the earth to sit at a table with the OT saints (Mt 8:11-12; Lk 13:29). The consummation is likened to a wedding feast (Mt 22:1-14) and a banquet (Lk 14:16-24). All of these metaphors picture the restoration of communion between God and people, a union that had been broken by sin.<\/p>\n<p>In most of the sayings cited to illustrate the future character of the kingdom, “kingdom” refers to the eschatological order—the eschaton, the age to come. However, when Jesus taught his disciples to pray “Thy kingdom come” (Mt 6:10), he was not referring to the new eschatological order; he was referring to the kingdom as God’s kingly rule, his reign. It is a prayer that God will effectively establish his sovereign rule in the world.<\/p>\n<p>In his teaching about the kingdom of God as the apocalyptic consummation, Jesus does not differ essentially from the OT prophets. The most distinctive element in Jesus’ teaching—indeed, the fact that characterizes his entire mission and message—is the fact that in some real sense of the word, the kingdom of God has come in history in an utterly unexpected way. This sets Jesus’ teaching apart from all contemporary Jewish thought.<\/p>\n<p>This is seen first of all in his repeated teaching that his mission is a fulfillment of the OT messianic prophets. Mark summarizes Jesus’ message with the words “The Kingdom of God is near! Turn from your sins and believe this Good News!” (Mk 1:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). This saying can have one of two meanings. It may refer to the imminent coming of the apocalyptic kingdom. Matthew summarizes the message of John the Baptist with nearly the same words: “Turn from your sins and turn to God, because the Kingdom of Heaven is near” (Mt 3:2, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Baptist expounds what he means by the approach of the kingdom of God: “He is ready to separate the chaff from the grain with his winnowing fork. Then he will clean up the threshing area, storing the grain in his barn but burning the chaff with never-ending fire” (v 12, <span>nlt<\/span>). John proclaimed an apocalyptic act; “unquenchable fire” can mean no strictly historical event but only an apocalyptic judgment. John expected Jesus to be the one in whom the cosmic event expected by the prophets would be carried out.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that this was also Jesus’ meaning. However, another interpretation is possible that is better supported by the actual course of his mission: “The time is fulfilled.” The messianic promises of the prophets were not only about to be fulfilled; they were actually in process of fulfillment in his mission. In Jesus, God was visiting his people. The hope of the prophets in some real sense was being realized.<\/p>\n<p>The meaning of this can be seen in Luke’s introduction of Jesus’ ministry. Luke selects an event that occurred in Nazareth later in Jesus’ ministry (Lk 4:16-21) and places it at the beginning of his Gospel in order to sound this note of fulfillment. Jesus read from Isaiah a promise that looked forward to the messianic salvation: “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, for he has appointed me to preach Good News to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim that captives will be released, that the blind will see, that the downtrodden will be freed from their oppressors, and that the time of the Lord’s favor has come” (vv 18-19, <span>nlt<\/span>). Then Jesus astonished his audience by the assertion “This Scripture has come true today before your very eyes!” (v 21, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Here was an amazing claim. John the Baptist had announced an apocalyptic visitation of God that would mean the fulfillment of the eschatological hope and the consummation of the messianic age. Jesus proclaimed that the messianic promise was actually being fulfilled in his person. This is no apocalyptic kingdom but a present salvation. In these words Jesus did not proclaim the imminence of the apocalyptic kingdom. Rather, he boldly announced that the kingdom of God had come. The presence of the kingdom was a happening, an event, the gracious action of God. This was no new theology or new idea or new promise; it was a new event in history.<\/p>\n<p>The note of fulfillment is again sounded in Jesus’ answer to the question about fasting. “Do wedding guests fast while celebrating with the groom? Of course not. They can’t fast while they are with the groom” (Mk 2:19, <span>nlt<\/span>). The marriage feast had become a metaphor in Judaism for the messianic consummation. In these words Jesus announced the presence of the messianic time of salvation. It would be a contradiction in terms for the disciples to fast when they were enjoying the blessings of the messianic age. The time of fulfillment had come.<\/p>\n<p>A saying found in different contexts in Matthew and Luke touches this central note of the fulfillment in history of the OT hope: “Blessed are the eyes which see what you see! For I tell you that many prophets and kings desired to see what you see, and did not see it, and to hear what you hear, and did not hear it” (Lk 10:23-24, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. Mt 13:16-17). Both Matthew and Luke associate this saying with the kingdom of God, and both agree that the hope of former generations has become an object of experience. Many prophets and kings looked forward to something, but they looked in vain, for it did not come to them. What they longed for has now come, and this can be nothing less than the promised messianic salvation.<\/p>\n<p>Fulfillment in history is again asserted in Jesus’ answer to John’s question about the one who is to come (Mt 11:2-3). “The deeds of the Christ” (Messiah) were not the deeds John had announced. Wicked rulers like Herod were not being judged in fire. Instead, Jesus was helping people, not bringing an apocalyptic kingdom. Jesus replied in words that echo the promise of the messianic salvation in Isaiah 35:5-6: “Go and tell John what you hear and see: the blind receive their sight and the lame walk, lepers are cleansed and the deaf hear, and the dead are raised up, and the poor have the gospel preached to them” (Mt 11:4-5, <span>rsv<\/span>). In these words Jesus claimed that the blessings of the messianic salvation are present. There was indeed reason for John’s perplexity, for the fulfillment was not taking place along expected lines. The apocalyptic consummation did not appear to be on the horizon. The point of Jesus’ answer was that fulfillment was taking place without the eschatological consummation. Therefore, Jesus pronounced a special blessing upon those who were not offended by the character of the messianic fulfillment (v 6). The fulfillment was indeed taking place, but not the apocalyptic consummation.<\/p>\n<p>The most unambiguous statement of the presence of the kingdom is found in the words about the binding of Satan. One of Jesus’ most characteristic acts was the exorcism of demons—deliverance from satanic power. The Pharisees admitted his power but attributed it to Satan. Jesus replied, “If Satan casts out Satan, he is divided against himself; how then will his kingdom stand? . . . But if it is by the Spirit of God that I cast out demons, then the kingdom of God is come upon you” (Mt 12:26, 28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Here the verb has the clear meaning “to come, to arrive” (cf. Rom 9:30; 2 Cor 10:14; Phil 3:16). Here is a clear affirmation that the kingdom of God has come among men.<\/p>\n<p>In explanation Jesus said, “Or how can one enter a strong man’s house and plunder his goods, unless he first binds the strong man? Then indeed he may plunder his house” (Mt 12:29, <span>rsv<\/span>). The strong man is Satan; this “present evil age” (Gal 1:4) is his “house”; his “goods” are demon-possessed men and women. Jesus has invaded the strong man’s house to snatch away from him men and women whom he has in his power, and this is the work of the kingdom of God. The kingly reign of God has come into history in the person of Jesus before the apocalyptic consummation when Satan will be destroyed, to render Satan a preliminary defeat. Jesus has already “bound” Satan (i.e., curbed his power). This has been accomplished by the presence of the kingdom of God in the mission of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>A similar saying is found in Luke 10:18. Jesus had sent a band of his disciples on a preaching mission. Like Jesus, they were to proclaim the nearness of the kingdom of God (Lk 10:9). They, too, were to exorcize demons. When they returned to Jesus to report their success, Jesus said, “I saw Satan fall like lightning from heaven” (v 18, <span>rsv<\/span>). This again is metaphorical language that asserts that in the mission of Jesus’ disciples, as well as in Jesus himself, Satan has fallen from his place of power. Both “binding” and “falling” are metaphors that describe the same truth: the victory of the kingdom of God over Satan.<\/p>\n<p>Here is the element that sets Jesus apart from the OT and from all of contemporary Judaism. The prophets conceived of the kingdom being established by a heavenly supernatural being (Dn 7) or ruled by a powerful Davidic messianic king (Is 9, 11). The fulfillment of the messianic hope is everywhere in the prophets an eschatological hope. The same is true of the Jewish writers who despaired of history and cast all hope into the future.<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to all that had gone before him, Jesus proclaimed the kingdom of God as an event taking place in his own person and mission. God had again assumed the initiative; God was acting. No first-century Jew had any idea of the kingdom of God coming into history in the person of an ordinary man—a teacher who was meek and lowly.<\/p>\n<p>The presence of the kingdom is further seen in the fact that the rule of God, present in Jesus, is a gift to be received. This is also true of the kingdom in its eschatological consummation, where the kingdom is freely inherited by the righteous (Mt 25:34). In answer to the young man’s question about inheriting eternal life (Mk 10:17), Jesus spoke of entering the kingdom (vv 23-24) and receiving the gift of eternal life (v 30) as though they were synonymous. The kingdom is a gift that the Father is pleased to bestow upon the little flock of Jesus’ disciples (Lk 12:32).<\/p>\n<p>If God’s eschatological rule brings to his people the blessings of that kingdom, and if God’s kingdom is his rule invading history before the eschatological consummation, then we may expect God’s rule in the present to bring a preliminary blessing to his people. This fact is reflected in numerous sayings. The kingdom is something to be sought here and now (Mt 6:33) and to be received as children receive a gift (Mk 10:15; Lk 18:16-17). Although it is present in an unexpected form, the kingdom of God in Jesus’ person is like a hidden treasure or a pearl of great price whose possession outranks all other goods (Mt 13:44-46). The gift of the kingdom is also seen in that the deaf hear, the blind see, lepers are cleansed, and the poor have good news preached to them (11:5).<\/p>\n<h5>John’s Gospel<\/h5>\n<p>In the Gospel of John the concept of eternal life takes the place of the kingdom of God in Jesus’ teaching. The kingdom of God is mentioned twice (Jn 3:3, 5), and it is placed in connection with eternal life. The kingdom of God is here the eschatological kingdom, and eternal life is the life of the kingdom. Thus, as the kingdom of God in the synoptic Gospels is both future and present, so eternal life is both the life of the age to come (12:25) and also a present blessing (3:16, etc.).<\/p>\n<h5>Acts<\/h5>\n<p>In Acts it seems the earliest disciples generally failed to understand Jesus’ message about the kingdom of God as a present spiritual blessing. They gathered together to await the coming of the eschatological kingdom to Israel (Acts 1:6). Acts relates that the disciples continued to preach the kingdom of God, but usually it is an eschatological blessing (8:12; 14:22; 19:8; 20:25; 28:23, 31). However, the last two references make the kingdom of God synonymous with the gospel about Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>One important theme in Acts is linked to that of the kingdom of God. On the Day of Pentecost, Peter announces that God has seated Jesus at his right hand in fulfillment of Psalm 110:1 (Acts 2:33-35). In the Psalms this is a prophecy of the enthronement of the Davidic king in Jerusalem. Peter asserts that this prophecy is now fulfilled in the heavenly reign of Jesus. Therefore, he has been made both Lord and Christ (Messiah). These are interchangeable terms, “Lord” meaning absolute sovereign, “Christ” meaning the messianic king.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Writings<\/h5>\n<p>Paul carried further this theme of the heavenly rule of Christ, the anointed King. The kingdom is both an eschatological inheritance (1 Cor 6:9; 15:50; Gal 5:21; Eph 5:5; 1 Thes 2:12; 2 Thes 1:5; 2 Tm 4:1, 18) and a present blessing into which believers now enter (Rom 14:17; Col 1:13). The key to this is the interchangeable character of lordship and messianic kingship. Jesus is now exalted as Lord over all (Phil 2:11), and even as his lordship is invisible, it will become manifest to all at his second coming. In the same way, he has been enthroned as messianic King by virtue of his resurrection and heavenly session, and he must reign as King until he has put all his enemies under his feet (1 Cor 15:25; Eph 1:22). The last enemy to be destroyed is death.<\/p>\n<h5>Revelation<\/h5>\n<p>The central message of the Revelation to John is the consummation of God’s redemptive purpose, when the kingdom of this world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15). Revelation pictures the plight of a persecuted church in a hostile world, but it assures the church that Christ has already won a victory over the powers of evil (5:5), by virtue of which he can finally destroy them (19:11–20:14). Again, the last enemy to be destroyed is death (20:13-14). Revelation closes with a highly symbolic picture of the kingdom of God (chs 21–22) when God comes to dwell among his people, and “they shall see his face” (22:4). Thus the NT ends: divine order is restored to a disordered world. This is the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jesus Christ, Teachings of; King; Parable.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KINGDOM OF GOD, KINGDOM OF HEAVEN<\/h3>\n<p>The sovereign rule of God, initiated by Christ’s earthly ministry and consummated when the kingdom of the world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Introduction<\/p>\n<p>• Old Testament Background<\/p>\n<p>• In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/p>\n<p>According to the testimony of the first three Gospels, the proclamation of the kingdom of God was Jesus’ central message. Matthew summarizes the Galilean ministry with the words “Jesus traveled throughout Galilee teaching in the synagogues, preaching everywhere the Good News about the Kingdom” (Mt 4:23, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Sermon on the Mount is concerned with the righteousness that qualifies people to enter the kingdom of God (5:20). The collection of parables in Matthew 13 and Mark 4 illustrate the “mystery” of the kingdom of God (Mt 13:11; Mk 4:11). The establishment of the Lord’s Supper looks forward to the establishment of the kingdom of God (Mt 26:29; Mk 14:25).<\/p>\n<p>The NT reports two different forms of the expression: “the kingdom of God” and “the kingdom of the heavens.” The latter is found only in Matthew, but Matthew also has “the kingdom of God” four times (Mt 12:28; 19:24; 21:31, 43). “The kingdom of heaven” is a Semitic phrase that would have been meaningful to Jews but not to Greeks. The Jews, out of reverence for God, avoided uttering the divine name, and contemporary literature gives examples of substituting the word “heaven” for God (1 Macc 3:18, 50; 4:10; see Lk 15:18).<\/p>\n<p>The key to an understanding of the kingdom of God is that the basic meaning of the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span><em>,<\/em> as also of the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span><em>,<\/em> is rule, reign, dominion. We frequently find in the OT the expression “in the year of the kingdom of . . . ,” meaning in the year of the reign of a given king (e.g., 1 Chr 26:31; 2 Chr 3:2; 15:10; Ezr 7:1; 8:1; Est 2:16; Jer 10:7; 52:31). When we read that Solomon’s kingdom was firmly established (1 Kgs 2:12), we are to understand that his authority to reign was settled. To “turn the kingdom of Saul over to [David]” (1 Chr 12:23, <span>kjv<\/span>) indicates that the authority that had been Saul’s was given to David. As a result of having received legal authority, David became king. This abstract idea of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span> is evident when it is found in parallelisms with such ideas as power, might, glory, and dominion (Dn 4:34; 7:14).<\/p>\n<p>When <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span> is used of God, it almost always refers to his authority or to his rule as the heavenly King. “They will talk together about the glory of your kingdom; they will celebrate examples of your power. . . . For your kingdom is an everlasting kingdom. You rule generation after generation” (Ps 145:11, 13, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Further, if a king rules, there must be a realm or sphere over which he reigns. This is also called <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span><em>.<\/em> “So the realm of Jehoshaphat was quiet, for his God gave him rest round about” (2 Chr 20:30, <span>rsv<\/span>; see Est 3:6; Jer 10:7; Dn 9:1; 11:9).<\/p>\n<p>This same twofold use of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> is found in the NT. In fact, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> could be translated by the expression “kingly power” in Luke 23:42 (<span>niv<\/span> mg) and by “kingship” in John 18:36. When a nobleman went into a far country to get a “kingdom” (Luke 19:12, <span>nasb<\/span>) he went to the governing authority to get an appointment as king. When Jesus said, “My kingship is not of this world” (Jn 18:36, <span>rsv<\/span>), he did not mean to say that his rule has nothing to do with the world but rather that his kingship—his dominion—does not come from man but from God. Therefore, he rejects the use of worldly fighting to gain his ends.<\/p>\n<p>This central meaning of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> makes it easy to understand many sayings in the Gospels. In the Lord’s Prayer the petition “Thy kingdom come” (Mt 6:10) is a prayer for God to manifest his reign so that his will may be done on earth as it is in heaven. When we read that we are to “receive the kingdom of God like a child” (Mk 10:15, <span>rsv<\/span>), we must open our hearts and lives to the rule of God.<\/p>\n<p>Also in the NT are sayings about being <em>in<\/em> the kingdom or of <em>entering<\/em> the kingdom (Mt 8:11; Mk 9:47; 10:23-25; Lk 13:28). There is no philological or theological objection to understanding “the kingdom of God” first as the divine reign or rule and second as the sphere of blessing in which that reign is experienced.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentBackground\">Old Testament Background<\/p>\n<p>The expression “the kingdom of God” is not found in the OT, but the idea appears throughout the prophets. God is frequently spoken of as the King, both of Israel (Ex 15:18; Nm 23:21; Dt 33:5; Is 43:15) and of all the earth (2 Kgs 19:15; Pss 29:10; 47:2; 93:1-2; 96:10; 97:1-9; 99:1-4; 145:11-13; Is 6:5; Jer 46:18). Although God is not the earthly King of Israel, other references speak of a day when God shall become King and shall rule over his people (Is 24:23; 33:22; 52:7; Ob 1:21; Zep 3:15; Zec 14:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>This brief summary of God’s kingship provides the outline for the entire OT concept. While God is King over all the earth, he is in a special way King over his people, Israel. God’s rule is therefore something realized in Israel’s history. However, it is only partially and imperfectly realized. Israel again and again rebelled against the divine sovereignty. Furthermore, Israel was constantly plagued by wars with its pagan neighbors in which it was not always victorious. Again, there are evils in nature and the physical world that often bring suffering to God’s people. Therefore, the prophets look forward to a day when God’s rule will be fully experienced, not by Israel alone, but by all the world. The main emphasis of the prophets is on hope, the establishing of God’s perfect rule in the world.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets describe the final establishment of God’s kingdom in terms of a theophany—a divine visitation (Mi 1:3-4). Zechariah foresees a “Day of the Lord” when all nations will be gathered in battle against Jerusalem, when the Lord will go forth and fight against those nations (Zec 14:3, 5). Israel will be visited by the Lord (Is 29:6) and delivered from its enemies (35:4; 59:20). God’s coming will also mean judgment (2:21; 26:21). This final coming of God will mean the salvation of the Gentiles as well as of Israel (Zec 2:10-11; cf. Is 66:18-24).<\/p>\n<p>Behind this language is a distinct theology of “the God who comes.” It is a fact widely recognized in contemporary OT theology that the God of the OT is not a nature god, like the gods of other peoples, but a God of history—a God who visits his people in history to bless or to judge them. God visited Israel in Egypt to deliver them from bondage and to constitute them as his people. The rescue from Egypt was not merely an act of deliverance; it was an act through which God made himself known and through which Israel was to know and serve him.<\/p>\n<p>Because God has visited his people again and again in their history, he must finally come to them in the future to judge wickedness and to establish his kingdom. Israel’s hope is thus rooted in history, or rather in the God who works in history. God will finally break into history in a glorious theophany to establish his rule in all the earth. The source of the kingdom is not history itself but God.<\/p>\n<p>While the prophets visualize the kingdom as coming from God, the kingdom is always on earth. The divine irruption into the natural order is not designed to accomplish its destruction but to make way for a new, perfect order arising out of the old, imperfect one. The prophets do not present a single consistent picture of the new order. Sometimes the new order is described very much in this-worldly terms. “The terraced vineyards on the hills of Israel will drip with sweet wine” (Am 9:13, <span>nlt<\/span>). On the other hand, God will create new heavens and a new earth (Is 65:17; 66:22), where there will be untroubled joy, prosperity, peace, and righteousness. The final visitation of God will mean the redemption of the world, for a redeemed earth is the scene of the kingdom of God. The prophets look forward again and again to the deliverance of creation “from the bondage to decay.” The description is often couched in simple physical terms. The wilderness will become fruitful (32:15); the desert will blossom (35:2); sorrow and sighing will flee away (v 10). The burning sands will be cooled and the dry places become springs of water (v 7); peace will return to the animal world so that all injury and destruction are done away with (11:6). All this results because the earth becomes full of the knowledge of God (v 9).<\/p>\n<p>Such language is not mere poetry but reflects a profound theology of creation. Humans as creatures were made to dwell on the earth, and the earth shares in human destiny. The main point is that creation as such is good and not a hindrance to true spirituality, as was often true in Greek thought. Redemption always includes redemption of the earth, which then becomes the blessed environment God intended it to be. Salvation does not mean deliverance from creaturehood, for this is not an evil thing but an essential and permanent element of true, human existence. Salvation does not mean escape from bodily creaturely existence, as in some Greek thought. On the contrary, ultimate redemption will mean the redemption of the whole person. The emergence of the doctrine of bodily resurrection is a reflection of this theology of creaturehood. The corollary of this is that creation in its entirety must share in the blessing of redemption.<\/p>\n<p>A distinctive element in prophetic eschatology is the tension between history and eschatology. That is, as the prophets looked into the future, they saw an immediate historical judgment as well as a more remote eschatological visitation. For Amos, the Day of the Lord is both the immediate judgment of Israel by the Assyrians and a final eschatological salvation. Joel sees an imminent historical visitation of drought and locusts, but beyond this he sees the eschatological Day of the Lord. Zephaniah sees an imminent Day of the Lord in some undesignated historical visitation (Zep 1:2-18), but beyond it he sees the salvation of the Gentiles (3:9). The same God who acts in history to bless and judge his people will act at the end of history in an eschatological act of judgment and salvation. The prophets do not sharply distinguish between these two days, for it is one and the same God who is concerned to judge and save his people.<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological hope of the prophets is always an ethical hope. That is to say, the prophets are not interested in the future for its own sake but for the impact of the future on the present. The prophetic predictions were given that, in light of future judgment and salvation, Israel might be confronted in the present by the will of God. “Prepare to meet your God as he comes in judgment, you people of Israel” (Am 4:12, <span>nlt<\/span>) might well be taken as the keynote of all the prophets.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>The Synoptic Gospels<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus’ teachings about the kingdom of God embodied the same contrast between the present order and the future age as that of the prophets, and he expressed it in the idiom “this age and the age to come.” This fact is obscured in the <span>kjv<\/span>, which translates the word for “age” by “world.” These are, however, two different concepts. A rich man asked Jesus what he must do to inherit eternal life (Mk 10:17). The context makes it clear that he was asking about eschatological life—the life of the resurrection (Dn 12:2). Jesus speaks of the difficulty of entering the kingdom of God. (The parallel passage in Matthew 19:23-24 has both “kingdom of God” and “kingdom of heaven,” proving that they are interchangeable terms.) In their reaction the disciples ask, “Then who can be saved?” Jesus’ answer contrasts the lot of his disciples “in this time” with the “age to come” (Mk 10:29-30) when they would inherit eternal life. It is clear from this passage that in some sense the kingdom of God, the kingdom of heaven, salvation, and eternal life all belong to the age to come. So far as this saying is concerned, God’s people will not experience eternal life until they do so in the new age.<\/p>\n<p>Matthew alone records the expression “the close of the age.” This age will be terminated by the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 24:3) and by the judgment of humanity (13:39-42). Then the righteous will be separated from the wicked (v 49). The same expression occurs in the promise of the risen Jesus assuring his disciples of his presence until the consummation of the age (28:20). It follows that if this age is to come to its consummation, it must be followed by another age—the age to come.<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological kingdom will be inaugurated by an apocalyptic event—the glorious coming of the Son of Man. This is made clear by two of the parables about the kingdom of God. In the parable of the tares, “the Son of man will send his angels, and they will gather out of his kingdom all causes of sin and all evildoers, and throw them into the furnace of fire” (Mt 13:41-42, <span>rsv<\/span>). The parable of the sheep and goats reflects the same eschatology. When the Son of Man comes in his glory, he will sit on his glorious throne to judge the nations, separating the sheep from the goats. The righteous—the sheep—are to “inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world”; and entrance into the kingdom is synonymous with entrance into life (25:31-46, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological character of the kingdom of God is seen also in the other two parables of Matthew 25. “The kingdom of heaven shall be compared to ten maidens who took their lamps and went to meet the bridegroom” (v 1, <span>rsv<\/span>). However, five of them were foolish and did not provide an adequate supply of oil for their lamps. Thus they were late for the wedding and were excluded from the wedding feast—a symbol of the eschatological kingdom—while those properly prepared entered the kingdom. In the same way the two faithful servants who had been “faithful over a little” were granted to “enter into the joy of your master” (vv 21, 23), while the unfaithful servant was excluded from the kingdom and cast into outer darkness.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus almost never showed any interest in descriptions of the eschatological kingdom, but it is clear that its coming was constantly in his thoughts. The pure in heart will see God (Mt 5:8). The harvest will take place and the grain will be gathered into the barn (13:30, 39; Mk 4:29). Jesus frequently used the metaphor of a feast or table fellowship to describe life in the eschatological kingdom. He will drink wine again with his disciples in the kingdom of God. They will eat and drink at Jesus’ table in the kingdom (Lk 22:30). People will be gathered from all corners of the earth to sit at a table with the OT saints (Mt 8:11-12; Lk 13:29). The consummation is likened to a wedding feast (Mt 22:1-14) and a banquet (Lk 14:16-24). All of these metaphors picture the restoration of communion between God and people, a union that had been broken by sin.<\/p>\n<p>In most of the sayings cited to illustrate the future character of the kingdom, “kingdom” refers to the eschatological order—the eschaton, the age to come. However, when Jesus taught his disciples to pray “Thy kingdom come” (Mt 6:10), he was not referring to the new eschatological order; he was referring to the kingdom as God’s kingly rule, his reign. It is a prayer that God will effectively establish his sovereign rule in the world.<\/p>\n<p>In his teaching about the kingdom of God as the apocalyptic consummation, Jesus does not differ essentially from the OT prophets. The most distinctive element in Jesus’ teaching—indeed, the fact that characterizes his entire mission and message—is the fact that in some real sense of the word, the kingdom of God has come in history in an utterly unexpected way. This sets Jesus’ teaching apart from all contemporary Jewish thought.<\/p>\n<p>This is seen first of all in his repeated teaching that his mission is a fulfillment of the OT messianic prophets. Mark summarizes Jesus’ message with the words “The Kingdom of God is near! Turn from your sins and believe this Good News!” (Mk 1:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). This saying can have one of two meanings. It may refer to the imminent coming of the apocalyptic kingdom. Matthew summarizes the message of John the Baptist with nearly the same words: “Turn from your sins and turn to God, because the Kingdom of Heaven is near” (Mt 3:2, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Baptist expounds what he means by the approach of the kingdom of God: “He is ready to separate the chaff from the grain with his winnowing fork. Then he will clean up the threshing area, storing the grain in his barn but burning the chaff with never-ending fire” (v 12, <span>nlt<\/span>). John proclaimed an apocalyptic act; “unquenchable fire” can mean no strictly historical event but only an apocalyptic judgment. John expected Jesus to be the one in whom the cosmic event expected by the prophets would be carried out.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that this was also Jesus’ meaning. However, another interpretation is possible that is better supported by the actual course of his mission: “The time is fulfilled.” The messianic promises of the prophets were not only about to be fulfilled; they were actually in process of fulfillment in his mission. In Jesus, God was visiting his people. The hope of the prophets in some real sense was being realized.<\/p>\n<p>The meaning of this can be seen in Luke’s introduction of Jesus’ ministry. Luke selects an event that occurred in Nazareth later in Jesus’ ministry (Lk 4:16-21) and places it at the beginning of his Gospel in order to sound this note of fulfillment. Jesus read from Isaiah a promise that looked forward to the messianic salvation: “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, for he has appointed me to preach Good News to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim that captives will be released, that the blind will see, that the downtrodden will be freed from their oppressors, and that the time of the Lord’s favor has come” (vv 18-19, <span>nlt<\/span>). Then Jesus astonished his audience by the assertion “This Scripture has come true today before your very eyes!” (v 21, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Here was an amazing claim. John the Baptist had announced an apocalyptic visitation of God that would mean the fulfillment of the eschatological hope and the consummation of the messianic age. Jesus proclaimed that the messianic promise was actually being fulfilled in his person. This is no apocalyptic kingdom but a present salvation. In these words Jesus did not proclaim the imminence of the apocalyptic kingdom. Rather, he boldly announced that the kingdom of God had come. The presence of the kingdom was a happening, an event, the gracious action of God. This was no new theology or new idea or new promise; it was a new event in history.<\/p>\n<p>The note of fulfillment is again sounded in Jesus’ answer to the question about fasting. “Do wedding guests fast while celebrating with the groom? Of course not. They can’t fast while they are with the groom” (Mk 2:19, <span>nlt<\/span>). The marriage feast had become a metaphor in Judaism for the messianic consummation. In these words Jesus announced the presence of the messianic time of salvation. It would be a contradiction in terms for the disciples to fast when they were enjoying the blessings of the messianic age. The time of fulfillment had come.<\/p>\n<p>A saying found in different contexts in Matthew and Luke touches this central note of the fulfillment in history of the OT hope: “Blessed are the eyes which see what you see! For I tell you that many prophets and kings desired to see what you see, and did not see it, and to hear what you hear, and did not hear it” (Lk 10:23-24, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. Mt 13:16-17). Both Matthew and Luke associate this saying with the kingdom of God, and both agree that the hope of former generations has become an object of experience. Many prophets and kings looked forward to something, but they looked in vain, for it did not come to them. What they longed for has now come, and this can be nothing less than the promised messianic salvation.<\/p>\n<p>Fulfillment in history is again asserted in Jesus’ answer to John’s question about the one who is to come (Mt 11:2-3). “The deeds of the Christ” (Messiah) were not the deeds John had announced. Wicked rulers like Herod were not being judged in fire. Instead, Jesus was helping people, not bringing an apocalyptic kingdom. Jesus replied in words that echo the promise of the messianic salvation in Isaiah 35:5-6: “Go and tell John what you hear and see: the blind receive their sight and the lame walk, lepers are cleansed and the deaf hear, and the dead are raised up, and the poor have the gospel preached to them” (Mt 11:4-5, <span>rsv<\/span>). In these words Jesus claimed that the blessings of the messianic salvation are present. There was indeed reason for John’s perplexity, for the fulfillment was not taking place along expected lines. The apocalyptic consummation did not appear to be on the horizon. The point of Jesus’ answer was that fulfillment was taking place without the eschatological consummation. Therefore, Jesus pronounced a special blessing upon those who were not offended by the character of the messianic fulfillment (v 6). The fulfillment was indeed taking place, but not the apocalyptic consummation.<\/p>\n<p>The most unambiguous statement of the presence of the kingdom is found in the words about the binding of Satan. One of Jesus’ most characteristic acts was the exorcism of demons—deliverance from satanic power. The Pharisees admitted his power but attributed it to Satan. Jesus replied, “If Satan casts out Satan, he is divided against himself; how then will his kingdom stand? . . . But if it is by the Spirit of God that I cast out demons, then the kingdom of God is come upon you” (Mt 12:26, 28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Here the verb has the clear meaning “to come, to arrive” (cf. Rom 9:30; 2 Cor 10:14; Phil 3:16). Here is a clear affirmation that the kingdom of God has come among men.<\/p>\n<p>In explanation Jesus said, “Or how can one enter a strong man’s house and plunder his goods, unless he first binds the strong man? Then indeed he may plunder his house” (Mt 12:29, <span>rsv<\/span>). The strong man is Satan; this “present evil age” (Gal 1:4) is his “house”; his “goods” are demon-possessed men and women. Jesus has invaded the strong man’s house to snatch away from him men and women whom he has in his power, and this is the work of the kingdom of God. The kingly reign of God has come into history in the person of Jesus before the apocalyptic consummation when Satan will be destroyed, to render Satan a preliminary defeat. Jesus has already “bound” Satan (i.e., curbed his power). This has been accomplished by the presence of the kingdom of God in the mission of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>A similar saying is found in Luke 10:18. Jesus had sent a band of his disciples on a preaching mission. Like Jesus, they were to proclaim the nearness of the kingdom of God (Lk 10:9). They, too, were to exorcize demons. When they returned to Jesus to report their success, Jesus said, “I saw Satan fall like lightning from heaven” (v 18, <span>rsv<\/span>). This again is metaphorical language that asserts that in the mission of Jesus’ disciples, as well as in Jesus himself, Satan has fallen from his place of power. Both “binding” and “falling” are metaphors that describe the same truth: the victory of the kingdom of God over Satan.<\/p>\n<p>Here is the element that sets Jesus apart from the OT and from all of contemporary Judaism. The prophets conceived of the kingdom being established by a heavenly supernatural being (Dn 7) or ruled by a powerful Davidic messianic king (Is 9, 11). The fulfillment of the messianic hope is everywhere in the prophets an eschatological hope. The same is true of the Jewish writers who despaired of history and cast all hope into the future.<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to all that had gone before him, Jesus proclaimed the kingdom of God as an event taking place in his own person and mission. God had again assumed the initiative; God was acting. No first-century Jew had any idea of the kingdom of God coming into history in the person of an ordinary man—a teacher who was meek and lowly.<\/p>\n<p>The presence of the kingdom is further seen in the fact that the rule of God, present in Jesus, is a gift to be received. This is also true of the kingdom in its eschatological consummation, where the kingdom is freely inherited by the righteous (Mt 25:34). In answer to the young man’s question about inheriting eternal life (Mk 10:17), Jesus spoke of entering the kingdom (vv 23-24) and receiving the gift of eternal life (v 30) as though they were synonymous. The kingdom is a gift that the Father is pleased to bestow upon the little flock of Jesus’ disciples (Lk 12:32).<\/p>\n<p>If God’s eschatological rule brings to his people the blessings of that kingdom, and if God’s kingdom is his rule invading history before the eschatological consummation, then we may expect God’s rule in the present to bring a preliminary blessing to his people. This fact is reflected in numerous sayings. The kingdom is something to be sought here and now (Mt 6:33) and to be received as children receive a gift (Mk 10:15; Lk 18:16-17). Although it is present in an unexpected form, the kingdom of God in Jesus’ person is like a hidden treasure or a pearl of great price whose possession outranks all other goods (Mt 13:44-46). The gift of the kingdom is also seen in that the deaf hear, the blind see, lepers are cleansed, and the poor have good news preached to them (11:5).<\/p>\n<h5>John’s Gospel<\/h5>\n<p>In the Gospel of John the concept of eternal life takes the place of the kingdom of God in Jesus’ teaching. The kingdom of God is mentioned twice (Jn 3:3, 5), and it is placed in connection with eternal life. The kingdom of God is here the eschatological kingdom, and eternal life is the life of the kingdom. Thus, as the kingdom of God in the synoptic Gospels is both future and present, so eternal life is both the life of the age to come (12:25) and also a present blessing (3:16, etc.).<\/p>\n<h5>Acts<\/h5>\n<p>In Acts it seems the earliest disciples generally failed to understand Jesus’ message about the kingdom of God as a present spiritual blessing. They gathered together to await the coming of the eschatological kingdom to Israel (Acts 1:6). Acts relates that the disciples continued to preach the kingdom of God, but usually it is an eschatological blessing (8:12; 14:22; 19:8; 20:25; 28:23, 31). However, the last two references make the kingdom of God synonymous with the gospel about Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>One important theme in Acts is linked to that of the kingdom of God. On the Day of Pentecost, Peter announces that God has seated Jesus at his right hand in fulfillment of Psalm 110:1 (Acts 2:33-35). In the Psalms this is a prophecy of the enthronement of the Davidic king in Jerusalem. Peter asserts that this prophecy is now fulfilled in the heavenly reign of Jesus. Therefore, he has been made both Lord and Christ (Messiah). These are interchangeable terms, “Lord” meaning absolute sovereign, “Christ” meaning the messianic king.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Writings<\/h5>\n<p>Paul carried further this theme of the heavenly rule of Christ, the anointed King. The kingdom is both an eschatological inheritance (1 Cor 6:9; 15:50; Gal 5:21; Eph 5:5; 1 Thes 2:12; 2 Thes 1:5; 2 Tm 4:1, 18) and a present blessing into which believers now enter (Rom 14:17; Col 1:13). The key to this is the interchangeable character of lordship and messianic kingship. Jesus is now exalted as Lord over all (Phil 2:11), and even as his lordship is invisible, it will become manifest to all at his second coming. In the same way, he has been enthroned as messianic King by virtue of his resurrection and heavenly session, and he must reign as King until he has put all his enemies under his feet (1 Cor 15:25; Eph 1:22). The last enemy to be destroyed is death.<\/p>\n<h5>Revelation<\/h5>\n<p>The central message of the Revelation to John is the consummation of God’s redemptive purpose, when the kingdom of this world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15). Revelation pictures the plight of a persecuted church in a hostile world, but it assures the church that Christ has already won a victory over the powers of evil (5:5), by virtue of which he can finally destroy them (19:11–20:14). Again, the last enemy to be destroyed is death (20:13-14). Revelation closes with a highly symbolic picture of the kingdom of God (chs 21–22) when God comes to dwell among his people, and “they shall see his face” (22:4). Thus the NT ends: divine order is restored to a disordered world. This is the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jesus Christ, Teachings of; King; Parable.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KINGDOM OF GOD, KINGDOM OF HEAVEN The sovereign rule of God, initiated by Christ’s earthly ministry and consummated when the kingdom of the world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15). Preview • Introduction • Old Testament Background • In the New Testament Introduction According to the testimony of the first three Gospels, the proclamation of the kingdom of God was Jesus’ central message. Matthew summarizes the Galilean ministry with the words “Jesus traveled throughou...","summary_en":"KINGDOM OF GOD, KINGDOM OF HEAVEN The sovereign rule of God, initiated by Christ’s earthly ministry and consummated when the kingdom of the world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15). Preview • Introduction • Old Testament Background • In the New Testament Introduction According to the testimony of the first three Gospels, the proclamation of the kingdom of God was Jesus’ central message. Matthew summarizes the Galilean ministry with the words “Jesus traveled throughou...","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":23454,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"the Lord’s Day","title_en":"the Lord’s Day","content_ro":"<h3>LORD’S DAY, The<\/h3>\n<p>Expression occurring once in the NT (Rv 1:10), where John says, “On the Lord’s Day I was in the Spirit” (<span>niv<\/span>); synonym for “Sunday” in modern usage.<\/p>\n<p>The earliest reference to Christian activity on Sunday comes in a brief allusion Paul makes to “the first day of the week” (1 Cor 16:2, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). He instructs individual members of the church in Corinth to remember their poverty-stricken fellow believers in Jerusalem by setting aside a sum of money each Sunday.<\/p>\n<p>Why Sunday? Obviously the first day of the week had taken on a special significance among Christians in Corinth before Paul wrote this letter (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56), and he makes it clear that the observance was not merely local (1 Cor 16:1). Sunday was the day when special church meetings took place (Paul alludes several times to these in 1 Cor—see 5:4; 11:18-20). Collections were taken on these occasions to meet local needs (cf. 1 Cor 9:7-14). So Paul was saying, “When the collection bag comes around on Sundays, and you are reminded of your local needs, set aside something—privately—for the needs of your brethren in Jerusalem.”<\/p>\n<p>There is a more detailed account of a Christian Sunday meeting in Acts 20:6-12. The all-night service Luke describes there took place in Troas about three years after Paul wrote 1 Corinthians. Luke’s main aim is to tell the story of sleepy Eutychus’s miraculous recovery, so some of the details of the meeting that would interest us most are missing. Nevertheless, the account is full enough to indicate the kind of things the first Christians did when they met together on Sundays.<\/p>\n<p>The fact that Luke mentions the day of the week at all is significant. Elsewhere he rarely identifies a day, unless it is a Sabbath or a special feast. His word for “gathered” (Acts 20:7) is important too. It is a semitechnical term the NT uses for Christians gathered together for worship (1 Cor 5:4). So this was not a special meeting convened to hear Paul (who had already been in town six days) but a regular weekly event. The church in Troas may have met daily, like the church in Jerusalem (Acts 2:42, 46), but the Sunday meeting was obviously treated as a special occasion.<\/p>\n<p>Luke uses the same word to describe Paul’s preaching (Acts 20:7) that he used earlier for the apostle’s preaching ministry in the synagogues at Ephesus and Corinth (18:4; 19:8). This preserves an interesting link between the Jewish Sabbath and the Christian Sunday. When a local church separated from the synagogue, it probably modeled its worship on synagogue practice. Although the three main components of synagogue worship (Scripture reading, teaching, and prayer) are not found together in the few NT accounts of Christian worship, each is separately attested.<\/p>\n<p>The main purpose behind the church’s Sunday meeting at Troas, however, was distinctively Christian. It was “to break bread” (Acts 20:7), the NT’s term for eating the Lord’s Supper (and including, probably, the less formal table fellowship of the love feast—cf. 1 Cor 11:17-34). The Lord’s Supper very quickly became a focal point of the early church’s Sunday worship. As a memorial of the resurrection and the promise of Christ’s presence in the worshiping fellowship, it was an obviously appropriate Christian way of celebrating the first day of the week.<\/p>\n<p>The third clear reference to Sunday in the NT (and the only one that calls it the Lord’s Day) takes us from the Turkish mainland to the Aegean island of Patmos, probably about 40 years after Paul’s visit to Troas. In Revelation 1:10 John describes how he was worshiping on the Lord’s Day when he received his great vision. It is just possible that the expression “Lord’s Day” here means Easter, or even the great day of God’s judgment that the OT prophets foretold, but in view of the way later Christian writers used this phrase, it is far more likely to mean simply “Sunday.”<\/p>\n<p>The immediate context of Revelation 1:10 makes it clear that John saw Sunday as the Lord’s Day because on it Christians expressed together their total commitment to Jesus as Lord and Master (Rv 1:8). It was Jesus’ resurrection on the first day of the week that demonstrated his lordship most clearly (see Rv 1:18 and Jn 20:25-28). One day the whole world will have to acknowledge that he is “King of kings and Lord of lords” (Rv 19:16; cf. Phil 2:11), but in the meantime it is in the church’s worship that his lordship is recognized.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LORD’S DAY, The<\/h3>\n<p>Expression occurring once in the NT (Rv 1:10), where John says, “On the Lord’s Day I was in the Spirit” (<span>niv<\/span>); synonym for “Sunday” in modern usage.<\/p>\n<p>The earliest reference to Christian activity on Sunday comes in a brief allusion Paul makes to “the first day of the week” (1 Cor 16:2, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). He instructs individual members of the church in Corinth to remember their poverty-stricken fellow believers in Jerusalem by setting aside a sum of money each Sunday.<\/p>\n<p>Why Sunday? Obviously the first day of the week had taken on a special significance among Christians in Corinth before Paul wrote this letter (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56), and he makes it clear that the observance was not merely local (1 Cor 16:1). Sunday was the day when special church meetings took place (Paul alludes several times to these in 1 Cor—see 5:4; 11:18-20). Collections were taken on these occasions to meet local needs (cf. 1 Cor 9:7-14). So Paul was saying, “When the collection bag comes around on Sundays, and you are reminded of your local needs, set aside something—privately—for the needs of your brethren in Jerusalem.”<\/p>\n<p>There is a more detailed account of a Christian Sunday meeting in Acts 20:6-12. The all-night service Luke describes there took place in Troas about three years after Paul wrote 1 Corinthians. Luke’s main aim is to tell the story of sleepy Eutychus’s miraculous recovery, so some of the details of the meeting that would interest us most are missing. Nevertheless, the account is full enough to indicate the kind of things the first Christians did when they met together on Sundays.<\/p>\n<p>The fact that Luke mentions the day of the week at all is significant. Elsewhere he rarely identifies a day, unless it is a Sabbath or a special feast. His word for “gathered” (Acts 20:7) is important too. It is a semitechnical term the NT uses for Christians gathered together for worship (1 Cor 5:4). So this was not a special meeting convened to hear Paul (who had already been in town six days) but a regular weekly event. The church in Troas may have met daily, like the church in Jerusalem (Acts 2:42, 46), but the Sunday meeting was obviously treated as a special occasion.<\/p>\n<p>Luke uses the same word to describe Paul’s preaching (Acts 20:7) that he used earlier for the apostle’s preaching ministry in the synagogues at Ephesus and Corinth (18:4; 19:8). This preserves an interesting link between the Jewish Sabbath and the Christian Sunday. When a local church separated from the synagogue, it probably modeled its worship on synagogue practice. Although the three main components of synagogue worship (Scripture reading, teaching, and prayer) are not found together in the few NT accounts of Christian worship, each is separately attested.<\/p>\n<p>The main purpose behind the church’s Sunday meeting at Troas, however, was distinctively Christian. It was “to break bread” (Acts 20:7), the NT’s term for eating the Lord’s Supper (and including, probably, the less formal table fellowship of the love feast—cf. 1 Cor 11:17-34). The Lord’s Supper very quickly became a focal point of the early church’s Sunday worship. As a memorial of the resurrection and the promise of Christ’s presence in the worshiping fellowship, it was an obviously appropriate Christian way of celebrating the first day of the week.<\/p>\n<p>The third clear reference to Sunday in the NT (and the only one that calls it the Lord’s Day) takes us from the Turkish mainland to the Aegean island of Patmos, probably about 40 years after Paul’s visit to Troas. In Revelation 1:10 John describes how he was worshiping on the Lord’s Day when he received his great vision. It is just possible that the expression “Lord’s Day” here means Easter, or even the great day of God’s judgment that the OT prophets foretold, but in view of the way later Christian writers used this phrase, it is far more likely to mean simply “Sunday.”<\/p>\n<p>The immediate context of Revelation 1:10 makes it clear that John saw Sunday as the Lord’s Day because on it Christians expressed together their total commitment to Jesus as Lord and Master (Rv 1:8). It was Jesus’ resurrection on the first day of the week that demonstrated his lordship most clearly (see Rv 1:18 and Jn 20:25-28). One day the whole world will have to acknowledge that he is “King of kings and Lord of lords” (Rv 19:16; cf. Phil 2:11), but in the meantime it is in the church’s worship that his lordship is recognized.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LORD’S DAY, The Expression occurring once in the NT (Rv 1:10), where John says, “On the Lord’s Day I was in the Spirit” (niv); synonym for “Sunday” in modern usage. The earliest reference to Christian activity on Sunday comes in a brief allusion Paul makes to “the first day of the week” (1 Cor 16:2, nlt mg). He instructs individual members of the church in Corinth to remember their poverty-stricken fellow believers in Jerusalem by setting aside a sum of money each Sunday. Why Sunday? Obviousl...","summary_en":"LORD’S DAY, The Expression occurring once in the NT (Rv 1:10), where John says, “On the Lord’s Day I was in the Spirit” (niv); synonym for “Sunday” in modern usage. The earliest reference to Christian activity on Sunday comes in a brief allusion Paul makes to “the first day of the week” (1 Cor 16:2, nlt mg). He instructs individual members of the church in Corinth to remember their poverty-stricken fellow believers in Jerusalem by setting aside a sum of money each Sunday. Why Sunday? Obviousl...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29238,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Paul, the Apostle","title_en":"Paul, the Apostle","content_ro":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","summary_en":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30157,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Philemon (Person)","title_en":"Philemon (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>PHILEMON (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Christian known only from the letter addressed to him by the apostle Paul. He is mentioned nowhere else in the NT. From Colossians 4:17 it is clear that Archippus, mentioned along with Philemon in Philemon 1:2 (and perhaps his son), was a man of Colosse. Although Paul had never visited that city (Col 2:1), he obviously knew Philemon well. He addressed him as “our beloved co-worker” (Phlm 1:1); perhaps Philemon had been a colleague during Paul’s three-year mission in Ephesus (Acts 19:8-10; 20:31), and Paul knew that he could appeal to him on behalf of his runaway slave, Onesimus.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Philemon, Letter to.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PHILEMON (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Christian known only from the letter addressed to him by the apostle Paul. He is mentioned nowhere else in the NT. From Colossians 4:17 it is clear that Archippus, mentioned along with Philemon in Philemon 1:2 (and perhaps his son), was a man of Colosse. Although Paul had never visited that city (Col 2:1), he obviously knew Philemon well. He addressed him as “our beloved co-worker” (Phlm 1:1); perhaps Philemon had been a colleague during Paul’s three-year mission in Ephesus (Acts 19:8-10; 20:31), and Paul knew that he could appeal to him on behalf of his runaway slave, Onesimus.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Philemon, Letter to.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PHILEMON (Person) Christian known only from the letter addressed to him by the apostle Paul. He is mentioned nowhere else in the NT. From Colossians 4:17 it is clear that Archippus, mentioned along with Philemon in Philemon 1:2 (and perhaps his son), was a man of Colosse. Although Paul had never visited that city (Col 2:1), he obviously knew Philemon well. He addressed him as “our beloved co-worker” (Phlm 1:1); perhaps Philemon had been a colleague during Paul’s three-year mission in Ephesus ...","summary_en":"PHILEMON (Person) Christian known only from the letter addressed to him by the apostle Paul. He is mentioned nowhere else in the NT. From Colossians 4:17 it is clear that Archippus, mentioned along with Philemon in Philemon 1:2 (and perhaps his son), was a man of Colosse. Although Paul had never visited that city (Col 2:1), he obviously knew Philemon well. He addressed him as “our beloved co-worker” (Phlm 1:1); perhaps Philemon had been a colleague during Paul’s three-year mission in Ephesus ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36526,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Synagogue","title_en":"Synagogue","content_ro":"<h3>SYNAGOGUE<\/h3>\n<p>Transliteration of the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sunagoge<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “a gathering together.” It is used more than 50 times in the NT, mostly for the religious gathering places of Jewish communities in Palestine and throughout the Dispersion. The word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sunagoge<\/span> is usually the Greek rendering of Hebrew words in the OT that speak of the assembling or assembly of the people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginsandEarlyHistory\">Origins and Early History<\/p>\n<p>It is unknown just how or when the synagogue as an institution first began. One can imagine the situation in Jerusalem after the destruction of the temple by the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The people who remained in and around the city who wanted to keep true to their faith would have felt the need to meet for worship, where they would continue to teach the law and the message of the prophets. Some think, therefore, that synagogues may have had their origin in such a situation. Jewish people in the various places of the Dispersion would have been aware of a similar need. Jewish elders met together with Ezekiel in exile in Babylon (Ez 8:1; 14:1; 20:1). Yet there is no positive evidence of actual synagogues at this early stage. In Nehemiah 8:1-8 the postexilic community gathered in Jerusalem, and Ezra the scribe brought the law, read it from a wooden pulpit, and gave an interpretation so that the people understood the reading. When Ezra blessed the Lord, the people bowed their heads and worshiped. These were the basic elements of what came to be synagogue worship. The first undisputed evidence of a synagogue comes from Egypt in the third century <span>BC<\/span>. From the first century <span>BC<\/span> onward, the evidence of synagogues is abundant.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SynagoguesinNTTimes\">Synagogues in NT Times<\/p>\n<p>The Gospels give the impression of many synagogues existing throughout Palestine. Jesus frequently taught in synagogues (e.g., Mt 4:23; 9:35), especially during his Galilean ministry, but probably in Judea as well. In John 18:20 are the words of Jesus in his trial before the high priest: “I have spoken openly to the world; I have always taught in synagogues and in the temple, where all Jews come together” (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The Acts of the Apostles refers to synagogues in Jerusalem (Acts 6:9), Damascus (9:2), Cyprus (13:5), the Roman province of Galatia (13:14; 14:1), Macedonia and Greece (17:1, 10, 17; 18:4), and Ephesus in the Roman province of Asia (19:8). Paul made it his practice to go directly to the synagogue and to preach there as long as he was given freedom to do so.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SynagogueWorship\">Synagogue Worship<\/p>\n<p>The Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles give abundant evidence for the meeting of Jewish people on the Sabbath to worship in the synagogue. People also met for worship on the second and fifth days of the week. Luke provides us with the earliest description of a synagogue service. The Mishnah describes the pattern of the synagogue service: the confession of faith, the Shema (which included reciting Deuteronomy 6:4-9; 11:13-21; and Numbers 15:37-41); prayer (such as the 18 Benedictions); Scripture reading (the reading of the Law was basic, see Acts 15:21, and was read according to a three-year cycle; the Prophets were also read, but more at random); interpretation (as the knowledge of biblical Hebrew diminished in Palestine, an Aramaic translation of the Scriptures was presented after the reading in Hebrew, and in the Dispersion, a Greek translation); address (following the reading, anyone suitably qualified might address the people, as Jesus and the apostle Paul often did); and blessing.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JudicialFunctions\">Judicial Functions<\/p>\n<p>Administration of justice was also part of the work of the synagogue. Offenders against the law and those whose actions were held to be contrary to Jewish religion were brought before the elders of the synagogue. They might, under extreme circumstances, excommunicate an offender (see Jn 9:22, 34-35; 12:42) or have him scourged. Jesus warned his disciples to be prepared to face either possibility (Mt 10:17; Jn 16:2). Saul, as persecutor of the Christians, had letters addressed to the synagogues at Damascus, giving authority to arrest Christians and bring them bound to Jerusalem (Acts 9:2). In Acts 22:19 he speaks of causing them to be both beaten and imprisoned. Paul himself received the 39 lashes that were administered in the synagogues (2 Cor 11:24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TeachingoftheLaw\">Teaching of the Law<\/p>\n<p>The reading of the Law was of central significance in synagogue worship. The teaching of the Law to people generally, and especially to children, was intimately associated with the synagogue. Either the synagogue building or a school was used.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Organization\">Organization<\/p>\n<p>The NT refers in particular (e.g., Mk 5:22; Lk 13:14; Acts 18:8,17) to two appointments in the synagogue: the “ruler of the synagogue,” who was responsible for order and for selection of the Scripture reader; and an attendant (Lk 4:20), who brought out and put away the Scripture scrolls and also administered corporal punishment to unruly students. Later on, there was a person appointed as leader of the prayers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Architecture\">Architecture<\/p>\n<p>In structure the synagogue was modeled after the temple. It was built, when possible, on high ground and often constructed so that the people could sit facing the direction of Jerusalem. There was a portable chest for the scrolls of the Law and the Prophets, and a platform for the reading of the Scriptures and for preaching. Men and women sat apart. The scribes loved the “chief seats” facing the people (Mk 12:39). Many synagogues had ornamentations of vine leaves, seven-branched candlesticks, the paschal lamb, and the pot of manna. Early synagogues also had a genizah, which was a cellar or attic where worn scrolls were put, because, as they bore the name of God, they were too sacred to be destroyed.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Judaism; Ruler of the Synagogue.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SYNAGOGUE<\/h3>\n<p>Transliteration of the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sunagoge<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “a gathering together.” It is used more than 50 times in the NT, mostly for the religious gathering places of Jewish communities in Palestine and throughout the Dispersion. The word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sunagoge<\/span> is usually the Greek rendering of Hebrew words in the OT that speak of the assembling or assembly of the people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginsandEarlyHistory\">Origins and Early History<\/p>\n<p>It is unknown just how or when the synagogue as an institution first began. One can imagine the situation in Jerusalem after the destruction of the temple by the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The people who remained in and around the city who wanted to keep true to their faith would have felt the need to meet for worship, where they would continue to teach the law and the message of the prophets. Some think, therefore, that synagogues may have had their origin in such a situation. Jewish people in the various places of the Dispersion would have been aware of a similar need. Jewish elders met together with Ezekiel in exile in Babylon (Ez 8:1; 14:1; 20:1). Yet there is no positive evidence of actual synagogues at this early stage. In Nehemiah 8:1-8 the postexilic community gathered in Jerusalem, and Ezra the scribe brought the law, read it from a wooden pulpit, and gave an interpretation so that the people understood the reading. When Ezra blessed the Lord, the people bowed their heads and worshiped. These were the basic elements of what came to be synagogue worship. The first undisputed evidence of a synagogue comes from Egypt in the third century <span>BC<\/span>. From the first century <span>BC<\/span> onward, the evidence of synagogues is abundant.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SynagoguesinNTTimes\">Synagogues in NT Times<\/p>\n<p>The Gospels give the impression of many synagogues existing throughout Palestine. Jesus frequently taught in synagogues (e.g., Mt 4:23; 9:35), especially during his Galilean ministry, but probably in Judea as well. In John 18:20 are the words of Jesus in his trial before the high priest: “I have spoken openly to the world; I have always taught in synagogues and in the temple, where all Jews come together” (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The Acts of the Apostles refers to synagogues in Jerusalem (Acts 6:9), Damascus (9:2), Cyprus (13:5), the Roman province of Galatia (13:14; 14:1), Macedonia and Greece (17:1, 10, 17; 18:4), and Ephesus in the Roman province of Asia (19:8). Paul made it his practice to go directly to the synagogue and to preach there as long as he was given freedom to do so.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SynagogueWorship\">Synagogue Worship<\/p>\n<p>The Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles give abundant evidence for the meeting of Jewish people on the Sabbath to worship in the synagogue. People also met for worship on the second and fifth days of the week. Luke provides us with the earliest description of a synagogue service. The Mishnah describes the pattern of the synagogue service: the confession of faith, the Shema (which included reciting Deuteronomy 6:4-9; 11:13-21; and Numbers 15:37-41); prayer (such as the 18 Benedictions); Scripture reading (the reading of the Law was basic, see Acts 15:21, and was read according to a three-year cycle; the Prophets were also read, but more at random); interpretation (as the knowledge of biblical Hebrew diminished in Palestine, an Aramaic translation of the Scriptures was presented after the reading in Hebrew, and in the Dispersion, a Greek translation); address (following the reading, anyone suitably qualified might address the people, as Jesus and the apostle Paul often did); and blessing.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JudicialFunctions\">Judicial Functions<\/p>\n<p>Administration of justice was also part of the work of the synagogue. Offenders against the law and those whose actions were held to be contrary to Jewish religion were brought before the elders of the synagogue. They might, under extreme circumstances, excommunicate an offender (see Jn 9:22, 34-35; 12:42) or have him scourged. Jesus warned his disciples to be prepared to face either possibility (Mt 10:17; Jn 16:2). Saul, as persecutor of the Christians, had letters addressed to the synagogues at Damascus, giving authority to arrest Christians and bring them bound to Jerusalem (Acts 9:2). In Acts 22:19 he speaks of causing them to be both beaten and imprisoned. Paul himself received the 39 lashes that were administered in the synagogues (2 Cor 11:24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TeachingoftheLaw\">Teaching of the Law<\/p>\n<p>The reading of the Law was of central significance in synagogue worship. The teaching of the Law to people generally, and especially to children, was intimately associated with the synagogue. Either the synagogue building or a school was used.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Organization\">Organization<\/p>\n<p>The NT refers in particular (e.g., Mk 5:22; Lk 13:14; Acts 18:8,17) to two appointments in the synagogue: the “ruler of the synagogue,” who was responsible for order and for selection of the Scripture reader; and an attendant (Lk 4:20), who brought out and put away the Scripture scrolls and also administered corporal punishment to unruly students. Later on, there was a person appointed as leader of the prayers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Architecture\">Architecture<\/p>\n<p>In structure the synagogue was modeled after the temple. It was built, when possible, on high ground and often constructed so that the people could sit facing the direction of Jerusalem. There was a portable chest for the scrolls of the Law and the Prophets, and a platform for the reading of the Scriptures and for preaching. Men and women sat apart. The scribes loved the “chief seats” facing the people (Mk 12:39). Many synagogues had ornamentations of vine leaves, seven-branched candlesticks, the paschal lamb, and the pot of manna. Early synagogues also had a genizah, which was a cellar or attic where worn scrolls were put, because, as they bore the name of God, they were too sacred to be destroyed.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Judaism; Ruler of the Synagogue.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SYNAGOGUE Transliteration of the Greek word sunagoge, meaning “a gathering together.” It is used more than 50 times in the NT, mostly for the religious gathering places of Jewish communities in Palestine and throughout the Dispersion. The word sunagoge is usually the Greek rendering of Hebrew words in the OT that speak of the assembling or assembly of the people. Origins and Early History It is unknown just how or when the synagogue as an institution first began. One can imagine the situation...","summary_en":"SYNAGOGUE Transliteration of the Greek word sunagoge, meaning “a gathering together.” It is used more than 50 times in the NT, mostly for the religious gathering places of Jewish communities in Palestine and throughout the Dispersion. The word sunagoge is usually the Greek rendering of Hebrew words in the OT that speak of the assembling or assembly of the people. Origins and Early History It is unknown just how or when the synagogue as an institution first began. One can imagine the situation...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"9":[{"id":12469,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Followers of the Way","title_en":"Followers of the Way","content_ro":"<h3>FOLLOWERS OF THE WAY<\/h3>\n<p>Designation for Christians in the book of Acts (Acts 9:2; 19:9, 23; 22:4; 24:22). In its early years, Christianity was called “the Way.” <em>See<\/em> Way, The.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FOLLOWERS OF THE WAY<\/h3>\n<p>Designation for Christians in the book of Acts (Acts 9:2; 19:9, 23; 22:4; 24:22). In its early years, Christianity was called “the Way.” <em>See<\/em> Way, The.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FOLLOWERS OF THE WAY Designation for Christians in the book of Acts (Acts 9:2; 19:9, 23; 22:4; 24:22). In its early years, Christianity was called “the Way.” See Way, The.","summary_en":"FOLLOWERS OF THE WAY Designation for Christians in the book of Acts (Acts 9:2; 19:9, 23; 22:4; 24:22). In its early years, Christianity was called “the Way.” See Way, The.","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29237,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Paul, the Apostle","title_en":"Paul, the Apostle","content_ro":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","summary_en":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37790,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hall of Tyrannus","title_en":"Hall of Tyrannus","content_ro":"<h3>TYRANNUS, Hall of<\/h3>\n<p>Place in Ephesus where Paul taught daily for two years (Acts 19:9). Paul’s ministry in Ephesus had begun at the synagogue, where he had preached for three months. Finding increasing opposition there, Paul rented the Hall of Tyrannus (<span>nasb<\/span> “school of Tyrannus”), where he began a ministry to both Jews and Greeks (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>In Greek, the term “hall” literally means “leisure” or “rest.” It eventually became associated with the kind of activity carried on during times of leisure, that is, lectures, debates, and discussion. Finally, the term came to mean the place where these leisure activities occurred.<\/p>\n<p>Virtually nothing is known about Tyrannus himself. Some scholars have suggested that he was a Greek rhetorician, sympathetic to Paul’s preaching. This suggestion is made plausible by an addition in the Western text that states that Paul taught in the hall “from the fifth hour until the tenth,” that is, from 11 <span>am<\/span> until 4 <span>pm<\/span> (<span>nrsv<\/span> mg). This would mean that Paul used the hall only during afternoon rest periods, for in all Ionian cities, work ceased at 11 <span>am<\/span> and did not resume until late afternoon because of the intense heat. Possibly these rest periods made the hall available for Paul’s use, and Tyrannus himself lectured there before and after these hours.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TYRANNUS, Hall of<\/h3>\n<p>Place in Ephesus where Paul taught daily for two years (Acts 19:9). Paul’s ministry in Ephesus had begun at the synagogue, where he had preached for three months. Finding increasing opposition there, Paul rented the Hall of Tyrannus (<span>nasb<\/span> “school of Tyrannus”), where he began a ministry to both Jews and Greeks (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>In Greek, the term “hall” literally means “leisure” or “rest.” It eventually became associated with the kind of activity carried on during times of leisure, that is, lectures, debates, and discussion. Finally, the term came to mean the place where these leisure activities occurred.<\/p>\n<p>Virtually nothing is known about Tyrannus himself. Some scholars have suggested that he was a Greek rhetorician, sympathetic to Paul’s preaching. This suggestion is made plausible by an addition in the Western text that states that Paul taught in the hall “from the fifth hour until the tenth,” that is, from 11 <span>am<\/span> until 4 <span>pm<\/span> (<span>nrsv<\/span> mg). This would mean that Paul used the hall only during afternoon rest periods, for in all Ionian cities, work ceased at 11 <span>am<\/span> and did not resume until late afternoon because of the intense heat. Possibly these rest periods made the hall available for Paul’s use, and Tyrannus himself lectured there before and after these hours.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TYRANNUS, Hall of Place in Ephesus where Paul taught daily for two years (Acts 19:9). Paul’s ministry in Ephesus had begun at the synagogue, where he had preached for three months. Finding increasing opposition there, Paul rented the Hall of Tyrannus (nasb “school of Tyrannus”), where he began a ministry to both Jews and Greeks (v 10). In Greek, the term “hall” literally means “leisure” or “rest.” It eventually became associated with the kind of activity carried on during times of leisure, th...","summary_en":"TYRANNUS, Hall of Place in Ephesus where Paul taught daily for two years (Acts 19:9). Paul’s ministry in Ephesus had begun at the synagogue, where he had preached for three months. Finding increasing opposition there, Paul rented the Hall of Tyrannus (nasb “school of Tyrannus”), where he began a ministry to both Jews and Greeks (v 10). In Greek, the term “hall” literally means “leisure” or “rest.” It eventually became associated with the kind of activity carried on during times of leisure, th...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":38242,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"the Way","title_en":"the Way","content_ro":"<h3>WAY, The<\/h3>\n<p>One of the names applied to the early Christian community (Acts 9:2). It was apparently used by both the Jewish and the secular community and appeared in both positive and negative assessments of the church (19:9, 23; 22:4; 24:14, 22). Paul’s use of the term in his defense before Felix suggests that the name had at least quasiofficial acceptance (24:14, 22). Quite likely, the term came from Jesus’ own statement, “I am the way, the truth, and the life” (Jn 14:6).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>WAY, The<\/h3>\n<p>One of the names applied to the early Christian community (Acts 9:2). It was apparently used by both the Jewish and the secular community and appeared in both positive and negative assessments of the church (19:9, 23; 22:4; 24:14, 22). Paul’s use of the term in his defense before Felix suggests that the name had at least quasiofficial acceptance (24:14, 22). Quite likely, the term came from Jesus’ own statement, “I am the way, the truth, and the life” (Jn 14:6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"WAY, The One of the names applied to the early Christian community (Acts 9:2). It was apparently used by both the Jewish and the secular community and appeared in both positive and negative assessments of the church (19:9, 23; 22:4; 24:14, 22). Paul’s use of the term in his defense before Felix suggests that the name had at least quasiofficial acceptance (24:14, 22). Quite likely, the term came from Jesus’ own statement, “I am the way, the truth, and the life” (Jn 14:6).","summary_en":"WAY, The One of the names applied to the early Christian community (Acts 9:2). It was apparently used by both the Jewish and the secular community and appeared in both positive and negative assessments of the church (19:9, 23; 22:4; 24:14, 22). Paul’s use of the term in his defense before Felix suggests that the name had at least quasiofficial acceptance (24:14, 22). Quite likely, the term came from Jesus’ own statement, “I am the way, the truth, and the life” (Jn 14:6).","source":"Articles\/W.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":40052,"type":"textbox","type_label":"Notă explicativă","type_icon":"💡","type_color":"#8b5cf6","title_ro":"Followers of the Way","title_en":"Followers of the Way","content_ro":"<h3>Followers of the Way<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>Early Christianity was far from being an abstract belief; it was a whole way of life. The new way of living was obvious to those around Christians and to the Christians themselves, for they were following Jesus’ lifestyle, the way he had lived and taught. Soon the term “this Way” or “the Way” meant Christian. Thus Saul (the pre-Christian name of Paul) was sent to Damascus to arrest anyone belonging to “the Way” (Acts 9:2). Christians may also have used the term to describe themselves; Luke referred to the Christian movement as “the Way” (Acts 19:9, 23; 24:22). It may be the only name Christians and non-Christians both used for the new movement.<\/p><\/blockquote>","content_en":"<h3>Followers of the Way<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>Early Christianity was far from being an abstract belief; it was a whole way of life. The new way of living was obvious to those around Christians and to the Christians themselves, for they were following Jesus’ lifestyle, the way he had lived and taught. Soon the term “this Way” or “the Way” meant Christian. Thus Saul (the pre-Christian name of Paul) was sent to Damascus to arrest anyone belonging to “the Way” (Acts 9:2). Christians may also have used the term to describe themselves; Luke referred to the Christian movement as “the Way” (Acts 19:9, 23; 24:22). It may be the only name Christians and non-Christians both used for the new movement.<\/p><\/blockquote>","summary_ro":"Followers of the Way Early Christianity was far from being an abstract belief; it was a whole way of life. The new way of living was obvious to those around Christians and to the Christians themselves, for they were following Jesus’ lifestyle, the way he had lived and taught. Soon the term “this Way” or “the Way” meant Christian. Thus Saul (the pre-Christian name of Paul) was sent to Damascus to arrest anyone belonging to “the Way” (Acts 9:2). Christians may also have used the term to describ...","summary_en":"Followers of the Way Early Christianity was far from being an abstract belief; it was a whole way of life. The new way of living was obvious to those around Christians and to the Christians themselves, for they were following Jesus’ lifestyle, the way he had lived and taught. Soon the term “this Way” or “the Way” meant Christian. Thus Saul (the pre-Christian name of Paul) was sent to Damascus to arrest anyone belonging to “the Way” (Acts 9:2). Christians may also have used the term to describ...","source":"Textboxes\/Textboxes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"10":[{"id":3034,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Asia","title_en":"Asia","content_ro":"<h3>ASIA<\/h3>\n<p>In NT times, the Roman province immediately east of the Aegean Sea. The province was established in 133 <span>BC<\/span> out of the kingdom left to the Romans in the will of Attalus III, king of Pergamum. Greek geographers generally employed the name Asia to denote the whole eastern continent, but from the second century on, the Romans generally referred to the kings of Pergamum as “kings of Asia.” Hence the custom of using “Asia” for the peninsula alone (i.e., Asia Minor) gradually crept into popular usage.<\/p>\n<p>The extent of the province of Asia differed at each stage of its history. Before Roman occupation the word was used to refer to the kingdom of the Seleucid dynasty (founded by Seleucus I; 305–281 <span>BC<\/span>). The Apocrypha referred thus to Asia (1 Macc 8:6; 11:13; 12:39; 13:32; 2 Macc 3:3), as did the early Jewish historian Josephus in his Antiquities. When the territory was wrested from Seleucid control by the Romans in their war against Antiochus the Great, the Romans gave it to their allies, the Attalids; Attalus III willed it to the Romans. The limits of Roman control were not firmly established until an extensive revolt had been put down. The borders then included Mysia, Lydia, Caria, and Phrygia, and (nearer the Aegean) Aeolis, Ionia, and Troas. The islands off the coast (Lesbos, Chios, Samos, Rhodes, Patmos, etc.) were also included. The mainland now forms part of modern Turkey.<\/p>\n<p>In 116 <span>BC<\/span> the province was enlarged to include Greater Phrygia. Its geographic limits were then Bithynia to the north, Galatia to the east, Lycia to the south, and the Aegean Sea to the west. Even then, the boundaries were not solidly fixed, for in 25 <span>BC<\/span> Augustus Caesar augmented Rome’s dominion by combining other parts of Phrygia, Lyconia, Pisidia, and possibly Pamphylia into a province called Galatia. Those geographical limits remained until <span>AD<\/span> 285, when the province was greatly reduced in size and the term Asia became restricted to the coastal areas and lower valleys of the Maeander, Cayster, Hermus, and Caicus Rivers.<\/p>\n<p>During Roman occupation the capital of the province was Pergamum. By the time of Augustus, however, the residence of the Roman proconsul was at Ephesus.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Asia generally meant the Roman province of that name. Sometimes the concept was primarily geographical; at other times primarily political. For example, at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem there were Jews who had come from “Asia.” These included other provinces governed by Rome, such as Cappadocia, Phrygia, and Pamphylia (Acts 2:9-10). This seems to indicate that Luke, the writer of Acts, used the term to describe the province originally bequeathed to the Romans by Attalus III. Luke used the word again in Acts 6:9, providing tacit evidence of the strength of Jewish communities in Asia Minor as a whole and confirming the use of “Asia” in the restricted sense of the Roman province.<\/p>\n<p>On Paul’s second missionary journey, he and Timothy were prevented by the Holy Spirit from preaching in Asia (Acts 16:6-8). Evidently, from the context, Luke again had the old boundaries of the province in mind. On Paul’s return from Greece he stopped briefly at Ephesus (Acts 18:19-21). On his third missionary journey, he remained in Ephesus for more than two years, so that from this capital city “all the residents of Asia heard the word of the Lord, both Jews and Greeks” (Acts 19:10, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Luke further referred to Asia in Acts 19:26-27; 20:4, 16, 18; and 27:2. Paul also made several references to it (Rom 16:5; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Cor 1:8; 2 Tm 1:15). The apostle Peter likewise used the term (1 Pt 1:1). In the NT the risen Christ was the last to refer to Asia. He instructed the apostle John, then living in exile on the island of Patmos, to write letters to seven specific churches on the mainland of Asia (Rv 1:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>Other cities in this Roman province mentioned in the NT include Laodicea and Hierapolis (Col 4:13), and lesser-known Adramyttium (Acts 27:2), and Assos (Acts 20:13-14).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ASIA<\/h3>\n<p>In NT times, the Roman province immediately east of the Aegean Sea. The province was established in 133 <span>BC<\/span> out of the kingdom left to the Romans in the will of Attalus III, king of Pergamum. Greek geographers generally employed the name Asia to denote the whole eastern continent, but from the second century on, the Romans generally referred to the kings of Pergamum as “kings of Asia.” Hence the custom of using “Asia” for the peninsula alone (i.e., Asia Minor) gradually crept into popular usage.<\/p>\n<p>The extent of the province of Asia differed at each stage of its history. Before Roman occupation the word was used to refer to the kingdom of the Seleucid dynasty (founded by Seleucus I; 305–281 <span>BC<\/span>). The Apocrypha referred thus to Asia (1 Macc 8:6; 11:13; 12:39; 13:32; 2 Macc 3:3), as did the early Jewish historian Josephus in his Antiquities. When the territory was wrested from Seleucid control by the Romans in their war against Antiochus the Great, the Romans gave it to their allies, the Attalids; Attalus III willed it to the Romans. The limits of Roman control were not firmly established until an extensive revolt had been put down. The borders then included Mysia, Lydia, Caria, and Phrygia, and (nearer the Aegean) Aeolis, Ionia, and Troas. The islands off the coast (Lesbos, Chios, Samos, Rhodes, Patmos, etc.) were also included. The mainland now forms part of modern Turkey.<\/p>\n<p>In 116 <span>BC<\/span> the province was enlarged to include Greater Phrygia. Its geographic limits were then Bithynia to the north, Galatia to the east, Lycia to the south, and the Aegean Sea to the west. Even then, the boundaries were not solidly fixed, for in 25 <span>BC<\/span> Augustus Caesar augmented Rome’s dominion by combining other parts of Phrygia, Lyconia, Pisidia, and possibly Pamphylia into a province called Galatia. Those geographical limits remained until <span>AD<\/span> 285, when the province was greatly reduced in size and the term Asia became restricted to the coastal areas and lower valleys of the Maeander, Cayster, Hermus, and Caicus Rivers.<\/p>\n<p>During Roman occupation the capital of the province was Pergamum. By the time of Augustus, however, the residence of the Roman proconsul was at Ephesus.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Asia generally meant the Roman province of that name. Sometimes the concept was primarily geographical; at other times primarily political. For example, at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem there were Jews who had come from “Asia.” These included other provinces governed by Rome, such as Cappadocia, Phrygia, and Pamphylia (Acts 2:9-10). This seems to indicate that Luke, the writer of Acts, used the term to describe the province originally bequeathed to the Romans by Attalus III. Luke used the word again in Acts 6:9, providing tacit evidence of the strength of Jewish communities in Asia Minor as a whole and confirming the use of “Asia” in the restricted sense of the Roman province.<\/p>\n<p>On Paul’s second missionary journey, he and Timothy were prevented by the Holy Spirit from preaching in Asia (Acts 16:6-8). Evidently, from the context, Luke again had the old boundaries of the province in mind. On Paul’s return from Greece he stopped briefly at Ephesus (Acts 18:19-21). On his third missionary journey, he remained in Ephesus for more than two years, so that from this capital city “all the residents of Asia heard the word of the Lord, both Jews and Greeks” (Acts 19:10, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Luke further referred to Asia in Acts 19:26-27; 20:4, 16, 18; and 27:2. Paul also made several references to it (Rom 16:5; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Cor 1:8; 2 Tm 1:15). The apostle Peter likewise used the term (1 Pt 1:1). In the NT the risen Christ was the last to refer to Asia. He instructed the apostle John, then living in exile on the island of Patmos, to write letters to seven specific churches on the mainland of Asia (Rv 1:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>Other cities in this Roman province mentioned in the NT include Laodicea and Hierapolis (Col 4:13), and lesser-known Adramyttium (Acts 27:2), and Assos (Acts 20:13-14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ASIA In NT times, the Roman province immediately east of the Aegean Sea. The province was established in 133 BC out of the kingdom left to the Romans in the will of Attalus III, king of Pergamum. Greek geographers generally employed the name Asia to denote the whole eastern continent, but from the second century on, the Romans generally referred to the kings of Pergamum as “kings of Asia.” Hence the custom of using “Asia” for the peninsula alone (i.e., Asia Minor) gradually crept into popular...","summary_en":"ASIA In NT times, the Roman province immediately east of the Aegean Sea. The province was established in 133 BC out of the kingdom left to the Romans in the will of Attalus III, king of Pergamum. Greek geographers generally employed the name Asia to denote the whole eastern continent, but from the second century on, the Romans generally referred to the kings of Pergamum as “kings of Asia.” Hence the custom of using “Asia” for the peninsula alone (i.e., Asia Minor) gradually crept into popular...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":7168,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Colossae*, Colosse","title_en":"Colossae*, Colosse","content_ro":"<h3>COLOSSAE*, COLOSSE<\/h3>\n<p>Ancient city in Asia Minor, located in the southwestern part of present-day Turkey, and remembered primarily for the apostle Paul’s letter to the church there (Col 1:2). Colosse was near the Lycus River, a tributary of the Meander. The city flourished during the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>. According to Herodotus, an ancient Greek historian, when the Persian king Xerxes came to Colosse, it was a city of great size. Another Greek historian, Xenophon, related that Cyrus the Great, founder of the Persian Empire, had passed Colosse still earlier on his way to Greece.<\/p>\n<p>Colosse was situated in the region known as Phrygia and was a trading center at a crossroads on the main highway from Ephesus to the east. In Roman times relocation of the road leading north to Pergamum brought about both the growth of Laodicea, a city 10 miles (16 kilometers) away, and Colosse’s gradual decline. Colosse and Laodicea shared in the wool trade. Thus, the name Colosse was derived from a Latin name <em>collossinus,<\/em> meaning “purple wool.”<\/p>\n<p>In the apostle Paul’s time Colosse was a small city with a mixed population of Phrygians, Greeks, and Jews. During his extended stay in Ephesus, Paul may have taught Jews and Greeks who lived in Colosse (Acts 19:10). Epaphras, a Colossian, visited Paul in Rome and informed him about the condition of the church at Colosse (Col 1:7; 4:12), then was later imprisoned with Paul (Phlm 1:23). Others from the Colossian church included Philemon, Apphia, Archippus, and Onesimus, a slave who became a Christian (Phlm 1:16). Subsequent history is silent on the church at Colosse. The city was weakened under Islamic rule and was eventually destroyed in the 12th century.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>COLOSSAE*, COLOSSE<\/h3>\n<p>Ancient city in Asia Minor, located in the southwestern part of present-day Turkey, and remembered primarily for the apostle Paul’s letter to the church there (Col 1:2). Colosse was near the Lycus River, a tributary of the Meander. The city flourished during the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>. According to Herodotus, an ancient Greek historian, when the Persian king Xerxes came to Colosse, it was a city of great size. Another Greek historian, Xenophon, related that Cyrus the Great, founder of the Persian Empire, had passed Colosse still earlier on his way to Greece.<\/p>\n<p>Colosse was situated in the region known as Phrygia and was a trading center at a crossroads on the main highway from Ephesus to the east. In Roman times relocation of the road leading north to Pergamum brought about both the growth of Laodicea, a city 10 miles (16 kilometers) away, and Colosse’s gradual decline. Colosse and Laodicea shared in the wool trade. Thus, the name Colosse was derived from a Latin name <em>collossinus,<\/em> meaning “purple wool.”<\/p>\n<p>In the apostle Paul’s time Colosse was a small city with a mixed population of Phrygians, Greeks, and Jews. During his extended stay in Ephesus, Paul may have taught Jews and Greeks who lived in Colosse (Acts 19:10). Epaphras, a Colossian, visited Paul in Rome and informed him about the condition of the church at Colosse (Col 1:7; 4:12), then was later imprisoned with Paul (Phlm 1:23). Others from the Colossian church included Philemon, Apphia, Archippus, and Onesimus, a slave who became a Christian (Phlm 1:16). Subsequent history is silent on the church at Colosse. The city was weakened under Islamic rule and was eventually destroyed in the 12th century.<\/p>","summary_ro":"COLOSSAE*, COLOSSE Ancient city in Asia Minor, located in the southwestern part of present-day Turkey, and remembered primarily for the apostle Paul’s letter to the church there (Col 1:2). Colosse was near the Lycus River, a tributary of the Meander. The city flourished during the sixth century BC. According to Herodotus, an ancient Greek historian, when the Persian king Xerxes came to Colosse, it was a city of great size. Another Greek historian, Xenophon, related that Cyrus the Great, found...","summary_en":"COLOSSAE*, COLOSSE Ancient city in Asia Minor, located in the southwestern part of present-day Turkey, and remembered primarily for the apostle Paul’s letter to the church there (Col 1:2). Colosse was near the Lycus River, a tributary of the Meander. The city flourished during the sixth century BC. According to Herodotus, an ancient Greek historian, when the Persian king Xerxes came to Colosse, it was a city of great size. Another Greek historian, Xenophon, related that Cyrus the Great, found...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10882,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter to the Ephesians","title_en":"Letter to the Ephesians","content_ro":"<h3>EPHESIANS, Letter to the<\/h3>\n<p>Letter to the Christians in Ephesus and the surrouding churches written with a magnificence that both instructs and inspires the reader. It provides a sweeping view of the role of the church as history moves toward the ultimate recognition of the universal headship of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Date and Origin<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The writer of the letter identifies himself as the apostle Paul (Eph 1:1; 3:1). He also describes his own ministry in terms that reflect what we know of Paul (3:7, 13; 4:1; 6:19-20). This claim is confirmed by the testimonies of Irenaeus, Origen, Polycarp, Tertullian, and Ignatius, who in his own espistle to the Ephesians alludes to the frequent and affectionate mention made by Paul of the Christian state, privileges, and persons of the Ephesians.<\/p>\n<p>There are some characteristics of the letter, however, that have caused many scholars to question its clear claim to Pauline authorship. Some of these characteristics would be a problem only if the letter were intended exclusively for people in Ephesus, but such was probably not the case. Otherwise, it would be hard to understand why, after establishing the church there over a three-year period, Paul would write as though author and recipients had only a secondhand knowledge of each other. It would also be strange that the warm personal words of greeting to various individuals that are found in other Pauline letters are missing here. There is instead only a general greeting to “the brothers” (6:23). But all this can be easily explained once it is understood that the epistle was an encyclical for several churches.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Destination\">Destination<\/p>\n<p>This epistle was addressed, most probably, to several churches in the district around Ephesus—namely, Asia. The Epistle to the Ephesians, so-called, was not really intended to be only for the church at Ephesus. Most modern scholars are convinced that it was an encyclical that went to several churches in Asia, including Ephesus. There are several reasons to affirm this. First, the earliest manuscripts (the Chester Beatty Papyrus—P46, Codex Sinaiticus, Codex Vaticanus) do not contain the words “in Ephesus” in Ephesians 1:1. It appears that Paul purposely left the name of the locality out, so as to be filled in later as the letter circulated to each locality. (The Greek construction in 1:1 calls for a prepositional phrase designating a locality to be present in the sentence.) Since Ephesus was the leading city of Asia, it was quite natural for scribes to assign this epistle to the church at Ephesus. Second, the Epistle to the Ephesians has all the marks of being a general treatise rather than an epistle to a specific local church. Paul had lived with the believers at Ephesus for three years (Acts 20:31). He knew them intimately, yet in this epistle there are no personal greetings or specific exhortations. When we consider Paul’s manner in many of his other epistles, it would be quite unlike him to have excluded these personal expressions. Quite the contrary, Paul speaks to the saints whom he has only heard about and who have only heard about him (see Eph 1:15; 3:1). It is possible that this epistle was the one sent to Laodicea.<\/p>\n\n<p>In all fairness it must be said that the encyclical theory has been opposed by some scholars. For example, Henry Alford makes the following objections to this theory: (1) It is at variance with the spirit of the epistle, which is clearly addressed to one set of persons throughout, coexisting in one place and as one body and under the same circumstances. (2) It is improbable that the apostle, who in two of his epistles (2 Corinthians and Galatians) has so plainly specified their encyclical character, should have here omitted such specification. (3) The absence of personal greetings is not an argument for either of the two theories, for similarly there are none in Galatians, Philippians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and 1 Timothy. The better he knows the parties addressed, and the more general and solemn the subject, the less he seems to give of these individual notices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateandOrigin\">Date and Origin<\/p>\n<p>Ephesians 3:1, 4:1, and 6:20 indicate that the letter was written while Paul was a prisoner. Since he was imprisoned several times, it is necessary to narrow the options. The first major imprisonment may have been at Ephesus itself, but this is obviously not in consideration. The second was at Caesarea for two years (Acts 24:27; cf. 23:23-24, 33). It is possible that Paul wrote some letters at that time, but most scholars think that Ephesians (along with Colossians, Philemon, and probably Philippians) was written during Paul’s imprisonment at Rome (28:16, 30). This probably took place sometime between <span>AD<\/span> 59 and 63 and lasted for two years. This period of time, following about 25 years of spiritual growth and 12 years or so of missionary experience, gave Paul a splendid opportunity for reflection and writing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Ephesus was the most important city in Asia Minor, located on the Cayster River, with a harbor on the Aegean Sea. With this location it became a center for commercial travel, and major trade routes led to it from several directions. A great pagan temple dedicated to the goddess Artemis (Diana) was located in Ephesus. Paul made the city a center of evangelistic and church-building ministry (Acts 19), spending three years there (20:31). It was natural, therefore, for a letter intended for a wide readership in that part of Asia Minor to have Ephesus as its main destination.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s first visit to Ephesus (on the seacoast of Lydia, near the river Cayster) is related in Acts 18:19-21. The work, begun by his disputations with the Jews in his short visit, was carried on by Apollos (vv 24-26) and Aquila and Priscilla (18:26). At his second visit, after his journey to Jerusalem, and thence to the east regions of Asia Minor, he remained at Ephesus “three years” (19:10—the “two years” in this verse are only <em>part<\/em> of the time—and 20:31); therefore, the founding and rearing of this church occupied an unusually large portion of the apostle’s time and care. The language in the epistle shows a warmth of feeling and a free outpouring of thought, and a union in spiritual privileges and hope between him and them, such as are natural from one so long and so intimately associated with those whom he addresses. On his last journey to Jerusalem, he sailed by Ephesus and summoned the elders of the Ephesian church to meet him at Miletus, where he delivered his remarkable farewell charge (20:18-35).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>It may be said that the purpose of Ephesians is “doxological”; that is, it should cause the readers to glorify God, both in grateful praise and in manner of life. This is seen in the opening section, which is like a hymn in style: “Praise God, the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ” (Eph 1:3; cf. the Doxology often sung in church). Paul says three times in the first chapter that the result of God’s blessings should be praise (vv 6, 12, 14).<\/p>\n<p>While the letter contains much doctrinal and moral instruction (with the latter solidly based on the former), its purpose is not only teaching or exhortation, important as these are. It is rather to lift up its readers to a new vantage point that will help them to identify with the risen, ascended Christ and to share his perspective on the church and its role in the world.<\/p>\n<p>In this connection a significant term occurs in 1:3 and elsewhere. It is perhaps best translated “heavenly realms.” It is different in form from the usual word for “heaven” and seems to have a special significance in Ephesians as the realm of Jesus’ victorious reign in the present age. This is seen in 1:20, read in the context of verses 19-23. Whatever beings there may be, Christ is above them all. The believer, although obviously on earth physically, “sits with Christ” in the heavenly realms (2:6) and is “blessed” (1:3), drawing on the unlimited resources of heaven for his daily life. It is also in this realm that the spiritual conflict takes place (6:12).<\/p>\n<p>Paul thus makes it clear that Christians are not to have a limited or merely earthly viewpoint. Those who do, mistakenly think that their enemies are people (6:12) and our resources human (2 Cor 10:3-4). With this orientation to the heavenly world of the Lord’s present exaltation, the reader is prepared to understand that the church does not function merely to carry out routine activities here, but that it displays the wisdom of God to beings who exist in the heavenly realms (Eph 3:10). Even the function of church leaders is discussed in terms of the gifts of the Christ who has ascended to the heavens (4:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>There is a strong sense of ultimate purpose in Ephesians. The first chapter contains a number of different expressions of purpose. The great goal of history is expressed in 1:10. The sense of purpose is never lost. The church is even seen, in chapter 3, as the expression of God’s eternal, secret plan. There is also a movement throughout the letter, from (1) reconciliation of individuals to God, to (2) their reconciliation to each other, to (3) their life together in the church. There is no arguing of points along the way, such as one finds in most of the letters, but rather a connected series of affirmations, each leading the reader on to the next.<\/p>\n<p>Paul discusses a number of topics from this heavenly perspective and the sense of purpose this provides. These topics will be discussed below in such a way as to show their interconnection, rather than necessarily in the order of their importance or prominence in Ephesians.<\/p>\n<h5>The Church<\/h5>\n<p>Paul employs a number of figures of speech to describe the church, including a household, a temple, and a body (1:22-23; 2:19-22). Actually, it may be insufficient to call the word “body” a figure of speech, because it seems to be more than that. There is a sense in which Christ and the church have an actual organic relationship, in which he functions as the head and believers as parts of his body.<\/p>\n<p>The church is the result of the reconciling work of Christ, whose death has made peace between mutually hostile Jews and Gentiles (2:11-18). The ensuing unity was long planned by God (3:2-6), and is furthered by a proper attitude and mutual ministry (ch 4).<\/p>\n<p>An especially remarkable feature of Ephesians is the parallel drawn between the relationship between a husband and wife and that between Christ and the church (5:22-33). In this comparison the prior reality is not marriage, with the relationship of Christ and the church only providing an illustration. Rather, the essential reality is Christ and the church.<\/p>\n<h5>The Headship of Christ<\/h5>\n<p>Not only is Christ the head of the church, but he is head over all things to the church’s benefit (1:22). The meaning of 1:10 is that the presently disparate parts and beings of the universe will be brought into order under the headship of Christ. This universal headship is anticipated in the ascension and present exaltation of Christ. The expression of universal domination—“God has put all things under his feet” (1:22, from Ps 8:6)—fortifies this expectation.<\/p>\n<h5>The “Mystery” or “Secret Plan”<\/h5>\n<p>The Greek word “mystery” has a special meaning in early Jewish and Christian literature. It refers to the private eternal decisions of God concerning his saving work and his ultimate purposes in history, which are revealed stage by stage. The term is used in connection with the kingdom in the Gospels (Mt 13:11), with the preaching of the gospel in 1 Corinthians 1:18–2:16, with the destiny of Israel in Romans 11:25, and elsewhere with differing applications. Finally, Revelation 10:6-7 declares that there will be no more delay, but that God’s “mystery,” initially announced by the prophets, will reach its completion.<\/p>\n<p>The aspect of God’s plan that Paul presents in Ephesians 3:3-6 is not only the inclusion of Gentiles among God’s people but their complete integration with Jews in the church. The extent of this was not revealed prior to the time of Paul’s ministry.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Divine Purpose: The Glory and Headship of Christ (1:1-14)<\/h5>\n<p>This whole section constitutes a “doxology.” Paul reminds readers, by expressing his own prayer of praise, of all the blessings God has given believers. These include being chosen to live in God’s presence without guilt (v 4), being given the destiny of full sonship (v 5), and being forgiven because Christ died for them.<\/p>\n<p>But Paul is not only giving a recitation of what God has done; he interweaves a number of words and phrases indicating <em>why<\/em> God has acted, that is, what God’s <em>purposes<\/em> are. Various translations use different English words to represent Greek expressions of purpose, such as “chose,” “predestined,” “plan,” “will,” “secret reason,” “good pleasure,” “purpose” (vv 4-10). Perhaps the most comprehensive statement is in verses 11-12.<\/p>\n<p>It is clear from this that the ultimate purpose of God’s saving work is not merely the happiness of believers but the glory of God through the Lord Jesus Christ. The Spirit is given to guarantee not only the believer’s security but also God’s investment, so to speak, in the believer.<\/p>\n<h5>Prayer That Christians May Realize God’s Purpose and Power (1:15-23)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul’s prayer issues from his opening section, constituting a request that believers may appropriate all that is contained in that statement. It is here that the fact of Jesus’ death, resurrection, and ascension is cited as the basis for the believer’s present vantage point and power.<\/p>\n<h5>Steps toward the Fulfillment of God’s Purpose (2:1–3:21)<\/h5>\n<p>The first step was the death of Christ in order to save individuals from sin and death (2:1-10). Since this was at God’s initiative, not man’s, and since man was spiritually “dead” and helpless, salvation can only be by grace.<\/p>\n<p>The second step was the reconciliation of people not only to God but to each other (2:11-18). Paul thus moves from the individual to the corporate aspect of salvation. This was particularly significant for Gentiles, who previously did not have even a formal relationship with God. One of the key words in this section is “peace” (vv 14-17).<\/p>\n<p>Step three goes beyond reconciliation to the actual uniting of Jews and Gentiles in one “household” (2:19-22). God has not only brought people individually to himself, and to each other as individuals, but has formed a new corporate entity, a new society that is described both in political and family terms. Ultimately, believers together form a corporate body in whom God is exalted.<\/p>\n<p>This third step is amplified in a fourth step, the revelation of God’s eternal purpose in the formation of this one body, the church (3:1-13). Using the biblical concept of the “mystery,” Paul shows how the church displays the wisdom of God to all who may be looking on throughout the universe. This immediately gives the believer a new awareness of the reason for his salvation and participation in the church. Self-centeredness and boredom with the routine of church activity give way to a sense of meaning and purpose.<\/p>\n<p>These steps are now summarized in a second prayer (3:14-21). An exalted series of petitions culminate in another “doxology.” This expresses Paul’s awe over the infinite power of God to accomplish all that he has described in the epistle thus far, and his desire that this will indeed result in great glory to God both in the church and in Christ.<\/p>\n<h5>Practical Ways to Fulfill God’s Purpose in the Church (4:1–6:20)<\/h5>\n<p>Doctrine and life are never separated in Paul’s thinking, but in Ephesians the connection is even more vital than usual. The believer’s life is to be lived in a manner worthy of the great purposes of God. The believer’s “calling” is not merely to be saved or eternally happy, but to participate with the entire body, the church, in bringing glory to God. This contributes to the realization of the prayer in 3:20-21.<\/p>\n<p>The first way to fulfill God’s purpose is to maintain the unity he established in the church. This is accomplished by recognizing the strong basis for unity (“one Lord, one faith,” etc., 4:5-6). Then believers must acknowledge diversity in that unity, remembering that God has given each one special abilities (vv 7-8). These abilities are to be used to bring the church both individually and corporately to maturity. This diversity in unity constitutes the second way in which God’s purpose is fulfilled. Christian maturity enables the individual members of the church to relate to each other in love (v 16).<\/p>\n<p>The third way to accomplish the purposes of God is by renewal of personal life (4:17–5:21). Paul emphasizes the kind of lifestyle that is expected of a Christian by contrasting the behavior patterns that had characterized the believers before their conversion. But the new life of the believer is not simply structured as a reaction against the old. Rather, the Lord has given both his teachings and the example of his own sacrificial love (4:20-21, 32; 5:1-2). The believer should cast off his old way of life, his old self or character. (The actual term is “old man” in Paul’s wording, not, as is often thought, “old nature.”) He should at the same time put on the “new man,” which, in Paul’s words in verse 24, is “created according to God” (<span>niv<\/span> “created to be like God”). The section closes with the important exhortation to be filled with the Spirit (5:18).<\/p>\n<p>The expression of the new character in interpersonal relations is the fourth way in which believers can forward the purposes of God in the church. Unity is either achieved or broken in accordance with the presence or absence of the proper submission described in 5:22–6:9. The basic principle of submission is first expressed by verse 21 as a result of the Spirit’s full control.<\/p>\n<p>Marriage then provides the first example of mutual submission. The wife submits to the husband, and this in turn is an expression of her submission, along with that of the whole church, to the Lord. The husband loves his wife as Christ loved the church. While the husband’s love is not described as submission, in effect, love does cost the lover his freedom. Jesus thus expressed his love for the church by his death (5:25). Further, husband and wife are bound together in a unity, just as God intended at the time of creation (Gn 2:24, quoted here in 5:31). This unity portrays that spiritual unity that exists between Christ and the church.<\/p>\n<p>It should be noted that this list of examples is similar to a pattern used elsewhere in the NT (e.g., Col 3:18–4:1; 1 Pt 3:1-7). Thus, following the example of marriage, Paul turns to the relationship that should exist between parent and child. The child obeys the father; the father refrains from excessive reactions (6:1-4). The last example is that of slaves and masters.<\/p>\n\n<p>The final way in which believers forward God’s great purposes is to carry on the spiritual conflict by depending on spiritual resources (Eph 6:10-20). Drawing on imagery both from the OT and from contemporary Roman warfare, Paul shows that the heavenly perspective is essential for victory. This includes dependence on God as expressed in prayer (vv 18-20). He acknowledges his own need in this respect.<\/p>\n<p>The conclusion to the letter (6:21-24) is a word of encouragement and an explanation of Paul’s decision to send the letter in the good hands of Tychicus. One of the concluding words is “grace,” a word that underlies the entire divine process described in Ephesians.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Colossians, Letter to the; Ephesus; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EPHESIANS, Letter to the<\/h3>\n<p>Letter to the Christians in Ephesus and the surrouding churches written with a magnificence that both instructs and inspires the reader. It provides a sweeping view of the role of the church as history moves toward the ultimate recognition of the universal headship of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Date and Origin<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The writer of the letter identifies himself as the apostle Paul (Eph 1:1; 3:1). He also describes his own ministry in terms that reflect what we know of Paul (3:7, 13; 4:1; 6:19-20). This claim is confirmed by the testimonies of Irenaeus, Origen, Polycarp, Tertullian, and Ignatius, who in his own espistle to the Ephesians alludes to the frequent and affectionate mention made by Paul of the Christian state, privileges, and persons of the Ephesians.<\/p>\n<p>There are some characteristics of the letter, however, that have caused many scholars to question its clear claim to Pauline authorship. Some of these characteristics would be a problem only if the letter were intended exclusively for people in Ephesus, but such was probably not the case. Otherwise, it would be hard to understand why, after establishing the church there over a three-year period, Paul would write as though author and recipients had only a secondhand knowledge of each other. It would also be strange that the warm personal words of greeting to various individuals that are found in other Pauline letters are missing here. There is instead only a general greeting to “the brothers” (6:23). But all this can be easily explained once it is understood that the epistle was an encyclical for several churches.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Destination\">Destination<\/p>\n<p>This epistle was addressed, most probably, to several churches in the district around Ephesus—namely, Asia. The Epistle to the Ephesians, so-called, was not really intended to be only for the church at Ephesus. Most modern scholars are convinced that it was an encyclical that went to several churches in Asia, including Ephesus. There are several reasons to affirm this. First, the earliest manuscripts (the Chester Beatty Papyrus—P46, Codex Sinaiticus, Codex Vaticanus) do not contain the words “in Ephesus” in Ephesians 1:1. It appears that Paul purposely left the name of the locality out, so as to be filled in later as the letter circulated to each locality. (The Greek construction in 1:1 calls for a prepositional phrase designating a locality to be present in the sentence.) Since Ephesus was the leading city of Asia, it was quite natural for scribes to assign this epistle to the church at Ephesus. Second, the Epistle to the Ephesians has all the marks of being a general treatise rather than an epistle to a specific local church. Paul had lived with the believers at Ephesus for three years (Acts 20:31). He knew them intimately, yet in this epistle there are no personal greetings or specific exhortations. When we consider Paul’s manner in many of his other epistles, it would be quite unlike him to have excluded these personal expressions. Quite the contrary, Paul speaks to the saints whom he has only heard about and who have only heard about him (see Eph 1:15; 3:1). It is possible that this epistle was the one sent to Laodicea.<\/p>\n\n<p>In all fairness it must be said that the encyclical theory has been opposed by some scholars. For example, Henry Alford makes the following objections to this theory: (1) It is at variance with the spirit of the epistle, which is clearly addressed to one set of persons throughout, coexisting in one place and as one body and under the same circumstances. (2) It is improbable that the apostle, who in two of his epistles (2 Corinthians and Galatians) has so plainly specified their encyclical character, should have here omitted such specification. (3) The absence of personal greetings is not an argument for either of the two theories, for similarly there are none in Galatians, Philippians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and 1 Timothy. The better he knows the parties addressed, and the more general and solemn the subject, the less he seems to give of these individual notices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateandOrigin\">Date and Origin<\/p>\n<p>Ephesians 3:1, 4:1, and 6:20 indicate that the letter was written while Paul was a prisoner. Since he was imprisoned several times, it is necessary to narrow the options. The first major imprisonment may have been at Ephesus itself, but this is obviously not in consideration. The second was at Caesarea for two years (Acts 24:27; cf. 23:23-24, 33). It is possible that Paul wrote some letters at that time, but most scholars think that Ephesians (along with Colossians, Philemon, and probably Philippians) was written during Paul’s imprisonment at Rome (28:16, 30). This probably took place sometime between <span>AD<\/span> 59 and 63 and lasted for two years. This period of time, following about 25 years of spiritual growth and 12 years or so of missionary experience, gave Paul a splendid opportunity for reflection and writing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Ephesus was the most important city in Asia Minor, located on the Cayster River, with a harbor on the Aegean Sea. With this location it became a center for commercial travel, and major trade routes led to it from several directions. A great pagan temple dedicated to the goddess Artemis (Diana) was located in Ephesus. Paul made the city a center of evangelistic and church-building ministry (Acts 19), spending three years there (20:31). It was natural, therefore, for a letter intended for a wide readership in that part of Asia Minor to have Ephesus as its main destination.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s first visit to Ephesus (on the seacoast of Lydia, near the river Cayster) is related in Acts 18:19-21. The work, begun by his disputations with the Jews in his short visit, was carried on by Apollos (vv 24-26) and Aquila and Priscilla (18:26). At his second visit, after his journey to Jerusalem, and thence to the east regions of Asia Minor, he remained at Ephesus “three years” (19:10—the “two years” in this verse are only <em>part<\/em> of the time—and 20:31); therefore, the founding and rearing of this church occupied an unusually large portion of the apostle’s time and care. The language in the epistle shows a warmth of feeling and a free outpouring of thought, and a union in spiritual privileges and hope between him and them, such as are natural from one so long and so intimately associated with those whom he addresses. On his last journey to Jerusalem, he sailed by Ephesus and summoned the elders of the Ephesian church to meet him at Miletus, where he delivered his remarkable farewell charge (20:18-35).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>It may be said that the purpose of Ephesians is “doxological”; that is, it should cause the readers to glorify God, both in grateful praise and in manner of life. This is seen in the opening section, which is like a hymn in style: “Praise God, the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ” (Eph 1:3; cf. the Doxology often sung in church). Paul says three times in the first chapter that the result of God’s blessings should be praise (vv 6, 12, 14).<\/p>\n<p>While the letter contains much doctrinal and moral instruction (with the latter solidly based on the former), its purpose is not only teaching or exhortation, important as these are. It is rather to lift up its readers to a new vantage point that will help them to identify with the risen, ascended Christ and to share his perspective on the church and its role in the world.<\/p>\n<p>In this connection a significant term occurs in 1:3 and elsewhere. It is perhaps best translated “heavenly realms.” It is different in form from the usual word for “heaven” and seems to have a special significance in Ephesians as the realm of Jesus’ victorious reign in the present age. This is seen in 1:20, read in the context of verses 19-23. Whatever beings there may be, Christ is above them all. The believer, although obviously on earth physically, “sits with Christ” in the heavenly realms (2:6) and is “blessed” (1:3), drawing on the unlimited resources of heaven for his daily life. It is also in this realm that the spiritual conflict takes place (6:12).<\/p>\n<p>Paul thus makes it clear that Christians are not to have a limited or merely earthly viewpoint. Those who do, mistakenly think that their enemies are people (6:12) and our resources human (2 Cor 10:3-4). With this orientation to the heavenly world of the Lord’s present exaltation, the reader is prepared to understand that the church does not function merely to carry out routine activities here, but that it displays the wisdom of God to beings who exist in the heavenly realms (Eph 3:10). Even the function of church leaders is discussed in terms of the gifts of the Christ who has ascended to the heavens (4:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>There is a strong sense of ultimate purpose in Ephesians. The first chapter contains a number of different expressions of purpose. The great goal of history is expressed in 1:10. The sense of purpose is never lost. The church is even seen, in chapter 3, as the expression of God’s eternal, secret plan. There is also a movement throughout the letter, from (1) reconciliation of individuals to God, to (2) their reconciliation to each other, to (3) their life together in the church. There is no arguing of points along the way, such as one finds in most of the letters, but rather a connected series of affirmations, each leading the reader on to the next.<\/p>\n<p>Paul discusses a number of topics from this heavenly perspective and the sense of purpose this provides. These topics will be discussed below in such a way as to show their interconnection, rather than necessarily in the order of their importance or prominence in Ephesians.<\/p>\n<h5>The Church<\/h5>\n<p>Paul employs a number of figures of speech to describe the church, including a household, a temple, and a body (1:22-23; 2:19-22). Actually, it may be insufficient to call the word “body” a figure of speech, because it seems to be more than that. There is a sense in which Christ and the church have an actual organic relationship, in which he functions as the head and believers as parts of his body.<\/p>\n<p>The church is the result of the reconciling work of Christ, whose death has made peace between mutually hostile Jews and Gentiles (2:11-18). The ensuing unity was long planned by God (3:2-6), and is furthered by a proper attitude and mutual ministry (ch 4).<\/p>\n<p>An especially remarkable feature of Ephesians is the parallel drawn between the relationship between a husband and wife and that between Christ and the church (5:22-33). In this comparison the prior reality is not marriage, with the relationship of Christ and the church only providing an illustration. Rather, the essential reality is Christ and the church.<\/p>\n<h5>The Headship of Christ<\/h5>\n<p>Not only is Christ the head of the church, but he is head over all things to the church’s benefit (1:22). The meaning of 1:10 is that the presently disparate parts and beings of the universe will be brought into order under the headship of Christ. This universal headship is anticipated in the ascension and present exaltation of Christ. The expression of universal domination—“God has put all things under his feet” (1:22, from Ps 8:6)—fortifies this expectation.<\/p>\n<h5>The “Mystery” or “Secret Plan”<\/h5>\n<p>The Greek word “mystery” has a special meaning in early Jewish and Christian literature. It refers to the private eternal decisions of God concerning his saving work and his ultimate purposes in history, which are revealed stage by stage. The term is used in connection with the kingdom in the Gospels (Mt 13:11), with the preaching of the gospel in 1 Corinthians 1:18–2:16, with the destiny of Israel in Romans 11:25, and elsewhere with differing applications. Finally, Revelation 10:6-7 declares that there will be no more delay, but that God’s “mystery,” initially announced by the prophets, will reach its completion.<\/p>\n<p>The aspect of God’s plan that Paul presents in Ephesians 3:3-6 is not only the inclusion of Gentiles among God’s people but their complete integration with Jews in the church. The extent of this was not revealed prior to the time of Paul’s ministry.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Divine Purpose: The Glory and Headship of Christ (1:1-14)<\/h5>\n<p>This whole section constitutes a “doxology.” Paul reminds readers, by expressing his own prayer of praise, of all the blessings God has given believers. These include being chosen to live in God’s presence without guilt (v 4), being given the destiny of full sonship (v 5), and being forgiven because Christ died for them.<\/p>\n<p>But Paul is not only giving a recitation of what God has done; he interweaves a number of words and phrases indicating <em>why<\/em> God has acted, that is, what God’s <em>purposes<\/em> are. Various translations use different English words to represent Greek expressions of purpose, such as “chose,” “predestined,” “plan,” “will,” “secret reason,” “good pleasure,” “purpose” (vv 4-10). Perhaps the most comprehensive statement is in verses 11-12.<\/p>\n<p>It is clear from this that the ultimate purpose of God’s saving work is not merely the happiness of believers but the glory of God through the Lord Jesus Christ. The Spirit is given to guarantee not only the believer’s security but also God’s investment, so to speak, in the believer.<\/p>\n<h5>Prayer That Christians May Realize God’s Purpose and Power (1:15-23)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul’s prayer issues from his opening section, constituting a request that believers may appropriate all that is contained in that statement. It is here that the fact of Jesus’ death, resurrection, and ascension is cited as the basis for the believer’s present vantage point and power.<\/p>\n<h5>Steps toward the Fulfillment of God’s Purpose (2:1–3:21)<\/h5>\n<p>The first step was the death of Christ in order to save individuals from sin and death (2:1-10). Since this was at God’s initiative, not man’s, and since man was spiritually “dead” and helpless, salvation can only be by grace.<\/p>\n<p>The second step was the reconciliation of people not only to God but to each other (2:11-18). Paul thus moves from the individual to the corporate aspect of salvation. This was particularly significant for Gentiles, who previously did not have even a formal relationship with God. One of the key words in this section is “peace” (vv 14-17).<\/p>\n<p>Step three goes beyond reconciliation to the actual uniting of Jews and Gentiles in one “household” (2:19-22). God has not only brought people individually to himself, and to each other as individuals, but has formed a new corporate entity, a new society that is described both in political and family terms. Ultimately, believers together form a corporate body in whom God is exalted.<\/p>\n<p>This third step is amplified in a fourth step, the revelation of God’s eternal purpose in the formation of this one body, the church (3:1-13). Using the biblical concept of the “mystery,” Paul shows how the church displays the wisdom of God to all who may be looking on throughout the universe. This immediately gives the believer a new awareness of the reason for his salvation and participation in the church. Self-centeredness and boredom with the routine of church activity give way to a sense of meaning and purpose.<\/p>\n<p>These steps are now summarized in a second prayer (3:14-21). An exalted series of petitions culminate in another “doxology.” This expresses Paul’s awe over the infinite power of God to accomplish all that he has described in the epistle thus far, and his desire that this will indeed result in great glory to God both in the church and in Christ.<\/p>\n<h5>Practical Ways to Fulfill God’s Purpose in the Church (4:1–6:20)<\/h5>\n<p>Doctrine and life are never separated in Paul’s thinking, but in Ephesians the connection is even more vital than usual. The believer’s life is to be lived in a manner worthy of the great purposes of God. The believer’s “calling” is not merely to be saved or eternally happy, but to participate with the entire body, the church, in bringing glory to God. This contributes to the realization of the prayer in 3:20-21.<\/p>\n<p>The first way to fulfill God’s purpose is to maintain the unity he established in the church. This is accomplished by recognizing the strong basis for unity (“one Lord, one faith,” etc., 4:5-6). Then believers must acknowledge diversity in that unity, remembering that God has given each one special abilities (vv 7-8). These abilities are to be used to bring the church both individually and corporately to maturity. This diversity in unity constitutes the second way in which God’s purpose is fulfilled. Christian maturity enables the individual members of the church to relate to each other in love (v 16).<\/p>\n<p>The third way to accomplish the purposes of God is by renewal of personal life (4:17–5:21). Paul emphasizes the kind of lifestyle that is expected of a Christian by contrasting the behavior patterns that had characterized the believers before their conversion. But the new life of the believer is not simply structured as a reaction against the old. Rather, the Lord has given both his teachings and the example of his own sacrificial love (4:20-21, 32; 5:1-2). The believer should cast off his old way of life, his old self or character. (The actual term is “old man” in Paul’s wording, not, as is often thought, “old nature.”) He should at the same time put on the “new man,” which, in Paul’s words in verse 24, is “created according to God” (<span>niv<\/span> “created to be like God”). The section closes with the important exhortation to be filled with the Spirit (5:18).<\/p>\n<p>The expression of the new character in interpersonal relations is the fourth way in which believers can forward the purposes of God in the church. Unity is either achieved or broken in accordance with the presence or absence of the proper submission described in 5:22–6:9. The basic principle of submission is first expressed by verse 21 as a result of the Spirit’s full control.<\/p>\n<p>Marriage then provides the first example of mutual submission. The wife submits to the husband, and this in turn is an expression of her submission, along with that of the whole church, to the Lord. The husband loves his wife as Christ loved the church. While the husband’s love is not described as submission, in effect, love does cost the lover his freedom. Jesus thus expressed his love for the church by his death (5:25). Further, husband and wife are bound together in a unity, just as God intended at the time of creation (Gn 2:24, quoted here in 5:31). This unity portrays that spiritual unity that exists between Christ and the church.<\/p>\n<p>It should be noted that this list of examples is similar to a pattern used elsewhere in the NT (e.g., Col 3:18–4:1; 1 Pt 3:1-7). Thus, following the example of marriage, Paul turns to the relationship that should exist between parent and child. The child obeys the father; the father refrains from excessive reactions (6:1-4). The last example is that of slaves and masters.<\/p>\n\n<p>The final way in which believers forward God’s great purposes is to carry on the spiritual conflict by depending on spiritual resources (Eph 6:10-20). Drawing on imagery both from the OT and from contemporary Roman warfare, Paul shows that the heavenly perspective is essential for victory. This includes dependence on God as expressed in prayer (vv 18-20). He acknowledges his own need in this respect.<\/p>\n<p>The conclusion to the letter (6:21-24) is a word of encouragement and an explanation of Paul’s decision to send the letter in the good hands of Tychicus. One of the concluding words is “grace,” a word that underlies the entire divine process described in Ephesians.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Colossians, Letter to the; Ephesus; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EPHESIANS, Letter to the Letter to the Christians in Ephesus and the surrouding churches written with a magnificence that both instructs and inspires the reader. It provides a sweeping view of the role of the church as history moves toward the ultimate recognition of the universal headship of Christ. Preview • Author • Destination • Date and Origin • Background • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author The writer of the letter identifies himself as the apostle Paul (Eph 1:1; 3:1). H...","summary_en":"EPHESIANS, Letter to the Letter to the Christians in Ephesus and the surrouding churches written with a magnificence that both instructs and inspires the reader. It provides a sweeping view of the role of the church as history moves toward the ultimate recognition of the universal headship of Christ. Preview • Author • Destination • Date and Origin • Background • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author The writer of the letter identifies himself as the apostle Paul (Eph 1:1; 3:1). H...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29239,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Paul, the Apostle","title_en":"Paul, the Apostle","content_ro":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","summary_en":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37791,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hall of Tyrannus","title_en":"Hall of Tyrannus","content_ro":"<h3>TYRANNUS, Hall of<\/h3>\n<p>Place in Ephesus where Paul taught daily for two years (Acts 19:9). Paul’s ministry in Ephesus had begun at the synagogue, where he had preached for three months. Finding increasing opposition there, Paul rented the Hall of Tyrannus (<span>nasb<\/span> “school of Tyrannus”), where he began a ministry to both Jews and Greeks (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>In Greek, the term “hall” literally means “leisure” or “rest.” It eventually became associated with the kind of activity carried on during times of leisure, that is, lectures, debates, and discussion. Finally, the term came to mean the place where these leisure activities occurred.<\/p>\n<p>Virtually nothing is known about Tyrannus himself. Some scholars have suggested that he was a Greek rhetorician, sympathetic to Paul’s preaching. This suggestion is made plausible by an addition in the Western text that states that Paul taught in the hall “from the fifth hour until the tenth,” that is, from 11 <span>am<\/span> until 4 <span>pm<\/span> (<span>nrsv<\/span> mg). This would mean that Paul used the hall only during afternoon rest periods, for in all Ionian cities, work ceased at 11 <span>am<\/span> and did not resume until late afternoon because of the intense heat. Possibly these rest periods made the hall available for Paul’s use, and Tyrannus himself lectured there before and after these hours.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TYRANNUS, Hall of<\/h3>\n<p>Place in Ephesus where Paul taught daily for two years (Acts 19:9). Paul’s ministry in Ephesus had begun at the synagogue, where he had preached for three months. Finding increasing opposition there, Paul rented the Hall of Tyrannus (<span>nasb<\/span> “school of Tyrannus”), where he began a ministry to both Jews and Greeks (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>In Greek, the term “hall” literally means “leisure” or “rest.” It eventually became associated with the kind of activity carried on during times of leisure, that is, lectures, debates, and discussion. Finally, the term came to mean the place where these leisure activities occurred.<\/p>\n<p>Virtually nothing is known about Tyrannus himself. Some scholars have suggested that he was a Greek rhetorician, sympathetic to Paul’s preaching. This suggestion is made plausible by an addition in the Western text that states that Paul taught in the hall “from the fifth hour until the tenth,” that is, from 11 <span>am<\/span> until 4 <span>pm<\/span> (<span>nrsv<\/span> mg). This would mean that Paul used the hall only during afternoon rest periods, for in all Ionian cities, work ceased at 11 <span>am<\/span> and did not resume until late afternoon because of the intense heat. Possibly these rest periods made the hall available for Paul’s use, and Tyrannus himself lectured there before and after these hours.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TYRANNUS, Hall of Place in Ephesus where Paul taught daily for two years (Acts 19:9). Paul’s ministry in Ephesus had begun at the synagogue, where he had preached for three months. Finding increasing opposition there, Paul rented the Hall of Tyrannus (nasb “school of Tyrannus”), where he began a ministry to both Jews and Greeks (v 10). In Greek, the term “hall” literally means “leisure” or “rest.” It eventually became associated with the kind of activity carried on during times of leisure, th...","summary_en":"TYRANNUS, Hall of Place in Ephesus where Paul taught daily for two years (Acts 19:9). Paul’s ministry in Ephesus had begun at the synagogue, where he had preached for three months. Finding increasing opposition there, Paul rented the Hall of Tyrannus (nasb “school of Tyrannus”), where he began a ministry to both Jews and Greeks (v 10). In Greek, the term “hall” literally means “leisure” or “rest.” It eventually became associated with the kind of activity carried on during times of leisure, th...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57048,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:10","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:10<\/strong> Paul probably wrote 1 Corinthians during this time (see 1 Corinthians Book Introduction, “Date and Occasion of Writing”).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:10<\/strong> Paul probably wrote 1 Corinthians during this time (see 1 Corinthians Book Introduction, “Date and Occasion of Writing”).<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:10 Paul probably wrote 1 Corinthians during this time (see 1 Corinthians Book Introduction, “Date and Occasion of Writing”).","summary_en":"19:10 Paul probably wrote 1 Corinthians during this time (see 1 Corinthians Book Introduction, “Date and Occasion of Writing”).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84674,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:10","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:10<\/strong> Paul probably wrote 1 Corinthians during this time (see 1 Corinthians Book Introduction, “Date and Occasion of Writing”).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:10<\/strong> Paul probably wrote 1 Corinthians during this time (see 1 Corinthians Book Introduction, “Date and Occasion of Writing”).<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:10 Paul probably wrote 1 Corinthians during this time (see 1 Corinthians Book Introduction, “Date and Occasion of Writing”).","summary_en":"19:10 Paul probably wrote 1 Corinthians during this time (see 1 Corinthians Book Introduction, “Date and Occasion of Writing”).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112300,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:10","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:10<\/strong> Paul probably wrote 1 Corinthians during this time (see 1 Corinthians Book Introduction, “Date and Occasion of Writing”).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:10<\/strong> Paul probably wrote 1 Corinthians during this time (see 1 Corinthians Book Introduction, “Date and Occasion of Writing”).<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:10 Paul probably wrote 1 Corinthians during this time (see 1 Corinthians Book Introduction, “Date and Occasion of Writing”).","summary_en":"19:10 Paul probably wrote 1 Corinthians during this time (see 1 Corinthians Book Introduction, “Date and Occasion of Writing”).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139926,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:10","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:10<\/strong> Paul probably wrote 1 Corinthians during this time (see 1 Corinthians Book Introduction, “Date and Occasion of Writing”).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:10<\/strong> Paul probably wrote 1 Corinthians during this time (see 1 Corinthians Book Introduction, “Date and Occasion of Writing”).<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:10 Paul probably wrote 1 Corinthians during this time (see 1 Corinthians Book Introduction, “Date and Occasion of Writing”).","summary_en":"19:10 Paul probably wrote 1 Corinthians during this time (see 1 Corinthians Book Introduction, “Date and Occasion of Writing”).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":42595,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Philip","title_en":"Philip","content_ro":"<h3>Philip<\/h3>\n<p>Philip was one of the first to take the Good News of Christ to those outside the borders of Judea. Well respected among the early Christians, he was one of seven men chosen to administer the food-distribution program for needy believers in Jerusalem (Acts 6:1-6). Philip was a strong and effective evangelist in the power of the Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>When Christians were forced to flee Jerusalem following the death of Stephen (8:1-5), Philip carried the Good News of Christ north to the ethnically mixed city of Samaria. There he performed many miraculous healings and exorcisms, and people responded eagerly to his message (8:5-8). Many men and women were baptized, including a notorious sorcerer named Simon (8:9-13). Then, directed by an angel, Philip traveled southwest from Jerusalem toward Gaza (8:26). There, directed by the Spirit, he met the treasurer of Ethiopia, who was returning home after visiting Jerusalem (8:27-28). When the Ethiopian asked Philip to help him understand Isaiah 53, Philip told him the Good News about Jesus (Acts 8:30-35), then baptized the man by the roadside (8:36-38). Philip was then suddenly taken away by the Spirit of God to the town of Azotus (8:39-40), where he again preached the Good News. He traveled through all the coastal towns until he came to the large Roman city of Caesarea on the coast, where he evidently settled down (8:40; 21:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>Many years later, Paul spent a night in Philip’s home in Caesarea (21:8). By this time Philip was known as Philip the Evangelist. He had raised four unmarried daughters, all of whom had the gift of prophecy (21:9).<\/p>\n<p>Philip exemplifies early Christian evangelists, whom the Holy Spirit empowered and guided to authenticate their witness (see also 1:8; 3:4-8; 5:12-16; 6:8; 10:9-20; 13:2; 16:6-10; 19:11-12; 20:22-23). Philip submitted to the power and guidance of the Spirit, and God used him to take the Good News to those beyond the borders of Judea.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 6:5; 8:4-13, 26-40; 21:8-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Philip<\/h3>\n<p>Philip was one of the first to take the Good News of Christ to those outside the borders of Judea. Well respected among the early Christians, he was one of seven men chosen to administer the food-distribution program for needy believers in Jerusalem (Acts 6:1-6). Philip was a strong and effective evangelist in the power of the Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>When Christians were forced to flee Jerusalem following the death of Stephen (8:1-5), Philip carried the Good News of Christ north to the ethnically mixed city of Samaria. There he performed many miraculous healings and exorcisms, and people responded eagerly to his message (8:5-8). Many men and women were baptized, including a notorious sorcerer named Simon (8:9-13). Then, directed by an angel, Philip traveled southwest from Jerusalem toward Gaza (8:26). There, directed by the Spirit, he met the treasurer of Ethiopia, who was returning home after visiting Jerusalem (8:27-28). When the Ethiopian asked Philip to help him understand Isaiah 53, Philip told him the Good News about Jesus (Acts 8:30-35), then baptized the man by the roadside (8:36-38). Philip was then suddenly taken away by the Spirit of God to the town of Azotus (8:39-40), where he again preached the Good News. He traveled through all the coastal towns until he came to the large Roman city of Caesarea on the coast, where he evidently settled down (8:40; 21:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>Many years later, Paul spent a night in Philip’s home in Caesarea (21:8). By this time Philip was known as Philip the Evangelist. He had raised four unmarried daughters, all of whom had the gift of prophecy (21:9).<\/p>\n<p>Philip exemplifies early Christian evangelists, whom the Holy Spirit empowered and guided to authenticate their witness (see also 1:8; 3:4-8; 5:12-16; 6:8; 10:9-20; 13:2; 16:6-10; 19:11-12; 20:22-23). Philip submitted to the power and guidance of the Spirit, and God used him to take the Good News to those beyond the borders of Judea.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 6:5; 8:4-13, 26-40; 21:8-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Philip Philip was one of the first to take the Good News of Christ to those outside the borders of Judea. Well respected among the early Christians, he was one of seven men chosen to administer the food-distribution program for needy believers in Jerusalem (Acts 6:1-6). Philip was a strong and effective evangelist in the power of the Spirit. When Christians were forced to flee Jerusalem following the death of Stephen (8:1-5), Philip carried the Good News of Christ north to the ethnically mixe...","summary_en":"Philip Philip was one of the first to take the Good News of Christ to those outside the borders of Judea. Well respected among the early Christians, he was one of seven men chosen to administer the food-distribution program for needy believers in Jerusalem (Acts 6:1-6). Philip was a strong and effective evangelist in the power of the Spirit. When Christians were forced to flee Jerusalem following the death of Stephen (8:1-5), Philip carried the Good News of Christ north to the ethnically mixe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70221,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Philip","title_en":"Philip","content_ro":"<h3>Philip<\/h3>\n<p>Philip was one of the first to take the Good News of Christ to those outside the borders of Judea. Well respected among the early Christians, he was one of seven men chosen to administer the food-distribution program for needy believers in Jerusalem (Acts 6:1-6). Philip was a strong and effective evangelist in the power of the Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>When Christians were forced to flee Jerusalem following the death of Stephen (8:1-5), Philip carried the Good News of Christ north to the ethnically mixed city of Samaria. There he performed many miraculous healings and exorcisms, and people responded eagerly to his message (8:5-8). Many men and women were baptized, including a notorious sorcerer named Simon (8:9-13). Then, directed by an angel, Philip traveled southwest from Jerusalem toward Gaza (8:26). There, directed by the Spirit, he met the treasurer of Ethiopia, who was returning home after visiting Jerusalem (8:27-28). When the Ethiopian asked Philip to help him understand Isaiah 53, Philip told him the Good News about Jesus (Acts 8:30-35), then baptized the man by the roadside (8:36-38). Philip was then suddenly taken away by the Spirit of God to the town of Azotus (8:39-40), where he again preached the Good News. He traveled through all the coastal towns until he came to the large Roman city of Caesarea on the coast, where he evidently settled down (8:40; 21:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>Many years later, Paul spent a night in Philip’s home in Caesarea (21:8). By this time Philip was known as Philip the Evangelist. He had raised four unmarried daughters, all of whom had the gift of prophecy (21:9).<\/p>\n<p>Philip exemplifies early Christian evangelists, whom the Holy Spirit empowered and guided to authenticate their witness (see also 1:8; 3:4-8; 5:12-16; 6:8; 10:9-20; 13:2; 16:6-10; 19:11-12; 20:22-23). Philip submitted to the power and guidance of the Spirit, and God used him to take the Good News to those beyond the borders of Judea.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 6:5; 8:4-13, 26-40; 21:8-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Philip<\/h3>\n<p>Philip was one of the first to take the Good News of Christ to those outside the borders of Judea. Well respected among the early Christians, he was one of seven men chosen to administer the food-distribution program for needy believers in Jerusalem (Acts 6:1-6). Philip was a strong and effective evangelist in the power of the Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>When Christians were forced to flee Jerusalem following the death of Stephen (8:1-5), Philip carried the Good News of Christ north to the ethnically mixed city of Samaria. There he performed many miraculous healings and exorcisms, and people responded eagerly to his message (8:5-8). Many men and women were baptized, including a notorious sorcerer named Simon (8:9-13). Then, directed by an angel, Philip traveled southwest from Jerusalem toward Gaza (8:26). There, directed by the Spirit, he met the treasurer of Ethiopia, who was returning home after visiting Jerusalem (8:27-28). When the Ethiopian asked Philip to help him understand Isaiah 53, Philip told him the Good News about Jesus (Acts 8:30-35), then baptized the man by the roadside (8:36-38). Philip was then suddenly taken away by the Spirit of God to the town of Azotus (8:39-40), where he again preached the Good News. He traveled through all the coastal towns until he came to the large Roman city of Caesarea on the coast, where he evidently settled down (8:40; 21:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>Many years later, Paul spent a night in Philip’s home in Caesarea (21:8). By this time Philip was known as Philip the Evangelist. He had raised four unmarried daughters, all of whom had the gift of prophecy (21:9).<\/p>\n<p>Philip exemplifies early Christian evangelists, whom the Holy Spirit empowered and guided to authenticate their witness (see also 1:8; 3:4-8; 5:12-16; 6:8; 10:9-20; 13:2; 16:6-10; 19:11-12; 20:22-23). Philip submitted to the power and guidance of the Spirit, and God used him to take the Good News to those beyond the borders of Judea.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 6:5; 8:4-13, 26-40; 21:8-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Philip Philip was one of the first to take the Good News of Christ to those outside the borders of Judea. Well respected among the early Christians, he was one of seven men chosen to administer the food-distribution program for needy believers in Jerusalem (Acts 6:1-6). Philip was a strong and effective evangelist in the power of the Spirit. When Christians were forced to flee Jerusalem following the death of Stephen (8:1-5), Philip carried the Good News of Christ north to the ethnically mixe...","summary_en":"Philip Philip was one of the first to take the Good News of Christ to those outside the borders of Judea. Well respected among the early Christians, he was one of seven men chosen to administer the food-distribution program for needy believers in Jerusalem (Acts 6:1-6). Philip was a strong and effective evangelist in the power of the Spirit. When Christians were forced to flee Jerusalem following the death of Stephen (8:1-5), Philip carried the Good News of Christ north to the ethnically mixe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97847,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Philip","title_en":"Philip","content_ro":"<h3>Philip<\/h3>\n<p>Philip was one of the first to take the Good News of Christ to those outside the borders of Judea. Well respected among the early Christians, he was one of seven men chosen to administer the food-distribution program for needy believers in Jerusalem (Acts 6:1-6). Philip was a strong and effective evangelist in the power of the Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>When Christians were forced to flee Jerusalem following the death of Stephen (8:1-5), Philip carried the Good News of Christ north to the ethnically mixed city of Samaria. There he performed many miraculous healings and exorcisms, and people responded eagerly to his message (8:5-8). Many men and women were baptized, including a notorious sorcerer named Simon (8:9-13). Then, directed by an angel, Philip traveled southwest from Jerusalem toward Gaza (8:26). There, directed by the Spirit, he met the treasurer of Ethiopia, who was returning home after visiting Jerusalem (8:27-28). When the Ethiopian asked Philip to help him understand Isaiah 53, Philip told him the Good News about Jesus (Acts 8:30-35), then baptized the man by the roadside (8:36-38). Philip was then suddenly taken away by the Spirit of God to the town of Azotus (8:39-40), where he again preached the Good News. He traveled through all the coastal towns until he came to the large Roman city of Caesarea on the coast, where he evidently settled down (8:40; 21:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>Many years later, Paul spent a night in Philip’s home in Caesarea (21:8). By this time Philip was known as Philip the Evangelist. He had raised four unmarried daughters, all of whom had the gift of prophecy (21:9).<\/p>\n<p>Philip exemplifies early Christian evangelists, whom the Holy Spirit empowered and guided to authenticate their witness (see also 1:8; 3:4-8; 5:12-16; 6:8; 10:9-20; 13:2; 16:6-10; 19:11-12; 20:22-23). Philip submitted to the power and guidance of the Spirit, and God used him to take the Good News to those beyond the borders of Judea.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 6:5; 8:4-13, 26-40; 21:8-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Philip<\/h3>\n<p>Philip was one of the first to take the Good News of Christ to those outside the borders of Judea. Well respected among the early Christians, he was one of seven men chosen to administer the food-distribution program for needy believers in Jerusalem (Acts 6:1-6). Philip was a strong and effective evangelist in the power of the Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>When Christians were forced to flee Jerusalem following the death of Stephen (8:1-5), Philip carried the Good News of Christ north to the ethnically mixed city of Samaria. There he performed many miraculous healings and exorcisms, and people responded eagerly to his message (8:5-8). Many men and women were baptized, including a notorious sorcerer named Simon (8:9-13). Then, directed by an angel, Philip traveled southwest from Jerusalem toward Gaza (8:26). There, directed by the Spirit, he met the treasurer of Ethiopia, who was returning home after visiting Jerusalem (8:27-28). When the Ethiopian asked Philip to help him understand Isaiah 53, Philip told him the Good News about Jesus (Acts 8:30-35), then baptized the man by the roadside (8:36-38). Philip was then suddenly taken away by the Spirit of God to the town of Azotus (8:39-40), where he again preached the Good News. He traveled through all the coastal towns until he came to the large Roman city of Caesarea on the coast, where he evidently settled down (8:40; 21:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>Many years later, Paul spent a night in Philip’s home in Caesarea (21:8). By this time Philip was known as Philip the Evangelist. He had raised four unmarried daughters, all of whom had the gift of prophecy (21:9).<\/p>\n<p>Philip exemplifies early Christian evangelists, whom the Holy Spirit empowered and guided to authenticate their witness (see also 1:8; 3:4-8; 5:12-16; 6:8; 10:9-20; 13:2; 16:6-10; 19:11-12; 20:22-23). Philip submitted to the power and guidance of the Spirit, and God used him to take the Good News to those beyond the borders of Judea.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 6:5; 8:4-13, 26-40; 21:8-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Philip Philip was one of the first to take the Good News of Christ to those outside the borders of Judea. Well respected among the early Christians, he was one of seven men chosen to administer the food-distribution program for needy believers in Jerusalem (Acts 6:1-6). Philip was a strong and effective evangelist in the power of the Spirit. When Christians were forced to flee Jerusalem following the death of Stephen (8:1-5), Philip carried the Good News of Christ north to the ethnically mixe...","summary_en":"Philip Philip was one of the first to take the Good News of Christ to those outside the borders of Judea. Well respected among the early Christians, he was one of seven men chosen to administer the food-distribution program for needy believers in Jerusalem (Acts 6:1-6). Philip was a strong and effective evangelist in the power of the Spirit. When Christians were forced to flee Jerusalem following the death of Stephen (8:1-5), Philip carried the Good News of Christ north to the ethnically mixe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":125473,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Philip","title_en":"Philip","content_ro":"<h3>Philip<\/h3>\n<p>Philip was one of the first to take the Good News of Christ to those outside the borders of Judea. Well respected among the early Christians, he was one of seven men chosen to administer the food-distribution program for needy believers in Jerusalem (Acts 6:1-6). Philip was a strong and effective evangelist in the power of the Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>When Christians were forced to flee Jerusalem following the death of Stephen (8:1-5), Philip carried the Good News of Christ north to the ethnically mixed city of Samaria. There he performed many miraculous healings and exorcisms, and people responded eagerly to his message (8:5-8). Many men and women were baptized, including a notorious sorcerer named Simon (8:9-13). Then, directed by an angel, Philip traveled southwest from Jerusalem toward Gaza (8:26). There, directed by the Spirit, he met the treasurer of Ethiopia, who was returning home after visiting Jerusalem (8:27-28). When the Ethiopian asked Philip to help him understand Isaiah 53, Philip told him the Good News about Jesus (Acts 8:30-35), then baptized the man by the roadside (8:36-38). Philip was then suddenly taken away by the Spirit of God to the town of Azotus (8:39-40), where he again preached the Good News. He traveled through all the coastal towns until he came to the large Roman city of Caesarea on the coast, where he evidently settled down (8:40; 21:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>Many years later, Paul spent a night in Philip’s home in Caesarea (21:8). By this time Philip was known as Philip the Evangelist. He had raised four unmarried daughters, all of whom had the gift of prophecy (21:9).<\/p>\n<p>Philip exemplifies early Christian evangelists, whom the Holy Spirit empowered and guided to authenticate their witness (see also 1:8; 3:4-8; 5:12-16; 6:8; 10:9-20; 13:2; 16:6-10; 19:11-12; 20:22-23). Philip submitted to the power and guidance of the Spirit, and God used him to take the Good News to those beyond the borders of Judea.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 6:5; 8:4-13, 26-40; 21:8-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Philip<\/h3>\n<p>Philip was one of the first to take the Good News of Christ to those outside the borders of Judea. Well respected among the early Christians, he was one of seven men chosen to administer the food-distribution program for needy believers in Jerusalem (Acts 6:1-6). Philip was a strong and effective evangelist in the power of the Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>When Christians were forced to flee Jerusalem following the death of Stephen (8:1-5), Philip carried the Good News of Christ north to the ethnically mixed city of Samaria. There he performed many miraculous healings and exorcisms, and people responded eagerly to his message (8:5-8). Many men and women were baptized, including a notorious sorcerer named Simon (8:9-13). Then, directed by an angel, Philip traveled southwest from Jerusalem toward Gaza (8:26). There, directed by the Spirit, he met the treasurer of Ethiopia, who was returning home after visiting Jerusalem (8:27-28). When the Ethiopian asked Philip to help him understand Isaiah 53, Philip told him the Good News about Jesus (Acts 8:30-35), then baptized the man by the roadside (8:36-38). Philip was then suddenly taken away by the Spirit of God to the town of Azotus (8:39-40), where he again preached the Good News. He traveled through all the coastal towns until he came to the large Roman city of Caesarea on the coast, where he evidently settled down (8:40; 21:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>Many years later, Paul spent a night in Philip’s home in Caesarea (21:8). By this time Philip was known as Philip the Evangelist. He had raised four unmarried daughters, all of whom had the gift of prophecy (21:9).<\/p>\n<p>Philip exemplifies early Christian evangelists, whom the Holy Spirit empowered and guided to authenticate their witness (see also 1:8; 3:4-8; 5:12-16; 6:8; 10:9-20; 13:2; 16:6-10; 19:11-12; 20:22-23). Philip submitted to the power and guidance of the Spirit, and God used him to take the Good News to those beyond the borders of Judea.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 6:5; 8:4-13, 26-40; 21:8-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Philip Philip was one of the first to take the Good News of Christ to those outside the borders of Judea. Well respected among the early Christians, he was one of seven men chosen to administer the food-distribution program for needy believers in Jerusalem (Acts 6:1-6). Philip was a strong and effective evangelist in the power of the Spirit. When Christians were forced to flee Jerusalem following the death of Stephen (8:1-5), Philip carried the Good News of Christ north to the ethnically mixe...","summary_en":"Philip Philip was one of the first to take the Good News of Christ to those outside the borders of Judea. Well respected among the early Christians, he was one of seven men chosen to administer the food-distribution program for needy believers in Jerusalem (Acts 6:1-6). Philip was a strong and effective evangelist in the power of the Spirit. When Christians were forced to flee Jerusalem following the death of Stephen (8:1-5), Philip carried the Good News of Christ north to the ethnically mixe...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":9312,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Demon-Possession","title_en":"Demon-Possession","content_ro":"<h3>DEMON-POSSESSION<\/h3>\n<p>Demonic occupation of a human being. The term “possession” is misleading and is not the best translation for the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">daimonizomai<\/span><em>,<\/em> which literally means to be “demonized” and can often best be translated as “to have a demon.” The noun form is “demoniac.”<\/p>\n<p>Demons can enter the body of a person (Lk 8:30; 22:3), in order to control the individual’s thoughts and actions. Sometimes a distinction is made between demonic oppression and demonic possession; this supposedly differentiates an attack from without and control from within. Although a non-Christian may be said to be “possessed” by a demon, the Christian cannot be so possessed, for he belongs to Christ and his human spirit has been sealed by the Holy Spirit (Eph 1:13). Demonic spirits somehow know and acknowledge this seal.<\/p>\n<p>Demons can also enter the bodies of animals, as in the case of the swine in Mark 5:13. Demons are associated with books of magic (Acts 19:19), idols (1 Cor 10:19-21), and fetishes. Demons often cause illness or physical disability; Luke 13:11 tells of a woman who had “been crippled by an evil spirit” for 18 years but was delivered and healed by Jesus. Since evil spirits often attack the mind and the emotions, many symptoms of mental illness may be attributed to their activity. The boy whom Jesus delivered just after the Transfiguration exhibited symptoms of epilepsy. Paranoia may be the work of a spirit of fear. Some individuals suffering from schizophrenia (split or multiple personality) may in reality be demonized by a number of spirits. It is possible for a person to have many demons. Jesus cast seven of them out of Mary Magdalene (Lk 8:2). The spirit in the Gerasene demoniac gave his name as Legion, “for we are many” (Mk 5:9; Lk 8:30). In the time of Augustus a Roman legion consisted of 6,000 foot soldiers, usually accompanied by an equal number of auxiliary troops.<\/p>\n<p>Demonization occurs in various ways. Some people are demonized by a hereditary curse, which may continue to the third or fourth generation (Ex 20:5). The curse against illegitimacy was particularly strong, for the bastard could not enter the congregation of Israel until the tenth generation (Dt 23:2). Curses may also be placed upon someone by spells, incantations, or similar practices such as voodoo or other forms of witchcraft. Galatians 3:13 speaks of redemption from the curse of the law through Christ’s having “become a curse” for us. Usually believers are immune from curses made against them, unless they have given grounds to the devil (Eph 4:27). Such grounds may be provided through drugs, illicit sex, the occult, or any other avenue forbidden in the Bible. Involvement with tarot cards, horoscopes, or any other form of fortune-telling may give demons opportunity to enter. Such contacts may seem innocuous, but Satan utilizes the smallest foothold to gain advantage over people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Manifestation\">Manifestation<\/p>\n<p>Often demons prefer to hide rather than to make their presence known, for then they can exercise control without hindrance. When they do manifest themselves, often when challenged, all sorts of strange and frightening things may occur. They possess supernatural powers (cf. Rv 16:14), which they exhibit outright or through their victims. The Gerasene demoniac had superhuman physical strength, so that he could not be bound with fetters or chains (Mk 5:4-5); he lived in tombs and went about night and day screaming and injuring himself with stones.<\/p>\n<p>The spirit in the demonized boy in Mark 9 rendered him dumb and deaf, threw him on the ground, and caused him to roll about and to foam at the mouth (9:18-20). The demon caused him to grind his teeth and become rigid; he had tried to kill the boy by throwing him into the fire and into the water on various occasions (vv 18-22). Before leaving at the command of Jesus, the demon cried out (cf. Mk 1:26), convulsed the boy terribly, and left him lying like a corpse. Jesus took him by the hand and raised him up (9:27). Similar manifestations take place today.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Exorcism\">Exorcism<\/p>\n<p>Casting out demons, or exorcism, was a regular and frequent part of the ministry of Jesus, and he taught and commanded his followers to do the same. This command has never been abrogated, and the ministry of deliverance should be even more important today, when the forces of evil are so rampant. The following principles are derived from the practice of Jesus, the Scriptures, and personal observation and involvement.<\/p>\n<p>1. Jesus spoke to demons and commanded them to come out (Mk 1:25; 9:25). He cast them out “with a word” (Mt 8:16). Jesus gave his followers authority to use his name in casting them out and used this as a sign of the believer (Mk 16:17). His name is not a magical formula, and its use depends on the relationship between the Lord and the person using his name, as the sons of Sceva found out to their dismay (Acts 19:11-18).<\/p>\n<li>2. Jesus cast out demons by the Spirit of God (Mt 12:28). God anointed Jesus of Nazareth with the Holy Spirit and with power to heal all who were oppressed by the devil (Lk 4:18-19; Acts 10:38).<\/li>\n<li>3. The Lord gave clear teaching about “the binding of the strong man” in deliverance (Mt 12:29; Mk 3:27) and about binding and loosing (Mt 18:18).<\/li>\n<li>4. Prayer is an important weapon in spiritual warfare. When the disciples asked (Mk 9:28) why they could not cast out a demon, Jesus replied that this kind comes out only with prayer.<\/li>\n<li>5. Revelation 12:11 testifies to the power of “the blood of the Lamb” in overcoming Satan. Demons do not like to hear of the blood of Jesus and often become agitated at the mention of it.<\/li>\n<li>6. God has equipped the believer with armor for defense in spiritual battle (Eph 6:10-17).<\/li>\n<li>7. The Lord answered Satan with correctly applied texts from the Bible. We have been given the sword of the Spirit, the Word of God (Eph 6:17; Heb 4:12), as a means of defense and for attack against the enemy.<\/li>\n<li>8. We must come against the hosts of hell from our position in the heavenly places (Eph 2:6), not from our limited earthly station.<\/li>\n<li>9. We must recognize that the ultimate victory has already been won by Jesus, who came to destroy the works of the devil (1 Jn 3:8) and to destroy him who has the power of death (Heb 2:14-16). When Jesus cried out on the cross, “It is finished,” he meant that the redemptive work was done; when he arose from the dead, he demonstrated his power over death. We win only as we enter into his victory.<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Demon.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DEMON-POSSESSION<\/h3>\n<p>Demonic occupation of a human being. The term “possession” is misleading and is not the best translation for the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">daimonizomai<\/span><em>,<\/em> which literally means to be “demonized” and can often best be translated as “to have a demon.” The noun form is “demoniac.”<\/p>\n<p>Demons can enter the body of a person (Lk 8:30; 22:3), in order to control the individual’s thoughts and actions. Sometimes a distinction is made between demonic oppression and demonic possession; this supposedly differentiates an attack from without and control from within. Although a non-Christian may be said to be “possessed” by a demon, the Christian cannot be so possessed, for he belongs to Christ and his human spirit has been sealed by the Holy Spirit (Eph 1:13). Demonic spirits somehow know and acknowledge this seal.<\/p>\n<p>Demons can also enter the bodies of animals, as in the case of the swine in Mark 5:13. Demons are associated with books of magic (Acts 19:19), idols (1 Cor 10:19-21), and fetishes. Demons often cause illness or physical disability; Luke 13:11 tells of a woman who had “been crippled by an evil spirit” for 18 years but was delivered and healed by Jesus. Since evil spirits often attack the mind and the emotions, many symptoms of mental illness may be attributed to their activity. The boy whom Jesus delivered just after the Transfiguration exhibited symptoms of epilepsy. Paranoia may be the work of a spirit of fear. Some individuals suffering from schizophrenia (split or multiple personality) may in reality be demonized by a number of spirits. It is possible for a person to have many demons. Jesus cast seven of them out of Mary Magdalene (Lk 8:2). The spirit in the Gerasene demoniac gave his name as Legion, “for we are many” (Mk 5:9; Lk 8:30). In the time of Augustus a Roman legion consisted of 6,000 foot soldiers, usually accompanied by an equal number of auxiliary troops.<\/p>\n<p>Demonization occurs in various ways. Some people are demonized by a hereditary curse, which may continue to the third or fourth generation (Ex 20:5). The curse against illegitimacy was particularly strong, for the bastard could not enter the congregation of Israel until the tenth generation (Dt 23:2). Curses may also be placed upon someone by spells, incantations, or similar practices such as voodoo or other forms of witchcraft. Galatians 3:13 speaks of redemption from the curse of the law through Christ’s having “become a curse” for us. Usually believers are immune from curses made against them, unless they have given grounds to the devil (Eph 4:27). Such grounds may be provided through drugs, illicit sex, the occult, or any other avenue forbidden in the Bible. Involvement with tarot cards, horoscopes, or any other form of fortune-telling may give demons opportunity to enter. Such contacts may seem innocuous, but Satan utilizes the smallest foothold to gain advantage over people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Manifestation\">Manifestation<\/p>\n<p>Often demons prefer to hide rather than to make their presence known, for then they can exercise control without hindrance. When they do manifest themselves, often when challenged, all sorts of strange and frightening things may occur. They possess supernatural powers (cf. Rv 16:14), which they exhibit outright or through their victims. The Gerasene demoniac had superhuman physical strength, so that he could not be bound with fetters or chains (Mk 5:4-5); he lived in tombs and went about night and day screaming and injuring himself with stones.<\/p>\n<p>The spirit in the demonized boy in Mark 9 rendered him dumb and deaf, threw him on the ground, and caused him to roll about and to foam at the mouth (9:18-20). The demon caused him to grind his teeth and become rigid; he had tried to kill the boy by throwing him into the fire and into the water on various occasions (vv 18-22). Before leaving at the command of Jesus, the demon cried out (cf. Mk 1:26), convulsed the boy terribly, and left him lying like a corpse. Jesus took him by the hand and raised him up (9:27). Similar manifestations take place today.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Exorcism\">Exorcism<\/p>\n<p>Casting out demons, or exorcism, was a regular and frequent part of the ministry of Jesus, and he taught and commanded his followers to do the same. This command has never been abrogated, and the ministry of deliverance should be even more important today, when the forces of evil are so rampant. The following principles are derived from the practice of Jesus, the Scriptures, and personal observation and involvement.<\/p>\n<p>1. Jesus spoke to demons and commanded them to come out (Mk 1:25; 9:25). He cast them out “with a word” (Mt 8:16). Jesus gave his followers authority to use his name in casting them out and used this as a sign of the believer (Mk 16:17). His name is not a magical formula, and its use depends on the relationship between the Lord and the person using his name, as the sons of Sceva found out to their dismay (Acts 19:11-18).<\/p>\n<li>2. Jesus cast out demons by the Spirit of God (Mt 12:28). God anointed Jesus of Nazareth with the Holy Spirit and with power to heal all who were oppressed by the devil (Lk 4:18-19; Acts 10:38).<\/li>\n<li>3. The Lord gave clear teaching about “the binding of the strong man” in deliverance (Mt 12:29; Mk 3:27) and about binding and loosing (Mt 18:18).<\/li>\n<li>4. Prayer is an important weapon in spiritual warfare. When the disciples asked (Mk 9:28) why they could not cast out a demon, Jesus replied that this kind comes out only with prayer.<\/li>\n<li>5. Revelation 12:11 testifies to the power of “the blood of the Lamb” in overcoming Satan. Demons do not like to hear of the blood of Jesus and often become agitated at the mention of it.<\/li>\n<li>6. God has equipped the believer with armor for defense in spiritual battle (Eph 6:10-17).<\/li>\n<li>7. The Lord answered Satan with correctly applied texts from the Bible. We have been given the sword of the Spirit, the Word of God (Eph 6:17; Heb 4:12), as a means of defense and for attack against the enemy.<\/li>\n<li>8. We must come against the hosts of hell from our position in the heavenly places (Eph 2:6), not from our limited earthly station.<\/li>\n<li>9. We must recognize that the ultimate victory has already been won by Jesus, who came to destroy the works of the devil (1 Jn 3:8) and to destroy him who has the power of death (Heb 2:14-16). When Jesus cried out on the cross, “It is finished,” he meant that the redemptive work was done; when he arose from the dead, he demonstrated his power over death. We win only as we enter into his victory.<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Demon.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DEMON-POSSESSION Demonic occupation of a human being. The term “possession” is misleading and is not the best translation for the Greek word daimonizomai, which literally means to be “demonized” and can often best be translated as “to have a demon.” The noun form is “demoniac.” Demons can enter the body of a person (Lk 8:30; 22:3), in order to control the individual’s thoughts and actions. Sometimes a distinction is made between demonic oppression and demonic possession; this supposedly diffe...","summary_en":"DEMON-POSSESSION Demonic occupation of a human being. The term “possession” is misleading and is not the best translation for the Greek word daimonizomai, which literally means to be “demonized” and can often best be translated as “to have a demon.” The noun form is “demoniac.” Demons can enter the body of a person (Lk 8:30; 22:3), in order to control the individual’s thoughts and actions. Sometimes a distinction is made between demonic oppression and demonic possession; this supposedly diffe...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":23898,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Magic","title_en":"Magic","content_ro":"<h3>MAGIC<\/h3>\n<p>Attempt to influence or control people or events through supernatural forces. These forces are called upon by means of ceremonies, the recitation of spells, charms, incantations, and other forms of ritual.<\/p>\n<p>There are a number of terms used in the Bible that might fall into the broad category of magic. Several of the words are mentioned in Deuteronomy 18:9-14. The use of magical and occult practices by Israel is not permitted. The people of God are instructed to avoid magical practices because God provides them with his personal revelation through his prophets. Human magical practices lead to either false hope or false fear and therefore lead away from the truth of God. Yet while magical practices cannot measure up to the accuracy of God’s prophet, the Bible does leave open the possibility that there may be supernatural reality behind some magical practices.<\/p>\n<p>Magicians are prominent in the OT book of Exodus, where the magicians of Egypt contend with Moses. The text does not discount the success of the magicians as mere trickery, for they were at least partially successful at first (chs 7–8). But their failures begin to become clear in chapter 8 and continue through chapter 9. The Bible does not flatly deny that there may be certain evil supernatural power at work in the person of the magician. What the Bible does make clear is that this power is not in accord with, nor can it defeat, the will of God.<\/p>\n<p>The NT addresses the issue of magic in the book of Acts. When Philip went to Samaria, he encountered Simon the magician. Simon had drawn a great deal of attention to himself by amazing the people with his magic (Acts 8:11). Philip’s message was believed and people began to be drawn to him. Simon saw the wonders that Philip was able to perform and thought that these powers were received through the ritual of the laying on of hands. Philip made clear that the wonders of his work could not be purchased but came through the gracious gift of God to the penitent.<\/p>\n<p>Another important passage is found in Acts 19:11-20. Certain Jewish exorcists thought they could magically use the name of Jesus in their work. The result was violent reaction: the man in whom resided the evil spirit leaped on them, mastered all of them, and overpowered them, so that they fled out of that house naked and wounded. This passage shows that the power responsible for the apostolic miracles was based upon the personal relationship of the apostle with the Lord Jesus Christ. The result of the above incident is also important; it led the people of Ephesus to make a clear decision between the word of the Lord and their magical practices. Several who practiced magic arts brought their books together and burned them in the presence of everyone. This dramatic display of the power of God and the need for clear loyalty to him led to further expansion of the gospel.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical stand against magic is stated strongly in the last book of the Bible, where sorcerers are condemned to the lake of fire (Rv 21:8). The biblical view is consistent in its opposition to magic. The Bible does not preclude the possibility that Satan can use magic for evil purposes, and magical practices are condemned because they may lead to false hope or false fear and away from loyalty to God’s Word.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Amulet; Canaanite Deities and Religion; Frontlet; Omen; Soothsayer; Sorcery; Psychics.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MAGIC<\/h3>\n<p>Attempt to influence or control people or events through supernatural forces. These forces are called upon by means of ceremonies, the recitation of spells, charms, incantations, and other forms of ritual.<\/p>\n<p>There are a number of terms used in the Bible that might fall into the broad category of magic. Several of the words are mentioned in Deuteronomy 18:9-14. The use of magical and occult practices by Israel is not permitted. The people of God are instructed to avoid magical practices because God provides them with his personal revelation through his prophets. Human magical practices lead to either false hope or false fear and therefore lead away from the truth of God. Yet while magical practices cannot measure up to the accuracy of God’s prophet, the Bible does leave open the possibility that there may be supernatural reality behind some magical practices.<\/p>\n<p>Magicians are prominent in the OT book of Exodus, where the magicians of Egypt contend with Moses. The text does not discount the success of the magicians as mere trickery, for they were at least partially successful at first (chs 7–8). But their failures begin to become clear in chapter 8 and continue through chapter 9. The Bible does not flatly deny that there may be certain evil supernatural power at work in the person of the magician. What the Bible does make clear is that this power is not in accord with, nor can it defeat, the will of God.<\/p>\n<p>The NT addresses the issue of magic in the book of Acts. When Philip went to Samaria, he encountered Simon the magician. Simon had drawn a great deal of attention to himself by amazing the people with his magic (Acts 8:11). Philip’s message was believed and people began to be drawn to him. Simon saw the wonders that Philip was able to perform and thought that these powers were received through the ritual of the laying on of hands. Philip made clear that the wonders of his work could not be purchased but came through the gracious gift of God to the penitent.<\/p>\n<p>Another important passage is found in Acts 19:11-20. Certain Jewish exorcists thought they could magically use the name of Jesus in their work. The result was violent reaction: the man in whom resided the evil spirit leaped on them, mastered all of them, and overpowered them, so that they fled out of that house naked and wounded. This passage shows that the power responsible for the apostolic miracles was based upon the personal relationship of the apostle with the Lord Jesus Christ. The result of the above incident is also important; it led the people of Ephesus to make a clear decision between the word of the Lord and their magical practices. Several who practiced magic arts brought their books together and burned them in the presence of everyone. This dramatic display of the power of God and the need for clear loyalty to him led to further expansion of the gospel.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical stand against magic is stated strongly in the last book of the Bible, where sorcerers are condemned to the lake of fire (Rv 21:8). The biblical view is consistent in its opposition to magic. The Bible does not preclude the possibility that Satan can use magic for evil purposes, and magical practices are condemned because they may lead to false hope or false fear and away from loyalty to God’s Word.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Amulet; Canaanite Deities and Religion; Frontlet; Omen; Soothsayer; Sorcery; Psychics.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MAGIC Attempt to influence or control people or events through supernatural forces. These forces are called upon by means of ceremonies, the recitation of spells, charms, incantations, and other forms of ritual. There are a number of terms used in the Bible that might fall into the broad category of magic. Several of the words are mentioned in Deuteronomy 18:9-14. The use of magical and occult practices by Israel is not permitted. The people of God are instructed to avoid magical practices be...","summary_en":"MAGIC Attempt to influence or control people or events through supernatural forces. These forces are called upon by means of ceremonies, the recitation of spells, charms, incantations, and other forms of ritual. There are a number of terms used in the Bible that might fall into the broad category of magic. Several of the words are mentioned in Deuteronomy 18:9-14. The use of magical and occult practices by Israel is not permitted. The people of God are instructed to avoid magical practices be...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29241,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Paul, the Apostle","title_en":"Paul, the Apostle","content_ro":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","summary_en":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57049,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:11","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:11-12<\/strong> Paul, like other Christian evangelists (3:1-11; 4:22; 5:12-16; 6:8; 8:6-7, 13; 9:33-42), performed <em>unusual miracles<\/em>. • <em>evil spirits were expelled:<\/em> As Jesus and Peter had done (cp. 5:16; Mark 1:21-34; Luke 4:31-37).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:11-12<\/strong> Paul, like other Christian evangelists (3:1-11; 4:22; 5:12-16; 6:8; 8:6-7, 13; 9:33-42), performed <em>unusual miracles<\/em>. • <em>evil spirits were expelled:<\/em> As Jesus and Peter had done (cp. 5:16; Mark 1:21-34; Luke 4:31-37).<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:11-12 Paul, like other Christian evangelists (3:1-11; 4:22; 5:12-16; 6:8; 8:6-7, 13; 9:33-42), performed unusual miracles. • evil spirits were expelled: As Jesus and Peter had done (cp. 5:16; Mark 1:21-34; Luke 4:31-37).","summary_en":"19:11-12 Paul, like other Christian evangelists (3:1-11; 4:22; 5:12-16; 6:8; 8:6-7, 13; 9:33-42), performed unusual miracles. • evil spirits were expelled: As Jesus and Peter had done (cp. 5:16; Mark 1:21-34; Luke 4:31-37).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84675,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:11","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:11-12<\/strong> Paul, like other Christian evangelists (3:1-11; 4:22; 5:12-16; 6:8; 8:6-7, 13; 9:33-42), performed <em>unusual miracles<\/em>. • <em>evil spirits were expelled:<\/em> As Jesus and Peter had done (cp. 5:16; Mark 1:21-34; Luke 4:31-37).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:11-12<\/strong> Paul, like other Christian evangelists (3:1-11; 4:22; 5:12-16; 6:8; 8:6-7, 13; 9:33-42), performed <em>unusual miracles<\/em>. • <em>evil spirits were expelled:<\/em> As Jesus and Peter had done (cp. 5:16; Mark 1:21-34; Luke 4:31-37).<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:11-12 Paul, like other Christian evangelists (3:1-11; 4:22; 5:12-16; 6:8; 8:6-7, 13; 9:33-42), performed unusual miracles. • evil spirits were expelled: As Jesus and Peter had done (cp. 5:16; Mark 1:21-34; Luke 4:31-37).","summary_en":"19:11-12 Paul, like other Christian evangelists (3:1-11; 4:22; 5:12-16; 6:8; 8:6-7, 13; 9:33-42), performed unusual miracles. • evil spirits were expelled: As Jesus and Peter had done (cp. 5:16; Mark 1:21-34; Luke 4:31-37).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112301,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:11","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:11-12<\/strong> Paul, like other Christian evangelists (3:1-11; 4:22; 5:12-16; 6:8; 8:6-7, 13; 9:33-42), performed <em>unusual miracles<\/em>. • <em>evil spirits were expelled:<\/em> As Jesus and Peter had done (cp. 5:16; Mark 1:21-34; Luke 4:31-37).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:11-12<\/strong> Paul, like other Christian evangelists (3:1-11; 4:22; 5:12-16; 6:8; 8:6-7, 13; 9:33-42), performed <em>unusual miracles<\/em>. • <em>evil spirits were expelled:<\/em> As Jesus and Peter had done (cp. 5:16; Mark 1:21-34; Luke 4:31-37).<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:11-12 Paul, like other Christian evangelists (3:1-11; 4:22; 5:12-16; 6:8; 8:6-7, 13; 9:33-42), performed unusual miracles. • evil spirits were expelled: As Jesus and Peter had done (cp. 5:16; Mark 1:21-34; Luke 4:31-37).","summary_en":"19:11-12 Paul, like other Christian evangelists (3:1-11; 4:22; 5:12-16; 6:8; 8:6-7, 13; 9:33-42), performed unusual miracles. • evil spirits were expelled: As Jesus and Peter had done (cp. 5:16; Mark 1:21-34; Luke 4:31-37).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139927,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:11","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:11-12<\/strong> Paul, like other Christian evangelists (3:1-11; 4:22; 5:12-16; 6:8; 8:6-7, 13; 9:33-42), performed <em>unusual miracles<\/em>. • <em>evil spirits were expelled:<\/em> As Jesus and Peter had done (cp. 5:16; Mark 1:21-34; Luke 4:31-37).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:11-12<\/strong> Paul, like other Christian evangelists (3:1-11; 4:22; 5:12-16; 6:8; 8:6-7, 13; 9:33-42), performed <em>unusual miracles<\/em>. • <em>evil spirits were expelled:<\/em> As Jesus and Peter had done (cp. 5:16; Mark 1:21-34; Luke 4:31-37).<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:11-12 Paul, like other Christian evangelists (3:1-11; 4:22; 5:12-16; 6:8; 8:6-7, 13; 9:33-42), performed unusual miracles. • evil spirits were expelled: As Jesus and Peter had done (cp. 5:16; Mark 1:21-34; Luke 4:31-37).","summary_en":"19:11-12 Paul, like other Christian evangelists (3:1-11; 4:22; 5:12-16; 6:8; 8:6-7, 13; 9:33-42), performed unusual miracles. • evil spirits were expelled: As Jesus and Peter had done (cp. 5:16; Mark 1:21-34; Luke 4:31-37).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":9256,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Demon","title_en":"Demon","content_ro":"<h3>DEMON<\/h3>\n<p>Fallen angel who, under the leadership of Satan, rebelled against God. Demonism is the activity of demons, while demonology is the study of demons and their activity for the purpose of knowing the tactics of the enemy (2 Cor 2:11) in order to properly exercise authority over them (Lk 10:19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WhoDemonsAre\">Who Demons Are<\/p>\n<p>The English word “demon” is derived from the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">daimon<\/span><em>,<\/em> which essentially means “a divinity, a deity” (i.e., a false deity, a demon; cf. 1 Cor 10:20). Any deity other than the one true God is a spirit opposed to him; therefore, such a spirit is an evil spirit, or demon. The word “demon” does not appear in the <span>kjv<\/span>, which mistranslates <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">daimon<\/span> as “devil.” There is only one devil (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">diabolos<\/span>), who is known by a variety of names, titles, and epithets in the Bible. He is the prince or ruler of all the other demons, who are subject to him.<\/p>\n<p>Often in the Bible the word “spirit” is used for demon, along with a descriptive or identifying phrase; for example, “evil spirit” (Acts 19:12-13), “unclean spirit” (Mt 10:1; Mk 1:23, 26; Acts 5:16), “spirit of infirmity” (Lk 13:11), “dumb and deaf spirit” (Mk 9:25) (all quotes from the <span>rsv<\/span>). Spirits may be identified by their specific role or function, such as a spirit of murder, suicide, lust, depression, fear, lying, etc., associating them with various sins or attitudes contrary to God.<\/p>\n<p>In the Hebrew OT there is no word for “demon.” The term “evil spirit” occurs (Jgs 9:23; 1 Sm 16:14-23; 18:10; 19:9). In the <span>kjv<\/span> there are references to “a lying spirit” (1 Kgs 22:22-23; 2 Chr 18:20-22), “familiar spirit” (1 Chr 10:13; 2 Chr 33:6), “perverse spirit” (Is 19:14), “spirit of deep sleep” (29:10), and “spirit of whoredoms” (Hos 4:12; 5:4).<\/p>\n<p>A specific powerful demon referred to by title in the OT is “the prince of the kingdom of Persia,” who hindered the archangel Gabriel from coming to bring information to Daniel, so that the archangel Michael came to Gabriel’s assistance (Dn 10:13).<\/p>\n<p>The number of demons is unknown; it appears that it is a vast number, perhaps incalculable. From Revelation 12:4 it is inferred that one-third of the angels were led astray by Satan. This means that the hosts of heaven outnumber Satan’s powers by two to one. Ephesians 6:12 suggests an order or rank of demons: “principalities,” “powers,” “world rulers of this present darkness,” “spiritual hosts of wickedness in the heavenly places” (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Demons are created beings—personal, immortal, and incapable of reconciliation with God. They have great power as compared with humans, but little power as compared with God. God has given us authority over them, so that in the name of Jesus they must obey God’s people, even as they must obey the Lord himself.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WhatDemonsDo\">What Demons Do<\/p>\n<p>Angels were created to worship and praise God, to serve him, and to act as his messengers. The Bible states that they are “spirits sent from God to care for those who will receive salvation” (Heb 1:14, <span>nlt<\/span>). The fallen angels have a similar function but a different master. Their allegiance is to the devil, whom they serve out of fear and delusion. They desire to work with human beings, but their purpose is to carry out the schemes of Satan and to oppose God. They tempt, deceive, and delude people so as to bring them to eternal damnation. In opposing God they attack, oppress, hinder, and accuse the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Since Satan is not omnipresent, he uses his demonic hosts to execute his will; for example, in the parable of the sower (Mt 13:3-9; Mk 4:1-20; Lk 8:4-15) they snatch away the word before it can take root (Mk 4:15). By persecution, Satan causes some to fall away before they have made a genuine commitment (v 17). By the cares of the world and the delight in riches and the desire for material things, he chokes the word so that little or no fruit is produced (v 19).<\/p>\n<p>Basically, demons operate according to the pattern set by Satan in his threefold approach with Eve: (1) they deny the truth of the word of God and challenge its statements; (2) they deny the reality of death (typically they substitute something like reincarnation); and (3) they appeal to human vanity and pride by telling men and women that they can become like God or be gods (Gn 3:1-5). These also are the basic methods and teachings underlying most cults and false religions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheFinalDestinyofDemons\">The Final Destiny of Demons<\/p>\n<p>It is written concerning the angels who sinned that God “cast them into hell and committed them to pits of nether gloom to be kept until the judgment” (2 Pt 2:4, <span>rsv<\/span>). The Lord spoke of the eternal fire prepared for the devil and his angels, into which the cursed among humans are also to go (Mt 25:41). Eventually Satan and his host will be thrown into the lake of fire (Rv 20:10), which is also the place of eternal torment for all whose names are not written in the Book of Life (vv 12-15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Demon-possession.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DEMON<\/h3>\n<p>Fallen angel who, under the leadership of Satan, rebelled against God. Demonism is the activity of demons, while demonology is the study of demons and their activity for the purpose of knowing the tactics of the enemy (2 Cor 2:11) in order to properly exercise authority over them (Lk 10:19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WhoDemonsAre\">Who Demons Are<\/p>\n<p>The English word “demon” is derived from the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">daimon<\/span><em>,<\/em> which essentially means “a divinity, a deity” (i.e., a false deity, a demon; cf. 1 Cor 10:20). Any deity other than the one true God is a spirit opposed to him; therefore, such a spirit is an evil spirit, or demon. The word “demon” does not appear in the <span>kjv<\/span>, which mistranslates <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">daimon<\/span> as “devil.” There is only one devil (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">diabolos<\/span>), who is known by a variety of names, titles, and epithets in the Bible. He is the prince or ruler of all the other demons, who are subject to him.<\/p>\n<p>Often in the Bible the word “spirit” is used for demon, along with a descriptive or identifying phrase; for example, “evil spirit” (Acts 19:12-13), “unclean spirit” (Mt 10:1; Mk 1:23, 26; Acts 5:16), “spirit of infirmity” (Lk 13:11), “dumb and deaf spirit” (Mk 9:25) (all quotes from the <span>rsv<\/span>). Spirits may be identified by their specific role or function, such as a spirit of murder, suicide, lust, depression, fear, lying, etc., associating them with various sins or attitudes contrary to God.<\/p>\n<p>In the Hebrew OT there is no word for “demon.” The term “evil spirit” occurs (Jgs 9:23; 1 Sm 16:14-23; 18:10; 19:9). In the <span>kjv<\/span> there are references to “a lying spirit” (1 Kgs 22:22-23; 2 Chr 18:20-22), “familiar spirit” (1 Chr 10:13; 2 Chr 33:6), “perverse spirit” (Is 19:14), “spirit of deep sleep” (29:10), and “spirit of whoredoms” (Hos 4:12; 5:4).<\/p>\n<p>A specific powerful demon referred to by title in the OT is “the prince of the kingdom of Persia,” who hindered the archangel Gabriel from coming to bring information to Daniel, so that the archangel Michael came to Gabriel’s assistance (Dn 10:13).<\/p>\n<p>The number of demons is unknown; it appears that it is a vast number, perhaps incalculable. From Revelation 12:4 it is inferred that one-third of the angels were led astray by Satan. This means that the hosts of heaven outnumber Satan’s powers by two to one. Ephesians 6:12 suggests an order or rank of demons: “principalities,” “powers,” “world rulers of this present darkness,” “spiritual hosts of wickedness in the heavenly places” (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Demons are created beings—personal, immortal, and incapable of reconciliation with God. They have great power as compared with humans, but little power as compared with God. God has given us authority over them, so that in the name of Jesus they must obey God’s people, even as they must obey the Lord himself.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WhatDemonsDo\">What Demons Do<\/p>\n<p>Angels were created to worship and praise God, to serve him, and to act as his messengers. The Bible states that they are “spirits sent from God to care for those who will receive salvation” (Heb 1:14, <span>nlt<\/span>). The fallen angels have a similar function but a different master. Their allegiance is to the devil, whom they serve out of fear and delusion. They desire to work with human beings, but their purpose is to carry out the schemes of Satan and to oppose God. They tempt, deceive, and delude people so as to bring them to eternal damnation. In opposing God they attack, oppress, hinder, and accuse the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Since Satan is not omnipresent, he uses his demonic hosts to execute his will; for example, in the parable of the sower (Mt 13:3-9; Mk 4:1-20; Lk 8:4-15) they snatch away the word before it can take root (Mk 4:15). By persecution, Satan causes some to fall away before they have made a genuine commitment (v 17). By the cares of the world and the delight in riches and the desire for material things, he chokes the word so that little or no fruit is produced (v 19).<\/p>\n<p>Basically, demons operate according to the pattern set by Satan in his threefold approach with Eve: (1) they deny the truth of the word of God and challenge its statements; (2) they deny the reality of death (typically they substitute something like reincarnation); and (3) they appeal to human vanity and pride by telling men and women that they can become like God or be gods (Gn 3:1-5). These also are the basic methods and teachings underlying most cults and false religions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheFinalDestinyofDemons\">The Final Destiny of Demons<\/p>\n<p>It is written concerning the angels who sinned that God “cast them into hell and committed them to pits of nether gloom to be kept until the judgment” (2 Pt 2:4, <span>rsv<\/span>). The Lord spoke of the eternal fire prepared for the devil and his angels, into which the cursed among humans are also to go (Mt 25:41). Eventually Satan and his host will be thrown into the lake of fire (Rv 20:10), which is also the place of eternal torment for all whose names are not written in the Book of Life (vv 12-15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Demon-possession.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DEMON Fallen angel who, under the leadership of Satan, rebelled against God. Demonism is the activity of demons, while demonology is the study of demons and their activity for the purpose of knowing the tactics of the enemy (2 Cor 2:11) in order to properly exercise authority over them (Lk 10:19). Who Demons Are The English word “demon” is derived from the Greek daimon, which essentially means “a divinity, a deity” (i.e., a false deity, a demon; cf. 1 Cor 10:20). Any deity other than the one ...","summary_en":"DEMON Fallen angel who, under the leadership of Satan, rebelled against God. Demonism is the activity of demons, while demonology is the study of demons and their activity for the purpose of knowing the tactics of the enemy (2 Cor 2:11) in order to properly exercise authority over them (Lk 10:19). Who Demons Are The English word “demon” is derived from the Greek daimon, which essentially means “a divinity, a deity” (i.e., a false deity, a demon; cf. 1 Cor 10:20). Any deity other than the one ...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":11515,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Exorcism*, Exorcist*","title_en":"Exorcism*, Exorcist*","content_ro":"<h3>EXORCISM*, EXORCIST*<\/h3>\n<p>Art of expelling demons and evil spirits, and the practitioner of this art.<\/p>\n<p>The ability to expel or control demons was claimed by many in the ancient Near East. Aside from the miracles of Jesus recorded in the Gospels, only in Acts 19:13 is there a biblical reference to exorcism among the Jews. However in 1 Samuel 16:14-23 David functioned as an exorcist by playing a lyre to cast out an evil spirit from Saul.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Demon; Demon-possession.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EXORCISM*, EXORCIST*<\/h3>\n<p>Art of expelling demons and evil spirits, and the practitioner of this art.<\/p>\n<p>The ability to expel or control demons was claimed by many in the ancient Near East. Aside from the miracles of Jesus recorded in the Gospels, only in Acts 19:13 is there a biblical reference to exorcism among the Jews. However in 1 Samuel 16:14-23 David functioned as an exorcist by playing a lyre to cast out an evil spirit from Saul.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Demon; Demon-possession.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EXORCISM*, EXORCIST* Art of expelling demons and evil spirits, and the practitioner of this art. The ability to expel or control demons was claimed by many in the ancient Near East. Aside from the miracles of Jesus recorded in the Gospels, only in Acts 19:13 is there a biblical reference to exorcism among the Jews. However in 1 Samuel 16:14-23 David functioned as an exorcist by playing a lyre to cast out an evil spirit from Saul. See also Demon; Demon-possession.","summary_en":"EXORCISM*, EXORCIST* Art of expelling demons and evil spirits, and the practitioner of this art. The ability to expel or control demons was claimed by many in the ancient Near East. Aside from the miracles of Jesus recorded in the Gospels, only in Acts 19:13 is there a biblical reference to exorcism among the Jews. However in 1 Samuel 16:14-23 David functioned as an exorcist by playing a lyre to cast out an evil spirit from Saul. See also Demon; Demon-possession.","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57050,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:13","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:13-16<\/strong> Paul’s effectiveness is contrasted with the impotence of the traveling Jewish exorcists, who used <em>the name of Jesus<\/em> as though it were magical but did not have a relationship with him or the indwelling power of the Holy Spirit (cp. Matt 12:27; Mark 9:38-39; Luke 9:49-50; 11:19).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:13-16<\/strong> Paul’s effectiveness is contrasted with the impotence of the traveling Jewish exorcists, who used <em>the name of Jesus<\/em> as though it were magical but did not have a relationship with him or the indwelling power of the Holy Spirit (cp. Matt 12:27; Mark 9:38-39; Luke 9:49-50; 11:19).<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:13-16 Paul’s effectiveness is contrasted with the impotence of the traveling Jewish exorcists, who used the name of Jesus as though it were magical but did not have a relationship with him or the indwelling power of the Holy Spirit (cp. Matt 12:27; Mark 9:38-39; Luke 9:49-50; 11:19).","summary_en":"19:13-16 Paul’s effectiveness is contrasted with the impotence of the traveling Jewish exorcists, who used the name of Jesus as though it were magical but did not have a relationship with him or the indwelling power of the Holy Spirit (cp. Matt 12:27; Mark 9:38-39; Luke 9:49-50; 11:19).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84676,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:13","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:13-16<\/strong> Paul’s effectiveness is contrasted with the impotence of the traveling Jewish exorcists, who used <em>the name of Jesus<\/em> as though it were magical but did not have a relationship with him or the indwelling power of the Holy Spirit (cp. Matt 12:27; Mark 9:38-39; Luke 9:49-50; 11:19).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:13-16<\/strong> Paul’s effectiveness is contrasted with the impotence of the traveling Jewish exorcists, who used <em>the name of Jesus<\/em> as though it were magical but did not have a relationship with him or the indwelling power of the Holy Spirit (cp. Matt 12:27; Mark 9:38-39; Luke 9:49-50; 11:19).<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:13-16 Paul’s effectiveness is contrasted with the impotence of the traveling Jewish exorcists, who used the name of Jesus as though it were magical but did not have a relationship with him or the indwelling power of the Holy Spirit (cp. Matt 12:27; Mark 9:38-39; Luke 9:49-50; 11:19).","summary_en":"19:13-16 Paul’s effectiveness is contrasted with the impotence of the traveling Jewish exorcists, who used the name of Jesus as though it were magical but did not have a relationship with him or the indwelling power of the Holy Spirit (cp. Matt 12:27; Mark 9:38-39; Luke 9:49-50; 11:19).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112302,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:13","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:13-16<\/strong> Paul’s effectiveness is contrasted with the impotence of the traveling Jewish exorcists, who used <em>the name of Jesus<\/em> as though it were magical but did not have a relationship with him or the indwelling power of the Holy Spirit (cp. Matt 12:27; Mark 9:38-39; Luke 9:49-50; 11:19).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:13-16<\/strong> Paul’s effectiveness is contrasted with the impotence of the traveling Jewish exorcists, who used <em>the name of Jesus<\/em> as though it were magical but did not have a relationship with him or the indwelling power of the Holy Spirit (cp. Matt 12:27; Mark 9:38-39; Luke 9:49-50; 11:19).<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:13-16 Paul’s effectiveness is contrasted with the impotence of the traveling Jewish exorcists, who used the name of Jesus as though it were magical but did not have a relationship with him or the indwelling power of the Holy Spirit (cp. Matt 12:27; Mark 9:38-39; Luke 9:49-50; 11:19).","summary_en":"19:13-16 Paul’s effectiveness is contrasted with the impotence of the traveling Jewish exorcists, who used the name of Jesus as though it were magical but did not have a relationship with him or the indwelling power of the Holy Spirit (cp. Matt 12:27; Mark 9:38-39; Luke 9:49-50; 11:19).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139928,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:13","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:13-16<\/strong> Paul’s effectiveness is contrasted with the impotence of the traveling Jewish exorcists, who used <em>the name of Jesus<\/em> as though it were magical but did not have a relationship with him or the indwelling power of the Holy Spirit (cp. Matt 12:27; Mark 9:38-39; Luke 9:49-50; 11:19).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:13-16<\/strong> Paul’s effectiveness is contrasted with the impotence of the traveling Jewish exorcists, who used <em>the name of Jesus<\/em> as though it were magical but did not have a relationship with him or the indwelling power of the Holy Spirit (cp. Matt 12:27; Mark 9:38-39; Luke 9:49-50; 11:19).<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:13-16 Paul’s effectiveness is contrasted with the impotence of the traveling Jewish exorcists, who used the name of Jesus as though it were magical but did not have a relationship with him or the indwelling power of the Holy Spirit (cp. Matt 12:27; Mark 9:38-39; Luke 9:49-50; 11:19).","summary_en":"19:13-16 Paul’s effectiveness is contrasted with the impotence of the traveling Jewish exorcists, who used the name of Jesus as though it were magical but did not have a relationship with him or the indwelling power of the Holy Spirit (cp. Matt 12:27; Mark 9:38-39; Luke 9:49-50; 11:19).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":34084,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Sceva","title_en":"Sceva","content_ro":"<h3>SCEVA<\/h3>\n<p>Father of seven sons and a Jewish chief priest in Ephesus at the time of Paul’s visit on his third missionary journey. Sceva’s sons attempted to imitate Paul’s exorcism of evil spirits in the name of Jesus. The exorcisms failed, and their authority was not recognized. Consequently, they were attacked and harmed by the evil spirits they tried to rebuke (Acts 19:14).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SCEVA<\/h3>\n<p>Father of seven sons and a Jewish chief priest in Ephesus at the time of Paul’s visit on his third missionary journey. Sceva’s sons attempted to imitate Paul’s exorcism of evil spirits in the name of Jesus. The exorcisms failed, and their authority was not recognized. Consequently, they were attacked and harmed by the evil spirits they tried to rebuke (Acts 19:14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"SCEVA Father of seven sons and a Jewish chief priest in Ephesus at the time of Paul’s visit on his third missionary journey. Sceva’s sons attempted to imitate Paul’s exorcism of evil spirits in the name of Jesus. The exorcisms failed, and their authority was not recognized. Consequently, they were attacked and harmed by the evil spirits they tried to rebuke (Acts 19:14).","summary_en":"SCEVA Father of seven sons and a Jewish chief priest in Ephesus at the time of Paul’s visit on his third missionary journey. Sceva’s sons attempted to imitate Paul’s exorcism of evil spirits in the name of Jesus. The exorcisms failed, and their authority was not recognized. Consequently, they were attacked and harmed by the evil spirits they tried to rebuke (Acts 19:14).","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"17":[{"id":26001,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Miracle","title_en":"Miracle","content_ro":"<h3>MIRACLE<\/h3>\n<p>A divine act by which God reveals himself to people. The classical definition of miracle assumes that it is contrary to natural law, but this is a misnomer for two reasons. First, many of the miracles of the Bible used nature rather than bypassed it (e.g., the wind that parted the Red Sea, Ex 14:21). Second, there no longer is a concept of “absolute natural laws”; rather, a phenomenon that is not readily explainable may reflect laws that scientists do not yet fully understand. In Scripture the element of faith is crucial; a natural approach cannot prove or disprove the presence of “miracle.” The timing and content of the process can be miraculous, even though the event may seem natural. The revelatory significance is also important. In every case God performed the miracle not merely as a “wonder” to inspire awe but as a “sign” to draw people to himself.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheVocabularyofMiracles\">The Vocabulary of Miracles<\/p>\n<p>In the OT the two main terms are “sign” and “wonder,” which often occur together (e.g., nine times in Dt alone, 4:34; 13:1; etc.). More than one Hebrew term is used for “wonder”—one referring to it as an act of supernatural power and another as being beyond man’s understanding. On the whole, they are used synonymously for God’s providential acts within history. The “sign” refers to an act that occurs as a token or pledge of God’s control over events and as a revelation of God’s presence with his people.<\/p>\n<p>The NT uses the same basic idiom, “signs and wonders,” with the same general thrust (cf. Mt 24:24; Mk 13:22; Jn 4:48; Acts 2:43). A third term is that for “power” or miracle, and this becomes the predominant term in the synoptic Gospels. It signifies the mighty act itself by which God is revealed in Christ. A fourth term is “work,” which along with “sign” is preferred in the Gospel of John. This term is used in John to show that in Jesus the work of the Father is revealed. While the terms are often synonymous (the first three occur together in Rom 15:19-20; 2 Thes 2:9; Heb 2:4), they designate three different aspects of miracles. “Signs” point to the theological meaning of miracle as a revelation of God; “power,” to the force behind the act; “work,” to the person behind it; and “wonder,” to its awesome effect on the observer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MiraclesintheOldTestament\">Miracles in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>To the Hebrew, a miracle was nothing more nor less than an act of God. Therefore, nature herself was a miracle (Jb 5:9-10; Pss 89:6; 106:2), and an act of kindness or victory over one’s enemies is so described (Gn 24:12-27; 1 Sm 14:23). The natural order is totally under Yahweh’s control, so a miracle was observable not because of its supernatural nature but because of its character as part of the divine revelation. This connection with salvation history is crucial, for Israel at all times tried to guard against a desire for the spectacular. Deuteronomy 13:1-4 warns against accepting a wonder as authenticating a prophet; rather, the authentication must come from the fact that he worships Yahweh.<\/p>\n<p>Miracles in the OT are restricted to critical periods of redemptive history. Many have discussed the act of Creation as the first miracle, but in actuality it is not presented as such in the Genesis account. A miracle is signified by its revelatory significance and\/or its connection with crucial points in the history of God’s people—the exodus, the conquest of Jordan, the battle against the insidious Baal worship of the prophetic period. Creation is characterized by one major theme: a chronicle of the beginnings. The miracles of Genesis—striking blind the inhabitants of Sodom, the Flood, Babel—all signify the wrath of God upon those who have turned against him. This is the other side of redemptive history, the judgment of God upon those who are not his people.<\/p>\n<p>The miracles of the exodus account have two foci: The plagues represent the absolute power of Yahweh over the gods of Egypt, and the miracles of the wilderness show God’s absolute care and protection of his people. The plagues are particularly interesting because each one is directed at one of the gods of Egypt and reveals Yahweh as the only potentate. The basic theme is found in Exodus 7:5 and is repeated throughout the account (cf. 7:17; 8:6, 18; 9:14-16, 29; 12:12): “When I show the Egyptians my power and force them to let the Israelites go, they will realize that I am the <span>Lord<\/span>” (<span>nlt<\/span>). In this regard they were directed not only at the Egyptians but also to the Israelites, who needed to know that their God would vindicate them against the Egyptians. This is borne out in the major miracle, the crossing of the Red Sea. The plagues themselves show a gradual increase in severity.<\/p>\n<p>The wilderness miracles are intimately connected to the basic theme of the wandering narratives, the trial of Israel in times of desperate need and God’s providential protection of his people when they turn to him. The basic organization of the stories concerns the need itself, which leads to Israel’s complaint; this is followed by Moses’ intercession and then by God’s sovereign intervention. The miracles are interspersed with other stories that tell of God’s punishment when the people’s murmuring tries him too far. The miracle is God’s self-revelation regarding his involvement in the needs of his own; Israel must then respond, and her response determines her blessing or punishment at the hands of Yahweh.<\/p>\n<p>Miracles are conspicuously absent in the period of the united monarchy. This was a time of self-sufficiency, when God worked through the monarchy and did not intervene directly in the life of the nation. The reason is that Israel’s eschatological hopes had been realized and made concrete in the presence of the Holy City and the temple.<\/p>\n<p>It was different during the prophetic period. In the lives of Elijah and Elisha, miracles were predominant. This was a time of apostasy, and under the reign of Ahab and Jezebel the nation turned to paganism and the worship of Baal. The very existence of the Hebraic religion seemed to be threatened, and so the times called for extraordinary measures. Here the wondrous nature of the miracles is more evident than anywhere else in the OT. There are conscious allusions to the exodus miracles, perhaps looking to Elijah as a new Moses reinstituting the true worship of Yahweh. Parallels are seen in the challenge to the priests of Baal (1 Kgs 18; cf. Ex 7); the revelation of God on Mt Horeb with the wind, earthquake, and fire (1 Kgs 19; cf. Ex 19); and the parting of the Jordan (2 Kgs 2:10-14; cf. Ex 14). Many of the miracles were intended to demonstrate the impotence of Baal, such as the drought, the contest on Mt Carmel, and the miraculous sustenance supplied by God. Again, God’s actions within history were part of his self-revelation, the vindication of his messengers, and the punishment of his enemies.<\/p>\n<p>Miracles are infrequent in the writing prophets, perhaps due to the proclamation form of the writings (i.e., they dealt with message rather than deeds). The two major exceptions (apart from the recovery of Hezekiah chronicled in Is 38) are Jonah and Daniel. In Jonah, the miracle is addressed not to the Ninevites but to the Israelites, who are called back to their covenant obligations as the spokesmen for Yahweh. In Daniel the direction is reversed, and the situation is the same as that in Exodus or Kings. The miracles are directed to the Babylonians and Persians and have the same foci as the earlier events of the exodus and Elijah-Elisha chronicles, that is, the supremacy of Yahweh over the foreign gods and the vindication of his messengers. This is the third and final time of crisis and illustrates the major theological use of miracles in the OT.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MiraclesintheNewTestament\">Miracles in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The presence of the miraculous has a similar purpose in the NT; it occurred at a crisis point in salvation history to authenticate the presence of God in historical acts. It differs, however, in that it is transcended by the presence of the very Son of God, who himself is the greatest miracle of all. God now has not only acted in history; he has entered history and has turned it to himself. The parallels with the exodus events are obvious and show that the miracles of Jesus paved the way for the entrance of the new covenant in the same way that the exodus miracles prepared for the old.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Jesus’ Understanding<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus stressed the connection between his miraculous ministry, especially the casting out of demons (exorcism), and the coming of the kingdom of God. As in the OT, the miracles signify the presence of God, but here it is more direct and also signals the inauguration of his kingdom (Mt 12:28). As such, then, the exorcism miracles mean the binding of Satan and the institution of the reign of God (Mk 3:23-27). At the same time all the miracles signify the dawning of the age of salvation, as expressed in Jesus’ inaugural address at Nazareth (Lk 4:18-21, from Is 61:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Yet these miracles are not automatic signposts to the act of God; they must be interpreted by faith. Jesus was well aware of the presence of other miracles in his day (Mt 12:27) and so stressed the presence of faith in the healing miracles (Mk 5:32; 10:52). This faith must be directed to the presence of God in the event and in Jesus himself. The necessity of faith also helps to understand Jesus’ refusal to provide his contemporaries with a “sign” (Mk 8:11-12); miracles could never “prove” the presence of God. For a better understanding of the connection between faith and miracles, it is best to note each Evangelist’s individual portrait of the theological use of miracles.<\/p>\n<h5>Miracles in Mark<\/h5>\n<p>Mark, the first of the four Gospels to be written, has often been called the “action Gospel” because of its emphasis on Jesus’ deeds rather than his teaching. This is also true regarding Jesus’ miracles, for Mark contains more proportionately than any of the others. There are five groups or five kinds of miracles in Mark. The first group centers on Jesus’ authority over demons (Mk 1:21-39). The second concerns Jesus’ authority over the law and conflict with his opponents (1:40–3:6). They result in fame but occasion his refusal to allow his true identity as Son of God to be known. The third group (3:7-30) contains exorcisms and the Beelzebub controversy, centering on his power over Satan. The fourth group (4:35–6:43) contains especially powerful miracles (stilling the storm, the Gaderene demoniac, the raising of Jairus’s daughter) and probably centers on the disciples, as Jesus thereby reveals to them the meaning of the kingdom and seeks to overcome their own spiritual dullness. The fifth and final group (6:30–8:26) continues the theme of the disciples’ misunderstanding and prepares the way for the Passion, with the message regarding the bread, blindness, and the judgment of God.<\/p>\n<p>The miracles in Mark center on conflict, first with Jesus’ opponents and then with his own disciples. While the miracles are harbingers of God’s kingdom, their purpose is to force an encounter with Jesus’ true significance. They do not show Jesus as a Hellenistic wonder worker; in fact, they lead only to amazement and then disbelief in those who do not have faith. Jesus’ personhood has been hidden and can only be understood in light of the cross. The miracles are not proofs but powers; God does not authenticate himself through them but shows himself to those with eyes to see.<\/p>\n<h5>Miracles in Matthew<\/h5>\n<p>Matthew’s is the teaching Gospel, where dialogue takes precedence over action. Matthew compresses Mark’s narrative in order to make room for didactic material. Therefore, his stress is on the theological implications of faith rather than on the results they contain. Matthew’s groups of miracles are isometric to teaching passages, in keeping with his general practice of combining narrative portions and organizing them around didactic sections. The first group (chs 8–9) combines miracles from Mark’s first, second, and fourth groups and stresses Jesus’ significance as the servant of Yahweh who exercises sovereign power and forgives sins. The secondary theme teaches discipleship and shows the awakening faith of the disciples and their involvement in Jesus’ ministry. The second group (ch 12) centers on his authority over the law (the man with the withered hand) and over Satan (the Beelzebub controversy). The third group (chs 14–15) parallels Mark’s fifth group but has a different purpose. Rather than arousing conflict, the disciples are seen in positive guise, actively involved in the Master’s work. So the disciples become the means by which Jesus’ ministry is continued. Therefore, the disciples are involved as “learners” (the meaning of “disciple”) in his miraculous ministry.<\/p>\n<h5>Miracles in Luke<\/h5>\n<p>Luke-Acts is remarkable and extremely important because it establishes beyond dispute the early church’s belief that it was in absolute continuity with Jesus and was continuing the work of God in the world. Luke’s major stress is on salvation history, and so one of his major stylistic methods for showing this direct connection is miraculous deeds. Especially enlightening here is Acts 9:32-42, where in two healing miracles Peter duplicated the Lord’s miracles (the paralytic Aeneas, Lk 5:18-26; the raising of Dorcas, Lk 8:49-56).<\/p>\n<p>From this respect also Luke returns to Mark’s interest in the deed more than the teaching. However, Luke goes even further than Mark, for the miracles validate Jesus more directly. The first group follows the inaugural address (4:18-22), which itself presents the miraculous deeds as authenticating signposts to Jesus’ personhood. They center on Jesus’ power and authority (vv 31-41) and validate God’s power in Jesus (5:17; 8:39) as well as faith in Jesus (seen in the “praise” motif, 5:25; 7:16; etc., but especially in Acts 9:35; 13:12; 19:17). The presence of “fear” at the miracles is a human response to having witnessed God’s power (Lk 5:26; 7:16; 8:35-37; 24:5). The call to the disciples occurs in the presence of miracles (5:1-11, at the miraculous catch of fish; vv 27-28, after the healing of the bedridden paralytic).<\/p>\n<p>Therefore, Luke views miracles as having redemptive significance. However, this is not contrary to Mark’s picture. Luke still avoids picturing Jesus as a mere wonder worker; Jesus still refuses to satisfy people’s curiosity for an external sign (Lk 11:29-32; cf. also 9:9), and in the parable of the rich man and Lazarus (16:19-31) he teaches that the unbelieving heart can never be convinced by such events. Nevertheless, they can lead to repentance (10:13-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Miracles in John<\/h5>\n<p>John is the most directly theological of the Evangelists, and miracles are characteristically given a distinctive Johannine coloring. In the Synoptics, miracles are “acts of power” signifying the entrance of God’s reign into this world via Jesus; thereby, Jesus establishes Satan’s defeat and God’s sovereign control of history. John, however, contains no exorcisms, and the miracles are seen as “signs.” At the same time miracles are part of the larger category of “works” (the other term for miracles used in John), by which Jesus shows the Father’s presence in himself (Jn 10:32, 37-39; 14:10) and they give witness to Jesus as the sent one (5:36; 10:25, 38).<\/p>\n<p>John selects only seven “sign miracles” from many others (20:30) and uses them as part of the thematic development in the respective section of each. For instance, changing the water into wine is a messianic act, signifying the outpouring of the kingdom blessing in the ministry of Jesus, the Messiah (ch 2); the multiplication of the loaves builds upon the “bread of life” and points to the messianic banquet as spiritually present in Jesus (ch 6).<\/p>\n<p>The paradoxical nature of miracles in the Synoptics is even greater in John. He gives more stress to the wondrous nature of the events by providing such details as the stupendous amount of water changed into wine (2:6, approximately 120 gallons, or 454.2 liters); the distance over which Jesus’ healing power works (4:46, almost 20 miles, or 32.2 kilometers); the length of time the man of Bethesda had been lame (5:5, 38 years; cf. 9:1, where the man had been born blind); the amount of bread needed to feed the 5,000 (6:7, where Philip said 200 denarii, or days’ wages, would not have bought enough); and the proof of Lazarus’s death (11:39; he had already begun to decay). John has a great interest in the miraculous. Yet at the same time there is even greater stress on the inadequacy of miracles for faith. The miracles as “signs” have saving value and point to the true significance of Jesus but are related to an awakening faith and in themselves are insufficient (2:11; 4:50). They have christological force, looking to Jesus’ sonship and the Father’s authentication of him but are based on the soteriological decision of the individual. As “signs,” they contain the very presence of God in Jesus, the spiritual reality of the “sight” and “life” he brings (9:35-38; 11:24-26). Yet their purpose is to divide the audience and confront it with the necessity of decision. Two camps result—those seeking understanding and those considering only the outward aspects. Some refuse to consider the signs, and thus they reject them (3:18-21; 11:47-50), while others see them shallowly as mere wonders and fail to see in them the true significance of Jesus (2:23-25; 4:45). On the other hand, some view them with the eye of faith and go on to a realization of his personhood (2:11; 5:36-46; 11:42). In John the highest faith of all is that which does not need external stimulation (20:29).<\/p>\n<h5>Miracles in the Rest of the New Testament<\/h5>\n<p>Apart from Acts, several passages in the NT speak of the value of miracles. Paul in 2 Corinthians 12:12 and Romans 15:18-19 considered them as “sign-gifts,” which authenticated the divine authority of the “true apostle.” He listed healing and miracles as specific “gifts of the Spirit” in 1 Corinthians 12:9-10. In Galatians 3:5 he considered them evidence for the presence of the Spirit. The author of the letter to the Hebrews in 2:4 said “God bore witness” to the true message of salvation via miracles. Therefore, in the apostolic age the miracles of God’s servants were seen more directly as authenticating signs of God’s action in his messengers.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Sign; Spiritual Gifts.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MIRACLE<\/h3>\n<p>A divine act by which God reveals himself to people. The classical definition of miracle assumes that it is contrary to natural law, but this is a misnomer for two reasons. First, many of the miracles of the Bible used nature rather than bypassed it (e.g., the wind that parted the Red Sea, Ex 14:21). Second, there no longer is a concept of “absolute natural laws”; rather, a phenomenon that is not readily explainable may reflect laws that scientists do not yet fully understand. In Scripture the element of faith is crucial; a natural approach cannot prove or disprove the presence of “miracle.” The timing and content of the process can be miraculous, even though the event may seem natural. The revelatory significance is also important. In every case God performed the miracle not merely as a “wonder” to inspire awe but as a “sign” to draw people to himself.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheVocabularyofMiracles\">The Vocabulary of Miracles<\/p>\n<p>In the OT the two main terms are “sign” and “wonder,” which often occur together (e.g., nine times in Dt alone, 4:34; 13:1; etc.). More than one Hebrew term is used for “wonder”—one referring to it as an act of supernatural power and another as being beyond man’s understanding. On the whole, they are used synonymously for God’s providential acts within history. The “sign” refers to an act that occurs as a token or pledge of God’s control over events and as a revelation of God’s presence with his people.<\/p>\n<p>The NT uses the same basic idiom, “signs and wonders,” with the same general thrust (cf. Mt 24:24; Mk 13:22; Jn 4:48; Acts 2:43). A third term is that for “power” or miracle, and this becomes the predominant term in the synoptic Gospels. It signifies the mighty act itself by which God is revealed in Christ. A fourth term is “work,” which along with “sign” is preferred in the Gospel of John. This term is used in John to show that in Jesus the work of the Father is revealed. While the terms are often synonymous (the first three occur together in Rom 15:19-20; 2 Thes 2:9; Heb 2:4), they designate three different aspects of miracles. “Signs” point to the theological meaning of miracle as a revelation of God; “power,” to the force behind the act; “work,” to the person behind it; and “wonder,” to its awesome effect on the observer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MiraclesintheOldTestament\">Miracles in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>To the Hebrew, a miracle was nothing more nor less than an act of God. Therefore, nature herself was a miracle (Jb 5:9-10; Pss 89:6; 106:2), and an act of kindness or victory over one’s enemies is so described (Gn 24:12-27; 1 Sm 14:23). The natural order is totally under Yahweh’s control, so a miracle was observable not because of its supernatural nature but because of its character as part of the divine revelation. This connection with salvation history is crucial, for Israel at all times tried to guard against a desire for the spectacular. Deuteronomy 13:1-4 warns against accepting a wonder as authenticating a prophet; rather, the authentication must come from the fact that he worships Yahweh.<\/p>\n<p>Miracles in the OT are restricted to critical periods of redemptive history. Many have discussed the act of Creation as the first miracle, but in actuality it is not presented as such in the Genesis account. A miracle is signified by its revelatory significance and\/or its connection with crucial points in the history of God’s people—the exodus, the conquest of Jordan, the battle against the insidious Baal worship of the prophetic period. Creation is characterized by one major theme: a chronicle of the beginnings. The miracles of Genesis—striking blind the inhabitants of Sodom, the Flood, Babel—all signify the wrath of God upon those who have turned against him. This is the other side of redemptive history, the judgment of God upon those who are not his people.<\/p>\n<p>The miracles of the exodus account have two foci: The plagues represent the absolute power of Yahweh over the gods of Egypt, and the miracles of the wilderness show God’s absolute care and protection of his people. The plagues are particularly interesting because each one is directed at one of the gods of Egypt and reveals Yahweh as the only potentate. The basic theme is found in Exodus 7:5 and is repeated throughout the account (cf. 7:17; 8:6, 18; 9:14-16, 29; 12:12): “When I show the Egyptians my power and force them to let the Israelites go, they will realize that I am the <span>Lord<\/span>” (<span>nlt<\/span>). In this regard they were directed not only at the Egyptians but also to the Israelites, who needed to know that their God would vindicate them against the Egyptians. This is borne out in the major miracle, the crossing of the Red Sea. The plagues themselves show a gradual increase in severity.<\/p>\n<p>The wilderness miracles are intimately connected to the basic theme of the wandering narratives, the trial of Israel in times of desperate need and God’s providential protection of his people when they turn to him. The basic organization of the stories concerns the need itself, which leads to Israel’s complaint; this is followed by Moses’ intercession and then by God’s sovereign intervention. The miracles are interspersed with other stories that tell of God’s punishment when the people’s murmuring tries him too far. The miracle is God’s self-revelation regarding his involvement in the needs of his own; Israel must then respond, and her response determines her blessing or punishment at the hands of Yahweh.<\/p>\n<p>Miracles are conspicuously absent in the period of the united monarchy. This was a time of self-sufficiency, when God worked through the monarchy and did not intervene directly in the life of the nation. The reason is that Israel’s eschatological hopes had been realized and made concrete in the presence of the Holy City and the temple.<\/p>\n<p>It was different during the prophetic period. In the lives of Elijah and Elisha, miracles were predominant. This was a time of apostasy, and under the reign of Ahab and Jezebel the nation turned to paganism and the worship of Baal. The very existence of the Hebraic religion seemed to be threatened, and so the times called for extraordinary measures. Here the wondrous nature of the miracles is more evident than anywhere else in the OT. There are conscious allusions to the exodus miracles, perhaps looking to Elijah as a new Moses reinstituting the true worship of Yahweh. Parallels are seen in the challenge to the priests of Baal (1 Kgs 18; cf. Ex 7); the revelation of God on Mt Horeb with the wind, earthquake, and fire (1 Kgs 19; cf. Ex 19); and the parting of the Jordan (2 Kgs 2:10-14; cf. Ex 14). Many of the miracles were intended to demonstrate the impotence of Baal, such as the drought, the contest on Mt Carmel, and the miraculous sustenance supplied by God. Again, God’s actions within history were part of his self-revelation, the vindication of his messengers, and the punishment of his enemies.<\/p>\n<p>Miracles are infrequent in the writing prophets, perhaps due to the proclamation form of the writings (i.e., they dealt with message rather than deeds). The two major exceptions (apart from the recovery of Hezekiah chronicled in Is 38) are Jonah and Daniel. In Jonah, the miracle is addressed not to the Ninevites but to the Israelites, who are called back to their covenant obligations as the spokesmen for Yahweh. In Daniel the direction is reversed, and the situation is the same as that in Exodus or Kings. The miracles are directed to the Babylonians and Persians and have the same foci as the earlier events of the exodus and Elijah-Elisha chronicles, that is, the supremacy of Yahweh over the foreign gods and the vindication of his messengers. This is the third and final time of crisis and illustrates the major theological use of miracles in the OT.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MiraclesintheNewTestament\">Miracles in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The presence of the miraculous has a similar purpose in the NT; it occurred at a crisis point in salvation history to authenticate the presence of God in historical acts. It differs, however, in that it is transcended by the presence of the very Son of God, who himself is the greatest miracle of all. God now has not only acted in history; he has entered history and has turned it to himself. The parallels with the exodus events are obvious and show that the miracles of Jesus paved the way for the entrance of the new covenant in the same way that the exodus miracles prepared for the old.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Jesus’ Understanding<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus stressed the connection between his miraculous ministry, especially the casting out of demons (exorcism), and the coming of the kingdom of God. As in the OT, the miracles signify the presence of God, but here it is more direct and also signals the inauguration of his kingdom (Mt 12:28). As such, then, the exorcism miracles mean the binding of Satan and the institution of the reign of God (Mk 3:23-27). At the same time all the miracles signify the dawning of the age of salvation, as expressed in Jesus’ inaugural address at Nazareth (Lk 4:18-21, from Is 61:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Yet these miracles are not automatic signposts to the act of God; they must be interpreted by faith. Jesus was well aware of the presence of other miracles in his day (Mt 12:27) and so stressed the presence of faith in the healing miracles (Mk 5:32; 10:52). This faith must be directed to the presence of God in the event and in Jesus himself. The necessity of faith also helps to understand Jesus’ refusal to provide his contemporaries with a “sign” (Mk 8:11-12); miracles could never “prove” the presence of God. For a better understanding of the connection between faith and miracles, it is best to note each Evangelist’s individual portrait of the theological use of miracles.<\/p>\n<h5>Miracles in Mark<\/h5>\n<p>Mark, the first of the four Gospels to be written, has often been called the “action Gospel” because of its emphasis on Jesus’ deeds rather than his teaching. This is also true regarding Jesus’ miracles, for Mark contains more proportionately than any of the others. There are five groups or five kinds of miracles in Mark. The first group centers on Jesus’ authority over demons (Mk 1:21-39). The second concerns Jesus’ authority over the law and conflict with his opponents (1:40–3:6). They result in fame but occasion his refusal to allow his true identity as Son of God to be known. The third group (3:7-30) contains exorcisms and the Beelzebub controversy, centering on his power over Satan. The fourth group (4:35–6:43) contains especially powerful miracles (stilling the storm, the Gaderene demoniac, the raising of Jairus’s daughter) and probably centers on the disciples, as Jesus thereby reveals to them the meaning of the kingdom and seeks to overcome their own spiritual dullness. The fifth and final group (6:30–8:26) continues the theme of the disciples’ misunderstanding and prepares the way for the Passion, with the message regarding the bread, blindness, and the judgment of God.<\/p>\n<p>The miracles in Mark center on conflict, first with Jesus’ opponents and then with his own disciples. While the miracles are harbingers of God’s kingdom, their purpose is to force an encounter with Jesus’ true significance. They do not show Jesus as a Hellenistic wonder worker; in fact, they lead only to amazement and then disbelief in those who do not have faith. Jesus’ personhood has been hidden and can only be understood in light of the cross. The miracles are not proofs but powers; God does not authenticate himself through them but shows himself to those with eyes to see.<\/p>\n<h5>Miracles in Matthew<\/h5>\n<p>Matthew’s is the teaching Gospel, where dialogue takes precedence over action. Matthew compresses Mark’s narrative in order to make room for didactic material. Therefore, his stress is on the theological implications of faith rather than on the results they contain. Matthew’s groups of miracles are isometric to teaching passages, in keeping with his general practice of combining narrative portions and organizing them around didactic sections. The first group (chs 8–9) combines miracles from Mark’s first, second, and fourth groups and stresses Jesus’ significance as the servant of Yahweh who exercises sovereign power and forgives sins. The secondary theme teaches discipleship and shows the awakening faith of the disciples and their involvement in Jesus’ ministry. The second group (ch 12) centers on his authority over the law (the man with the withered hand) and over Satan (the Beelzebub controversy). The third group (chs 14–15) parallels Mark’s fifth group but has a different purpose. Rather than arousing conflict, the disciples are seen in positive guise, actively involved in the Master’s work. So the disciples become the means by which Jesus’ ministry is continued. Therefore, the disciples are involved as “learners” (the meaning of “disciple”) in his miraculous ministry.<\/p>\n<h5>Miracles in Luke<\/h5>\n<p>Luke-Acts is remarkable and extremely important because it establishes beyond dispute the early church’s belief that it was in absolute continuity with Jesus and was continuing the work of God in the world. Luke’s major stress is on salvation history, and so one of his major stylistic methods for showing this direct connection is miraculous deeds. Especially enlightening here is Acts 9:32-42, where in two healing miracles Peter duplicated the Lord’s miracles (the paralytic Aeneas, Lk 5:18-26; the raising of Dorcas, Lk 8:49-56).<\/p>\n<p>From this respect also Luke returns to Mark’s interest in the deed more than the teaching. However, Luke goes even further than Mark, for the miracles validate Jesus more directly. The first group follows the inaugural address (4:18-22), which itself presents the miraculous deeds as authenticating signposts to Jesus’ personhood. They center on Jesus’ power and authority (vv 31-41) and validate God’s power in Jesus (5:17; 8:39) as well as faith in Jesus (seen in the “praise” motif, 5:25; 7:16; etc., but especially in Acts 9:35; 13:12; 19:17). The presence of “fear” at the miracles is a human response to having witnessed God’s power (Lk 5:26; 7:16; 8:35-37; 24:5). The call to the disciples occurs in the presence of miracles (5:1-11, at the miraculous catch of fish; vv 27-28, after the healing of the bedridden paralytic).<\/p>\n<p>Therefore, Luke views miracles as having redemptive significance. However, this is not contrary to Mark’s picture. Luke still avoids picturing Jesus as a mere wonder worker; Jesus still refuses to satisfy people’s curiosity for an external sign (Lk 11:29-32; cf. also 9:9), and in the parable of the rich man and Lazarus (16:19-31) he teaches that the unbelieving heart can never be convinced by such events. Nevertheless, they can lead to repentance (10:13-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Miracles in John<\/h5>\n<p>John is the most directly theological of the Evangelists, and miracles are characteristically given a distinctive Johannine coloring. In the Synoptics, miracles are “acts of power” signifying the entrance of God’s reign into this world via Jesus; thereby, Jesus establishes Satan’s defeat and God’s sovereign control of history. John, however, contains no exorcisms, and the miracles are seen as “signs.” At the same time miracles are part of the larger category of “works” (the other term for miracles used in John), by which Jesus shows the Father’s presence in himself (Jn 10:32, 37-39; 14:10) and they give witness to Jesus as the sent one (5:36; 10:25, 38).<\/p>\n<p>John selects only seven “sign miracles” from many others (20:30) and uses them as part of the thematic development in the respective section of each. For instance, changing the water into wine is a messianic act, signifying the outpouring of the kingdom blessing in the ministry of Jesus, the Messiah (ch 2); the multiplication of the loaves builds upon the “bread of life” and points to the messianic banquet as spiritually present in Jesus (ch 6).<\/p>\n<p>The paradoxical nature of miracles in the Synoptics is even greater in John. He gives more stress to the wondrous nature of the events by providing such details as the stupendous amount of water changed into wine (2:6, approximately 120 gallons, or 454.2 liters); the distance over which Jesus’ healing power works (4:46, almost 20 miles, or 32.2 kilometers); the length of time the man of Bethesda had been lame (5:5, 38 years; cf. 9:1, where the man had been born blind); the amount of bread needed to feed the 5,000 (6:7, where Philip said 200 denarii, or days’ wages, would not have bought enough); and the proof of Lazarus’s death (11:39; he had already begun to decay). John has a great interest in the miraculous. Yet at the same time there is even greater stress on the inadequacy of miracles for faith. The miracles as “signs” have saving value and point to the true significance of Jesus but are related to an awakening faith and in themselves are insufficient (2:11; 4:50). They have christological force, looking to Jesus’ sonship and the Father’s authentication of him but are based on the soteriological decision of the individual. As “signs,” they contain the very presence of God in Jesus, the spiritual reality of the “sight” and “life” he brings (9:35-38; 11:24-26). Yet their purpose is to divide the audience and confront it with the necessity of decision. Two camps result—those seeking understanding and those considering only the outward aspects. Some refuse to consider the signs, and thus they reject them (3:18-21; 11:47-50), while others see them shallowly as mere wonders and fail to see in them the true significance of Jesus (2:23-25; 4:45). On the other hand, some view them with the eye of faith and go on to a realization of his personhood (2:11; 5:36-46; 11:42). In John the highest faith of all is that which does not need external stimulation (20:29).<\/p>\n<h5>Miracles in the Rest of the New Testament<\/h5>\n<p>Apart from Acts, several passages in the NT speak of the value of miracles. Paul in 2 Corinthians 12:12 and Romans 15:18-19 considered them as “sign-gifts,” which authenticated the divine authority of the “true apostle.” He listed healing and miracles as specific “gifts of the Spirit” in 1 Corinthians 12:9-10. In Galatians 3:5 he considered them evidence for the presence of the Spirit. The author of the letter to the Hebrews in 2:4 said “God bore witness” to the true message of salvation via miracles. Therefore, in the apostolic age the miracles of God’s servants were seen more directly as authenticating signs of God’s action in his messengers.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Sign; Spiritual Gifts.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MIRACLE A divine act by which God reveals himself to people. The classical definition of miracle assumes that it is contrary to natural law, but this is a misnomer for two reasons. First, many of the miracles of the Bible used nature rather than bypassed it (e.g., the wind that parted the Red Sea, Ex 14:21). Second, there no longer is a concept of “absolute natural laws”; rather, a phenomenon that is not readily explainable may reflect laws that scientists do not yet fully understand. In Scri...","summary_en":"MIRACLE A divine act by which God reveals himself to people. The classical definition of miracle assumes that it is contrary to natural law, but this is a misnomer for two reasons. First, many of the miracles of the Bible used nature rather than bypassed it (e.g., the wind that parted the Red Sea, Ex 14:21). Second, there no longer is a concept of “absolute natural laws”; rather, a phenomenon that is not readily explainable may reflect laws that scientists do not yet fully understand. In Scri...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57051,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:17","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:17-19<\/strong> The contrast between Paul and the Jewish exorcists was not lost on the people of Ephesus, <em>Jews and Greeks alike<\/em>. The resulting <em>fear<\/em> caused the inhabitants to honor and respect <em>the name of the Lord Jesus<\/em>. It led many to confess and forsake <em>their sinful practices<\/em><em>,<\/em> including <em>sorcery<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:17-19<\/strong> The contrast between Paul and the Jewish exorcists was not lost on the people of Ephesus, <em>Jews and Greeks alike<\/em>. The resulting <em>fear<\/em> caused the inhabitants to honor and respect <em>the name of the Lord Jesus<\/em>. It led many to confess and forsake <em>their sinful practices<\/em><em>,<\/em> including <em>sorcery<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:17-19 The contrast between Paul and the Jewish exorcists was not lost on the people of Ephesus, Jews and Greeks alike. The resulting fear caused the inhabitants to honor and respect the name of the Lord Jesus. It led many to confess and forsake their sinful practices, including sorcery.","summary_en":"19:17-19 The contrast between Paul and the Jewish exorcists was not lost on the people of Ephesus, Jews and Greeks alike. The resulting fear caused the inhabitants to honor and respect the name of the Lord Jesus. It led many to confess and forsake their sinful practices, including sorcery.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84677,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:17","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:17-19<\/strong> The contrast between Paul and the Jewish exorcists was not lost on the people of Ephesus, <em>Jews and Greeks alike<\/em>. The resulting <em>fear<\/em> caused the inhabitants to honor and respect <em>the name of the Lord Jesus<\/em>. It led many to confess and forsake <em>their sinful practices<\/em><em>,<\/em> including <em>sorcery<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:17-19<\/strong> The contrast between Paul and the Jewish exorcists was not lost on the people of Ephesus, <em>Jews and Greeks alike<\/em>. The resulting <em>fear<\/em> caused the inhabitants to honor and respect <em>the name of the Lord Jesus<\/em>. It led many to confess and forsake <em>their sinful practices<\/em><em>,<\/em> including <em>sorcery<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:17-19 The contrast between Paul and the Jewish exorcists was not lost on the people of Ephesus, Jews and Greeks alike. The resulting fear caused the inhabitants to honor and respect the name of the Lord Jesus. It led many to confess and forsake their sinful practices, including sorcery.","summary_en":"19:17-19 The contrast between Paul and the Jewish exorcists was not lost on the people of Ephesus, Jews and Greeks alike. The resulting fear caused the inhabitants to honor and respect the name of the Lord Jesus. It led many to confess and forsake their sinful practices, including sorcery.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112303,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:17","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:17-19<\/strong> The contrast between Paul and the Jewish exorcists was not lost on the people of Ephesus, <em>Jews and Greeks alike<\/em>. The resulting <em>fear<\/em> caused the inhabitants to honor and respect <em>the name of the Lord Jesus<\/em>. It led many to confess and forsake <em>their sinful practices<\/em><em>,<\/em> including <em>sorcery<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:17-19<\/strong> The contrast between Paul and the Jewish exorcists was not lost on the people of Ephesus, <em>Jews and Greeks alike<\/em>. The resulting <em>fear<\/em> caused the inhabitants to honor and respect <em>the name of the Lord Jesus<\/em>. It led many to confess and forsake <em>their sinful practices<\/em><em>,<\/em> including <em>sorcery<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:17-19 The contrast between Paul and the Jewish exorcists was not lost on the people of Ephesus, Jews and Greeks alike. The resulting fear caused the inhabitants to honor and respect the name of the Lord Jesus. It led many to confess and forsake their sinful practices, including sorcery.","summary_en":"19:17-19 The contrast between Paul and the Jewish exorcists was not lost on the people of Ephesus, Jews and Greeks alike. The resulting fear caused the inhabitants to honor and respect the name of the Lord Jesus. It led many to confess and forsake their sinful practices, including sorcery.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139929,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:17","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:17-19<\/strong> The contrast between Paul and the Jewish exorcists was not lost on the people of Ephesus, <em>Jews and Greeks alike<\/em>. The resulting <em>fear<\/em> caused the inhabitants to honor and respect <em>the name of the Lord Jesus<\/em>. It led many to confess and forsake <em>their sinful practices<\/em><em>,<\/em> including <em>sorcery<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:17-19<\/strong> The contrast between Paul and the Jewish exorcists was not lost on the people of Ephesus, <em>Jews and Greeks alike<\/em>. The resulting <em>fear<\/em> caused the inhabitants to honor and respect <em>the name of the Lord Jesus<\/em>. It led many to confess and forsake <em>their sinful practices<\/em><em>,<\/em> including <em>sorcery<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:17-19 The contrast between Paul and the Jewish exorcists was not lost on the people of Ephesus, Jews and Greeks alike. The resulting fear caused the inhabitants to honor and respect the name of the Lord Jesus. It led many to confess and forsake their sinful practices, including sorcery.","summary_en":"19:17-19 The contrast between Paul and the Jewish exorcists was not lost on the people of Ephesus, Jews and Greeks alike. The resulting fear caused the inhabitants to honor and respect the name of the Lord Jesus. It led many to confess and forsake their sinful practices, including sorcery.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"18":[{"id":4190,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Believers","title_en":"Believers","content_ro":"<h3>BELIEVERS<\/h3>\n<p>Those who believe; in the NT, specifically, those who believe in Jesus as Lord and follow him (Acts 5:14). One would expect the term “believers” (sometimes translated “faithful”) to be a title for Christians, since the NT stresses belief in Jesus. Although NT authors emphasized believing, they rarely used the term “believer” as a name for Christians. There are a few clear examples (Acts 4:32; 10:45; 19:18; 1 Tm 4:12), but in other places the term is a description, not a name (Acts 2:44; 15:5; 18:27; 1 Tm 4:3). As a name, “believer” points to the personal commitment of Christians to Jesus. Christians were called not merely to believe something but to give themselves to someone.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BELIEVERS<\/h3>\n<p>Those who believe; in the NT, specifically, those who believe in Jesus as Lord and follow him (Acts 5:14). One would expect the term “believers” (sometimes translated “faithful”) to be a title for Christians, since the NT stresses belief in Jesus. Although NT authors emphasized believing, they rarely used the term “believer” as a name for Christians. There are a few clear examples (Acts 4:32; 10:45; 19:18; 1 Tm 4:12), but in other places the term is a description, not a name (Acts 2:44; 15:5; 18:27; 1 Tm 4:3). As a name, “believer” points to the personal commitment of Christians to Jesus. Christians were called not merely to believe something but to give themselves to someone.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BELIEVERS Those who believe; in the NT, specifically, those who believe in Jesus as Lord and follow him (Acts 5:14). One would expect the term “believers” (sometimes translated “faithful”) to be a title for Christians, since the NT stresses belief in Jesus. Although NT authors emphasized believing, they rarely used the term “believer” as a name for Christians. There are a few clear examples (Acts 4:32; 10:45; 19:18; 1 Tm 4:12), but in other places the term is a description, not a name (Acts 2...","summary_en":"BELIEVERS Those who believe; in the NT, specifically, those who believe in Jesus as Lord and follow him (Acts 5:14). One would expect the term “believers” (sometimes translated “faithful”) to be a title for Christians, since the NT stresses belief in Jesus. Although NT authors emphasized believing, they rarely used the term “believer” as a name for Christians. There are a few clear examples (Acts 4:32; 10:45; 19:18; 1 Tm 4:12), but in other places the term is a description, not a name (Acts 2...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":6621,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Church Meetings","title_en":"Church Meetings","content_ro":"<h3>CHURCH MEETINGS<\/h3>\n<p>The assembling together of the believers. In the NT, the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> (usually translated “church”) is used primarily in two ways: (1) to describe a meeting or an assembly, and (2) to designate the people who participate in such assembling together—whether they are actually assembled or not. The NT contains a few places that speak of a secular Greek assembly (Acts 19:32, 41); every other instance speaks of a Christian assembly. Sometimes the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> is used to designate the actual meeting together of Christians. This is certainly what Paul intended in 1 Corinthians 14:19, 28, and 35, in that the expression <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">en ekklesia<\/span> must mean “in a meeting” and not “in the church.” To translate this phrase “in the church” (as is done in most modern English versions) is misleading, for most readers will think it means “in the church building.” The NT never once names the place of assembly a “church.” Aside from the few instances where the word clearly means the actual meeting together of believers, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> most often is used as a descriptor for the believers who constitute a local church (such as the church in Corinth, the church in Philippi, and the church in Colosse) or all the believers (past, present, and future) who constitute the universal church, the complete body of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>When reading the NT, Christians need to be aware of the various ways in which the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> (“church”) is used. On the most basic level, the <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> is any gathering of believers. On another level, the <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> is an organized local entity—comprised of all the believers in any given locality, under one pluralistic eldership. On another level, the <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> is the universal church whose constituents are all the believers who have ever been, are now existing, and will ever be. The word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> was used by the NT writers with these various aspects of meaning, though, at times, it is not possible to differentiate one from the other. Nevertheless, students of the NT could avoid some confusion if they used discrimination in their exegesis of the text. Some interpreters have taught that the smallest unit of the church is the local church, but the NT writers sometimes used the word “church” to indicate a small home gathering. Other interpreters confuse the local church with the universal church. But some things in the NT are addressed to a local church that do not necessarily apply to the whole church, and some great things are spoken of the universal church that could never be attained by any particular local group. The things Paul said about the church in the Epistle to the Ephesians (which was written as an encyclical for several churches and not just for the church in Ephesus) could never be attained by a local church. For example, what local church could attain to the fullness of the stature of Christ?<\/p>\n<p>There is much to be said about how interpreters have confused the local church with the universal church, but this article is devoted to clearing up the confusion about what constitutes the smallest unit of the church—the local church, or what could be called the house church or home gathering.<\/p>\n<p>The NT seems to present the fact that a particular local church (i.e., a church comprising all the believers in a given locality under one eldership) could and did have several <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span>—“meetings” or “assemblies” (carried on in homes of the local Christians). Thus, the smallest unit to comprise a “church” was one of these home meetings. However, there is no indication in the NT that each of these home meetings had its own eldership or was a distinct entity separate from the other gatherings <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span><em>)<\/em> in the same locality. According to Acts 14:23 and Titus 1:5, elders were appointed for every local church (compare the expressions “appointed elders in every church” and “appoint elders in every city”)—not for every house church. Nevertheless, it appears that every local church of some size had several such <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span> (“meetings”) going on within that locality.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Jerusalem must have had several home meetings (see Acts 2:46; 5:42; 8:3; 12:5, 12), as did the church in Rome (see Rom 16:3-5, 14-15 and comments below). A small local church may have had only one home gathering—as was probably the case with the church at Colosse (see Phlm 1:2 and comments below), but this would have been impossible for large local churches like those in Jerusalem, Rome, and Ephesus, in which there must have been several “house churches” (see 1 Cor 16:19-20 [1 Cor was written from Ephesus] and comments below). An examination of the passages that deal with the issue of the “house church” should affirm this. These passages are Romans 16:3-5, 14-15; 1 Corinthians 16:19-20; Colossians 4:15-16; and Philemon 1:1-2 (all quoted from the <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h4>Romans 16:3-5, 14-15<\/h4>\n<p>In the last chapter of Romans, Paul asked the believers in Rome, to whom he had written this epistle, to greet Priscilla and Aquila and the church that met in their home (16:3-5). The entire church in Rome could not have met in Priscilla and Aquila’s home, for the church was much too large to have assembled in a single home. Rather, the church in Priscilla and Aquila’s home must have been one among several such “house churches” in Rome. The following discussion should substantiate this position.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s Epistle to the Romans was addressed to “all God’s beloved in Rome” (1:7), not to “the church in Rome.” At the time of writing, Paul had not been to Rome—nor had any other apostle. The church was probably started there by Jewish Romans who had been converted during their visit to Jerusalem during Pentecost (Acts 2:10) and then returned to Rome. Since the church had not been started by an apostle, it could have been that there were no “ordained” elders in the church at Rome and that there were several gatherings of believers in various parts of Rome and its suburbs. Paul knew some of the saints in Rome (whom he addressed by name in the last chapter) and thus addressed an epistle to all the saints in that locality, instead of to the church in that locality—which was his usual practice (see 1 Cor 1:1; 2 Cor 1:1; 1 Thes 1:1; 2 Thes 1:1). Nonetheless, “all the saints in Rome” would comprise “the church in Rome” (cf. Phil 1:1, in which Paul addressed his epistle to all the saints in Philippi).<\/p>\n<p>In the final chapter of Romans, Paul asks all the believers in Rome (which equals the “local” church in Rome) to greet the church in Priscilla and Aquila’s house. Later in the chapter, Paul asks the church to greet Asyncritus, Phlegon, Hermas, Patrobas, Hermes, and the brothers with them; and then again he asks the church to greet Philologus, Julia, Nereus and his sister, Olympas, and all the saints with them (16:14-15). Evidently, Paul was identifying two other groups of believers who must have met together. (And perhaps Paul was referring to two more groups in 16:10-11, which in the Greek could mean the ones of Aristobulus’s and Narcissus’s <em>households<\/em> or the ones of their <em>fellowships.<\/em>) It seems that the church in Rome, like the church in Jerusalem and Ephesus, had several home <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span> (meetings).<\/p>\n<p>The Epistle to the Romans was written around <span>AD<\/span> 58. The Neronian persecution began around <span>AD<\/span> 64. Secular historians such as Tacitus tell us that a vast multitude <em>(ingens multitudo)<\/em> of Christians were tortured and killed during this persecution (<em>Annals<\/em> 15.44). Seutonius (in his book <em>Nero,<\/em> ch 16) said that the rapid increase of the Christians in Rome had made them unpopular. Indeed, at the time Paul penned the Epistle to the Romans he said their faith was known throughout the world (1:8), which indicates that the church in Rome had already made an impact on the Mediterranean world. When Paul came to Rome three years later (<span>AD<\/span> 61), he came to a city that had a large church there already. From Romans 15:23, we know that the church had been in existence for many years even before Paul wrote his epistle to them. In short, the church in Rome was a large church around the time Paul wrote his epistle to them. The entire church could not have met in the home of Aquila and Priscilla, who would have had only a modest-sized dwelling (for they were tentmakers). Besides, Paul greeted over 25 individuals by name in chapter 16—and he had not yet even been to Rome!<\/p>\n<p>There must have been several <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span> in Rome, i.e., several home churches all unified as the one local church in Rome. For example, the Christians in Rome apparently worshiped in numerous homes such as Priscilla and Aquila’s. Other churches in homes are mentioned in Colossians 4:15 and Philemon 1:2. Groups of Christians met in houses of prominent believers or in other available rooms (cf. Mt 26:16; Acts 12:12; 1 Cor 16:19; Col 4:15; Phlm 1:2). The church in Priscilla and Aquila’s house is the first of five groups of believers in Paul’s list, but the only one referred to definitely as a church (see Rom 16:5, 10-11, 14-15). Priscilla and Aquila opened their home for Christian meetings. The church mentioned there was obviously only a part of the total number of Christians in Rome. Verses 10-11 and 14-15 seem to refer to two other household churches in Rome. Apparently, there were at least three churches there, and probably more. Each house church could not have been a separate entity with a separate church government; rather, each house church must have been simply one home meeting of some of the saints in the one local church at Rome.<\/p>\n<h4>1 Corinthians 16:19-20<\/h4>\n<p>In this passage we again see Aquila and Priscilla and again discover that a church met in their house. According to Romans, their house church was, of course, in Rome. According to 1 Corinthians (written from Ephesus), their house church was in Ephesus. Many scholars think Aquila and Priscilla left Rome around <span>AD<\/span> 49 at the time of Claudius’s edict expelling Jews from Rome. They very well could have already been Christians at this time. According to Acts 18, they joined Paul in Corinth (where they all worked together in their craft of tentmaking) and then went on with him to Ephesus, during the time (around <span>AD<\/span> 51) the church in Ephesus was first established. Paul continued on with his second missionary journey, while Aquila and Priscilla remained in Ephesus. No doubt, the early church there first met in their home. Paul returned to Ephesus a few years later and remained there for two years (around <span>AD<\/span> 53–54). During this time, Paul’s proclamation of the gospel went out from Ephesus (as a center) to all of Asia Minor (see Acts 19:8-10). As this was going on, the church in Ephesus grew (see vv 18-20).<\/p>\n<p>It was during these years that Paul wrote to the Corinthians, in which he sent greetings from the churches in Asia, from Aquila and Priscilla—and the church in their house, and from all the brothers (1 Cor 16:19-20). In giving this kind of greeting, it seems that Paul was sending greetings from (1) all the churches in Asia Minor, (2) the church in Ephesus (equivalent to “all the brothers”), and (3) those believers who gathered with Aquila and Priscilla in their home. It would be hard to imagine that all the saints in Ephesus met at Aquila and Priscilla’s home. The church probably began that way, but as it grew, so did the number of home meetings. From other portions of the NT (specifically 1 Timothy, which was written around <span>AD<\/span> 64 by Paul to Timothy while Timothy was leading the church in Ephesus), we discover that there must have been several home meetings in Ephesus because there were so many saints there (see 1 Timothy 5–6, which reveal that there must have been a large number of saints in Ephesus—young men, young women, older men, widows, and so forth). At any rate, several saints must have hosted an <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span><em>,<\/em> a meeting, in their home. (Aquila and Priscilla left Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 56\/57 and returned to Rome, where again they hosted a church in their home. Others in Ephesus would have to open their homes.) But each such <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> did not have its own eldership; rather, all of the church in Ephesus was under one eldership—headed up by Timothy, Paul’s coworker.<\/p>\n<h4>Colossians 4:15-16<\/h4>\n<p>In this portion, we again read about a church existing in the home of one called Nymphas. In his final remarks to the church in Colosse, Paul asked the saints in Colosse to send his greetings to (1) the brothers that are in Laodicea, (2) Nymphas in particular, and (3) the church in Nymphas’s house. According to the structure of Colossians 4:15, it seems evident that the first greeting included all the believers in Laodicea (a neighboring church to Colosse), who would comprise the entire church in Laodicea (called “the church of the Laodiceans” in Col 4:16), and that the second and third greetings were to a specific individual (Nymphas) in the church in Laodicea and a church meeting in Nymphas’s house. This church meeting in Nymphas’s house would probably be one of several home meetings—all part of the one local church in Laodicea.<\/p>\n<p>There is a textual problem in this passage that could have some effect on the interpretation of it. Some manuscripts read “his house”; others read “her house”; still others read “their house.” Because it cannot be determined from the Greek text whether Nymphas was male or female, various scribes used different pronouns before “house.” Between the readings “her” and “his,” it is far more likely that the pronoun “her” was changed to “his” than vice versa. Some scholars say that “their” refers to “the brothers” at Laodicea. But that does not make sense if we understand that “the brothers in Laodicea” is equal to the church in Laodicea. How could the church in Laodicea have the church in their house? Other scholars indicate that the Greek word for “their” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">auton<\/span><em>)<\/em> refers to the ones with Nymphas—i.e., the members of his household. Whether the reading was “her house” or “their house,” a particular group of believers within the church of Laodicea met there. Their meeting could legitimately be called an <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span>—an assembling together.<\/p>\n<h4>Philemon 1:1-2<\/h4>\n<p>This is the last time in the NT we read about a church in a particular home. Paul wrote a short epistle to Philemon, an elder of the church in Colosse, on behalf of Onesimus, Philemon’s runaway slave converted by Paul to Christ. In his introduction to this short epistle, Paul sends his greetings to Philemon, Apphia, Archippus, and the church in Philemon’s house. It is important to note that Paul did not send greetings to all the saints in Colosse and then to the church in Philemon’s house (as is the pattern in 1 Cor 16:19-20 and Col 4:15); instead, he just sent greetings to Philemon and to the church in his house. Therefore, we can assume that the entire church in Colosse must have met at Philemon’s house.<\/p>\n<h4>Worship in the Home Meetings and Church Meetings<\/h4>\n<p>When the church first began in Jerusalem, the believers met in homes for fellowship and worship. Acts 2:42-47 tells us that the early Christians met in homes to hear the apostles’ teachings and to celebrate Communion (which is called “the breaking of bread”). During such gatherings, the Christians often shared meals with one another in what was called a love feast (2 Pt 2:13; Jude 1:12). At these meetings, the Christians recited Scripture, sang hymns and psalms, and joyfully praised the Lord (see Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16-17). Christians also gathered together in homes to pray (Acts 12:12) and read the Word.<\/p>\n<p>Small groups of believers met in homes for worship quite regularly; in a city where there were several such <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span><em>,<\/em> all the believers would gather together for special occasions. Scripture tells us that all the believers would come together to hear an epistle from the apostles read out loud (see Acts 15:30; Col 4:16), and we can surmise from the NT record that all the Christians in a city met together once a week on Sunday, which was called the Lord’s Day. First Corinthians provides several insights about how the early Christians worshiped together when all the believers in one city met together. We know that 1 Corinthians pertains to this larger gathering because in 11:20 Paul spoke of all the believers coming together in one place and in 14:23 he spoke of the whole church coming together in one place.<\/p>\n<p>Paul used this epistle to correct the Corinthians’ behavior in the celebration of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:17-34) and in the exercising of spiritual gifts during church meetings (ch 14). Paul’s adjustments reveal his perceptions of a model Christian meeting, and his preceptions were probably developed from actual experience in other church meetings. Paul urged the Corinthians to celebrate the Lord’s Supper together in a manner that reflected Jesus’ institution of that meal. They were to remember the Lord and his death for them, and they were to partake of the bread and wine with all seriousness. At the same time, they were to be conscious of the fact that they were members of the same body of Christ—joined to one another, and also to Christ.<\/p>\n<p>According to Paul’s presentation in chapter 14, this “body consciousness” should be evident in the way the believers worshiped together. One’s personal experience and liberty should not hinder the coordination of the body in worshiping God corporately. Thus, when the believers exercised their spiritual gifts—whether it be prophesying, speaking in tongues, providing interpretations of the tongues, or teaching—it should be done in good order and for the edification of the congregation, not personal edification. When all the church assembled together to worship God, it should be a display of spiritual unity.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Church.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CHURCH MEETINGS<\/h3>\n<p>The assembling together of the believers. In the NT, the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> (usually translated “church”) is used primarily in two ways: (1) to describe a meeting or an assembly, and (2) to designate the people who participate in such assembling together—whether they are actually assembled or not. The NT contains a few places that speak of a secular Greek assembly (Acts 19:32, 41); every other instance speaks of a Christian assembly. Sometimes the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> is used to designate the actual meeting together of Christians. This is certainly what Paul intended in 1 Corinthians 14:19, 28, and 35, in that the expression <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">en ekklesia<\/span> must mean “in a meeting” and not “in the church.” To translate this phrase “in the church” (as is done in most modern English versions) is misleading, for most readers will think it means “in the church building.” The NT never once names the place of assembly a “church.” Aside from the few instances where the word clearly means the actual meeting together of believers, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> most often is used as a descriptor for the believers who constitute a local church (such as the church in Corinth, the church in Philippi, and the church in Colosse) or all the believers (past, present, and future) who constitute the universal church, the complete body of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>When reading the NT, Christians need to be aware of the various ways in which the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> (“church”) is used. On the most basic level, the <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> is any gathering of believers. On another level, the <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> is an organized local entity—comprised of all the believers in any given locality, under one pluralistic eldership. On another level, the <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> is the universal church whose constituents are all the believers who have ever been, are now existing, and will ever be. The word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> was used by the NT writers with these various aspects of meaning, though, at times, it is not possible to differentiate one from the other. Nevertheless, students of the NT could avoid some confusion if they used discrimination in their exegesis of the text. Some interpreters have taught that the smallest unit of the church is the local church, but the NT writers sometimes used the word “church” to indicate a small home gathering. Other interpreters confuse the local church with the universal church. But some things in the NT are addressed to a local church that do not necessarily apply to the whole church, and some great things are spoken of the universal church that could never be attained by any particular local group. The things Paul said about the church in the Epistle to the Ephesians (which was written as an encyclical for several churches and not just for the church in Ephesus) could never be attained by a local church. For example, what local church could attain to the fullness of the stature of Christ?<\/p>\n<p>There is much to be said about how interpreters have confused the local church with the universal church, but this article is devoted to clearing up the confusion about what constitutes the smallest unit of the church—the local church, or what could be called the house church or home gathering.<\/p>\n<p>The NT seems to present the fact that a particular local church (i.e., a church comprising all the believers in a given locality under one eldership) could and did have several <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span>—“meetings” or “assemblies” (carried on in homes of the local Christians). Thus, the smallest unit to comprise a “church” was one of these home meetings. However, there is no indication in the NT that each of these home meetings had its own eldership or was a distinct entity separate from the other gatherings <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span><em>)<\/em> in the same locality. According to Acts 14:23 and Titus 1:5, elders were appointed for every local church (compare the expressions “appointed elders in every church” and “appoint elders in every city”)—not for every house church. Nevertheless, it appears that every local church of some size had several such <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span> (“meetings”) going on within that locality.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Jerusalem must have had several home meetings (see Acts 2:46; 5:42; 8:3; 12:5, 12), as did the church in Rome (see Rom 16:3-5, 14-15 and comments below). A small local church may have had only one home gathering—as was probably the case with the church at Colosse (see Phlm 1:2 and comments below), but this would have been impossible for large local churches like those in Jerusalem, Rome, and Ephesus, in which there must have been several “house churches” (see 1 Cor 16:19-20 [1 Cor was written from Ephesus] and comments below). An examination of the passages that deal with the issue of the “house church” should affirm this. These passages are Romans 16:3-5, 14-15; 1 Corinthians 16:19-20; Colossians 4:15-16; and Philemon 1:1-2 (all quoted from the <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h4>Romans 16:3-5, 14-15<\/h4>\n<p>In the last chapter of Romans, Paul asked the believers in Rome, to whom he had written this epistle, to greet Priscilla and Aquila and the church that met in their home (16:3-5). The entire church in Rome could not have met in Priscilla and Aquila’s home, for the church was much too large to have assembled in a single home. Rather, the church in Priscilla and Aquila’s home must have been one among several such “house churches” in Rome. The following discussion should substantiate this position.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s Epistle to the Romans was addressed to “all God’s beloved in Rome” (1:7), not to “the church in Rome.” At the time of writing, Paul had not been to Rome—nor had any other apostle. The church was probably started there by Jewish Romans who had been converted during their visit to Jerusalem during Pentecost (Acts 2:10) and then returned to Rome. Since the church had not been started by an apostle, it could have been that there were no “ordained” elders in the church at Rome and that there were several gatherings of believers in various parts of Rome and its suburbs. Paul knew some of the saints in Rome (whom he addressed by name in the last chapter) and thus addressed an epistle to all the saints in that locality, instead of to the church in that locality—which was his usual practice (see 1 Cor 1:1; 2 Cor 1:1; 1 Thes 1:1; 2 Thes 1:1). Nonetheless, “all the saints in Rome” would comprise “the church in Rome” (cf. Phil 1:1, in which Paul addressed his epistle to all the saints in Philippi).<\/p>\n<p>In the final chapter of Romans, Paul asks all the believers in Rome (which equals the “local” church in Rome) to greet the church in Priscilla and Aquila’s house. Later in the chapter, Paul asks the church to greet Asyncritus, Phlegon, Hermas, Patrobas, Hermes, and the brothers with them; and then again he asks the church to greet Philologus, Julia, Nereus and his sister, Olympas, and all the saints with them (16:14-15). Evidently, Paul was identifying two other groups of believers who must have met together. (And perhaps Paul was referring to two more groups in 16:10-11, which in the Greek could mean the ones of Aristobulus’s and Narcissus’s <em>households<\/em> or the ones of their <em>fellowships.<\/em>) It seems that the church in Rome, like the church in Jerusalem and Ephesus, had several home <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span> (meetings).<\/p>\n<p>The Epistle to the Romans was written around <span>AD<\/span> 58. The Neronian persecution began around <span>AD<\/span> 64. Secular historians such as Tacitus tell us that a vast multitude <em>(ingens multitudo)<\/em> of Christians were tortured and killed during this persecution (<em>Annals<\/em> 15.44). Seutonius (in his book <em>Nero,<\/em> ch 16) said that the rapid increase of the Christians in Rome had made them unpopular. Indeed, at the time Paul penned the Epistle to the Romans he said their faith was known throughout the world (1:8), which indicates that the church in Rome had already made an impact on the Mediterranean world. When Paul came to Rome three years later (<span>AD<\/span> 61), he came to a city that had a large church there already. From Romans 15:23, we know that the church had been in existence for many years even before Paul wrote his epistle to them. In short, the church in Rome was a large church around the time Paul wrote his epistle to them. The entire church could not have met in the home of Aquila and Priscilla, who would have had only a modest-sized dwelling (for they were tentmakers). Besides, Paul greeted over 25 individuals by name in chapter 16—and he had not yet even been to Rome!<\/p>\n<p>There must have been several <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span> in Rome, i.e., several home churches all unified as the one local church in Rome. For example, the Christians in Rome apparently worshiped in numerous homes such as Priscilla and Aquila’s. Other churches in homes are mentioned in Colossians 4:15 and Philemon 1:2. Groups of Christians met in houses of prominent believers or in other available rooms (cf. Mt 26:16; Acts 12:12; 1 Cor 16:19; Col 4:15; Phlm 1:2). The church in Priscilla and Aquila’s house is the first of five groups of believers in Paul’s list, but the only one referred to definitely as a church (see Rom 16:5, 10-11, 14-15). Priscilla and Aquila opened their home for Christian meetings. The church mentioned there was obviously only a part of the total number of Christians in Rome. Verses 10-11 and 14-15 seem to refer to two other household churches in Rome. Apparently, there were at least three churches there, and probably more. Each house church could not have been a separate entity with a separate church government; rather, each house church must have been simply one home meeting of some of the saints in the one local church at Rome.<\/p>\n<h4>1 Corinthians 16:19-20<\/h4>\n<p>In this passage we again see Aquila and Priscilla and again discover that a church met in their house. According to Romans, their house church was, of course, in Rome. According to 1 Corinthians (written from Ephesus), their house church was in Ephesus. Many scholars think Aquila and Priscilla left Rome around <span>AD<\/span> 49 at the time of Claudius’s edict expelling Jews from Rome. They very well could have already been Christians at this time. According to Acts 18, they joined Paul in Corinth (where they all worked together in their craft of tentmaking) and then went on with him to Ephesus, during the time (around <span>AD<\/span> 51) the church in Ephesus was first established. Paul continued on with his second missionary journey, while Aquila and Priscilla remained in Ephesus. No doubt, the early church there first met in their home. Paul returned to Ephesus a few years later and remained there for two years (around <span>AD<\/span> 53–54). During this time, Paul’s proclamation of the gospel went out from Ephesus (as a center) to all of Asia Minor (see Acts 19:8-10). As this was going on, the church in Ephesus grew (see vv 18-20).<\/p>\n<p>It was during these years that Paul wrote to the Corinthians, in which he sent greetings from the churches in Asia, from Aquila and Priscilla—and the church in their house, and from all the brothers (1 Cor 16:19-20). In giving this kind of greeting, it seems that Paul was sending greetings from (1) all the churches in Asia Minor, (2) the church in Ephesus (equivalent to “all the brothers”), and (3) those believers who gathered with Aquila and Priscilla in their home. It would be hard to imagine that all the saints in Ephesus met at Aquila and Priscilla’s home. The church probably began that way, but as it grew, so did the number of home meetings. From other portions of the NT (specifically 1 Timothy, which was written around <span>AD<\/span> 64 by Paul to Timothy while Timothy was leading the church in Ephesus), we discover that there must have been several home meetings in Ephesus because there were so many saints there (see 1 Timothy 5–6, which reveal that there must have been a large number of saints in Ephesus—young men, young women, older men, widows, and so forth). At any rate, several saints must have hosted an <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span><em>,<\/em> a meeting, in their home. (Aquila and Priscilla left Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 56\/57 and returned to Rome, where again they hosted a church in their home. Others in Ephesus would have to open their homes.) But each such <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> did not have its own eldership; rather, all of the church in Ephesus was under one eldership—headed up by Timothy, Paul’s coworker.<\/p>\n<h4>Colossians 4:15-16<\/h4>\n<p>In this portion, we again read about a church existing in the home of one called Nymphas. In his final remarks to the church in Colosse, Paul asked the saints in Colosse to send his greetings to (1) the brothers that are in Laodicea, (2) Nymphas in particular, and (3) the church in Nymphas’s house. According to the structure of Colossians 4:15, it seems evident that the first greeting included all the believers in Laodicea (a neighboring church to Colosse), who would comprise the entire church in Laodicea (called “the church of the Laodiceans” in Col 4:16), and that the second and third greetings were to a specific individual (Nymphas) in the church in Laodicea and a church meeting in Nymphas’s house. This church meeting in Nymphas’s house would probably be one of several home meetings—all part of the one local church in Laodicea.<\/p>\n<p>There is a textual problem in this passage that could have some effect on the interpretation of it. Some manuscripts read “his house”; others read “her house”; still others read “their house.” Because it cannot be determined from the Greek text whether Nymphas was male or female, various scribes used different pronouns before “house.” Between the readings “her” and “his,” it is far more likely that the pronoun “her” was changed to “his” than vice versa. Some scholars say that “their” refers to “the brothers” at Laodicea. But that does not make sense if we understand that “the brothers in Laodicea” is equal to the church in Laodicea. How could the church in Laodicea have the church in their house? Other scholars indicate that the Greek word for “their” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">auton<\/span><em>)<\/em> refers to the ones with Nymphas—i.e., the members of his household. Whether the reading was “her house” or “their house,” a particular group of believers within the church of Laodicea met there. Their meeting could legitimately be called an <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span>—an assembling together.<\/p>\n<h4>Philemon 1:1-2<\/h4>\n<p>This is the last time in the NT we read about a church in a particular home. Paul wrote a short epistle to Philemon, an elder of the church in Colosse, on behalf of Onesimus, Philemon’s runaway slave converted by Paul to Christ. In his introduction to this short epistle, Paul sends his greetings to Philemon, Apphia, Archippus, and the church in Philemon’s house. It is important to note that Paul did not send greetings to all the saints in Colosse and then to the church in Philemon’s house (as is the pattern in 1 Cor 16:19-20 and Col 4:15); instead, he just sent greetings to Philemon and to the church in his house. Therefore, we can assume that the entire church in Colosse must have met at Philemon’s house.<\/p>\n<h4>Worship in the Home Meetings and Church Meetings<\/h4>\n<p>When the church first began in Jerusalem, the believers met in homes for fellowship and worship. Acts 2:42-47 tells us that the early Christians met in homes to hear the apostles’ teachings and to celebrate Communion (which is called “the breaking of bread”). During such gatherings, the Christians often shared meals with one another in what was called a love feast (2 Pt 2:13; Jude 1:12). At these meetings, the Christians recited Scripture, sang hymns and psalms, and joyfully praised the Lord (see Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16-17). Christians also gathered together in homes to pray (Acts 12:12) and read the Word.<\/p>\n<p>Small groups of believers met in homes for worship quite regularly; in a city where there were several such <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span><em>,<\/em> all the believers would gather together for special occasions. Scripture tells us that all the believers would come together to hear an epistle from the apostles read out loud (see Acts 15:30; Col 4:16), and we can surmise from the NT record that all the Christians in a city met together once a week on Sunday, which was called the Lord’s Day. First Corinthians provides several insights about how the early Christians worshiped together when all the believers in one city met together. We know that 1 Corinthians pertains to this larger gathering because in 11:20 Paul spoke of all the believers coming together in one place and in 14:23 he spoke of the whole church coming together in one place.<\/p>\n<p>Paul used this epistle to correct the Corinthians’ behavior in the celebration of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:17-34) and in the exercising of spiritual gifts during church meetings (ch 14). Paul’s adjustments reveal his perceptions of a model Christian meeting, and his preceptions were probably developed from actual experience in other church meetings. Paul urged the Corinthians to celebrate the Lord’s Supper together in a manner that reflected Jesus’ institution of that meal. They were to remember the Lord and his death for them, and they were to partake of the bread and wine with all seriousness. At the same time, they were to be conscious of the fact that they were members of the same body of Christ—joined to one another, and also to Christ.<\/p>\n<p>According to Paul’s presentation in chapter 14, this “body consciousness” should be evident in the way the believers worshiped together. One’s personal experience and liberty should not hinder the coordination of the body in worshiping God corporately. Thus, when the believers exercised their spiritual gifts—whether it be prophesying, speaking in tongues, providing interpretations of the tongues, or teaching—it should be done in good order and for the edification of the congregation, not personal edification. When all the church assembled together to worship God, it should be a display of spiritual unity.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Church.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CHURCH MEETINGS The assembling together of the believers. In the NT, the Greek word ekklesia (usually translated “church”) is used primarily in two ways: (1) to describe a meeting or an assembly, and (2) to designate the people who participate in such assembling together—whether they are actually assembled or not. The NT contains a few places that speak of a secular Greek assembly (Acts 19:32, 41); every other instance speaks of a Christian assembly. Sometimes the word ekklesia is used to des...","summary_en":"CHURCH MEETINGS The assembling together of the believers. In the NT, the Greek word ekklesia (usually translated “church”) is used primarily in two ways: (1) to describe a meeting or an assembly, and (2) to designate the people who participate in such assembling together—whether they are actually assembled or not. The NT contains a few places that speak of a secular Greek assembly (Acts 19:32, 41); every other instance speaks of a Christian assembly. Sometimes the word ekklesia is used to des...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29242,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Paul, the Apostle","title_en":"Paul, the Apostle","content_ro":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","summary_en":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"19":[{"id":9293,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Demon-Possession","title_en":"Demon-Possession","content_ro":"<h3>DEMON-POSSESSION<\/h3>\n<p>Demonic occupation of a human being. The term “possession” is misleading and is not the best translation for the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">daimonizomai<\/span><em>,<\/em> which literally means to be “demonized” and can often best be translated as “to have a demon.” The noun form is “demoniac.”<\/p>\n<p>Demons can enter the body of a person (Lk 8:30; 22:3), in order to control the individual’s thoughts and actions. Sometimes a distinction is made between demonic oppression and demonic possession; this supposedly differentiates an attack from without and control from within. Although a non-Christian may be said to be “possessed” by a demon, the Christian cannot be so possessed, for he belongs to Christ and his human spirit has been sealed by the Holy Spirit (Eph 1:13). Demonic spirits somehow know and acknowledge this seal.<\/p>\n<p>Demons can also enter the bodies of animals, as in the case of the swine in Mark 5:13. Demons are associated with books of magic (Acts 19:19), idols (1 Cor 10:19-21), and fetishes. Demons often cause illness or physical disability; Luke 13:11 tells of a woman who had “been crippled by an evil spirit” for 18 years but was delivered and healed by Jesus. Since evil spirits often attack the mind and the emotions, many symptoms of mental illness may be attributed to their activity. The boy whom Jesus delivered just after the Transfiguration exhibited symptoms of epilepsy. Paranoia may be the work of a spirit of fear. Some individuals suffering from schizophrenia (split or multiple personality) may in reality be demonized by a number of spirits. It is possible for a person to have many demons. Jesus cast seven of them out of Mary Magdalene (Lk 8:2). The spirit in the Gerasene demoniac gave his name as Legion, “for we are many” (Mk 5:9; Lk 8:30). In the time of Augustus a Roman legion consisted of 6,000 foot soldiers, usually accompanied by an equal number of auxiliary troops.<\/p>\n<p>Demonization occurs in various ways. Some people are demonized by a hereditary curse, which may continue to the third or fourth generation (Ex 20:5). The curse against illegitimacy was particularly strong, for the bastard could not enter the congregation of Israel until the tenth generation (Dt 23:2). Curses may also be placed upon someone by spells, incantations, or similar practices such as voodoo or other forms of witchcraft. Galatians 3:13 speaks of redemption from the curse of the law through Christ’s having “become a curse” for us. Usually believers are immune from curses made against them, unless they have given grounds to the devil (Eph 4:27). Such grounds may be provided through drugs, illicit sex, the occult, or any other avenue forbidden in the Bible. Involvement with tarot cards, horoscopes, or any other form of fortune-telling may give demons opportunity to enter. Such contacts may seem innocuous, but Satan utilizes the smallest foothold to gain advantage over people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Manifestation\">Manifestation<\/p>\n<p>Often demons prefer to hide rather than to make their presence known, for then they can exercise control without hindrance. When they do manifest themselves, often when challenged, all sorts of strange and frightening things may occur. They possess supernatural powers (cf. Rv 16:14), which they exhibit outright or through their victims. The Gerasene demoniac had superhuman physical strength, so that he could not be bound with fetters or chains (Mk 5:4-5); he lived in tombs and went about night and day screaming and injuring himself with stones.<\/p>\n<p>The spirit in the demonized boy in Mark 9 rendered him dumb and deaf, threw him on the ground, and caused him to roll about and to foam at the mouth (9:18-20). The demon caused him to grind his teeth and become rigid; he had tried to kill the boy by throwing him into the fire and into the water on various occasions (vv 18-22). Before leaving at the command of Jesus, the demon cried out (cf. Mk 1:26), convulsed the boy terribly, and left him lying like a corpse. Jesus took him by the hand and raised him up (9:27). Similar manifestations take place today.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Exorcism\">Exorcism<\/p>\n<p>Casting out demons, or exorcism, was a regular and frequent part of the ministry of Jesus, and he taught and commanded his followers to do the same. This command has never been abrogated, and the ministry of deliverance should be even more important today, when the forces of evil are so rampant. The following principles are derived from the practice of Jesus, the Scriptures, and personal observation and involvement.<\/p>\n<p>1. Jesus spoke to demons and commanded them to come out (Mk 1:25; 9:25). He cast them out “with a word” (Mt 8:16). Jesus gave his followers authority to use his name in casting them out and used this as a sign of the believer (Mk 16:17). His name is not a magical formula, and its use depends on the relationship between the Lord and the person using his name, as the sons of Sceva found out to their dismay (Acts 19:11-18).<\/p>\n<li>2. Jesus cast out demons by the Spirit of God (Mt 12:28). God anointed Jesus of Nazareth with the Holy Spirit and with power to heal all who were oppressed by the devil (Lk 4:18-19; Acts 10:38).<\/li>\n<li>3. The Lord gave clear teaching about “the binding of the strong man” in deliverance (Mt 12:29; Mk 3:27) and about binding and loosing (Mt 18:18).<\/li>\n<li>4. Prayer is an important weapon in spiritual warfare. When the disciples asked (Mk 9:28) why they could not cast out a demon, Jesus replied that this kind comes out only with prayer.<\/li>\n<li>5. Revelation 12:11 testifies to the power of “the blood of the Lamb” in overcoming Satan. Demons do not like to hear of the blood of Jesus and often become agitated at the mention of it.<\/li>\n<li>6. God has equipped the believer with armor for defense in spiritual battle (Eph 6:10-17).<\/li>\n<li>7. The Lord answered Satan with correctly applied texts from the Bible. We have been given the sword of the Spirit, the Word of God (Eph 6:17; Heb 4:12), as a means of defense and for attack against the enemy.<\/li>\n<li>8. We must come against the hosts of hell from our position in the heavenly places (Eph 2:6), not from our limited earthly station.<\/li>\n<li>9. We must recognize that the ultimate victory has already been won by Jesus, who came to destroy the works of the devil (1 Jn 3:8) and to destroy him who has the power of death (Heb 2:14-16). When Jesus cried out on the cross, “It is finished,” he meant that the redemptive work was done; when he arose from the dead, he demonstrated his power over death. We win only as we enter into his victory.<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Demon.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DEMON-POSSESSION<\/h3>\n<p>Demonic occupation of a human being. The term “possession” is misleading and is not the best translation for the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">daimonizomai<\/span><em>,<\/em> which literally means to be “demonized” and can often best be translated as “to have a demon.” The noun form is “demoniac.”<\/p>\n<p>Demons can enter the body of a person (Lk 8:30; 22:3), in order to control the individual’s thoughts and actions. Sometimes a distinction is made between demonic oppression and demonic possession; this supposedly differentiates an attack from without and control from within. Although a non-Christian may be said to be “possessed” by a demon, the Christian cannot be so possessed, for he belongs to Christ and his human spirit has been sealed by the Holy Spirit (Eph 1:13). Demonic spirits somehow know and acknowledge this seal.<\/p>\n<p>Demons can also enter the bodies of animals, as in the case of the swine in Mark 5:13. Demons are associated with books of magic (Acts 19:19), idols (1 Cor 10:19-21), and fetishes. Demons often cause illness or physical disability; Luke 13:11 tells of a woman who had “been crippled by an evil spirit” for 18 years but was delivered and healed by Jesus. Since evil spirits often attack the mind and the emotions, many symptoms of mental illness may be attributed to their activity. The boy whom Jesus delivered just after the Transfiguration exhibited symptoms of epilepsy. Paranoia may be the work of a spirit of fear. Some individuals suffering from schizophrenia (split or multiple personality) may in reality be demonized by a number of spirits. It is possible for a person to have many demons. Jesus cast seven of them out of Mary Magdalene (Lk 8:2). The spirit in the Gerasene demoniac gave his name as Legion, “for we are many” (Mk 5:9; Lk 8:30). In the time of Augustus a Roman legion consisted of 6,000 foot soldiers, usually accompanied by an equal number of auxiliary troops.<\/p>\n<p>Demonization occurs in various ways. Some people are demonized by a hereditary curse, which may continue to the third or fourth generation (Ex 20:5). The curse against illegitimacy was particularly strong, for the bastard could not enter the congregation of Israel until the tenth generation (Dt 23:2). Curses may also be placed upon someone by spells, incantations, or similar practices such as voodoo or other forms of witchcraft. Galatians 3:13 speaks of redemption from the curse of the law through Christ’s having “become a curse” for us. Usually believers are immune from curses made against them, unless they have given grounds to the devil (Eph 4:27). Such grounds may be provided through drugs, illicit sex, the occult, or any other avenue forbidden in the Bible. Involvement with tarot cards, horoscopes, or any other form of fortune-telling may give demons opportunity to enter. Such contacts may seem innocuous, but Satan utilizes the smallest foothold to gain advantage over people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Manifestation\">Manifestation<\/p>\n<p>Often demons prefer to hide rather than to make their presence known, for then they can exercise control without hindrance. When they do manifest themselves, often when challenged, all sorts of strange and frightening things may occur. They possess supernatural powers (cf. Rv 16:14), which they exhibit outright or through their victims. The Gerasene demoniac had superhuman physical strength, so that he could not be bound with fetters or chains (Mk 5:4-5); he lived in tombs and went about night and day screaming and injuring himself with stones.<\/p>\n<p>The spirit in the demonized boy in Mark 9 rendered him dumb and deaf, threw him on the ground, and caused him to roll about and to foam at the mouth (9:18-20). The demon caused him to grind his teeth and become rigid; he had tried to kill the boy by throwing him into the fire and into the water on various occasions (vv 18-22). Before leaving at the command of Jesus, the demon cried out (cf. Mk 1:26), convulsed the boy terribly, and left him lying like a corpse. Jesus took him by the hand and raised him up (9:27). Similar manifestations take place today.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Exorcism\">Exorcism<\/p>\n<p>Casting out demons, or exorcism, was a regular and frequent part of the ministry of Jesus, and he taught and commanded his followers to do the same. This command has never been abrogated, and the ministry of deliverance should be even more important today, when the forces of evil are so rampant. The following principles are derived from the practice of Jesus, the Scriptures, and personal observation and involvement.<\/p>\n<p>1. Jesus spoke to demons and commanded them to come out (Mk 1:25; 9:25). He cast them out “with a word” (Mt 8:16). Jesus gave his followers authority to use his name in casting them out and used this as a sign of the believer (Mk 16:17). His name is not a magical formula, and its use depends on the relationship between the Lord and the person using his name, as the sons of Sceva found out to their dismay (Acts 19:11-18).<\/p>\n<li>2. Jesus cast out demons by the Spirit of God (Mt 12:28). God anointed Jesus of Nazareth with the Holy Spirit and with power to heal all who were oppressed by the devil (Lk 4:18-19; Acts 10:38).<\/li>\n<li>3. The Lord gave clear teaching about “the binding of the strong man” in deliverance (Mt 12:29; Mk 3:27) and about binding and loosing (Mt 18:18).<\/li>\n<li>4. Prayer is an important weapon in spiritual warfare. When the disciples asked (Mk 9:28) why they could not cast out a demon, Jesus replied that this kind comes out only with prayer.<\/li>\n<li>5. Revelation 12:11 testifies to the power of “the blood of the Lamb” in overcoming Satan. Demons do not like to hear of the blood of Jesus and often become agitated at the mention of it.<\/li>\n<li>6. God has equipped the believer with armor for defense in spiritual battle (Eph 6:10-17).<\/li>\n<li>7. The Lord answered Satan with correctly applied texts from the Bible. We have been given the sword of the Spirit, the Word of God (Eph 6:17; Heb 4:12), as a means of defense and for attack against the enemy.<\/li>\n<li>8. We must come against the hosts of hell from our position in the heavenly places (Eph 2:6), not from our limited earthly station.<\/li>\n<li>9. We must recognize that the ultimate victory has already been won by Jesus, who came to destroy the works of the devil (1 Jn 3:8) and to destroy him who has the power of death (Heb 2:14-16). When Jesus cried out on the cross, “It is finished,” he meant that the redemptive work was done; when he arose from the dead, he demonstrated his power over death. We win only as we enter into his victory.<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Demon.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DEMON-POSSESSION Demonic occupation of a human being. The term “possession” is misleading and is not the best translation for the Greek word daimonizomai, which literally means to be “demonized” and can often best be translated as “to have a demon.” The noun form is “demoniac.” Demons can enter the body of a person (Lk 8:30; 22:3), in order to control the individual’s thoughts and actions. Sometimes a distinction is made between demonic oppression and demonic possession; this supposedly diffe...","summary_en":"DEMON-POSSESSION Demonic occupation of a human being. The term “possession” is misleading and is not the best translation for the Greek word daimonizomai, which literally means to be “demonized” and can often best be translated as “to have a demon.” The noun form is “demoniac.” Demons can enter the body of a person (Lk 8:30; 22:3), in order to control the individual’s thoughts and actions. Sometimes a distinction is made between demonic oppression and demonic possession; this supposedly diffe...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"20":[{"id":57052,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:20","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:20<\/strong> Luke’s summary of the success of the Good News in Ephesus is short but pungent (cp. 2:43-47; 5:14; 6:7; 9:31; 12:24; 16:5; see Rom 1:16). When the Christian faith overcame problems of internal dissension, idolatry, and pagan practices, it <em>spread widely<\/em> and grew rapidly.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:20<\/strong> Luke’s summary of the success of the Good News in Ephesus is short but pungent (cp. 2:43-47; 5:14; 6:7; 9:31; 12:24; 16:5; see Rom 1:16). When the Christian faith overcame problems of internal dissension, idolatry, and pagan practices, it <em>spread widely<\/em> and grew rapidly.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:20 Luke’s summary of the success of the Good News in Ephesus is short but pungent (cp. 2:43-47; 5:14; 6:7; 9:31; 12:24; 16:5; see Rom 1:16). When the Christian faith overcame problems of internal dissension, idolatry, and pagan practices, it spread widely and grew rapidly.","summary_en":"19:20 Luke’s summary of the success of the Good News in Ephesus is short but pungent (cp. 2:43-47; 5:14; 6:7; 9:31; 12:24; 16:5; see Rom 1:16). When the Christian faith overcame problems of internal dissension, idolatry, and pagan practices, it spread widely and grew rapidly.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84678,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:20","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:20<\/strong> Luke’s summary of the success of the Good News in Ephesus is short but pungent (cp. 2:43-47; 5:14; 6:7; 9:31; 12:24; 16:5; see Rom 1:16). When the Christian faith overcame problems of internal dissension, idolatry, and pagan practices, it <em>spread widely<\/em> and grew rapidly.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:20<\/strong> Luke’s summary of the success of the Good News in Ephesus is short but pungent (cp. 2:43-47; 5:14; 6:7; 9:31; 12:24; 16:5; see Rom 1:16). When the Christian faith overcame problems of internal dissension, idolatry, and pagan practices, it <em>spread widely<\/em> and grew rapidly.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:20 Luke’s summary of the success of the Good News in Ephesus is short but pungent (cp. 2:43-47; 5:14; 6:7; 9:31; 12:24; 16:5; see Rom 1:16). When the Christian faith overcame problems of internal dissension, idolatry, and pagan practices, it spread widely and grew rapidly.","summary_en":"19:20 Luke’s summary of the success of the Good News in Ephesus is short but pungent (cp. 2:43-47; 5:14; 6:7; 9:31; 12:24; 16:5; see Rom 1:16). When the Christian faith overcame problems of internal dissension, idolatry, and pagan practices, it spread widely and grew rapidly.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112304,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:20","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:20<\/strong> Luke’s summary of the success of the Good News in Ephesus is short but pungent (cp. 2:43-47; 5:14; 6:7; 9:31; 12:24; 16:5; see Rom 1:16). When the Christian faith overcame problems of internal dissension, idolatry, and pagan practices, it <em>spread widely<\/em> and grew rapidly.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:20<\/strong> Luke’s summary of the success of the Good News in Ephesus is short but pungent (cp. 2:43-47; 5:14; 6:7; 9:31; 12:24; 16:5; see Rom 1:16). When the Christian faith overcame problems of internal dissension, idolatry, and pagan practices, it <em>spread widely<\/em> and grew rapidly.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:20 Luke’s summary of the success of the Good News in Ephesus is short but pungent (cp. 2:43-47; 5:14; 6:7; 9:31; 12:24; 16:5; see Rom 1:16). When the Christian faith overcame problems of internal dissension, idolatry, and pagan practices, it spread widely and grew rapidly.","summary_en":"19:20 Luke’s summary of the success of the Good News in Ephesus is short but pungent (cp. 2:43-47; 5:14; 6:7; 9:31; 12:24; 16:5; see Rom 1:16). When the Christian faith overcame problems of internal dissension, idolatry, and pagan practices, it spread widely and grew rapidly.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139930,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:20","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:20<\/strong> Luke’s summary of the success of the Good News in Ephesus is short but pungent (cp. 2:43-47; 5:14; 6:7; 9:31; 12:24; 16:5; see Rom 1:16). When the Christian faith overcame problems of internal dissension, idolatry, and pagan practices, it <em>spread widely<\/em> and grew rapidly.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:20<\/strong> Luke’s summary of the success of the Good News in Ephesus is short but pungent (cp. 2:43-47; 5:14; 6:7; 9:31; 12:24; 16:5; see Rom 1:16). When the Christian faith overcame problems of internal dissension, idolatry, and pagan practices, it <em>spread widely<\/em> and grew rapidly.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:20 Luke’s summary of the success of the Good News in Ephesus is short but pungent (cp. 2:43-47; 5:14; 6:7; 9:31; 12:24; 16:5; see Rom 1:16). When the Christian faith overcame problems of internal dissension, idolatry, and pagan practices, it spread widely and grew rapidly.","summary_en":"19:20 Luke’s summary of the success of the Good News in Ephesus is short but pungent (cp. 2:43-47; 5:14; 6:7; 9:31; 12:24; 16:5; see Rom 1:16). When the Christian faith overcame problems of internal dissension, idolatry, and pagan practices, it spread widely and grew rapidly.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"21":[{"id":42701,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rome","title_en":"Rome","content_ro":"<h3>Rome<\/h3>\n<p>In the first century <span>AD<\/span> Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\n<p>The Founding and Early Growth of Rome<\/p>\n<p>Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 <span>BC<\/span> on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate.<\/p>\n<p>Around 600 <span>BC<\/span> the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous works, including the forum, which became the social, commercial, and political center for the city, and a temple for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Rome was now linked by roads to the Etruscans in the north, to the Greek trading cities in the south, to the sea to the west, and to the inland highlands to the east.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman Republic<\/p>\n<p>When Rome’s kings became autocratic, the Latin population rebelled. In 509 <span>BC<\/span>, Rome established a “republic,” an oligarchy of the powerful families who controlled the Senate. The small city-state steadily gained control of the region, expanding their influence across the Mediterranean. In 273 <span>BC<\/span> they made a treaty with the Ptolemies of Egypt. They expanded into North Africa, defeating the rival city-state Carthage in the course of the three Punic Wars (264–146 <span>BC<\/span>), and pressed on into Spain. Rome’s many conquests brought enormous wealth.<\/p>\n<p>With geographical expansion came social changes in Italy. Between 200 and 100 <span>BC<\/span>, rich landowners bought out small independent farmers, who subsequently drifted into Rome, landless and unemployed. Huge, overcrowded slums appeared alongside the vast wealth and magnificent buildings. The foundations of the republic were cracking under the strain of popular discontent.<\/p>\n<p>The Beginning of the Empire: Julius and Octavian<\/p>\n<p>During this time of social and political upheaval, Julius Caesar pursued an ambitious and tumultuous career which sought to centralize power in his own person. Senators who favored the old republic assassinated him in 44 <span>BC<\/span>, but their action ultimately backfired: Julius’s grandnephew and heir, Octavian, became a senator, consul, and the commander-in-chief in 43 <span>BC<\/span> with the support of the Senate. The Senate also deified Julius in 42 <span>BC<\/span>. After Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 <span>BC<\/span> and took control of Egypt, the Senate gave him the titles Augustus (“illustrious”) and Princeps (“first citizen”) in 27 <span>BC<\/span>, and Octavian began to call himself “son of a god” because of Julius’s divine status. The form of a republic survived, but the reality of a divine emperor had arrived.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the Birth of the Church<\/p>\n<p>“When the right time came, God sent his Son” (Gal 4:4). The change into an empire brought peace and stability, a <em>pax Romana<\/em> (“Roman peace”) that lasted well into the 100s <span>AD<\/span>. Many observers have noted that Roman rule during the first century <span>AD<\/span> provided the ideal setting for the spread of Christianity. The borders were secure and the roads were good, making travel relatively trouble-free. Roman laws and customs protected the rights of its citizens (see, e.g., Acts 16:35-40; 22:24-29). Judaism was protected, and the Romans viewed Christianity as a sect within Judaism (see, e.g., Acts 25:13-19). As a result, the Romans largely rejected complaints against Christians on religious grounds (see, e.g., Acts 19:23-41). Christians were free to proclaim the Good News about Jesus, and many people of all nationalities became followers of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The Changing Status of Christianity<\/p>\n<p>This favorable situation began to change in the time of Nero. Nero blamed Christians for the fire that destroyed a good part of Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 64, and he proceeded with the first large-scale persecution of Christians. The overt persecution ceased in <span>AD<\/span> 66, but Christianity was no longer viewed as a sect of Judaism and lost its protected status. It later became imperial policy to require people to burn incense to the emperor—those who refused were usually either Jews (who were protected) or Christians (who were not). As a result, from the time of Domitian (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) to Galerius (<span>AD<\/span> 305–311), Christianity was officially illegal, punishable by death, and persecuted to varying extents depending on the zeal of those in power. Thus for over two hundred years Rome drank “the blood of God’s holy people who were witnesses for Jesus” (Rev 17:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:1-7, 15; 2 Tim 1:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rome<\/h3>\n<p>In the first century <span>AD<\/span> Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\n<p>The Founding and Early Growth of Rome<\/p>\n<p>Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 <span>BC<\/span> on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate.<\/p>\n<p>Around 600 <span>BC<\/span> the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous works, including the forum, which became the social, commercial, and political center for the city, and a temple for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Rome was now linked by roads to the Etruscans in the north, to the Greek trading cities in the south, to the sea to the west, and to the inland highlands to the east.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman Republic<\/p>\n<p>When Rome’s kings became autocratic, the Latin population rebelled. In 509 <span>BC<\/span>, Rome established a “republic,” an oligarchy of the powerful families who controlled the Senate. The small city-state steadily gained control of the region, expanding their influence across the Mediterranean. In 273 <span>BC<\/span> they made a treaty with the Ptolemies of Egypt. They expanded into North Africa, defeating the rival city-state Carthage in the course of the three Punic Wars (264–146 <span>BC<\/span>), and pressed on into Spain. Rome’s many conquests brought enormous wealth.<\/p>\n<p>With geographical expansion came social changes in Italy. Between 200 and 100 <span>BC<\/span>, rich landowners bought out small independent farmers, who subsequently drifted into Rome, landless and unemployed. Huge, overcrowded slums appeared alongside the vast wealth and magnificent buildings. The foundations of the republic were cracking under the strain of popular discontent.<\/p>\n<p>The Beginning of the Empire: Julius and Octavian<\/p>\n<p>During this time of social and political upheaval, Julius Caesar pursued an ambitious and tumultuous career which sought to centralize power in his own person. Senators who favored the old republic assassinated him in 44 <span>BC<\/span>, but their action ultimately backfired: Julius’s grandnephew and heir, Octavian, became a senator, consul, and the commander-in-chief in 43 <span>BC<\/span> with the support of the Senate. The Senate also deified Julius in 42 <span>BC<\/span>. After Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 <span>BC<\/span> and took control of Egypt, the Senate gave him the titles Augustus (“illustrious”) and Princeps (“first citizen”) in 27 <span>BC<\/span>, and Octavian began to call himself “son of a god” because of Julius’s divine status. The form of a republic survived, but the reality of a divine emperor had arrived.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the Birth of the Church<\/p>\n<p>“When the right time came, God sent his Son” (Gal 4:4). The change into an empire brought peace and stability, a <em>pax Romana<\/em> (“Roman peace”) that lasted well into the 100s <span>AD<\/span>. Many observers have noted that Roman rule during the first century <span>AD<\/span> provided the ideal setting for the spread of Christianity. The borders were secure and the roads were good, making travel relatively trouble-free. Roman laws and customs protected the rights of its citizens (see, e.g., Acts 16:35-40; 22:24-29). Judaism was protected, and the Romans viewed Christianity as a sect within Judaism (see, e.g., Acts 25:13-19). As a result, the Romans largely rejected complaints against Christians on religious grounds (see, e.g., Acts 19:23-41). Christians were free to proclaim the Good News about Jesus, and many people of all nationalities became followers of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The Changing Status of Christianity<\/p>\n<p>This favorable situation began to change in the time of Nero. Nero blamed Christians for the fire that destroyed a good part of Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 64, and he proceeded with the first large-scale persecution of Christians. The overt persecution ceased in <span>AD<\/span> 66, but Christianity was no longer viewed as a sect of Judaism and lost its protected status. It later became imperial policy to require people to burn incense to the emperor—those who refused were usually either Jews (who were protected) or Christians (who were not). As a result, from the time of Domitian (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) to Galerius (<span>AD<\/span> 305–311), Christianity was officially illegal, punishable by death, and persecuted to varying extents depending on the zeal of those in power. Thus for over two hundred years Rome drank “the blood of God’s holy people who were witnesses for Jesus” (Rev 17:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:1-7, 15; 2 Tim 1:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rome In the first century AD Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world. The Founding and Early Growth of Rome Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 BC on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate. Around 600 BC the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous ...","summary_en":"Rome In the first century AD Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world. The Founding and Early Growth of Rome Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 BC on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate. Around 600 BC the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":42716,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"The Roman Church","title_en":"The Roman Church","content_ro":"<h3>The Roman Church<\/h3>\n<p>The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Peter founded the Roman church or that he was present in Rome by the time Paul wrote to the Roman Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 57; otherwise, Paul would certainly have greeted him. Consequently, Paul wrote this letter to help ensure that the Roman church had apostolic involvement in their faith. He never wrote to the churches of Judea, founded by the other apostles, but only to churches that either he had founded (e.g., Corinth, Galatia) or to those that had no direct apostolic involvement (e.g., Colosse, Rome).<\/p>\n<p>In time, the Jewish Christians in Rome would have been pushed out of the synagogues by the non-Christian Jews, as happened elsewhere. By the time Paul wrote to the Roman church, they were meeting as separate house churches in private homes (Rom 16:5, 10-11, 15). There were no centralized edifices, and it is uncertain whether the whole body of believers in Rome met together.<\/p>\n<p>When Claudius expelled the Jews from Rome (around <span>AD<\/span> 49), the Jewish Christians were also forced to leave, among whom were Priscilla and Aquila (Acts 18:2). In the absence of the Jews, the Roman church would have become Gentile in character. When the Jews returned (probably shortly after the death of Claudius in <span>AD<\/span> 54), there were no doubt questions—if not conflicts—among the Jewish and Gentile Christians. Paul may have written Romans to settle such controversies among this mixed group of Jews and Gentiles worshiping Christ in the same city.<\/p>\n<p>As is evident from Romans 16, Paul already had many friends in the Roman church. In the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 60, roughly two years after writing Romans, Paul had the opportunity to go to Rome—a desire he had repeatedly expressed (Acts 19:21; Rom 1:13-15). He spent two years there under house arrest awaiting his first trial before Nero, “boldly proclaiming the Kingdom of God and teaching about the Lord Jesus Christ” (Acts 28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 28:15-31; Rom 1:13-15; 16:1-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Roman Church<\/h3>\n<p>The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Peter founded the Roman church or that he was present in Rome by the time Paul wrote to the Roman Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 57; otherwise, Paul would certainly have greeted him. Consequently, Paul wrote this letter to help ensure that the Roman church had apostolic involvement in their faith. He never wrote to the churches of Judea, founded by the other apostles, but only to churches that either he had founded (e.g., Corinth, Galatia) or to those that had no direct apostolic involvement (e.g., Colosse, Rome).<\/p>\n<p>In time, the Jewish Christians in Rome would have been pushed out of the synagogues by the non-Christian Jews, as happened elsewhere. By the time Paul wrote to the Roman church, they were meeting as separate house churches in private homes (Rom 16:5, 10-11, 15). There were no centralized edifices, and it is uncertain whether the whole body of believers in Rome met together.<\/p>\n<p>When Claudius expelled the Jews from Rome (around <span>AD<\/span> 49), the Jewish Christians were also forced to leave, among whom were Priscilla and Aquila (Acts 18:2). In the absence of the Jews, the Roman church would have become Gentile in character. When the Jews returned (probably shortly after the death of Claudius in <span>AD<\/span> 54), there were no doubt questions—if not conflicts—among the Jewish and Gentile Christians. Paul may have written Romans to settle such controversies among this mixed group of Jews and Gentiles worshiping Christ in the same city.<\/p>\n<p>As is evident from Romans 16, Paul already had many friends in the Roman church. In the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 60, roughly two years after writing Romans, Paul had the opportunity to go to Rome—a desire he had repeatedly expressed (Acts 19:21; Rom 1:13-15). He spent two years there under house arrest awaiting his first trial before Nero, “boldly proclaiming the Kingdom of God and teaching about the Lord Jesus Christ” (Acts 28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 28:15-31; Rom 1:13-15; 16:1-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Roman Church The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Pete...","summary_en":"The Roman Church The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Pete...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70327,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rome","title_en":"Rome","content_ro":"<h3>Rome<\/h3>\n<p>In the first century <span>AD<\/span> Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\n<p>The Founding and Early Growth of Rome<\/p>\n<p>Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 <span>BC<\/span> on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate.<\/p>\n<p>Around 600 <span>BC<\/span> the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous works, including the forum, which became the social, commercial, and political center for the city, and a temple for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Rome was now linked by roads to the Etruscans in the north, to the Greek trading cities in the south, to the sea to the west, and to the inland highlands to the east.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman Republic<\/p>\n<p>When Rome’s kings became autocratic, the Latin population rebelled. In 509 <span>BC<\/span>, Rome established a “republic,” an oligarchy of the powerful families who controlled the Senate. The small city-state steadily gained control of the region, expanding their influence across the Mediterranean. In 273 <span>BC<\/span> they made a treaty with the Ptolemies of Egypt. They expanded into North Africa, defeating the rival city-state Carthage in the course of the three Punic Wars (264–146 <span>BC<\/span>), and pressed on into Spain. Rome’s many conquests brought enormous wealth.<\/p>\n<p>With geographical expansion came social changes in Italy. Between 200 and 100 <span>BC<\/span>, rich landowners bought out small independent farmers, who subsequently drifted into Rome, landless and unemployed. Huge, overcrowded slums appeared alongside the vast wealth and magnificent buildings. The foundations of the republic were cracking under the strain of popular discontent.<\/p>\n<p>The Beginning of the Empire: Julius and Octavian<\/p>\n<p>During this time of social and political upheaval, Julius Caesar pursued an ambitious and tumultuous career which sought to centralize power in his own person. Senators who favored the old republic assassinated him in 44 <span>BC<\/span>, but their action ultimately backfired: Julius’s grandnephew and heir, Octavian, became a senator, consul, and the commander-in-chief in 43 <span>BC<\/span> with the support of the Senate. The Senate also deified Julius in 42 <span>BC<\/span>. After Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 <span>BC<\/span> and took control of Egypt, the Senate gave him the titles Augustus (“illustrious”) and Princeps (“first citizen”) in 27 <span>BC<\/span>, and Octavian began to call himself “son of a god” because of Julius’s divine status. The form of a republic survived, but the reality of a divine emperor had arrived.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the Birth of the Church<\/p>\n<p>“When the right time came, God sent his Son” (Gal 4:4). The change into an empire brought peace and stability, a <em>pax Romana<\/em> (“Roman peace”) that lasted well into the 100s <span>AD<\/span>. Many observers have noted that Roman rule during the first century <span>AD<\/span> provided the ideal setting for the spread of Christianity. The borders were secure and the roads were good, making travel relatively trouble-free. Roman laws and customs protected the rights of its citizens (see, e.g., Acts 16:35-40; 22:24-29). Judaism was protected, and the Romans viewed Christianity as a sect within Judaism (see, e.g., Acts 25:13-19). As a result, the Romans largely rejected complaints against Christians on religious grounds (see, e.g., Acts 19:23-41). Christians were free to proclaim the Good News about Jesus, and many people of all nationalities became followers of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The Changing Status of Christianity<\/p>\n<p>This favorable situation began to change in the time of Nero. Nero blamed Christians for the fire that destroyed a good part of Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 64, and he proceeded with the first large-scale persecution of Christians. The overt persecution ceased in <span>AD<\/span> 66, but Christianity was no longer viewed as a sect of Judaism and lost its protected status. It later became imperial policy to require people to burn incense to the emperor—those who refused were usually either Jews (who were protected) or Christians (who were not). As a result, from the time of Domitian (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) to Galerius (<span>AD<\/span> 305–311), Christianity was officially illegal, punishable by death, and persecuted to varying extents depending on the zeal of those in power. Thus for over two hundred years Rome drank “the blood of God’s holy people who were witnesses for Jesus” (Rev 17:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:1-7, 15; 2 Tim 1:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rome<\/h3>\n<p>In the first century <span>AD<\/span> Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\n<p>The Founding and Early Growth of Rome<\/p>\n<p>Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 <span>BC<\/span> on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate.<\/p>\n<p>Around 600 <span>BC<\/span> the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous works, including the forum, which became the social, commercial, and political center for the city, and a temple for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Rome was now linked by roads to the Etruscans in the north, to the Greek trading cities in the south, to the sea to the west, and to the inland highlands to the east.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman Republic<\/p>\n<p>When Rome’s kings became autocratic, the Latin population rebelled. In 509 <span>BC<\/span>, Rome established a “republic,” an oligarchy of the powerful families who controlled the Senate. The small city-state steadily gained control of the region, expanding their influence across the Mediterranean. In 273 <span>BC<\/span> they made a treaty with the Ptolemies of Egypt. They expanded into North Africa, defeating the rival city-state Carthage in the course of the three Punic Wars (264–146 <span>BC<\/span>), and pressed on into Spain. Rome’s many conquests brought enormous wealth.<\/p>\n<p>With geographical expansion came social changes in Italy. Between 200 and 100 <span>BC<\/span>, rich landowners bought out small independent farmers, who subsequently drifted into Rome, landless and unemployed. Huge, overcrowded slums appeared alongside the vast wealth and magnificent buildings. The foundations of the republic were cracking under the strain of popular discontent.<\/p>\n<p>The Beginning of the Empire: Julius and Octavian<\/p>\n<p>During this time of social and political upheaval, Julius Caesar pursued an ambitious and tumultuous career which sought to centralize power in his own person. Senators who favored the old republic assassinated him in 44 <span>BC<\/span>, but their action ultimately backfired: Julius’s grandnephew and heir, Octavian, became a senator, consul, and the commander-in-chief in 43 <span>BC<\/span> with the support of the Senate. The Senate also deified Julius in 42 <span>BC<\/span>. After Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 <span>BC<\/span> and took control of Egypt, the Senate gave him the titles Augustus (“illustrious”) and Princeps (“first citizen”) in 27 <span>BC<\/span>, and Octavian began to call himself “son of a god” because of Julius’s divine status. The form of a republic survived, but the reality of a divine emperor had arrived.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the Birth of the Church<\/p>\n<p>“When the right time came, God sent his Son” (Gal 4:4). The change into an empire brought peace and stability, a <em>pax Romana<\/em> (“Roman peace”) that lasted well into the 100s <span>AD<\/span>. Many observers have noted that Roman rule during the first century <span>AD<\/span> provided the ideal setting for the spread of Christianity. The borders were secure and the roads were good, making travel relatively trouble-free. Roman laws and customs protected the rights of its citizens (see, e.g., Acts 16:35-40; 22:24-29). Judaism was protected, and the Romans viewed Christianity as a sect within Judaism (see, e.g., Acts 25:13-19). As a result, the Romans largely rejected complaints against Christians on religious grounds (see, e.g., Acts 19:23-41). Christians were free to proclaim the Good News about Jesus, and many people of all nationalities became followers of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The Changing Status of Christianity<\/p>\n<p>This favorable situation began to change in the time of Nero. Nero blamed Christians for the fire that destroyed a good part of Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 64, and he proceeded with the first large-scale persecution of Christians. The overt persecution ceased in <span>AD<\/span> 66, but Christianity was no longer viewed as a sect of Judaism and lost its protected status. It later became imperial policy to require people to burn incense to the emperor—those who refused were usually either Jews (who were protected) or Christians (who were not). As a result, from the time of Domitian (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) to Galerius (<span>AD<\/span> 305–311), Christianity was officially illegal, punishable by death, and persecuted to varying extents depending on the zeal of those in power. Thus for over two hundred years Rome drank “the blood of God’s holy people who were witnesses for Jesus” (Rev 17:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:1-7, 15; 2 Tim 1:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rome In the first century AD Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world. The Founding and Early Growth of Rome Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 BC on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate. Around 600 BC the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous ...","summary_en":"Rome In the first century AD Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world. The Founding and Early Growth of Rome Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 BC on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate. Around 600 BC the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70342,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"The Roman Church","title_en":"The Roman Church","content_ro":"<h3>The Roman Church<\/h3>\n<p>The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Peter founded the Roman church or that he was present in Rome by the time Paul wrote to the Roman Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 57; otherwise, Paul would certainly have greeted him. Consequently, Paul wrote this letter to help ensure that the Roman church had apostolic involvement in their faith. He never wrote to the churches of Judea, founded by the other apostles, but only to churches that either he had founded (e.g., Corinth, Galatia) or to those that had no direct apostolic involvement (e.g., Colosse, Rome).<\/p>\n<p>In time, the Jewish Christians in Rome would have been pushed out of the synagogues by the non-Christian Jews, as happened elsewhere. By the time Paul wrote to the Roman church, they were meeting as separate house churches in private homes (Rom 16:5, 10-11, 15). There were no centralized edifices, and it is uncertain whether the whole body of believers in Rome met together.<\/p>\n<p>When Claudius expelled the Jews from Rome (around <span>AD<\/span> 49), the Jewish Christians were also forced to leave, among whom were Priscilla and Aquila (Acts 18:2). In the absence of the Jews, the Roman church would have become Gentile in character. When the Jews returned (probably shortly after the death of Claudius in <span>AD<\/span> 54), there were no doubt questions—if not conflicts—among the Jewish and Gentile Christians. Paul may have written Romans to settle such controversies among this mixed group of Jews and Gentiles worshiping Christ in the same city.<\/p>\n<p>As is evident from Romans 16, Paul already had many friends in the Roman church. In the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 60, roughly two years after writing Romans, Paul had the opportunity to go to Rome—a desire he had repeatedly expressed (Acts 19:21; Rom 1:13-15). He spent two years there under house arrest awaiting his first trial before Nero, “boldly proclaiming the Kingdom of God and teaching about the Lord Jesus Christ” (Acts 28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 28:15-31; Rom 1:13-15; 16:1-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Roman Church<\/h3>\n<p>The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Peter founded the Roman church or that he was present in Rome by the time Paul wrote to the Roman Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 57; otherwise, Paul would certainly have greeted him. Consequently, Paul wrote this letter to help ensure that the Roman church had apostolic involvement in their faith. He never wrote to the churches of Judea, founded by the other apostles, but only to churches that either he had founded (e.g., Corinth, Galatia) or to those that had no direct apostolic involvement (e.g., Colosse, Rome).<\/p>\n<p>In time, the Jewish Christians in Rome would have been pushed out of the synagogues by the non-Christian Jews, as happened elsewhere. By the time Paul wrote to the Roman church, they were meeting as separate house churches in private homes (Rom 16:5, 10-11, 15). There were no centralized edifices, and it is uncertain whether the whole body of believers in Rome met together.<\/p>\n<p>When Claudius expelled the Jews from Rome (around <span>AD<\/span> 49), the Jewish Christians were also forced to leave, among whom were Priscilla and Aquila (Acts 18:2). In the absence of the Jews, the Roman church would have become Gentile in character. When the Jews returned (probably shortly after the death of Claudius in <span>AD<\/span> 54), there were no doubt questions—if not conflicts—among the Jewish and Gentile Christians. Paul may have written Romans to settle such controversies among this mixed group of Jews and Gentiles worshiping Christ in the same city.<\/p>\n<p>As is evident from Romans 16, Paul already had many friends in the Roman church. In the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 60, roughly two years after writing Romans, Paul had the opportunity to go to Rome—a desire he had repeatedly expressed (Acts 19:21; Rom 1:13-15). He spent two years there under house arrest awaiting his first trial before Nero, “boldly proclaiming the Kingdom of God and teaching about the Lord Jesus Christ” (Acts 28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 28:15-31; Rom 1:13-15; 16:1-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Roman Church The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Pete...","summary_en":"The Roman Church The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Pete...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97953,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rome","title_en":"Rome","content_ro":"<h3>Rome<\/h3>\n<p>In the first century <span>AD<\/span> Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\n<p>The Founding and Early Growth of Rome<\/p>\n<p>Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 <span>BC<\/span> on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate.<\/p>\n<p>Around 600 <span>BC<\/span> the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous works, including the forum, which became the social, commercial, and political center for the city, and a temple for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Rome was now linked by roads to the Etruscans in the north, to the Greek trading cities in the south, to the sea to the west, and to the inland highlands to the east.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman Republic<\/p>\n<p>When Rome’s kings became autocratic, the Latin population rebelled. In 509 <span>BC<\/span>, Rome established a “republic,” an oligarchy of the powerful families who controlled the Senate. The small city-state steadily gained control of the region, expanding their influence across the Mediterranean. In 273 <span>BC<\/span> they made a treaty with the Ptolemies of Egypt. They expanded into North Africa, defeating the rival city-state Carthage in the course of the three Punic Wars (264–146 <span>BC<\/span>), and pressed on into Spain. Rome’s many conquests brought enormous wealth.<\/p>\n<p>With geographical expansion came social changes in Italy. Between 200 and 100 <span>BC<\/span>, rich landowners bought out small independent farmers, who subsequently drifted into Rome, landless and unemployed. Huge, overcrowded slums appeared alongside the vast wealth and magnificent buildings. The foundations of the republic were cracking under the strain of popular discontent.<\/p>\n<p>The Beginning of the Empire: Julius and Octavian<\/p>\n<p>During this time of social and political upheaval, Julius Caesar pursued an ambitious and tumultuous career which sought to centralize power in his own person. Senators who favored the old republic assassinated him in 44 <span>BC<\/span>, but their action ultimately backfired: Julius’s grandnephew and heir, Octavian, became a senator, consul, and the commander-in-chief in 43 <span>BC<\/span> with the support of the Senate. The Senate also deified Julius in 42 <span>BC<\/span>. After Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 <span>BC<\/span> and took control of Egypt, the Senate gave him the titles Augustus (“illustrious”) and Princeps (“first citizen”) in 27 <span>BC<\/span>, and Octavian began to call himself “son of a god” because of Julius’s divine status. The form of a republic survived, but the reality of a divine emperor had arrived.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the Birth of the Church<\/p>\n<p>“When the right time came, God sent his Son” (Gal 4:4). The change into an empire brought peace and stability, a <em>pax Romana<\/em> (“Roman peace”) that lasted well into the 100s <span>AD<\/span>. Many observers have noted that Roman rule during the first century <span>AD<\/span> provided the ideal setting for the spread of Christianity. The borders were secure and the roads were good, making travel relatively trouble-free. Roman laws and customs protected the rights of its citizens (see, e.g., Acts 16:35-40; 22:24-29). Judaism was protected, and the Romans viewed Christianity as a sect within Judaism (see, e.g., Acts 25:13-19). As a result, the Romans largely rejected complaints against Christians on religious grounds (see, e.g., Acts 19:23-41). Christians were free to proclaim the Good News about Jesus, and many people of all nationalities became followers of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The Changing Status of Christianity<\/p>\n<p>This favorable situation began to change in the time of Nero. Nero blamed Christians for the fire that destroyed a good part of Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 64, and he proceeded with the first large-scale persecution of Christians. The overt persecution ceased in <span>AD<\/span> 66, but Christianity was no longer viewed as a sect of Judaism and lost its protected status. It later became imperial policy to require people to burn incense to the emperor—those who refused were usually either Jews (who were protected) or Christians (who were not). As a result, from the time of Domitian (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) to Galerius (<span>AD<\/span> 305–311), Christianity was officially illegal, punishable by death, and persecuted to varying extents depending on the zeal of those in power. Thus for over two hundred years Rome drank “the blood of God’s holy people who were witnesses for Jesus” (Rev 17:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:1-7, 15; 2 Tim 1:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rome<\/h3>\n<p>In the first century <span>AD<\/span> Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\n<p>The Founding and Early Growth of Rome<\/p>\n<p>Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 <span>BC<\/span> on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate.<\/p>\n<p>Around 600 <span>BC<\/span> the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous works, including the forum, which became the social, commercial, and political center for the city, and a temple for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Rome was now linked by roads to the Etruscans in the north, to the Greek trading cities in the south, to the sea to the west, and to the inland highlands to the east.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman Republic<\/p>\n<p>When Rome’s kings became autocratic, the Latin population rebelled. In 509 <span>BC<\/span>, Rome established a “republic,” an oligarchy of the powerful families who controlled the Senate. The small city-state steadily gained control of the region, expanding their influence across the Mediterranean. In 273 <span>BC<\/span> they made a treaty with the Ptolemies of Egypt. They expanded into North Africa, defeating the rival city-state Carthage in the course of the three Punic Wars (264–146 <span>BC<\/span>), and pressed on into Spain. Rome’s many conquests brought enormous wealth.<\/p>\n<p>With geographical expansion came social changes in Italy. Between 200 and 100 <span>BC<\/span>, rich landowners bought out small independent farmers, who subsequently drifted into Rome, landless and unemployed. Huge, overcrowded slums appeared alongside the vast wealth and magnificent buildings. The foundations of the republic were cracking under the strain of popular discontent.<\/p>\n<p>The Beginning of the Empire: Julius and Octavian<\/p>\n<p>During this time of social and political upheaval, Julius Caesar pursued an ambitious and tumultuous career which sought to centralize power in his own person. Senators who favored the old republic assassinated him in 44 <span>BC<\/span>, but their action ultimately backfired: Julius’s grandnephew and heir, Octavian, became a senator, consul, and the commander-in-chief in 43 <span>BC<\/span> with the support of the Senate. The Senate also deified Julius in 42 <span>BC<\/span>. After Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 <span>BC<\/span> and took control of Egypt, the Senate gave him the titles Augustus (“illustrious”) and Princeps (“first citizen”) in 27 <span>BC<\/span>, and Octavian began to call himself “son of a god” because of Julius’s divine status. The form of a republic survived, but the reality of a divine emperor had arrived.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the Birth of the Church<\/p>\n<p>“When the right time came, God sent his Son” (Gal 4:4). The change into an empire brought peace and stability, a <em>pax Romana<\/em> (“Roman peace”) that lasted well into the 100s <span>AD<\/span>. Many observers have noted that Roman rule during the first century <span>AD<\/span> provided the ideal setting for the spread of Christianity. The borders were secure and the roads were good, making travel relatively trouble-free. Roman laws and customs protected the rights of its citizens (see, e.g., Acts 16:35-40; 22:24-29). Judaism was protected, and the Romans viewed Christianity as a sect within Judaism (see, e.g., Acts 25:13-19). As a result, the Romans largely rejected complaints against Christians on religious grounds (see, e.g., Acts 19:23-41). Christians were free to proclaim the Good News about Jesus, and many people of all nationalities became followers of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The Changing Status of Christianity<\/p>\n<p>This favorable situation began to change in the time of Nero. Nero blamed Christians for the fire that destroyed a good part of Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 64, and he proceeded with the first large-scale persecution of Christians. The overt persecution ceased in <span>AD<\/span> 66, but Christianity was no longer viewed as a sect of Judaism and lost its protected status. It later became imperial policy to require people to burn incense to the emperor—those who refused were usually either Jews (who were protected) or Christians (who were not). As a result, from the time of Domitian (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) to Galerius (<span>AD<\/span> 305–311), Christianity was officially illegal, punishable by death, and persecuted to varying extents depending on the zeal of those in power. Thus for over two hundred years Rome drank “the blood of God’s holy people who were witnesses for Jesus” (Rev 17:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:1-7, 15; 2 Tim 1:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rome In the first century AD Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world. The Founding and Early Growth of Rome Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 BC on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate. Around 600 BC the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous ...","summary_en":"Rome In the first century AD Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world. The Founding and Early Growth of Rome Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 BC on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate. Around 600 BC the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97968,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"The Roman Church","title_en":"The Roman Church","content_ro":"<h3>The Roman Church<\/h3>\n<p>The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Peter founded the Roman church or that he was present in Rome by the time Paul wrote to the Roman Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 57; otherwise, Paul would certainly have greeted him. Consequently, Paul wrote this letter to help ensure that the Roman church had apostolic involvement in their faith. He never wrote to the churches of Judea, founded by the other apostles, but only to churches that either he had founded (e.g., Corinth, Galatia) or to those that had no direct apostolic involvement (e.g., Colosse, Rome).<\/p>\n<p>In time, the Jewish Christians in Rome would have been pushed out of the synagogues by the non-Christian Jews, as happened elsewhere. By the time Paul wrote to the Roman church, they were meeting as separate house churches in private homes (Rom 16:5, 10-11, 15). There were no centralized edifices, and it is uncertain whether the whole body of believers in Rome met together.<\/p>\n<p>When Claudius expelled the Jews from Rome (around <span>AD<\/span> 49), the Jewish Christians were also forced to leave, among whom were Priscilla and Aquila (Acts 18:2). In the absence of the Jews, the Roman church would have become Gentile in character. When the Jews returned (probably shortly after the death of Claudius in <span>AD<\/span> 54), there were no doubt questions—if not conflicts—among the Jewish and Gentile Christians. Paul may have written Romans to settle such controversies among this mixed group of Jews and Gentiles worshiping Christ in the same city.<\/p>\n<p>As is evident from Romans 16, Paul already had many friends in the Roman church. In the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 60, roughly two years after writing Romans, Paul had the opportunity to go to Rome—a desire he had repeatedly expressed (Acts 19:21; Rom 1:13-15). He spent two years there under house arrest awaiting his first trial before Nero, “boldly proclaiming the Kingdom of God and teaching about the Lord Jesus Christ” (Acts 28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 28:15-31; Rom 1:13-15; 16:1-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Roman Church<\/h3>\n<p>The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Peter founded the Roman church or that he was present in Rome by the time Paul wrote to the Roman Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 57; otherwise, Paul would certainly have greeted him. Consequently, Paul wrote this letter to help ensure that the Roman church had apostolic involvement in their faith. He never wrote to the churches of Judea, founded by the other apostles, but only to churches that either he had founded (e.g., Corinth, Galatia) or to those that had no direct apostolic involvement (e.g., Colosse, Rome).<\/p>\n<p>In time, the Jewish Christians in Rome would have been pushed out of the synagogues by the non-Christian Jews, as happened elsewhere. By the time Paul wrote to the Roman church, they were meeting as separate house churches in private homes (Rom 16:5, 10-11, 15). There were no centralized edifices, and it is uncertain whether the whole body of believers in Rome met together.<\/p>\n<p>When Claudius expelled the Jews from Rome (around <span>AD<\/span> 49), the Jewish Christians were also forced to leave, among whom were Priscilla and Aquila (Acts 18:2). In the absence of the Jews, the Roman church would have become Gentile in character. When the Jews returned (probably shortly after the death of Claudius in <span>AD<\/span> 54), there were no doubt questions—if not conflicts—among the Jewish and Gentile Christians. Paul may have written Romans to settle such controversies among this mixed group of Jews and Gentiles worshiping Christ in the same city.<\/p>\n<p>As is evident from Romans 16, Paul already had many friends in the Roman church. In the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 60, roughly two years after writing Romans, Paul had the opportunity to go to Rome—a desire he had repeatedly expressed (Acts 19:21; Rom 1:13-15). He spent two years there under house arrest awaiting his first trial before Nero, “boldly proclaiming the Kingdom of God and teaching about the Lord Jesus Christ” (Acts 28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 28:15-31; Rom 1:13-15; 16:1-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Roman Church The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Pete...","summary_en":"The Roman Church The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Pete...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":125579,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rome","title_en":"Rome","content_ro":"<h3>Rome<\/h3>\n<p>In the first century <span>AD<\/span> Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\n<p>The Founding and Early Growth of Rome<\/p>\n<p>Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 <span>BC<\/span> on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate.<\/p>\n<p>Around 600 <span>BC<\/span> the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous works, including the forum, which became the social, commercial, and political center for the city, and a temple for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Rome was now linked by roads to the Etruscans in the north, to the Greek trading cities in the south, to the sea to the west, and to the inland highlands to the east.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman Republic<\/p>\n<p>When Rome’s kings became autocratic, the Latin population rebelled. In 509 <span>BC<\/span>, Rome established a “republic,” an oligarchy of the powerful families who controlled the Senate. The small city-state steadily gained control of the region, expanding their influence across the Mediterranean. In 273 <span>BC<\/span> they made a treaty with the Ptolemies of Egypt. They expanded into North Africa, defeating the rival city-state Carthage in the course of the three Punic Wars (264–146 <span>BC<\/span>), and pressed on into Spain. Rome’s many conquests brought enormous wealth.<\/p>\n<p>With geographical expansion came social changes in Italy. Between 200 and 100 <span>BC<\/span>, rich landowners bought out small independent farmers, who subsequently drifted into Rome, landless and unemployed. Huge, overcrowded slums appeared alongside the vast wealth and magnificent buildings. The foundations of the republic were cracking under the strain of popular discontent.<\/p>\n<p>The Beginning of the Empire: Julius and Octavian<\/p>\n<p>During this time of social and political upheaval, Julius Caesar pursued an ambitious and tumultuous career which sought to centralize power in his own person. Senators who favored the old republic assassinated him in 44 <span>BC<\/span>, but their action ultimately backfired: Julius’s grandnephew and heir, Octavian, became a senator, consul, and the commander-in-chief in 43 <span>BC<\/span> with the support of the Senate. The Senate also deified Julius in 42 <span>BC<\/span>. After Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 <span>BC<\/span> and took control of Egypt, the Senate gave him the titles Augustus (“illustrious”) and Princeps (“first citizen”) in 27 <span>BC<\/span>, and Octavian began to call himself “son of a god” because of Julius’s divine status. The form of a republic survived, but the reality of a divine emperor had arrived.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the Birth of the Church<\/p>\n<p>“When the right time came, God sent his Son” (Gal 4:4). The change into an empire brought peace and stability, a <em>pax Romana<\/em> (“Roman peace”) that lasted well into the 100s <span>AD<\/span>. Many observers have noted that Roman rule during the first century <span>AD<\/span> provided the ideal setting for the spread of Christianity. The borders were secure and the roads were good, making travel relatively trouble-free. Roman laws and customs protected the rights of its citizens (see, e.g., Acts 16:35-40; 22:24-29). Judaism was protected, and the Romans viewed Christianity as a sect within Judaism (see, e.g., Acts 25:13-19). As a result, the Romans largely rejected complaints against Christians on religious grounds (see, e.g., Acts 19:23-41). Christians were free to proclaim the Good News about Jesus, and many people of all nationalities became followers of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The Changing Status of Christianity<\/p>\n<p>This favorable situation began to change in the time of Nero. Nero blamed Christians for the fire that destroyed a good part of Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 64, and he proceeded with the first large-scale persecution of Christians. The overt persecution ceased in <span>AD<\/span> 66, but Christianity was no longer viewed as a sect of Judaism and lost its protected status. It later became imperial policy to require people to burn incense to the emperor—those who refused were usually either Jews (who were protected) or Christians (who were not). As a result, from the time of Domitian (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) to Galerius (<span>AD<\/span> 305–311), Christianity was officially illegal, punishable by death, and persecuted to varying extents depending on the zeal of those in power. Thus for over two hundred years Rome drank “the blood of God’s holy people who were witnesses for Jesus” (Rev 17:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:1-7, 15; 2 Tim 1:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rome<\/h3>\n<p>In the first century <span>AD<\/span> Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\n<p>The Founding and Early Growth of Rome<\/p>\n<p>Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 <span>BC<\/span> on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate.<\/p>\n<p>Around 600 <span>BC<\/span> the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous works, including the forum, which became the social, commercial, and political center for the city, and a temple for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Rome was now linked by roads to the Etruscans in the north, to the Greek trading cities in the south, to the sea to the west, and to the inland highlands to the east.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman Republic<\/p>\n<p>When Rome’s kings became autocratic, the Latin population rebelled. In 509 <span>BC<\/span>, Rome established a “republic,” an oligarchy of the powerful families who controlled the Senate. The small city-state steadily gained control of the region, expanding their influence across the Mediterranean. In 273 <span>BC<\/span> they made a treaty with the Ptolemies of Egypt. They expanded into North Africa, defeating the rival city-state Carthage in the course of the three Punic Wars (264–146 <span>BC<\/span>), and pressed on into Spain. Rome’s many conquests brought enormous wealth.<\/p>\n<p>With geographical expansion came social changes in Italy. Between 200 and 100 <span>BC<\/span>, rich landowners bought out small independent farmers, who subsequently drifted into Rome, landless and unemployed. Huge, overcrowded slums appeared alongside the vast wealth and magnificent buildings. The foundations of the republic were cracking under the strain of popular discontent.<\/p>\n<p>The Beginning of the Empire: Julius and Octavian<\/p>\n<p>During this time of social and political upheaval, Julius Caesar pursued an ambitious and tumultuous career which sought to centralize power in his own person. Senators who favored the old republic assassinated him in 44 <span>BC<\/span>, but their action ultimately backfired: Julius’s grandnephew and heir, Octavian, became a senator, consul, and the commander-in-chief in 43 <span>BC<\/span> with the support of the Senate. The Senate also deified Julius in 42 <span>BC<\/span>. After Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 <span>BC<\/span> and took control of Egypt, the Senate gave him the titles Augustus (“illustrious”) and Princeps (“first citizen”) in 27 <span>BC<\/span>, and Octavian began to call himself “son of a god” because of Julius’s divine status. The form of a republic survived, but the reality of a divine emperor had arrived.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the Birth of the Church<\/p>\n<p>“When the right time came, God sent his Son” (Gal 4:4). The change into an empire brought peace and stability, a <em>pax Romana<\/em> (“Roman peace”) that lasted well into the 100s <span>AD<\/span>. Many observers have noted that Roman rule during the first century <span>AD<\/span> provided the ideal setting for the spread of Christianity. The borders were secure and the roads were good, making travel relatively trouble-free. Roman laws and customs protected the rights of its citizens (see, e.g., Acts 16:35-40; 22:24-29). Judaism was protected, and the Romans viewed Christianity as a sect within Judaism (see, e.g., Acts 25:13-19). As a result, the Romans largely rejected complaints against Christians on religious grounds (see, e.g., Acts 19:23-41). Christians were free to proclaim the Good News about Jesus, and many people of all nationalities became followers of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The Changing Status of Christianity<\/p>\n<p>This favorable situation began to change in the time of Nero. Nero blamed Christians for the fire that destroyed a good part of Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 64, and he proceeded with the first large-scale persecution of Christians. The overt persecution ceased in <span>AD<\/span> 66, but Christianity was no longer viewed as a sect of Judaism and lost its protected status. It later became imperial policy to require people to burn incense to the emperor—those who refused were usually either Jews (who were protected) or Christians (who were not). As a result, from the time of Domitian (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) to Galerius (<span>AD<\/span> 305–311), Christianity was officially illegal, punishable by death, and persecuted to varying extents depending on the zeal of those in power. Thus for over two hundred years Rome drank “the blood of God’s holy people who were witnesses for Jesus” (Rev 17:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:1-7, 15; 2 Tim 1:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rome In the first century AD Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world. The Founding and Early Growth of Rome Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 BC on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate. Around 600 BC the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous ...","summary_en":"Rome In the first century AD Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world. The Founding and Early Growth of Rome Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 BC on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate. Around 600 BC the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":125594,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"The Roman Church","title_en":"The Roman Church","content_ro":"<h3>The Roman Church<\/h3>\n<p>The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Peter founded the Roman church or that he was present in Rome by the time Paul wrote to the Roman Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 57; otherwise, Paul would certainly have greeted him. Consequently, Paul wrote this letter to help ensure that the Roman church had apostolic involvement in their faith. He never wrote to the churches of Judea, founded by the other apostles, but only to churches that either he had founded (e.g., Corinth, Galatia) or to those that had no direct apostolic involvement (e.g., Colosse, Rome).<\/p>\n<p>In time, the Jewish Christians in Rome would have been pushed out of the synagogues by the non-Christian Jews, as happened elsewhere. By the time Paul wrote to the Roman church, they were meeting as separate house churches in private homes (Rom 16:5, 10-11, 15). There were no centralized edifices, and it is uncertain whether the whole body of believers in Rome met together.<\/p>\n<p>When Claudius expelled the Jews from Rome (around <span>AD<\/span> 49), the Jewish Christians were also forced to leave, among whom were Priscilla and Aquila (Acts 18:2). In the absence of the Jews, the Roman church would have become Gentile in character. When the Jews returned (probably shortly after the death of Claudius in <span>AD<\/span> 54), there were no doubt questions—if not conflicts—among the Jewish and Gentile Christians. Paul may have written Romans to settle such controversies among this mixed group of Jews and Gentiles worshiping Christ in the same city.<\/p>\n<p>As is evident from Romans 16, Paul already had many friends in the Roman church. In the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 60, roughly two years after writing Romans, Paul had the opportunity to go to Rome—a desire he had repeatedly expressed (Acts 19:21; Rom 1:13-15). He spent two years there under house arrest awaiting his first trial before Nero, “boldly proclaiming the Kingdom of God and teaching about the Lord Jesus Christ” (Acts 28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 28:15-31; Rom 1:13-15; 16:1-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Roman Church<\/h3>\n<p>The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Peter founded the Roman church or that he was present in Rome by the time Paul wrote to the Roman Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 57; otherwise, Paul would certainly have greeted him. Consequently, Paul wrote this letter to help ensure that the Roman church had apostolic involvement in their faith. He never wrote to the churches of Judea, founded by the other apostles, but only to churches that either he had founded (e.g., Corinth, Galatia) or to those that had no direct apostolic involvement (e.g., Colosse, Rome).<\/p>\n<p>In time, the Jewish Christians in Rome would have been pushed out of the synagogues by the non-Christian Jews, as happened elsewhere. By the time Paul wrote to the Roman church, they were meeting as separate house churches in private homes (Rom 16:5, 10-11, 15). There were no centralized edifices, and it is uncertain whether the whole body of believers in Rome met together.<\/p>\n<p>When Claudius expelled the Jews from Rome (around <span>AD<\/span> 49), the Jewish Christians were also forced to leave, among whom were Priscilla and Aquila (Acts 18:2). In the absence of the Jews, the Roman church would have become Gentile in character. When the Jews returned (probably shortly after the death of Claudius in <span>AD<\/span> 54), there were no doubt questions—if not conflicts—among the Jewish and Gentile Christians. Paul may have written Romans to settle such controversies among this mixed group of Jews and Gentiles worshiping Christ in the same city.<\/p>\n<p>As is evident from Romans 16, Paul already had many friends in the Roman church. In the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 60, roughly two years after writing Romans, Paul had the opportunity to go to Rome—a desire he had repeatedly expressed (Acts 19:21; Rom 1:13-15). He spent two years there under house arrest awaiting his first trial before Nero, “boldly proclaiming the Kingdom of God and teaching about the Lord Jesus Christ” (Acts 28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 28:15-31; Rom 1:13-15; 16:1-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Roman Church The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Pete...","summary_en":"The Roman Church The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Pete...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":23825,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Macedonia","title_en":"Macedonia","content_ro":"<h3>MACEDONIA<\/h3>\n<p>Roman province in NT times, beginning as a kingdom in the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. Little is known about the first several centuries of its history, but with the coming to power of the Greek king Philip II (359–336 <span>BC<\/span>), and especially of his son Alexander III (the Great, 336–323 <span>BC<\/span>), Macedonia became a world power. After Alexander’s death, the empire was divided among his successors into several regions, one of them the original Macedonian kingdom. Instability held sway for the next 150 years, and in 167 <span>BC<\/span> Macedonia came under Roman rule. Initially divided into four districts by the Romans (Acts 16:12 is a possible reference to this division), this territory was made into a Roman province in 14 <span>BC<\/span> with Thessalonica as its capital. Briefly, from <span>AD<\/span> 15–44, Macedonia was combined with Achaia and Moesia (other parts of Greece) into one large province; however, in <span>AD<\/span> 44, the three were again separated. Macedonia’s importance continued through the Roman era, and it remained a separate entity down to modern times, though it was part of Yugoslavia from 1945 to 1991.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman province of Macedonia included the northern region of Greece and southern sections of present-day Albania, Bulgaria, and the Fomer Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. Noted for its gold, silver, timber, and farmlands, the region also served as a land route for trade between Asia and the West. Shortly after the Romans incorporated Macedonia as a province, they built the Via Egnatia, a paved road over 500 miles (804.5 kilometers) long, running from the Adriatic coast to the Aegean, no doubt traveled by the apostle Paul as he moved through the Macedonian cities of Neapolis, Philippi, Amphipolis, Apollonia, and Thessalonica (Acts 16:11-12; 17:1).<\/p>\n<p>The gospel was introduced to Europe by way of Macedonia when Paul responded to a vision while on his second missionary journey (Acts 16:9-12). Details of that work, centering in Philippi and Thessalonica, are described in Acts 16:11–17:15. On his third journey, though delayed initially (19:21-22), Paul later returned to Macedonia, and again after a stay in Corinth (20:1-3; see 1 Cor 16:5; 2 Cor 1:16 and 2:13 for other references to Macedonia visits).<\/p>\n\n<p>Macedonian believers played an important part in the collection Paul gathered for the poor in Jerusalem (Rom 15:26; 2 Cor 9:2-4); Paul commended them for their liberality (2 Cor 8:1-2). He also praised them for their example of faith, even in times of adversity (2 Cor 7:5; 1 Thes 1:7), and for their love of others (1 Thes 4:10). Some of the Macedonians worked directly with Paul in carrying out the gospel commission (Acts 19:29; 20:4; 27:2), and he addressed letters to churches in two Macedonian cities, Philippi and Thessalonica.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Greece, Greek.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MACEDONIA<\/h3>\n<p>Roman province in NT times, beginning as a kingdom in the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. Little is known about the first several centuries of its history, but with the coming to power of the Greek king Philip II (359–336 <span>BC<\/span>), and especially of his son Alexander III (the Great, 336–323 <span>BC<\/span>), Macedonia became a world power. After Alexander’s death, the empire was divided among his successors into several regions, one of them the original Macedonian kingdom. Instability held sway for the next 150 years, and in 167 <span>BC<\/span> Macedonia came under Roman rule. Initially divided into four districts by the Romans (Acts 16:12 is a possible reference to this division), this territory was made into a Roman province in 14 <span>BC<\/span> with Thessalonica as its capital. Briefly, from <span>AD<\/span> 15–44, Macedonia was combined with Achaia and Moesia (other parts of Greece) into one large province; however, in <span>AD<\/span> 44, the three were again separated. Macedonia’s importance continued through the Roman era, and it remained a separate entity down to modern times, though it was part of Yugoslavia from 1945 to 1991.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman province of Macedonia included the northern region of Greece and southern sections of present-day Albania, Bulgaria, and the Fomer Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. Noted for its gold, silver, timber, and farmlands, the region also served as a land route for trade between Asia and the West. Shortly after the Romans incorporated Macedonia as a province, they built the Via Egnatia, a paved road over 500 miles (804.5 kilometers) long, running from the Adriatic coast to the Aegean, no doubt traveled by the apostle Paul as he moved through the Macedonian cities of Neapolis, Philippi, Amphipolis, Apollonia, and Thessalonica (Acts 16:11-12; 17:1).<\/p>\n<p>The gospel was introduced to Europe by way of Macedonia when Paul responded to a vision while on his second missionary journey (Acts 16:9-12). Details of that work, centering in Philippi and Thessalonica, are described in Acts 16:11–17:15. On his third journey, though delayed initially (19:21-22), Paul later returned to Macedonia, and again after a stay in Corinth (20:1-3; see 1 Cor 16:5; 2 Cor 1:16 and 2:13 for other references to Macedonia visits).<\/p>\n\n<p>Macedonian believers played an important part in the collection Paul gathered for the poor in Jerusalem (Rom 15:26; 2 Cor 9:2-4); Paul commended them for their liberality (2 Cor 8:1-2). He also praised them for their example of faith, even in times of adversity (2 Cor 7:5; 1 Thes 1:7), and for their love of others (1 Thes 4:10). Some of the Macedonians worked directly with Paul in carrying out the gospel commission (Acts 19:29; 20:4; 27:2), and he addressed letters to churches in two Macedonian cities, Philippi and Thessalonica.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Greece, Greek.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MACEDONIA Roman province in NT times, beginning as a kingdom in the seventh century BC. Little is known about the first several centuries of its history, but with the coming to power of the Greek king Philip II (359–336 BC), and especially of his son Alexander III (the Great, 336–323 BC), Macedonia became a world power. After Alexander’s death, the empire was divided among his successors into several regions, one of them the original Macedonian kingdom. Instability held sway for the next 150 ...","summary_en":"MACEDONIA Roman province in NT times, beginning as a kingdom in the seventh century BC. Little is known about the first several centuries of its history, but with the coming to power of the Greek king Philip II (359–336 BC), and especially of his son Alexander III (the Great, 336–323 BC), Macedonia became a world power. After Alexander’s death, the empire was divided among his successors into several regions, one of them the original Macedonian kingdom. Instability held sway for the next 150 ...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29257,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Paul, the Apostle","title_en":"Paul, the Apostle","content_ro":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","summary_en":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":33290,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"City of Rome","title_en":"City of Rome","content_ro":"<h3>ROME, City of<\/h3>\n<p>City in Italy founded, according to tradition, in 753 <span>BC<\/span> on seven hills about 15 miles (24.1 kilometers) from the mouth of the Tiber River. It was of no biblical interest until NT times. There are nine explicit references to the city in the NT (Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:7, 15; 2 Tm 1:17), but Paul’s sojourn there and his letter to the Roman Christians, written probably from Corinth around <span>AD<\/span> 57 and 58, make the imperial city of considerable interest to Bible readers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"History\">History<\/p>\n<p>In the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>, Indo-European migrants moved into Europe and settled in the Italian peninsula. One group settled around the mouth of the Tiber River. A vigorous and more cultured group, the Etruscans from Asia Minor, occupied central Italy. At the time of Rome’s emergence in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, the population of the Italian peninsula was mixed. The Latin-speaking enclave, which settled toward the mouth of the Tiber, were agriculturalists. The scattered groups formed leagues and communities to defend themselves against raiders. They built stockades on the hills to protect families and flocks while fighting off the raiders. From such beginnings Rome emerged as a dominant center with its focal point in the area of the seven hills (the Palatine, the Capitoline, the Aventine, the Caelian, the Esquiline, the Viminal, and the Quirinal). Traditionally these hills were considered to be seven in number; in fact, there are more than seven, although some are simply flat-topped spurs. The Tiber River winds in a large S-curve between the hills. At one point it divided to form an island where it was shallow enough to ford. The town that grew up there was linked by roads, north to the Etruscans, south to the Greek trading cities, west to the coast, and inland to the tribal areas on the highlands. Knowledge of early Rome is based largely on archaeological evidence from the remains of the simple forts and numerous burial sites in the area.<\/p>\n<p>Rome developed politically in a remarkable fashion over the next 1,000 years. The loose association of the original chieftains, who comprised the earliest “senate,” gave place to domination by Etruscan kings who seem to have trained the people in discipline and obedience. They constructed numerous works, draining the forum area and making it a social, commercial, industrial, and political center. They built a temple for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva on the Capitoline Hill as a common shrine for all the people. When the kings became autocratic, the Latin population rebelled and expelled the kings.<\/p>\n<p>The republic was established in 510 <span>BC<\/span>. This establishment marked the beginning of Rome’s remarkable expansion to the dimensions of a world empire. The population, which was now spread out over the hills and valleys, despite their tribal differences, united and solved political problems without bloodshed. Strictly speaking, the term “republican” should not be understood in any modern sense as indicating a kind of democracy. Rather, the ancient families (patricians) dominated the senate and constituted an oligarchy. This arrangement was useful for Rome at that time. The small city-state soon broke out of its confined area, overcame the Etruscans, and dominated the Greek cities to the south. The Romans then looked farther afield. In 273 <span>BC<\/span> they made a treaty with the Ptolemies of Egypt. Before long, they expanded into North Africa, overcame the Carthaginians, pressed on into Spain, and developed ambitions to occupy the Middle East as well. Rome’s many conquests brought enormous wealth.<\/p>\n<p>With geographical expansion came social changes in Italy. During the second century <span>BC<\/span>, rich landowners bought out the small independent farmers, who subsequently drifted into Rome, landless and unemployed. Huge, overcrowded tenement houses appeared, which constituted creeping slums. Alongside this squalor there was evidence of vast wealth from Rome’s conquests in distant lands. In the capital, many fine buildings appeared. Pompey, who subdued and organized the East, did much to adorn the great capital.<\/p>\n<p>The next stage in Rome’s political development came when the senate, the governing body of the republic, proved unable to control its more radical and violent members. As their political ambitions increased, aspiring leaders sought to gain popular support by granting privileges to the people without the concurrence of the senate. Civil strife broke out and plagued the last century of the republic. Military victories beyond Rome gave power to the generals. In the civil wars that followed, constitutional questions were decided by the power of the sword. Marius, Sulla, Pompey, Crassus, Julius Caesar, Antony, and Octavian were the real political forces in the land.<\/p>\n\n<p>By 27 <span>BC<\/span>, Octavian emerged supreme and was given the title Augustus. Theoretically, a dual government existed between the senate and Augustus (the emperor), but a weak senate allowed the emperor to become the virtual ruler. As a result, Roman peace (<em>pax Romana<\/em>) reigned at home and abroad until well into the second century <span>AD<\/span>. The emperors of the first century <span>AD<\/span> cover the period of the life of Jesus and of the emerging church, and several are mentioned in the NT: Augustus (Lk 2:1), Tiberius (Lk 3:1), Claudius (Acts 11:28; 18:2), and Nero, who is referred to without being explicitly named (Acts 25:10-12; 27:24; 2 Tm 4:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>The city of Rome was the capital of the empire and the home of the emperor, senators, administrators, military personnel, and priests. Augustus, the first of the emperors whose leadership and diplomatic endeavors gave peace to Rome after two civil wars and a century of strife, gave attention to the restoration and adornment of the city. He boasted that he found Rome built of brick and left it built of marble. His efforts at restoring Rome’s ancient religions led to the building of many temples. On the Palatine hill, Augustus united several houses already there into a palace for his own residence. A new and sumptuous temple of Apollo, surrounded by colonnades in which the emperor housed a large library, was erected near the palace. The palace itself overlooked an imposing group of new marble buildings in the valley below: a basilica business hall, a senate house, a temple of “the divine Julius,” a marble speaker’s platform, two impressive new forums, the forum of Caesar, and the forum of Augustus. Later emperors added to this splendor. Beyond the central forum area, the palaces of Tiberius and Caligula, various baths, arches, and theaters, the Circus Maximus, and the Circus Nero were built. The whole was enclosed by a wall built outside the old rampart of Servius. Several aqueducts brought water into the city, and significant roads from north, south, east, and west converged on the central city area.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"RomesMilitaryPresenceinPalestine\">Rome’s Military Presence in Palestine<\/p>\n<p>With the military intervention of Pompey in the internal affairs of Judea in 63 <span>BC<\/span>, Rome established its presence in Palestine. The census ordered by Augustus Caesar, affecting the eastern provinces as well as the rest of the Roman world (Lk 2:1-2), was a vivid reminder. Roman military presence is amply reflected on the pages of the Gospels and Acts (e.g., Mk 15:16; Lk 3:14; 7:1-8; Acts 5:37).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT period, service in the legions was open to all Roman citizens. A professional volunteer army had replaced a conscripted militia. The permanent standing army was made up of legions recruited from the ranks of citizens. The legions were commanded by experienced officers of the rank of consul. Auxiliary forces were raised outside Italy, the inducement for enlistment being Roman citizenship for a soldier and his descendants after 25 years of service.<\/p>\n<p>In the provinces supreme military command lay with the provincial governor or prefect. In Judea at the time of Jesus’ public ministry, Pontius Pilate was designated “prefect of Judea” in a Latin inscription found in Caesarea in 1961. At the official center for administration of Judea, Caesarea Maritima, one or more legions at the disposal of the governor would be garrisoned. On special occasions, particularly at the great Jewish festivals, when riots and disorders could be anticipated, the provincial governor would take up residence in Jerusalem some 60 miles (96.5 kilometers) to the south, accompanied by a substantial contingent of troops (cf. Lk 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>Augustus established a standing army large enough to defend and pacify the empire. In 15 <span>BC<\/span> there were 28 legions, each composed of some 5,000 foot soldiers plus a mounted bodyguard of 128 men. After three legions were destroyed in uprisings by fierce Germanic tribes in <span>AD<\/span> 9, the number remained at 25 for some time. That suggests a standing army of about 125,000 legionaries in the first century.<\/p>\n<p>Augustus was also responsible for establishing a permanent auxiliary army, almost the same size as the legionary army. The auxiliary forces, recruited from provincials who had not yet received Roman citizenship, included both cavalry and infantry. The cavalry was organized in squadrons, the infantry in cohorts of 1,000 under command of a military tribune (Acts 21:31-33). When the apostle Paul was in Jerusalem, the tribune was Claudius Lysias, a man of Greek birth whose purchased Roman citizenship made possible his elevation to commander of an auxiliary cohort (22:28; 23:26). To send Paul from Jerusalem to Caesarea, Claudius could delegate a military escort of 200 soldiers commanded by two centurions, plus 70 mounted guards (23:23), without dangerously weakening the strength of the fortress garrison.<\/p>\n<p>A cohort was made up of either ten or five “centuries,” units consisting of 100 men under the command of a centurion whose duties resembled those of a modern army captain. Cornelius (Acts 10:1) was a Roman centurion assigned to one of the auxiliary cohorts in Judea. There is inscriptional evidence for the presence of his unit, “the Second Italian Cohort of Roman Citizens,” in Syria about <span>AD<\/span> 69. Paul was sent to Rome in the custody of another centurion, Julius, who belonged to the Augustan or imperial cohort (27:1). The term Augustan was a title of honor sometimes bestowed on auxiliary troops. Julius was evidently a legionary centurion assigned to the corps of officer-couriers who maintained a communication service between the emperor and his provincial armies. He had a detachment of soldiers under his command on the voyage to Rome (v 3) and on arrival handed his prisoners over to the commander of the courier corps (28:16). Probably all of the Roman centurions mentioned in the Gospels or Acts (Mt 8:5; Mk 15:39; Lk 7:2) were officers assigned to an auxiliary cohort.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ChristiansinRome\">Christians in Rome<\/p>\n<p>It was to this magnificent city that Paul came under escort in March <span>AD<\/span> 59. He found that the Christian church had already been established there. Indeed, he had already communicated with the Christians in his letter to the Romans early in 57. There was a considerable Jewish colony in Rome in the first century <span>AD<\/span>, descended from the large number of Jewish slaves brought to the city by Pompey after the capture of Jerusalem in 63 <span>BC<\/span>. The emperor Claudius expelled Jews from Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 49, possibly when Jesus was proclaimed as Messiah in the synagogue. Who the preachers were is not known, but they were probably Christian travelers and traders. Paul’s Letter to the Romans was his exposition to the Gentile churches that had come into existence independently of him. His first known contact with the people of Rome was when he met Aquila and Priscilla at Corinth (Acts 18:2). This couple was expelled from Rome in the time of Claudius. Later, Paul hoped to visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:24). In his salutation he mentioned a considerable circle of Christians in Rome (ch 16). The references to households in several places (vv 5, 10, 11, 14, 15) suggest that these were house churches of the Roman Christian church. During his captivity, Paul was a prisoner of Roman authorities, but he was able to meet the local leaders of the Jews, explain his experiences to them, and expound the gospel to them in person (Acts 28:16-31).<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Revelation, Rome is given a sinister significance. By the end of the first century <span>AD<\/span>, Rome had already drunk the “blood of the martyrs of Jesus” (Rv 17:6), a reference to early martyrs.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Caesars, The; Romans, Letter to the.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ROME, City of<\/h3>\n<p>City in Italy founded, according to tradition, in 753 <span>BC<\/span> on seven hills about 15 miles (24.1 kilometers) from the mouth of the Tiber River. It was of no biblical interest until NT times. There are nine explicit references to the city in the NT (Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:7, 15; 2 Tm 1:17), but Paul’s sojourn there and his letter to the Roman Christians, written probably from Corinth around <span>AD<\/span> 57 and 58, make the imperial city of considerable interest to Bible readers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"History\">History<\/p>\n<p>In the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>, Indo-European migrants moved into Europe and settled in the Italian peninsula. One group settled around the mouth of the Tiber River. A vigorous and more cultured group, the Etruscans from Asia Minor, occupied central Italy. At the time of Rome’s emergence in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, the population of the Italian peninsula was mixed. The Latin-speaking enclave, which settled toward the mouth of the Tiber, were agriculturalists. The scattered groups formed leagues and communities to defend themselves against raiders. They built stockades on the hills to protect families and flocks while fighting off the raiders. From such beginnings Rome emerged as a dominant center with its focal point in the area of the seven hills (the Palatine, the Capitoline, the Aventine, the Caelian, the Esquiline, the Viminal, and the Quirinal). Traditionally these hills were considered to be seven in number; in fact, there are more than seven, although some are simply flat-topped spurs. The Tiber River winds in a large S-curve between the hills. At one point it divided to form an island where it was shallow enough to ford. The town that grew up there was linked by roads, north to the Etruscans, south to the Greek trading cities, west to the coast, and inland to the tribal areas on the highlands. Knowledge of early Rome is based largely on archaeological evidence from the remains of the simple forts and numerous burial sites in the area.<\/p>\n<p>Rome developed politically in a remarkable fashion over the next 1,000 years. The loose association of the original chieftains, who comprised the earliest “senate,” gave place to domination by Etruscan kings who seem to have trained the people in discipline and obedience. They constructed numerous works, draining the forum area and making it a social, commercial, industrial, and political center. They built a temple for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva on the Capitoline Hill as a common shrine for all the people. When the kings became autocratic, the Latin population rebelled and expelled the kings.<\/p>\n<p>The republic was established in 510 <span>BC<\/span>. This establishment marked the beginning of Rome’s remarkable expansion to the dimensions of a world empire. The population, which was now spread out over the hills and valleys, despite their tribal differences, united and solved political problems without bloodshed. Strictly speaking, the term “republican” should not be understood in any modern sense as indicating a kind of democracy. Rather, the ancient families (patricians) dominated the senate and constituted an oligarchy. This arrangement was useful for Rome at that time. The small city-state soon broke out of its confined area, overcame the Etruscans, and dominated the Greek cities to the south. The Romans then looked farther afield. In 273 <span>BC<\/span> they made a treaty with the Ptolemies of Egypt. Before long, they expanded into North Africa, overcame the Carthaginians, pressed on into Spain, and developed ambitions to occupy the Middle East as well. Rome’s many conquests brought enormous wealth.<\/p>\n<p>With geographical expansion came social changes in Italy. During the second century <span>BC<\/span>, rich landowners bought out the small independent farmers, who subsequently drifted into Rome, landless and unemployed. Huge, overcrowded tenement houses appeared, which constituted creeping slums. Alongside this squalor there was evidence of vast wealth from Rome’s conquests in distant lands. In the capital, many fine buildings appeared. Pompey, who subdued and organized the East, did much to adorn the great capital.<\/p>\n<p>The next stage in Rome’s political development came when the senate, the governing body of the republic, proved unable to control its more radical and violent members. As their political ambitions increased, aspiring leaders sought to gain popular support by granting privileges to the people without the concurrence of the senate. Civil strife broke out and plagued the last century of the republic. Military victories beyond Rome gave power to the generals. In the civil wars that followed, constitutional questions were decided by the power of the sword. Marius, Sulla, Pompey, Crassus, Julius Caesar, Antony, and Octavian were the real political forces in the land.<\/p>\n\n<p>By 27 <span>BC<\/span>, Octavian emerged supreme and was given the title Augustus. Theoretically, a dual government existed between the senate and Augustus (the emperor), but a weak senate allowed the emperor to become the virtual ruler. As a result, Roman peace (<em>pax Romana<\/em>) reigned at home and abroad until well into the second century <span>AD<\/span>. The emperors of the first century <span>AD<\/span> cover the period of the life of Jesus and of the emerging church, and several are mentioned in the NT: Augustus (Lk 2:1), Tiberius (Lk 3:1), Claudius (Acts 11:28; 18:2), and Nero, who is referred to without being explicitly named (Acts 25:10-12; 27:24; 2 Tm 4:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>The city of Rome was the capital of the empire and the home of the emperor, senators, administrators, military personnel, and priests. Augustus, the first of the emperors whose leadership and diplomatic endeavors gave peace to Rome after two civil wars and a century of strife, gave attention to the restoration and adornment of the city. He boasted that he found Rome built of brick and left it built of marble. His efforts at restoring Rome’s ancient religions led to the building of many temples. On the Palatine hill, Augustus united several houses already there into a palace for his own residence. A new and sumptuous temple of Apollo, surrounded by colonnades in which the emperor housed a large library, was erected near the palace. The palace itself overlooked an imposing group of new marble buildings in the valley below: a basilica business hall, a senate house, a temple of “the divine Julius,” a marble speaker’s platform, two impressive new forums, the forum of Caesar, and the forum of Augustus. Later emperors added to this splendor. Beyond the central forum area, the palaces of Tiberius and Caligula, various baths, arches, and theaters, the Circus Maximus, and the Circus Nero were built. The whole was enclosed by a wall built outside the old rampart of Servius. Several aqueducts brought water into the city, and significant roads from north, south, east, and west converged on the central city area.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"RomesMilitaryPresenceinPalestine\">Rome’s Military Presence in Palestine<\/p>\n<p>With the military intervention of Pompey in the internal affairs of Judea in 63 <span>BC<\/span>, Rome established its presence in Palestine. The census ordered by Augustus Caesar, affecting the eastern provinces as well as the rest of the Roman world (Lk 2:1-2), was a vivid reminder. Roman military presence is amply reflected on the pages of the Gospels and Acts (e.g., Mk 15:16; Lk 3:14; 7:1-8; Acts 5:37).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT period, service in the legions was open to all Roman citizens. A professional volunteer army had replaced a conscripted militia. The permanent standing army was made up of legions recruited from the ranks of citizens. The legions were commanded by experienced officers of the rank of consul. Auxiliary forces were raised outside Italy, the inducement for enlistment being Roman citizenship for a soldier and his descendants after 25 years of service.<\/p>\n<p>In the provinces supreme military command lay with the provincial governor or prefect. In Judea at the time of Jesus’ public ministry, Pontius Pilate was designated “prefect of Judea” in a Latin inscription found in Caesarea in 1961. At the official center for administration of Judea, Caesarea Maritima, one or more legions at the disposal of the governor would be garrisoned. On special occasions, particularly at the great Jewish festivals, when riots and disorders could be anticipated, the provincial governor would take up residence in Jerusalem some 60 miles (96.5 kilometers) to the south, accompanied by a substantial contingent of troops (cf. Lk 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>Augustus established a standing army large enough to defend and pacify the empire. In 15 <span>BC<\/span> there were 28 legions, each composed of some 5,000 foot soldiers plus a mounted bodyguard of 128 men. After three legions were destroyed in uprisings by fierce Germanic tribes in <span>AD<\/span> 9, the number remained at 25 for some time. That suggests a standing army of about 125,000 legionaries in the first century.<\/p>\n<p>Augustus was also responsible for establishing a permanent auxiliary army, almost the same size as the legionary army. The auxiliary forces, recruited from provincials who had not yet received Roman citizenship, included both cavalry and infantry. The cavalry was organized in squadrons, the infantry in cohorts of 1,000 under command of a military tribune (Acts 21:31-33). When the apostle Paul was in Jerusalem, the tribune was Claudius Lysias, a man of Greek birth whose purchased Roman citizenship made possible his elevation to commander of an auxiliary cohort (22:28; 23:26). To send Paul from Jerusalem to Caesarea, Claudius could delegate a military escort of 200 soldiers commanded by two centurions, plus 70 mounted guards (23:23), without dangerously weakening the strength of the fortress garrison.<\/p>\n<p>A cohort was made up of either ten or five “centuries,” units consisting of 100 men under the command of a centurion whose duties resembled those of a modern army captain. Cornelius (Acts 10:1) was a Roman centurion assigned to one of the auxiliary cohorts in Judea. There is inscriptional evidence for the presence of his unit, “the Second Italian Cohort of Roman Citizens,” in Syria about <span>AD<\/span> 69. Paul was sent to Rome in the custody of another centurion, Julius, who belonged to the Augustan or imperial cohort (27:1). The term Augustan was a title of honor sometimes bestowed on auxiliary troops. Julius was evidently a legionary centurion assigned to the corps of officer-couriers who maintained a communication service between the emperor and his provincial armies. He had a detachment of soldiers under his command on the voyage to Rome (v 3) and on arrival handed his prisoners over to the commander of the courier corps (28:16). Probably all of the Roman centurions mentioned in the Gospels or Acts (Mt 8:5; Mk 15:39; Lk 7:2) were officers assigned to an auxiliary cohort.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ChristiansinRome\">Christians in Rome<\/p>\n<p>It was to this magnificent city that Paul came under escort in March <span>AD<\/span> 59. He found that the Christian church had already been established there. Indeed, he had already communicated with the Christians in his letter to the Romans early in 57. There was a considerable Jewish colony in Rome in the first century <span>AD<\/span>, descended from the large number of Jewish slaves brought to the city by Pompey after the capture of Jerusalem in 63 <span>BC<\/span>. The emperor Claudius expelled Jews from Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 49, possibly when Jesus was proclaimed as Messiah in the synagogue. Who the preachers were is not known, but they were probably Christian travelers and traders. Paul’s Letter to the Romans was his exposition to the Gentile churches that had come into existence independently of him. His first known contact with the people of Rome was when he met Aquila and Priscilla at Corinth (Acts 18:2). This couple was expelled from Rome in the time of Claudius. Later, Paul hoped to visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:24). In his salutation he mentioned a considerable circle of Christians in Rome (ch 16). The references to households in several places (vv 5, 10, 11, 14, 15) suggest that these were house churches of the Roman Christian church. During his captivity, Paul was a prisoner of Roman authorities, but he was able to meet the local leaders of the Jews, explain his experiences to them, and expound the gospel to them in person (Acts 28:16-31).<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Revelation, Rome is given a sinister significance. By the end of the first century <span>AD<\/span>, Rome had already drunk the “blood of the martyrs of Jesus” (Rv 17:6), a reference to early martyrs.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Caesars, The; Romans, Letter to the.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ROME, City of City in Italy founded, according to tradition, in 753 BC on seven hills about 15 miles (24.1 kilometers) from the mouth of the Tiber River. It was of no biblical interest until NT times. There are nine explicit references to the city in the NT (Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:7, 15; 2 Tm 1:17), but Paul’s sojourn there and his letter to the Roman Christians, written probably from Corinth around AD 57 and 58, make the imperial city of considerable interest to Bibl...","summary_en":"ROME, City of City in Italy founded, according to tradition, in 753 BC on seven hills about 15 miles (24.1 kilometers) from the mouth of the Tiber River. It was of no biblical interest until NT times. There are nine explicit references to the city in the NT (Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:7, 15; 2 Tm 1:17), but Paul’s sojourn there and his letter to the Roman Christians, written probably from Corinth around AD 57 and 58, make the imperial city of considerable interest to Bibl...","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57053,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:21","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:21-22<\/strong> <em>felt compelled by the Spirit:<\/em> No doubt Paul was troubled by what he had heard about the situation in Corinth (see 1 Corinthians Book Introduction). Instead of going immediately himself, <em>he sent<\/em> . . . <em>Timothy<\/em><em>,<\/em> who was carrying a letter, 1 Corinthians, from Paul to the Corinthians (1 Cor 4:17; 16:10-11). Paul himself did <em>go over to Macedonia and Achaia<\/em> not long afterward (Acts 20:1-3). • <em>“I must go on to Rome!”:<\/em> Perhaps compelled by his proven strategy (see study note on 16:8), Paul wanted to proclaim the Good News in the most significant city in the world.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:21-22<\/strong> <em>felt compelled by the Spirit:<\/em> No doubt Paul was troubled by what he had heard about the situation in Corinth (see 1 Corinthians Book Introduction). Instead of going immediately himself, <em>he sent<\/em> . . . <em>Timothy<\/em><em>,<\/em> who was carrying a letter, 1 Corinthians, from Paul to the Corinthians (1 Cor 4:17; 16:10-11). Paul himself did <em>go over to Macedonia and Achaia<\/em> not long afterward (Acts 20:1-3). • <em>“I must go on to Rome!”:<\/em> Perhaps compelled by his proven strategy (see study note on 16:8), Paul wanted to proclaim the Good News in the most significant city in the world.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:21-22 felt compelled by the Spirit: No doubt Paul was troubled by what he had heard about the situation in Corinth (see 1 Corinthians Book Introduction). Instead of going immediately himself, he sent . . . Timothy, who was carrying a letter, 1 Corinthians, from Paul to the Corinthians (1 Cor 4:17; 16:10-11). Paul himself did go over to Macedonia and Achaia not long afterward (Acts 20:1-3). • “I must go on to Rome!”: Perhaps compelled by his proven strategy (see study note on 16:8), Paul wa...","summary_en":"19:21-22 felt compelled by the Spirit: No doubt Paul was troubled by what he had heard about the situation in Corinth (see 1 Corinthians Book Introduction). Instead of going immediately himself, he sent . . . Timothy, who was carrying a letter, 1 Corinthians, from Paul to the Corinthians (1 Cor 4:17; 16:10-11). Paul himself did go over to Macedonia and Achaia not long afterward (Acts 20:1-3). • “I must go on to Rome!”: Perhaps compelled by his proven strategy (see study note on 16:8), Paul wa...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84679,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:21","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:21-22<\/strong> <em>felt compelled by the Spirit:<\/em> No doubt Paul was troubled by what he had heard about the situation in Corinth (see 1 Corinthians Book Introduction). Instead of going immediately himself, <em>he sent<\/em> . . . <em>Timothy<\/em><em>,<\/em> who was carrying a letter, 1 Corinthians, from Paul to the Corinthians (1 Cor 4:17; 16:10-11). Paul himself did <em>go over to Macedonia and Achaia<\/em> not long afterward (Acts 20:1-3). • <em>“I must go on to Rome!”:<\/em> Perhaps compelled by his proven strategy (see study note on 16:8), Paul wanted to proclaim the Good News in the most significant city in the world.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:21-22<\/strong> <em>felt compelled by the Spirit:<\/em> No doubt Paul was troubled by what he had heard about the situation in Corinth (see 1 Corinthians Book Introduction). Instead of going immediately himself, <em>he sent<\/em> . . . <em>Timothy<\/em><em>,<\/em> who was carrying a letter, 1 Corinthians, from Paul to the Corinthians (1 Cor 4:17; 16:10-11). Paul himself did <em>go over to Macedonia and Achaia<\/em> not long afterward (Acts 20:1-3). • <em>“I must go on to Rome!”:<\/em> Perhaps compelled by his proven strategy (see study note on 16:8), Paul wanted to proclaim the Good News in the most significant city in the world.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:21-22 felt compelled by the Spirit: No doubt Paul was troubled by what he had heard about the situation in Corinth (see 1 Corinthians Book Introduction). Instead of going immediately himself, he sent . . . Timothy, who was carrying a letter, 1 Corinthians, from Paul to the Corinthians (1 Cor 4:17; 16:10-11). Paul himself did go over to Macedonia and Achaia not long afterward (Acts 20:1-3). • “I must go on to Rome!”: Perhaps compelled by his proven strategy (see study note on 16:8), Paul wa...","summary_en":"19:21-22 felt compelled by the Spirit: No doubt Paul was troubled by what he had heard about the situation in Corinth (see 1 Corinthians Book Introduction). Instead of going immediately himself, he sent . . . Timothy, who was carrying a letter, 1 Corinthians, from Paul to the Corinthians (1 Cor 4:17; 16:10-11). Paul himself did go over to Macedonia and Achaia not long afterward (Acts 20:1-3). • “I must go on to Rome!”: Perhaps compelled by his proven strategy (see study note on 16:8), Paul wa...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112305,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:21","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:21-22<\/strong> <em>felt compelled by the Spirit:<\/em> No doubt Paul was troubled by what he had heard about the situation in Corinth (see 1 Corinthians Book Introduction). Instead of going immediately himself, <em>he sent<\/em> . . . <em>Timothy<\/em><em>,<\/em> who was carrying a letter, 1 Corinthians, from Paul to the Corinthians (1 Cor 4:17; 16:10-11). Paul himself did <em>go over to Macedonia and Achaia<\/em> not long afterward (Acts 20:1-3). • <em>“I must go on to Rome!”:<\/em> Perhaps compelled by his proven strategy (see study note on 16:8), Paul wanted to proclaim the Good News in the most significant city in the world.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:21-22<\/strong> <em>felt compelled by the Spirit:<\/em> No doubt Paul was troubled by what he had heard about the situation in Corinth (see 1 Corinthians Book Introduction). Instead of going immediately himself, <em>he sent<\/em> . . . <em>Timothy<\/em><em>,<\/em> who was carrying a letter, 1 Corinthians, from Paul to the Corinthians (1 Cor 4:17; 16:10-11). Paul himself did <em>go over to Macedonia and Achaia<\/em> not long afterward (Acts 20:1-3). • <em>“I must go on to Rome!”:<\/em> Perhaps compelled by his proven strategy (see study note on 16:8), Paul wanted to proclaim the Good News in the most significant city in the world.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:21-22 felt compelled by the Spirit: No doubt Paul was troubled by what he had heard about the situation in Corinth (see 1 Corinthians Book Introduction). Instead of going immediately himself, he sent . . . Timothy, who was carrying a letter, 1 Corinthians, from Paul to the Corinthians (1 Cor 4:17; 16:10-11). Paul himself did go over to Macedonia and Achaia not long afterward (Acts 20:1-3). • “I must go on to Rome!”: Perhaps compelled by his proven strategy (see study note on 16:8), Paul wa...","summary_en":"19:21-22 felt compelled by the Spirit: No doubt Paul was troubled by what he had heard about the situation in Corinth (see 1 Corinthians Book Introduction). Instead of going immediately himself, he sent . . . Timothy, who was carrying a letter, 1 Corinthians, from Paul to the Corinthians (1 Cor 4:17; 16:10-11). Paul himself did go over to Macedonia and Achaia not long afterward (Acts 20:1-3). • “I must go on to Rome!”: Perhaps compelled by his proven strategy (see study note on 16:8), Paul wa...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139931,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:21","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:21-22<\/strong> <em>felt compelled by the Spirit:<\/em> No doubt Paul was troubled by what he had heard about the situation in Corinth (see 1 Corinthians Book Introduction). Instead of going immediately himself, <em>he sent<\/em> . . . <em>Timothy<\/em><em>,<\/em> who was carrying a letter, 1 Corinthians, from Paul to the Corinthians (1 Cor 4:17; 16:10-11). Paul himself did <em>go over to Macedonia and Achaia<\/em> not long afterward (Acts 20:1-3). • <em>“I must go on to Rome!”:<\/em> Perhaps compelled by his proven strategy (see study note on 16:8), Paul wanted to proclaim the Good News in the most significant city in the world.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:21-22<\/strong> <em>felt compelled by the Spirit:<\/em> No doubt Paul was troubled by what he had heard about the situation in Corinth (see 1 Corinthians Book Introduction). Instead of going immediately himself, <em>he sent<\/em> . . . <em>Timothy<\/em><em>,<\/em> who was carrying a letter, 1 Corinthians, from Paul to the Corinthians (1 Cor 4:17; 16:10-11). Paul himself did <em>go over to Macedonia and Achaia<\/em> not long afterward (Acts 20:1-3). • <em>“I must go on to Rome!”:<\/em> Perhaps compelled by his proven strategy (see study note on 16:8), Paul wanted to proclaim the Good News in the most significant city in the world.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:21-22 felt compelled by the Spirit: No doubt Paul was troubled by what he had heard about the situation in Corinth (see 1 Corinthians Book Introduction). Instead of going immediately himself, he sent . . . Timothy, who was carrying a letter, 1 Corinthians, from Paul to the Corinthians (1 Cor 4:17; 16:10-11). Paul himself did go over to Macedonia and Achaia not long afterward (Acts 20:1-3). • “I must go on to Rome!”: Perhaps compelled by his proven strategy (see study note on 16:8), Paul wa...","summary_en":"19:21-22 felt compelled by the Spirit: No doubt Paul was troubled by what he had heard about the situation in Corinth (see 1 Corinthians Book Introduction). Instead of going immediately himself, he sent . . . Timothy, who was carrying a letter, 1 Corinthians, from Paul to the Corinthians (1 Cor 4:17; 16:10-11). Paul himself did go over to Macedonia and Achaia not long afterward (Acts 20:1-3). • “I must go on to Rome!”: Perhaps compelled by his proven strategy (see study note on 16:8), Paul wa...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"22":[{"id":42763,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Timothy","title_en":"Timothy","content_ro":"<h3>Timothy<\/h3>\n<p>Timothy traveled with Paul for much of his missionary career and was one of Paul’s best-loved and most trusted assistants. Two of Paul’s last letters were written to Timothy at a time when Timothy was providing leadership for the church in Ephesus, near the end of Paul’s life.<\/p>\n<p>Timothy had a devout mother and grandmother (2 Tim 1:5), and he was highly respected by the Christians in his hometown, Lystra, and in nearby Iconium. He joined Paul’s missionary team on Paul’s second missionary journey. Paul speaks of prophetic words that confirmed Timothy’s selection. Timothy also received a special gifting for service through the laying on of the hands of the elders and of Paul (1 Tim 1:18; 4:14; 2 Tim 1:6). Out of deference to the Jews in the area, Paul had Timothy circumcised (Acts 16:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Over the next fifteen years, Paul sent Timothy on special assignments to several different churches (Acts 19:22; 1 Cor 4:17; 16:10-11; Phil 2:19-23; 1 Thes 3:1-6; 1 Tim 1:3; see also Acts 17:14-15; 18:5). Paul included Timothy’s name as coauthor of several of his letters (2 Cor 1:1; Phil 1:1; Col 1:1; 1 Thes 1:1; 2 Thes 1:1; Phlm 1:1). It is clear that Paul had a close relationship with Timothy and held him in high regard (see Rom 16:21; 1 Cor 4:17; 1 Thes 3:2; 1 Tim 1:2; 6:11; 2 Tim 1:2). As Paul neared the end of his life and awaited his sentence in prison, he longed to see Timothy (2 Tim 1:3-4). Of all Paul’s coworkers, Timothy especially is commended for his selfless concern for Christ and his people (Phil 2:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>In Paul’s second letter to Timothy (2 Timothy), written shortly before Paul was killed, he encouraged Timothy to be bold and fearless in his proclamation of the Good News, willing to suffer for Christ (2 Tim 1:8; 2:1-3; 4:1-2, 5)—a strong word to one who might have been timid by nature (see 2 Tim 1:6-7). Timothy himself seems to have become a prisoner later on (Heb 13:23).<\/p>\n<p>Timothy was exemplary in the way he faithfully served the cause of Christ behind the scenes, devoting himself selflessly and with single-minded focus to the work of Christ and the people of Christ wherever help was needed. He serves as a reminder that believers should seek to become strong and effective witnesses for Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 16:1-3; 17:14-15; 18:5; 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Cor 4:17; 16:10-11; 2 Cor 1:1, 19; Phil 1:1; 2:19-23; Col 1:1; 1 Thes 1:1; 3:2-6; 2 Thes 1:1; 1–2 Tim; Phlm 1:1; Heb 13:23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Timothy<\/h3>\n<p>Timothy traveled with Paul for much of his missionary career and was one of Paul’s best-loved and most trusted assistants. Two of Paul’s last letters were written to Timothy at a time when Timothy was providing leadership for the church in Ephesus, near the end of Paul’s life.<\/p>\n<p>Timothy had a devout mother and grandmother (2 Tim 1:5), and he was highly respected by the Christians in his hometown, Lystra, and in nearby Iconium. He joined Paul’s missionary team on Paul’s second missionary journey. Paul speaks of prophetic words that confirmed Timothy’s selection. Timothy also received a special gifting for service through the laying on of the hands of the elders and of Paul (1 Tim 1:18; 4:14; 2 Tim 1:6). Out of deference to the Jews in the area, Paul had Timothy circumcised (Acts 16:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Over the next fifteen years, Paul sent Timothy on special assignments to several different churches (Acts 19:22; 1 Cor 4:17; 16:10-11; Phil 2:19-23; 1 Thes 3:1-6; 1 Tim 1:3; see also Acts 17:14-15; 18:5). Paul included Timothy’s name as coauthor of several of his letters (2 Cor 1:1; Phil 1:1; Col 1:1; 1 Thes 1:1; 2 Thes 1:1; Phlm 1:1). It is clear that Paul had a close relationship with Timothy and held him in high regard (see Rom 16:21; 1 Cor 4:17; 1 Thes 3:2; 1 Tim 1:2; 6:11; 2 Tim 1:2). As Paul neared the end of his life and awaited his sentence in prison, he longed to see Timothy (2 Tim 1:3-4). Of all Paul’s coworkers, Timothy especially is commended for his selfless concern for Christ and his people (Phil 2:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>In Paul’s second letter to Timothy (2 Timothy), written shortly before Paul was killed, he encouraged Timothy to be bold and fearless in his proclamation of the Good News, willing to suffer for Christ (2 Tim 1:8; 2:1-3; 4:1-2, 5)—a strong word to one who might have been timid by nature (see 2 Tim 1:6-7). Timothy himself seems to have become a prisoner later on (Heb 13:23).<\/p>\n<p>Timothy was exemplary in the way he faithfully served the cause of Christ behind the scenes, devoting himself selflessly and with single-minded focus to the work of Christ and the people of Christ wherever help was needed. He serves as a reminder that believers should seek to become strong and effective witnesses for Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 16:1-3; 17:14-15; 18:5; 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Cor 4:17; 16:10-11; 2 Cor 1:1, 19; Phil 1:1; 2:19-23; Col 1:1; 1 Thes 1:1; 3:2-6; 2 Thes 1:1; 1–2 Tim; Phlm 1:1; Heb 13:23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Timothy Timothy traveled with Paul for much of his missionary career and was one of Paul’s best-loved and most trusted assistants. Two of Paul’s last letters were written to Timothy at a time when Timothy was providing leadership for the church in Ephesus, near the end of Paul’s life. Timothy had a devout mother and grandmother (2 Tim 1:5), and he was highly respected by the Christians in his hometown, Lystra, and in nearby Iconium. He joined Paul’s missionary team on Paul’s second missionary...","summary_en":"Timothy Timothy traveled with Paul for much of his missionary career and was one of Paul’s best-loved and most trusted assistants. Two of Paul’s last letters were written to Timothy at a time when Timothy was providing leadership for the church in Ephesus, near the end of Paul’s life. Timothy had a devout mother and grandmother (2 Tim 1:5), and he was highly respected by the Christians in his hometown, Lystra, and in nearby Iconium. He joined Paul’s missionary team on Paul’s second missionary...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70389,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Timothy","title_en":"Timothy","content_ro":"<h3>Timothy<\/h3>\n<p>Timothy traveled with Paul for much of his missionary career and was one of Paul’s best-loved and most trusted assistants. Two of Paul’s last letters were written to Timothy at a time when Timothy was providing leadership for the church in Ephesus, near the end of Paul’s life.<\/p>\n<p>Timothy had a devout mother and grandmother (2 Tim 1:5), and he was highly respected by the Christians in his hometown, Lystra, and in nearby Iconium. He joined Paul’s missionary team on Paul’s second missionary journey. Paul speaks of prophetic words that confirmed Timothy’s selection. Timothy also received a special gifting for service through the laying on of the hands of the elders and of Paul (1 Tim 1:18; 4:14; 2 Tim 1:6). Out of deference to the Jews in the area, Paul had Timothy circumcised (Acts 16:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Over the next fifteen years, Paul sent Timothy on special assignments to several different churches (Acts 19:22; 1 Cor 4:17; 16:10-11; Phil 2:19-23; 1 Thes 3:1-6; 1 Tim 1:3; see also Acts 17:14-15; 18:5). Paul included Timothy’s name as coauthor of several of his letters (2 Cor 1:1; Phil 1:1; Col 1:1; 1 Thes 1:1; 2 Thes 1:1; Phlm 1:1). It is clear that Paul had a close relationship with Timothy and held him in high regard (see Rom 16:21; 1 Cor 4:17; 1 Thes 3:2; 1 Tim 1:2; 6:11; 2 Tim 1:2). As Paul neared the end of his life and awaited his sentence in prison, he longed to see Timothy (2 Tim 1:3-4). Of all Paul’s coworkers, Timothy especially is commended for his selfless concern for Christ and his people (Phil 2:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>In Paul’s second letter to Timothy (2 Timothy), written shortly before Paul was killed, he encouraged Timothy to be bold and fearless in his proclamation of the Good News, willing to suffer for Christ (2 Tim 1:8; 2:1-3; 4:1-2, 5)—a strong word to one who might have been timid by nature (see 2 Tim 1:6-7). Timothy himself seems to have become a prisoner later on (Heb 13:23).<\/p>\n<p>Timothy was exemplary in the way he faithfully served the cause of Christ behind the scenes, devoting himself selflessly and with single-minded focus to the work of Christ and the people of Christ wherever help was needed. He serves as a reminder that believers should seek to become strong and effective witnesses for Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 16:1-3; 17:14-15; 18:5; 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Cor 4:17; 16:10-11; 2 Cor 1:1, 19; Phil 1:1; 2:19-23; Col 1:1; 1 Thes 1:1; 3:2-6; 2 Thes 1:1; 1–2 Tim; Phlm 1:1; Heb 13:23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Timothy<\/h3>\n<p>Timothy traveled with Paul for much of his missionary career and was one of Paul’s best-loved and most trusted assistants. Two of Paul’s last letters were written to Timothy at a time when Timothy was providing leadership for the church in Ephesus, near the end of Paul’s life.<\/p>\n<p>Timothy had a devout mother and grandmother (2 Tim 1:5), and he was highly respected by the Christians in his hometown, Lystra, and in nearby Iconium. He joined Paul’s missionary team on Paul’s second missionary journey. Paul speaks of prophetic words that confirmed Timothy’s selection. Timothy also received a special gifting for service through the laying on of the hands of the elders and of Paul (1 Tim 1:18; 4:14; 2 Tim 1:6). Out of deference to the Jews in the area, Paul had Timothy circumcised (Acts 16:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Over the next fifteen years, Paul sent Timothy on special assignments to several different churches (Acts 19:22; 1 Cor 4:17; 16:10-11; Phil 2:19-23; 1 Thes 3:1-6; 1 Tim 1:3; see also Acts 17:14-15; 18:5). Paul included Timothy’s name as coauthor of several of his letters (2 Cor 1:1; Phil 1:1; Col 1:1; 1 Thes 1:1; 2 Thes 1:1; Phlm 1:1). It is clear that Paul had a close relationship with Timothy and held him in high regard (see Rom 16:21; 1 Cor 4:17; 1 Thes 3:2; 1 Tim 1:2; 6:11; 2 Tim 1:2). As Paul neared the end of his life and awaited his sentence in prison, he longed to see Timothy (2 Tim 1:3-4). Of all Paul’s coworkers, Timothy especially is commended for his selfless concern for Christ and his people (Phil 2:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>In Paul’s second letter to Timothy (2 Timothy), written shortly before Paul was killed, he encouraged Timothy to be bold and fearless in his proclamation of the Good News, willing to suffer for Christ (2 Tim 1:8; 2:1-3; 4:1-2, 5)—a strong word to one who might have been timid by nature (see 2 Tim 1:6-7). Timothy himself seems to have become a prisoner later on (Heb 13:23).<\/p>\n<p>Timothy was exemplary in the way he faithfully served the cause of Christ behind the scenes, devoting himself selflessly and with single-minded focus to the work of Christ and the people of Christ wherever help was needed. He serves as a reminder that believers should seek to become strong and effective witnesses for Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 16:1-3; 17:14-15; 18:5; 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Cor 4:17; 16:10-11; 2 Cor 1:1, 19; Phil 1:1; 2:19-23; Col 1:1; 1 Thes 1:1; 3:2-6; 2 Thes 1:1; 1–2 Tim; Phlm 1:1; Heb 13:23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Timothy Timothy traveled with Paul for much of his missionary career and was one of Paul’s best-loved and most trusted assistants. Two of Paul’s last letters were written to Timothy at a time when Timothy was providing leadership for the church in Ephesus, near the end of Paul’s life. Timothy had a devout mother and grandmother (2 Tim 1:5), and he was highly respected by the Christians in his hometown, Lystra, and in nearby Iconium. He joined Paul’s missionary team on Paul’s second missionary...","summary_en":"Timothy Timothy traveled with Paul for much of his missionary career and was one of Paul’s best-loved and most trusted assistants. Two of Paul’s last letters were written to Timothy at a time when Timothy was providing leadership for the church in Ephesus, near the end of Paul’s life. Timothy had a devout mother and grandmother (2 Tim 1:5), and he was highly respected by the Christians in his hometown, Lystra, and in nearby Iconium. He joined Paul’s missionary team on Paul’s second missionary...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98015,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Timothy","title_en":"Timothy","content_ro":"<h3>Timothy<\/h3>\n<p>Timothy traveled with Paul for much of his missionary career and was one of Paul’s best-loved and most trusted assistants. Two of Paul’s last letters were written to Timothy at a time when Timothy was providing leadership for the church in Ephesus, near the end of Paul’s life.<\/p>\n<p>Timothy had a devout mother and grandmother (2 Tim 1:5), and he was highly respected by the Christians in his hometown, Lystra, and in nearby Iconium. He joined Paul’s missionary team on Paul’s second missionary journey. Paul speaks of prophetic words that confirmed Timothy’s selection. Timothy also received a special gifting for service through the laying on of the hands of the elders and of Paul (1 Tim 1:18; 4:14; 2 Tim 1:6). Out of deference to the Jews in the area, Paul had Timothy circumcised (Acts 16:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Over the next fifteen years, Paul sent Timothy on special assignments to several different churches (Acts 19:22; 1 Cor 4:17; 16:10-11; Phil 2:19-23; 1 Thes 3:1-6; 1 Tim 1:3; see also Acts 17:14-15; 18:5). Paul included Timothy’s name as coauthor of several of his letters (2 Cor 1:1; Phil 1:1; Col 1:1; 1 Thes 1:1; 2 Thes 1:1; Phlm 1:1). It is clear that Paul had a close relationship with Timothy and held him in high regard (see Rom 16:21; 1 Cor 4:17; 1 Thes 3:2; 1 Tim 1:2; 6:11; 2 Tim 1:2). As Paul neared the end of his life and awaited his sentence in prison, he longed to see Timothy (2 Tim 1:3-4). Of all Paul’s coworkers, Timothy especially is commended for his selfless concern for Christ and his people (Phil 2:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>In Paul’s second letter to Timothy (2 Timothy), written shortly before Paul was killed, he encouraged Timothy to be bold and fearless in his proclamation of the Good News, willing to suffer for Christ (2 Tim 1:8; 2:1-3; 4:1-2, 5)—a strong word to one who might have been timid by nature (see 2 Tim 1:6-7). Timothy himself seems to have become a prisoner later on (Heb 13:23).<\/p>\n<p>Timothy was exemplary in the way he faithfully served the cause of Christ behind the scenes, devoting himself selflessly and with single-minded focus to the work of Christ and the people of Christ wherever help was needed. He serves as a reminder that believers should seek to become strong and effective witnesses for Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 16:1-3; 17:14-15; 18:5; 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Cor 4:17; 16:10-11; 2 Cor 1:1, 19; Phil 1:1; 2:19-23; Col 1:1; 1 Thes 1:1; 3:2-6; 2 Thes 1:1; 1–2 Tim; Phlm 1:1; Heb 13:23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Timothy<\/h3>\n<p>Timothy traveled with Paul for much of his missionary career and was one of Paul’s best-loved and most trusted assistants. Two of Paul’s last letters were written to Timothy at a time when Timothy was providing leadership for the church in Ephesus, near the end of Paul’s life.<\/p>\n<p>Timothy had a devout mother and grandmother (2 Tim 1:5), and he was highly respected by the Christians in his hometown, Lystra, and in nearby Iconium. He joined Paul’s missionary team on Paul’s second missionary journey. Paul speaks of prophetic words that confirmed Timothy’s selection. Timothy also received a special gifting for service through the laying on of the hands of the elders and of Paul (1 Tim 1:18; 4:14; 2 Tim 1:6). Out of deference to the Jews in the area, Paul had Timothy circumcised (Acts 16:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Over the next fifteen years, Paul sent Timothy on special assignments to several different churches (Acts 19:22; 1 Cor 4:17; 16:10-11; Phil 2:19-23; 1 Thes 3:1-6; 1 Tim 1:3; see also Acts 17:14-15; 18:5). Paul included Timothy’s name as coauthor of several of his letters (2 Cor 1:1; Phil 1:1; Col 1:1; 1 Thes 1:1; 2 Thes 1:1; Phlm 1:1). It is clear that Paul had a close relationship with Timothy and held him in high regard (see Rom 16:21; 1 Cor 4:17; 1 Thes 3:2; 1 Tim 1:2; 6:11; 2 Tim 1:2). As Paul neared the end of his life and awaited his sentence in prison, he longed to see Timothy (2 Tim 1:3-4). Of all Paul’s coworkers, Timothy especially is commended for his selfless concern for Christ and his people (Phil 2:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>In Paul’s second letter to Timothy (2 Timothy), written shortly before Paul was killed, he encouraged Timothy to be bold and fearless in his proclamation of the Good News, willing to suffer for Christ (2 Tim 1:8; 2:1-3; 4:1-2, 5)—a strong word to one who might have been timid by nature (see 2 Tim 1:6-7). Timothy himself seems to have become a prisoner later on (Heb 13:23).<\/p>\n<p>Timothy was exemplary in the way he faithfully served the cause of Christ behind the scenes, devoting himself selflessly and with single-minded focus to the work of Christ and the people of Christ wherever help was needed. He serves as a reminder that believers should seek to become strong and effective witnesses for Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 16:1-3; 17:14-15; 18:5; 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Cor 4:17; 16:10-11; 2 Cor 1:1, 19; Phil 1:1; 2:19-23; Col 1:1; 1 Thes 1:1; 3:2-6; 2 Thes 1:1; 1–2 Tim; Phlm 1:1; Heb 13:23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Timothy Timothy traveled with Paul for much of his missionary career and was one of Paul’s best-loved and most trusted assistants. Two of Paul’s last letters were written to Timothy at a time when Timothy was providing leadership for the church in Ephesus, near the end of Paul’s life. Timothy had a devout mother and grandmother (2 Tim 1:5), and he was highly respected by the Christians in his hometown, Lystra, and in nearby Iconium. He joined Paul’s missionary team on Paul’s second missionary...","summary_en":"Timothy Timothy traveled with Paul for much of his missionary career and was one of Paul’s best-loved and most trusted assistants. Two of Paul’s last letters were written to Timothy at a time when Timothy was providing leadership for the church in Ephesus, near the end of Paul’s life. Timothy had a devout mother and grandmother (2 Tim 1:5), and he was highly respected by the Christians in his hometown, Lystra, and in nearby Iconium. He joined Paul’s missionary team on Paul’s second missionary...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":125641,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Timothy","title_en":"Timothy","content_ro":"<h3>Timothy<\/h3>\n<p>Timothy traveled with Paul for much of his missionary career and was one of Paul’s best-loved and most trusted assistants. Two of Paul’s last letters were written to Timothy at a time when Timothy was providing leadership for the church in Ephesus, near the end of Paul’s life.<\/p>\n<p>Timothy had a devout mother and grandmother (2 Tim 1:5), and he was highly respected by the Christians in his hometown, Lystra, and in nearby Iconium. He joined Paul’s missionary team on Paul’s second missionary journey. Paul speaks of prophetic words that confirmed Timothy’s selection. Timothy also received a special gifting for service through the laying on of the hands of the elders and of Paul (1 Tim 1:18; 4:14; 2 Tim 1:6). Out of deference to the Jews in the area, Paul had Timothy circumcised (Acts 16:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Over the next fifteen years, Paul sent Timothy on special assignments to several different churches (Acts 19:22; 1 Cor 4:17; 16:10-11; Phil 2:19-23; 1 Thes 3:1-6; 1 Tim 1:3; see also Acts 17:14-15; 18:5). Paul included Timothy’s name as coauthor of several of his letters (2 Cor 1:1; Phil 1:1; Col 1:1; 1 Thes 1:1; 2 Thes 1:1; Phlm 1:1). It is clear that Paul had a close relationship with Timothy and held him in high regard (see Rom 16:21; 1 Cor 4:17; 1 Thes 3:2; 1 Tim 1:2; 6:11; 2 Tim 1:2). As Paul neared the end of his life and awaited his sentence in prison, he longed to see Timothy (2 Tim 1:3-4). Of all Paul’s coworkers, Timothy especially is commended for his selfless concern for Christ and his people (Phil 2:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>In Paul’s second letter to Timothy (2 Timothy), written shortly before Paul was killed, he encouraged Timothy to be bold and fearless in his proclamation of the Good News, willing to suffer for Christ (2 Tim 1:8; 2:1-3; 4:1-2, 5)—a strong word to one who might have been timid by nature (see 2 Tim 1:6-7). Timothy himself seems to have become a prisoner later on (Heb 13:23).<\/p>\n<p>Timothy was exemplary in the way he faithfully served the cause of Christ behind the scenes, devoting himself selflessly and with single-minded focus to the work of Christ and the people of Christ wherever help was needed. He serves as a reminder that believers should seek to become strong and effective witnesses for Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 16:1-3; 17:14-15; 18:5; 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Cor 4:17; 16:10-11; 2 Cor 1:1, 19; Phil 1:1; 2:19-23; Col 1:1; 1 Thes 1:1; 3:2-6; 2 Thes 1:1; 1–2 Tim; Phlm 1:1; Heb 13:23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Timothy<\/h3>\n<p>Timothy traveled with Paul for much of his missionary career and was one of Paul’s best-loved and most trusted assistants. Two of Paul’s last letters were written to Timothy at a time when Timothy was providing leadership for the church in Ephesus, near the end of Paul’s life.<\/p>\n<p>Timothy had a devout mother and grandmother (2 Tim 1:5), and he was highly respected by the Christians in his hometown, Lystra, and in nearby Iconium. He joined Paul’s missionary team on Paul’s second missionary journey. Paul speaks of prophetic words that confirmed Timothy’s selection. Timothy also received a special gifting for service through the laying on of the hands of the elders and of Paul (1 Tim 1:18; 4:14; 2 Tim 1:6). Out of deference to the Jews in the area, Paul had Timothy circumcised (Acts 16:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Over the next fifteen years, Paul sent Timothy on special assignments to several different churches (Acts 19:22; 1 Cor 4:17; 16:10-11; Phil 2:19-23; 1 Thes 3:1-6; 1 Tim 1:3; see also Acts 17:14-15; 18:5). Paul included Timothy’s name as coauthor of several of his letters (2 Cor 1:1; Phil 1:1; Col 1:1; 1 Thes 1:1; 2 Thes 1:1; Phlm 1:1). It is clear that Paul had a close relationship with Timothy and held him in high regard (see Rom 16:21; 1 Cor 4:17; 1 Thes 3:2; 1 Tim 1:2; 6:11; 2 Tim 1:2). As Paul neared the end of his life and awaited his sentence in prison, he longed to see Timothy (2 Tim 1:3-4). Of all Paul’s coworkers, Timothy especially is commended for his selfless concern for Christ and his people (Phil 2:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>In Paul’s second letter to Timothy (2 Timothy), written shortly before Paul was killed, he encouraged Timothy to be bold and fearless in his proclamation of the Good News, willing to suffer for Christ (2 Tim 1:8; 2:1-3; 4:1-2, 5)—a strong word to one who might have been timid by nature (see 2 Tim 1:6-7). Timothy himself seems to have become a prisoner later on (Heb 13:23).<\/p>\n<p>Timothy was exemplary in the way he faithfully served the cause of Christ behind the scenes, devoting himself selflessly and with single-minded focus to the work of Christ and the people of Christ wherever help was needed. He serves as a reminder that believers should seek to become strong and effective witnesses for Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 16:1-3; 17:14-15; 18:5; 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Cor 4:17; 16:10-11; 2 Cor 1:1, 19; Phil 1:1; 2:19-23; Col 1:1; 1 Thes 1:1; 3:2-6; 2 Thes 1:1; 1–2 Tim; Phlm 1:1; Heb 13:23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Timothy Timothy traveled with Paul for much of his missionary career and was one of Paul’s best-loved and most trusted assistants. Two of Paul’s last letters were written to Timothy at a time when Timothy was providing leadership for the church in Ephesus, near the end of Paul’s life. Timothy had a devout mother and grandmother (2 Tim 1:5), and he was highly respected by the Christians in his hometown, Lystra, and in nearby Iconium. He joined Paul’s missionary team on Paul’s second missionary...","summary_en":"Timothy Timothy traveled with Paul for much of his missionary career and was one of Paul’s best-loved and most trusted assistants. Two of Paul’s last letters were written to Timothy at a time when Timothy was providing leadership for the church in Ephesus, near the end of Paul’s life. Timothy had a devout mother and grandmother (2 Tim 1:5), and he was highly respected by the Christians in his hometown, Lystra, and in nearby Iconium. He joined Paul’s missionary team on Paul’s second missionary...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10934,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ephesus","title_en":"Ephesus","content_ro":"<h3>EPHESUS<\/h3>\n<p>Most important city of the Roman province of Asia, located on the western shore of Asia Minor (modern Turkey). Ephesus was built on a natural harbor whose waves, according to the Roman writer Pliny the Elder, “used to wash up to the temple of Diana.” Ephesus was described by Strabo, an early Greek geographer, as the largest commercial center west of the Taurus Mountains. It was also well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis, or as the Romans called her, Diana (Acts 19:34).<\/p>\n<p>Christianity’s threat to that pagan temple and to the commerce it produced for the makers of idols almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 30-31). Priscilla and Aquila were associated with the early preaching in Ephesus (18:18-19), as were Timothy (1 Tm 1:3) and Erastus (Acts 19:22). According to Irenaeus, an early Christian writer, the apostle John, after his exile on the island of Patmos (Rv 1:9), returned to live in Ephesus until the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). The commendable practices of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned by the time John wrote the book of Revelation (Rv 2:4).<\/p>\n\n<p>Ephesus was founded by Ionian Greeks at a location where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea. It had been a city for about 1,000 years when Paul arrived there on his third missionary journey. The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was as ancient as the city itself. The temple, built in the middle of the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>, was the largest edifice in the Hellenistic world and the first of monumental size ever to be constructed entirely of marble. Two excavated images of Artemis, magnificently sculpted in marble, date to the period of the emperors Domitian and Hadrian (the lifetime of the apostle John). The temple of Diana, “mother of the gods,” was considered one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Although persistent effort by British archaeologist J. T. Wood resulted in the temple’s discovery in 1869, its great altar was not found until recently. Excavation has shown the altar to be larger than the later altar of Zeus at Pergamum. The original temple was partially destroyed in 356 <span>BC<\/span> but was later rebuilt on its original plan.<\/p>\n<p>Excavations have also uncovered the theater mentioned in Acts 19:29. Situated next to the main shopping area (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">agora<\/span>), it is known to have seated 24,000 people in three tiers. The theater was 495 feet (151 meters) in diameter with two doors opening to the most impressive street in Ephesus. That street, leading to the harbor, was about 35 feet (10.5 meters) wide and was flanked by tall columns. It passed through a magnificent monumental gateway on its western end. In the other direction the road continued around the theater and marketplace, making its way southeast between Mt Koressos and Mt Pion. It became narrower and was bordered by lovely fountains, civic buildings, houses, shops, a library, baths, and a small theater, which probably doubled as a council chamber for city officials.<\/p>\n<p>Ephesus was a wealthy city. The multistoried residences of its upper-middle-class society rested on the north terraces of Mt Koressos. Some homes had mosaic floors and marble walls. Two were found with heated bathrooms. Many had running water. The moral status of the city can be partially ascertained from a centrally located house of prostitution and gambling tables; fertility motifs are evident in the exaggerated sexual features of the Diana statues.<\/p>\n<p>The impact of Christianity was felt in Ephesus for centuries. The third ecumenical council was held there in <span>AD<\/span> 431 (in the Church of Mary northwest of the theater), a council that established Mary’s place as the “Mother of God” in Western Catholic theology. By that time Diana, whose temple had been burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, was no longer influential among the Ephesians. The truth of Paul’s message that “gods made with hands are not gods” (Acts 19:26) had to some extent been realized.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Ephesians, Letter to the.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EPHESUS<\/h3>\n<p>Most important city of the Roman province of Asia, located on the western shore of Asia Minor (modern Turkey). Ephesus was built on a natural harbor whose waves, according to the Roman writer Pliny the Elder, “used to wash up to the temple of Diana.” Ephesus was described by Strabo, an early Greek geographer, as the largest commercial center west of the Taurus Mountains. It was also well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis, or as the Romans called her, Diana (Acts 19:34).<\/p>\n<p>Christianity’s threat to that pagan temple and to the commerce it produced for the makers of idols almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 30-31). Priscilla and Aquila were associated with the early preaching in Ephesus (18:18-19), as were Timothy (1 Tm 1:3) and Erastus (Acts 19:22). According to Irenaeus, an early Christian writer, the apostle John, after his exile on the island of Patmos (Rv 1:9), returned to live in Ephesus until the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). The commendable practices of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned by the time John wrote the book of Revelation (Rv 2:4).<\/p>\n\n<p>Ephesus was founded by Ionian Greeks at a location where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea. It had been a city for about 1,000 years when Paul arrived there on his third missionary journey. The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was as ancient as the city itself. The temple, built in the middle of the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>, was the largest edifice in the Hellenistic world and the first of monumental size ever to be constructed entirely of marble. Two excavated images of Artemis, magnificently sculpted in marble, date to the period of the emperors Domitian and Hadrian (the lifetime of the apostle John). The temple of Diana, “mother of the gods,” was considered one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Although persistent effort by British archaeologist J. T. Wood resulted in the temple’s discovery in 1869, its great altar was not found until recently. Excavation has shown the altar to be larger than the later altar of Zeus at Pergamum. The original temple was partially destroyed in 356 <span>BC<\/span> but was later rebuilt on its original plan.<\/p>\n<p>Excavations have also uncovered the theater mentioned in Acts 19:29. Situated next to the main shopping area (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">agora<\/span>), it is known to have seated 24,000 people in three tiers. The theater was 495 feet (151 meters) in diameter with two doors opening to the most impressive street in Ephesus. That street, leading to the harbor, was about 35 feet (10.5 meters) wide and was flanked by tall columns. It passed through a magnificent monumental gateway on its western end. In the other direction the road continued around the theater and marketplace, making its way southeast between Mt Koressos and Mt Pion. It became narrower and was bordered by lovely fountains, civic buildings, houses, shops, a library, baths, and a small theater, which probably doubled as a council chamber for city officials.<\/p>\n<p>Ephesus was a wealthy city. The multistoried residences of its upper-middle-class society rested on the north terraces of Mt Koressos. Some homes had mosaic floors and marble walls. Two were found with heated bathrooms. Many had running water. The moral status of the city can be partially ascertained from a centrally located house of prostitution and gambling tables; fertility motifs are evident in the exaggerated sexual features of the Diana statues.<\/p>\n<p>The impact of Christianity was felt in Ephesus for centuries. The third ecumenical council was held there in <span>AD<\/span> 431 (in the Church of Mary northwest of the theater), a council that established Mary’s place as the “Mother of God” in Western Catholic theology. By that time Diana, whose temple had been burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, was no longer influential among the Ephesians. The truth of Paul’s message that “gods made with hands are not gods” (Acts 19:26) had to some extent been realized.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Ephesians, Letter to the.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EPHESUS Most important city of the Roman province of Asia, located on the western shore of Asia Minor (modern Turkey). Ephesus was built on a natural harbor whose waves, according to the Roman writer Pliny the Elder, “used to wash up to the temple of Diana.” Ephesus was described by Strabo, an early Greek geographer, as the largest commercial center west of the Taurus Mountains. It was also well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis, or as the Romans called her, Diana (Acts 19:34)....","summary_en":"EPHESUS Most important city of the Roman province of Asia, located on the western shore of Asia Minor (modern Turkey). Ephesus was built on a natural harbor whose waves, according to the Roman writer Pliny the Elder, “used to wash up to the temple of Diana.” Ephesus was described by Strabo, an early Greek geographer, as the largest commercial center west of the Taurus Mountains. It was also well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis, or as the Romans called her, Diana (Acts 19:34)....","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11035,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Erastus","title_en":"Erastus","content_ro":"<h3>ERASTUS<\/h3>\n<p>Name mentioned three times in the NT. Whether only one individual is being referred to cannot be ascertained, although in each case Erastus is an associate of Paul’s. The three instances are (1) a helper of Paul sent with Timothy into Macedonia (Acts 19:22); (2) the city treasurer of Corinth (a steward of financial affairs, possibly a slave or freedman of some wealth and an important man in the Corinthian community), who sends greetings with Paul to the church in Rome (Rom 16:23); and (3) a friend of Paul’s who stayed at Corinth (2 Tm 4:20).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ERASTUS<\/h3>\n<p>Name mentioned three times in the NT. Whether only one individual is being referred to cannot be ascertained, although in each case Erastus is an associate of Paul’s. The three instances are (1) a helper of Paul sent with Timothy into Macedonia (Acts 19:22); (2) the city treasurer of Corinth (a steward of financial affairs, possibly a slave or freedman of some wealth and an important man in the Corinthian community), who sends greetings with Paul to the church in Rome (Rom 16:23); and (3) a friend of Paul’s who stayed at Corinth (2 Tm 4:20).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ERASTUS Name mentioned three times in the NT. Whether only one individual is being referred to cannot be ascertained, although in each case Erastus is an associate of Paul’s. The three instances are (1) a helper of Paul sent with Timothy into Macedonia (Acts 19:22); (2) the city treasurer of Corinth (a steward of financial affairs, possibly a slave or freedman of some wealth and an important man in the Corinthian community), who sends greetings with Paul to the church in Rome (Rom 16:23); and...","summary_en":"ERASTUS Name mentioned three times in the NT. Whether only one individual is being referred to cannot be ascertained, although in each case Erastus is an associate of Paul’s. The three instances are (1) a helper of Paul sent with Timothy into Macedonia (Acts 19:22); (2) the city treasurer of Corinth (a steward of financial affairs, possibly a slave or freedman of some wealth and an important man in the Corinthian community), who sends greetings with Paul to the church in Rome (Rom 16:23); and...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29170,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Paul, the Apostle","title_en":"Paul, the Apostle","content_ro":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","summary_en":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37336,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Timothy (Person)","title_en":"Timothy (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>TIMOTHY (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Paul’s convert and companion, whose name means “one who honors God.”<\/p>\n<p>Timothy first appears in Acts 16:1-3 as Paul’s disciple whose mother “was a believer; but his father was a Greek” (v 1). He was a third-generation Christian after his mother, Eunice, and grandmother, Lois (2 Tm 1:5). The apostle Paul, undoubtedly Timothy’s spiritual father, refers to him as “my true child in the faith” (1 Tm 1:2); he perhaps converted Timothy on his first or second missionary journey. The son of a Greek (or Gentile) father, Timothy was yet uncircumcised; however, when Paul decided to take Timothy with him on the second journey, he had him circumcised so as not to hinder their missionary endeavors among the Jews.<\/p>\n<p>Timothy, who was well spoken of by the believers at Lystra and Iconium (Acts 16:2), became Paul’s companion and assistant on his second missionary journey at Lystra. He traveled with Paul into Europe following the Macedonian vision. When Paul decided to go to Athens, he left Silas and Timothy at Berea to establish the church there (17:14). Timothy and Silas eventually joined Paul in Corinth (18:5). He next appears with Paul in Ephesus on his third journey (19:22), from where Paul sends him into Macedonia ahead of himself. In the last mention of Timothy in Acts 20:4, he was included in the list of goodwill ambassadors who were to accompany Paul to Jerusalem with the offering for the Christian Jews.<\/p>\n<p>Timothy is often mentioned in the Pauline letters. His name is included in the introductory salutations of 2 Corinthians, Philippians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon. Timothy’s presence with Paul when he wrote these letters confirms the accuracy of the references to him in Acts. He was in Corinth on the second journey when Paul wrote 1 and 2 Thessalonians, at Ephesus on the third journey when Paul wrote 2 Corinthians, and in Rome during Paul’s first Roman imprisonment, when he wrote Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon. He is mentioned in the introductions of 1 and 2 Timothy as the recipient of those two letters.<\/p>\n<p>In the closing salutations of Romans 16:21, Timothy is listed along with others who send their good wishes to the believers in Rome. In 1 Corinthians 4:17 and 16:10, Paul speaks words of praise for Timothy as he sends him with a message to Corinth (see also Phil 2:19-23; 1 Thes 3:2-6). In 2 Corinthians 1:19 Timothy is named, along with Paul and Silas, as men who were proclaiming the good news about Jesus Christ. Paul put Timothy in charge of the church at Ephesus and wrote him two pastoral letters to help him perform that responsible task.<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrews 13:23 the author (probably not Paul) tells his readers that Timothy had been released from prison, and that he hoped to come with Timothy to visit the readers of that letter. By this note, we know that Timothy experienced imprisonment.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Timothy, First Letter to; Timothy, Second Letter to.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TIMOTHY (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Paul’s convert and companion, whose name means “one who honors God.”<\/p>\n<p>Timothy first appears in Acts 16:1-3 as Paul’s disciple whose mother “was a believer; but his father was a Greek” (v 1). He was a third-generation Christian after his mother, Eunice, and grandmother, Lois (2 Tm 1:5). The apostle Paul, undoubtedly Timothy’s spiritual father, refers to him as “my true child in the faith” (1 Tm 1:2); he perhaps converted Timothy on his first or second missionary journey. The son of a Greek (or Gentile) father, Timothy was yet uncircumcised; however, when Paul decided to take Timothy with him on the second journey, he had him circumcised so as not to hinder their missionary endeavors among the Jews.<\/p>\n<p>Timothy, who was well spoken of by the believers at Lystra and Iconium (Acts 16:2), became Paul’s companion and assistant on his second missionary journey at Lystra. He traveled with Paul into Europe following the Macedonian vision. When Paul decided to go to Athens, he left Silas and Timothy at Berea to establish the church there (17:14). Timothy and Silas eventually joined Paul in Corinth (18:5). He next appears with Paul in Ephesus on his third journey (19:22), from where Paul sends him into Macedonia ahead of himself. In the last mention of Timothy in Acts 20:4, he was included in the list of goodwill ambassadors who were to accompany Paul to Jerusalem with the offering for the Christian Jews.<\/p>\n<p>Timothy is often mentioned in the Pauline letters. His name is included in the introductory salutations of 2 Corinthians, Philippians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon. Timothy’s presence with Paul when he wrote these letters confirms the accuracy of the references to him in Acts. He was in Corinth on the second journey when Paul wrote 1 and 2 Thessalonians, at Ephesus on the third journey when Paul wrote 2 Corinthians, and in Rome during Paul’s first Roman imprisonment, when he wrote Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon. He is mentioned in the introductions of 1 and 2 Timothy as the recipient of those two letters.<\/p>\n<p>In the closing salutations of Romans 16:21, Timothy is listed along with others who send their good wishes to the believers in Rome. In 1 Corinthians 4:17 and 16:10, Paul speaks words of praise for Timothy as he sends him with a message to Corinth (see also Phil 2:19-23; 1 Thes 3:2-6). In 2 Corinthians 1:19 Timothy is named, along with Paul and Silas, as men who were proclaiming the good news about Jesus Christ. Paul put Timothy in charge of the church at Ephesus and wrote him two pastoral letters to help him perform that responsible task.<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrews 13:23 the author (probably not Paul) tells his readers that Timothy had been released from prison, and that he hoped to come with Timothy to visit the readers of that letter. By this note, we know that Timothy experienced imprisonment.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Timothy, First Letter to; Timothy, Second Letter to.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TIMOTHY (Person) Paul’s convert and companion, whose name means “one who honors God.” Timothy first appears in Acts 16:1-3 as Paul’s disciple whose mother “was a believer; but his father was a Greek” (v 1). He was a third-generation Christian after his mother, Eunice, and grandmother, Lois (2 Tm 1:5). The apostle Paul, undoubtedly Timothy’s spiritual father, refers to him as “my true child in the faith” (1 Tm 1:2); he perhaps converted Timothy on his first or second missionary journey. The so...","summary_en":"TIMOTHY (Person) Paul’s convert and companion, whose name means “one who honors God.” Timothy first appears in Acts 16:1-3 as Paul’s disciple whose mother “was a believer; but his father was a Greek” (v 1). He was a third-generation Christian after his mother, Eunice, and grandmother, Lois (2 Tm 1:5). The apostle Paul, undoubtedly Timothy’s spiritual father, refers to him as “my true child in the faith” (1 Tm 1:2); he perhaps converted Timothy on his first or second missionary journey. The so...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"23":[{"id":42697,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rome","title_en":"Rome","content_ro":"<h3>Rome<\/h3>\n<p>In the first century <span>AD<\/span> Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\n<p>The Founding and Early Growth of Rome<\/p>\n<p>Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 <span>BC<\/span> on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate.<\/p>\n<p>Around 600 <span>BC<\/span> the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous works, including the forum, which became the social, commercial, and political center for the city, and a temple for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Rome was now linked by roads to the Etruscans in the north, to the Greek trading cities in the south, to the sea to the west, and to the inland highlands to the east.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman Republic<\/p>\n<p>When Rome’s kings became autocratic, the Latin population rebelled. In 509 <span>BC<\/span>, Rome established a “republic,” an oligarchy of the powerful families who controlled the Senate. The small city-state steadily gained control of the region, expanding their influence across the Mediterranean. In 273 <span>BC<\/span> they made a treaty with the Ptolemies of Egypt. They expanded into North Africa, defeating the rival city-state Carthage in the course of the three Punic Wars (264–146 <span>BC<\/span>), and pressed on into Spain. Rome’s many conquests brought enormous wealth.<\/p>\n<p>With geographical expansion came social changes in Italy. Between 200 and 100 <span>BC<\/span>, rich landowners bought out small independent farmers, who subsequently drifted into Rome, landless and unemployed. Huge, overcrowded slums appeared alongside the vast wealth and magnificent buildings. The foundations of the republic were cracking under the strain of popular discontent.<\/p>\n<p>The Beginning of the Empire: Julius and Octavian<\/p>\n<p>During this time of social and political upheaval, Julius Caesar pursued an ambitious and tumultuous career which sought to centralize power in his own person. Senators who favored the old republic assassinated him in 44 <span>BC<\/span>, but their action ultimately backfired: Julius’s grandnephew and heir, Octavian, became a senator, consul, and the commander-in-chief in 43 <span>BC<\/span> with the support of the Senate. The Senate also deified Julius in 42 <span>BC<\/span>. After Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 <span>BC<\/span> and took control of Egypt, the Senate gave him the titles Augustus (“illustrious”) and Princeps (“first citizen”) in 27 <span>BC<\/span>, and Octavian began to call himself “son of a god” because of Julius’s divine status. The form of a republic survived, but the reality of a divine emperor had arrived.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the Birth of the Church<\/p>\n<p>“When the right time came, God sent his Son” (Gal 4:4). The change into an empire brought peace and stability, a <em>pax Romana<\/em> (“Roman peace”) that lasted well into the 100s <span>AD<\/span>. Many observers have noted that Roman rule during the first century <span>AD<\/span> provided the ideal setting for the spread of Christianity. The borders were secure and the roads were good, making travel relatively trouble-free. Roman laws and customs protected the rights of its citizens (see, e.g., Acts 16:35-40; 22:24-29). Judaism was protected, and the Romans viewed Christianity as a sect within Judaism (see, e.g., Acts 25:13-19). As a result, the Romans largely rejected complaints against Christians on religious grounds (see, e.g., Acts 19:23-41). Christians were free to proclaim the Good News about Jesus, and many people of all nationalities became followers of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The Changing Status of Christianity<\/p>\n<p>This favorable situation began to change in the time of Nero. Nero blamed Christians for the fire that destroyed a good part of Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 64, and he proceeded with the first large-scale persecution of Christians. The overt persecution ceased in <span>AD<\/span> 66, but Christianity was no longer viewed as a sect of Judaism and lost its protected status. It later became imperial policy to require people to burn incense to the emperor—those who refused were usually either Jews (who were protected) or Christians (who were not). As a result, from the time of Domitian (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) to Galerius (<span>AD<\/span> 305–311), Christianity was officially illegal, punishable by death, and persecuted to varying extents depending on the zeal of those in power. Thus for over two hundred years Rome drank “the blood of God’s holy people who were witnesses for Jesus” (Rev 17:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:1-7, 15; 2 Tim 1:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rome<\/h3>\n<p>In the first century <span>AD<\/span> Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\n<p>The Founding and Early Growth of Rome<\/p>\n<p>Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 <span>BC<\/span> on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate.<\/p>\n<p>Around 600 <span>BC<\/span> the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous works, including the forum, which became the social, commercial, and political center for the city, and a temple for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Rome was now linked by roads to the Etruscans in the north, to the Greek trading cities in the south, to the sea to the west, and to the inland highlands to the east.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman Republic<\/p>\n<p>When Rome’s kings became autocratic, the Latin population rebelled. In 509 <span>BC<\/span>, Rome established a “republic,” an oligarchy of the powerful families who controlled the Senate. The small city-state steadily gained control of the region, expanding their influence across the Mediterranean. In 273 <span>BC<\/span> they made a treaty with the Ptolemies of Egypt. They expanded into North Africa, defeating the rival city-state Carthage in the course of the three Punic Wars (264–146 <span>BC<\/span>), and pressed on into Spain. Rome’s many conquests brought enormous wealth.<\/p>\n<p>With geographical expansion came social changes in Italy. Between 200 and 100 <span>BC<\/span>, rich landowners bought out small independent farmers, who subsequently drifted into Rome, landless and unemployed. Huge, overcrowded slums appeared alongside the vast wealth and magnificent buildings. The foundations of the republic were cracking under the strain of popular discontent.<\/p>\n<p>The Beginning of the Empire: Julius and Octavian<\/p>\n<p>During this time of social and political upheaval, Julius Caesar pursued an ambitious and tumultuous career which sought to centralize power in his own person. Senators who favored the old republic assassinated him in 44 <span>BC<\/span>, but their action ultimately backfired: Julius’s grandnephew and heir, Octavian, became a senator, consul, and the commander-in-chief in 43 <span>BC<\/span> with the support of the Senate. The Senate also deified Julius in 42 <span>BC<\/span>. After Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 <span>BC<\/span> and took control of Egypt, the Senate gave him the titles Augustus (“illustrious”) and Princeps (“first citizen”) in 27 <span>BC<\/span>, and Octavian began to call himself “son of a god” because of Julius’s divine status. The form of a republic survived, but the reality of a divine emperor had arrived.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the Birth of the Church<\/p>\n<p>“When the right time came, God sent his Son” (Gal 4:4). The change into an empire brought peace and stability, a <em>pax Romana<\/em> (“Roman peace”) that lasted well into the 100s <span>AD<\/span>. Many observers have noted that Roman rule during the first century <span>AD<\/span> provided the ideal setting for the spread of Christianity. The borders were secure and the roads were good, making travel relatively trouble-free. Roman laws and customs protected the rights of its citizens (see, e.g., Acts 16:35-40; 22:24-29). Judaism was protected, and the Romans viewed Christianity as a sect within Judaism (see, e.g., Acts 25:13-19). As a result, the Romans largely rejected complaints against Christians on religious grounds (see, e.g., Acts 19:23-41). Christians were free to proclaim the Good News about Jesus, and many people of all nationalities became followers of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The Changing Status of Christianity<\/p>\n<p>This favorable situation began to change in the time of Nero. Nero blamed Christians for the fire that destroyed a good part of Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 64, and he proceeded with the first large-scale persecution of Christians. The overt persecution ceased in <span>AD<\/span> 66, but Christianity was no longer viewed as a sect of Judaism and lost its protected status. It later became imperial policy to require people to burn incense to the emperor—those who refused were usually either Jews (who were protected) or Christians (who were not). As a result, from the time of Domitian (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) to Galerius (<span>AD<\/span> 305–311), Christianity was officially illegal, punishable by death, and persecuted to varying extents depending on the zeal of those in power. Thus for over two hundred years Rome drank “the blood of God’s holy people who were witnesses for Jesus” (Rev 17:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:1-7, 15; 2 Tim 1:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rome In the first century AD Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world. The Founding and Early Growth of Rome Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 BC on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate. Around 600 BC the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous ...","summary_en":"Rome In the first century AD Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world. The Founding and Early Growth of Rome Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 BC on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate. Around 600 BC the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70323,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rome","title_en":"Rome","content_ro":"<h3>Rome<\/h3>\n<p>In the first century <span>AD<\/span> Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\n<p>The Founding and Early Growth of Rome<\/p>\n<p>Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 <span>BC<\/span> on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate.<\/p>\n<p>Around 600 <span>BC<\/span> the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous works, including the forum, which became the social, commercial, and political center for the city, and a temple for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Rome was now linked by roads to the Etruscans in the north, to the Greek trading cities in the south, to the sea to the west, and to the inland highlands to the east.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman Republic<\/p>\n<p>When Rome’s kings became autocratic, the Latin population rebelled. In 509 <span>BC<\/span>, Rome established a “republic,” an oligarchy of the powerful families who controlled the Senate. The small city-state steadily gained control of the region, expanding their influence across the Mediterranean. In 273 <span>BC<\/span> they made a treaty with the Ptolemies of Egypt. They expanded into North Africa, defeating the rival city-state Carthage in the course of the three Punic Wars (264–146 <span>BC<\/span>), and pressed on into Spain. Rome’s many conquests brought enormous wealth.<\/p>\n<p>With geographical expansion came social changes in Italy. Between 200 and 100 <span>BC<\/span>, rich landowners bought out small independent farmers, who subsequently drifted into Rome, landless and unemployed. Huge, overcrowded slums appeared alongside the vast wealth and magnificent buildings. The foundations of the republic were cracking under the strain of popular discontent.<\/p>\n<p>The Beginning of the Empire: Julius and Octavian<\/p>\n<p>During this time of social and political upheaval, Julius Caesar pursued an ambitious and tumultuous career which sought to centralize power in his own person. Senators who favored the old republic assassinated him in 44 <span>BC<\/span>, but their action ultimately backfired: Julius’s grandnephew and heir, Octavian, became a senator, consul, and the commander-in-chief in 43 <span>BC<\/span> with the support of the Senate. The Senate also deified Julius in 42 <span>BC<\/span>. After Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 <span>BC<\/span> and took control of Egypt, the Senate gave him the titles Augustus (“illustrious”) and Princeps (“first citizen”) in 27 <span>BC<\/span>, and Octavian began to call himself “son of a god” because of Julius’s divine status. The form of a republic survived, but the reality of a divine emperor had arrived.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the Birth of the Church<\/p>\n<p>“When the right time came, God sent his Son” (Gal 4:4). The change into an empire brought peace and stability, a <em>pax Romana<\/em> (“Roman peace”) that lasted well into the 100s <span>AD<\/span>. Many observers have noted that Roman rule during the first century <span>AD<\/span> provided the ideal setting for the spread of Christianity. The borders were secure and the roads were good, making travel relatively trouble-free. Roman laws and customs protected the rights of its citizens (see, e.g., Acts 16:35-40; 22:24-29). Judaism was protected, and the Romans viewed Christianity as a sect within Judaism (see, e.g., Acts 25:13-19). As a result, the Romans largely rejected complaints against Christians on religious grounds (see, e.g., Acts 19:23-41). Christians were free to proclaim the Good News about Jesus, and many people of all nationalities became followers of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The Changing Status of Christianity<\/p>\n<p>This favorable situation began to change in the time of Nero. Nero blamed Christians for the fire that destroyed a good part of Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 64, and he proceeded with the first large-scale persecution of Christians. The overt persecution ceased in <span>AD<\/span> 66, but Christianity was no longer viewed as a sect of Judaism and lost its protected status. It later became imperial policy to require people to burn incense to the emperor—those who refused were usually either Jews (who were protected) or Christians (who were not). As a result, from the time of Domitian (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) to Galerius (<span>AD<\/span> 305–311), Christianity was officially illegal, punishable by death, and persecuted to varying extents depending on the zeal of those in power. Thus for over two hundred years Rome drank “the blood of God’s holy people who were witnesses for Jesus” (Rev 17:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:1-7, 15; 2 Tim 1:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rome<\/h3>\n<p>In the first century <span>AD<\/span> Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\n<p>The Founding and Early Growth of Rome<\/p>\n<p>Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 <span>BC<\/span> on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate.<\/p>\n<p>Around 600 <span>BC<\/span> the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous works, including the forum, which became the social, commercial, and political center for the city, and a temple for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Rome was now linked by roads to the Etruscans in the north, to the Greek trading cities in the south, to the sea to the west, and to the inland highlands to the east.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman Republic<\/p>\n<p>When Rome’s kings became autocratic, the Latin population rebelled. In 509 <span>BC<\/span>, Rome established a “republic,” an oligarchy of the powerful families who controlled the Senate. The small city-state steadily gained control of the region, expanding their influence across the Mediterranean. In 273 <span>BC<\/span> they made a treaty with the Ptolemies of Egypt. They expanded into North Africa, defeating the rival city-state Carthage in the course of the three Punic Wars (264–146 <span>BC<\/span>), and pressed on into Spain. Rome’s many conquests brought enormous wealth.<\/p>\n<p>With geographical expansion came social changes in Italy. Between 200 and 100 <span>BC<\/span>, rich landowners bought out small independent farmers, who subsequently drifted into Rome, landless and unemployed. Huge, overcrowded slums appeared alongside the vast wealth and magnificent buildings. The foundations of the republic were cracking under the strain of popular discontent.<\/p>\n<p>The Beginning of the Empire: Julius and Octavian<\/p>\n<p>During this time of social and political upheaval, Julius Caesar pursued an ambitious and tumultuous career which sought to centralize power in his own person. Senators who favored the old republic assassinated him in 44 <span>BC<\/span>, but their action ultimately backfired: Julius’s grandnephew and heir, Octavian, became a senator, consul, and the commander-in-chief in 43 <span>BC<\/span> with the support of the Senate. The Senate also deified Julius in 42 <span>BC<\/span>. After Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 <span>BC<\/span> and took control of Egypt, the Senate gave him the titles Augustus (“illustrious”) and Princeps (“first citizen”) in 27 <span>BC<\/span>, and Octavian began to call himself “son of a god” because of Julius’s divine status. The form of a republic survived, but the reality of a divine emperor had arrived.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the Birth of the Church<\/p>\n<p>“When the right time came, God sent his Son” (Gal 4:4). The change into an empire brought peace and stability, a <em>pax Romana<\/em> (“Roman peace”) that lasted well into the 100s <span>AD<\/span>. Many observers have noted that Roman rule during the first century <span>AD<\/span> provided the ideal setting for the spread of Christianity. The borders were secure and the roads were good, making travel relatively trouble-free. Roman laws and customs protected the rights of its citizens (see, e.g., Acts 16:35-40; 22:24-29). Judaism was protected, and the Romans viewed Christianity as a sect within Judaism (see, e.g., Acts 25:13-19). As a result, the Romans largely rejected complaints against Christians on religious grounds (see, e.g., Acts 19:23-41). Christians were free to proclaim the Good News about Jesus, and many people of all nationalities became followers of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The Changing Status of Christianity<\/p>\n<p>This favorable situation began to change in the time of Nero. Nero blamed Christians for the fire that destroyed a good part of Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 64, and he proceeded with the first large-scale persecution of Christians. The overt persecution ceased in <span>AD<\/span> 66, but Christianity was no longer viewed as a sect of Judaism and lost its protected status. It later became imperial policy to require people to burn incense to the emperor—those who refused were usually either Jews (who were protected) or Christians (who were not). As a result, from the time of Domitian (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) to Galerius (<span>AD<\/span> 305–311), Christianity was officially illegal, punishable by death, and persecuted to varying extents depending on the zeal of those in power. Thus for over two hundred years Rome drank “the blood of God’s holy people who were witnesses for Jesus” (Rev 17:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:1-7, 15; 2 Tim 1:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rome In the first century AD Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world. The Founding and Early Growth of Rome Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 BC on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate. Around 600 BC the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous ...","summary_en":"Rome In the first century AD Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world. The Founding and Early Growth of Rome Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 BC on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate. Around 600 BC the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97949,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rome","title_en":"Rome","content_ro":"<h3>Rome<\/h3>\n<p>In the first century <span>AD<\/span> Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\n<p>The Founding and Early Growth of Rome<\/p>\n<p>Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 <span>BC<\/span> on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate.<\/p>\n<p>Around 600 <span>BC<\/span> the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous works, including the forum, which became the social, commercial, and political center for the city, and a temple for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Rome was now linked by roads to the Etruscans in the north, to the Greek trading cities in the south, to the sea to the west, and to the inland highlands to the east.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman Republic<\/p>\n<p>When Rome’s kings became autocratic, the Latin population rebelled. In 509 <span>BC<\/span>, Rome established a “republic,” an oligarchy of the powerful families who controlled the Senate. The small city-state steadily gained control of the region, expanding their influence across the Mediterranean. In 273 <span>BC<\/span> they made a treaty with the Ptolemies of Egypt. They expanded into North Africa, defeating the rival city-state Carthage in the course of the three Punic Wars (264–146 <span>BC<\/span>), and pressed on into Spain. Rome’s many conquests brought enormous wealth.<\/p>\n<p>With geographical expansion came social changes in Italy. Between 200 and 100 <span>BC<\/span>, rich landowners bought out small independent farmers, who subsequently drifted into Rome, landless and unemployed. Huge, overcrowded slums appeared alongside the vast wealth and magnificent buildings. The foundations of the republic were cracking under the strain of popular discontent.<\/p>\n<p>The Beginning of the Empire: Julius and Octavian<\/p>\n<p>During this time of social and political upheaval, Julius Caesar pursued an ambitious and tumultuous career which sought to centralize power in his own person. Senators who favored the old republic assassinated him in 44 <span>BC<\/span>, but their action ultimately backfired: Julius’s grandnephew and heir, Octavian, became a senator, consul, and the commander-in-chief in 43 <span>BC<\/span> with the support of the Senate. The Senate also deified Julius in 42 <span>BC<\/span>. After Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 <span>BC<\/span> and took control of Egypt, the Senate gave him the titles Augustus (“illustrious”) and Princeps (“first citizen”) in 27 <span>BC<\/span>, and Octavian began to call himself “son of a god” because of Julius’s divine status. The form of a republic survived, but the reality of a divine emperor had arrived.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the Birth of the Church<\/p>\n<p>“When the right time came, God sent his Son” (Gal 4:4). The change into an empire brought peace and stability, a <em>pax Romana<\/em> (“Roman peace”) that lasted well into the 100s <span>AD<\/span>. Many observers have noted that Roman rule during the first century <span>AD<\/span> provided the ideal setting for the spread of Christianity. The borders were secure and the roads were good, making travel relatively trouble-free. Roman laws and customs protected the rights of its citizens (see, e.g., Acts 16:35-40; 22:24-29). Judaism was protected, and the Romans viewed Christianity as a sect within Judaism (see, e.g., Acts 25:13-19). As a result, the Romans largely rejected complaints against Christians on religious grounds (see, e.g., Acts 19:23-41). Christians were free to proclaim the Good News about Jesus, and many people of all nationalities became followers of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The Changing Status of Christianity<\/p>\n<p>This favorable situation began to change in the time of Nero. Nero blamed Christians for the fire that destroyed a good part of Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 64, and he proceeded with the first large-scale persecution of Christians. The overt persecution ceased in <span>AD<\/span> 66, but Christianity was no longer viewed as a sect of Judaism and lost its protected status. It later became imperial policy to require people to burn incense to the emperor—those who refused were usually either Jews (who were protected) or Christians (who were not). As a result, from the time of Domitian (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) to Galerius (<span>AD<\/span> 305–311), Christianity was officially illegal, punishable by death, and persecuted to varying extents depending on the zeal of those in power. Thus for over two hundred years Rome drank “the blood of God’s holy people who were witnesses for Jesus” (Rev 17:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:1-7, 15; 2 Tim 1:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rome<\/h3>\n<p>In the first century <span>AD<\/span> Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\n<p>The Founding and Early Growth of Rome<\/p>\n<p>Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 <span>BC<\/span> on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate.<\/p>\n<p>Around 600 <span>BC<\/span> the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous works, including the forum, which became the social, commercial, and political center for the city, and a temple for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Rome was now linked by roads to the Etruscans in the north, to the Greek trading cities in the south, to the sea to the west, and to the inland highlands to the east.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman Republic<\/p>\n<p>When Rome’s kings became autocratic, the Latin population rebelled. In 509 <span>BC<\/span>, Rome established a “republic,” an oligarchy of the powerful families who controlled the Senate. The small city-state steadily gained control of the region, expanding their influence across the Mediterranean. In 273 <span>BC<\/span> they made a treaty with the Ptolemies of Egypt. They expanded into North Africa, defeating the rival city-state Carthage in the course of the three Punic Wars (264–146 <span>BC<\/span>), and pressed on into Spain. Rome’s many conquests brought enormous wealth.<\/p>\n<p>With geographical expansion came social changes in Italy. Between 200 and 100 <span>BC<\/span>, rich landowners bought out small independent farmers, who subsequently drifted into Rome, landless and unemployed. Huge, overcrowded slums appeared alongside the vast wealth and magnificent buildings. The foundations of the republic were cracking under the strain of popular discontent.<\/p>\n<p>The Beginning of the Empire: Julius and Octavian<\/p>\n<p>During this time of social and political upheaval, Julius Caesar pursued an ambitious and tumultuous career which sought to centralize power in his own person. Senators who favored the old republic assassinated him in 44 <span>BC<\/span>, but their action ultimately backfired: Julius’s grandnephew and heir, Octavian, became a senator, consul, and the commander-in-chief in 43 <span>BC<\/span> with the support of the Senate. The Senate also deified Julius in 42 <span>BC<\/span>. After Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 <span>BC<\/span> and took control of Egypt, the Senate gave him the titles Augustus (“illustrious”) and Princeps (“first citizen”) in 27 <span>BC<\/span>, and Octavian began to call himself “son of a god” because of Julius’s divine status. The form of a republic survived, but the reality of a divine emperor had arrived.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the Birth of the Church<\/p>\n<p>“When the right time came, God sent his Son” (Gal 4:4). The change into an empire brought peace and stability, a <em>pax Romana<\/em> (“Roman peace”) that lasted well into the 100s <span>AD<\/span>. Many observers have noted that Roman rule during the first century <span>AD<\/span> provided the ideal setting for the spread of Christianity. The borders were secure and the roads were good, making travel relatively trouble-free. Roman laws and customs protected the rights of its citizens (see, e.g., Acts 16:35-40; 22:24-29). Judaism was protected, and the Romans viewed Christianity as a sect within Judaism (see, e.g., Acts 25:13-19). As a result, the Romans largely rejected complaints against Christians on religious grounds (see, e.g., Acts 19:23-41). Christians were free to proclaim the Good News about Jesus, and many people of all nationalities became followers of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The Changing Status of Christianity<\/p>\n<p>This favorable situation began to change in the time of Nero. Nero blamed Christians for the fire that destroyed a good part of Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 64, and he proceeded with the first large-scale persecution of Christians. The overt persecution ceased in <span>AD<\/span> 66, but Christianity was no longer viewed as a sect of Judaism and lost its protected status. It later became imperial policy to require people to burn incense to the emperor—those who refused were usually either Jews (who were protected) or Christians (who were not). As a result, from the time of Domitian (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) to Galerius (<span>AD<\/span> 305–311), Christianity was officially illegal, punishable by death, and persecuted to varying extents depending on the zeal of those in power. Thus for over two hundred years Rome drank “the blood of God’s holy people who were witnesses for Jesus” (Rev 17:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:1-7, 15; 2 Tim 1:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rome In the first century AD Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world. The Founding and Early Growth of Rome Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 BC on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate. Around 600 BC the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous ...","summary_en":"Rome In the first century AD Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world. The Founding and Early Growth of Rome Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 BC on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate. Around 600 BC the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":125575,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rome","title_en":"Rome","content_ro":"<h3>Rome<\/h3>\n<p>In the first century <span>AD<\/span> Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\n<p>The Founding and Early Growth of Rome<\/p>\n<p>Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 <span>BC<\/span> on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate.<\/p>\n<p>Around 600 <span>BC<\/span> the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous works, including the forum, which became the social, commercial, and political center for the city, and a temple for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Rome was now linked by roads to the Etruscans in the north, to the Greek trading cities in the south, to the sea to the west, and to the inland highlands to the east.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman Republic<\/p>\n<p>When Rome’s kings became autocratic, the Latin population rebelled. In 509 <span>BC<\/span>, Rome established a “republic,” an oligarchy of the powerful families who controlled the Senate. The small city-state steadily gained control of the region, expanding their influence across the Mediterranean. In 273 <span>BC<\/span> they made a treaty with the Ptolemies of Egypt. They expanded into North Africa, defeating the rival city-state Carthage in the course of the three Punic Wars (264–146 <span>BC<\/span>), and pressed on into Spain. Rome’s many conquests brought enormous wealth.<\/p>\n<p>With geographical expansion came social changes in Italy. Between 200 and 100 <span>BC<\/span>, rich landowners bought out small independent farmers, who subsequently drifted into Rome, landless and unemployed. Huge, overcrowded slums appeared alongside the vast wealth and magnificent buildings. The foundations of the republic were cracking under the strain of popular discontent.<\/p>\n<p>The Beginning of the Empire: Julius and Octavian<\/p>\n<p>During this time of social and political upheaval, Julius Caesar pursued an ambitious and tumultuous career which sought to centralize power in his own person. Senators who favored the old republic assassinated him in 44 <span>BC<\/span>, but their action ultimately backfired: Julius’s grandnephew and heir, Octavian, became a senator, consul, and the commander-in-chief in 43 <span>BC<\/span> with the support of the Senate. The Senate also deified Julius in 42 <span>BC<\/span>. After Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 <span>BC<\/span> and took control of Egypt, the Senate gave him the titles Augustus (“illustrious”) and Princeps (“first citizen”) in 27 <span>BC<\/span>, and Octavian began to call himself “son of a god” because of Julius’s divine status. The form of a republic survived, but the reality of a divine emperor had arrived.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the Birth of the Church<\/p>\n<p>“When the right time came, God sent his Son” (Gal 4:4). The change into an empire brought peace and stability, a <em>pax Romana<\/em> (“Roman peace”) that lasted well into the 100s <span>AD<\/span>. Many observers have noted that Roman rule during the first century <span>AD<\/span> provided the ideal setting for the spread of Christianity. The borders were secure and the roads were good, making travel relatively trouble-free. Roman laws and customs protected the rights of its citizens (see, e.g., Acts 16:35-40; 22:24-29). Judaism was protected, and the Romans viewed Christianity as a sect within Judaism (see, e.g., Acts 25:13-19). As a result, the Romans largely rejected complaints against Christians on religious grounds (see, e.g., Acts 19:23-41). Christians were free to proclaim the Good News about Jesus, and many people of all nationalities became followers of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The Changing Status of Christianity<\/p>\n<p>This favorable situation began to change in the time of Nero. Nero blamed Christians for the fire that destroyed a good part of Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 64, and he proceeded with the first large-scale persecution of Christians. The overt persecution ceased in <span>AD<\/span> 66, but Christianity was no longer viewed as a sect of Judaism and lost its protected status. It later became imperial policy to require people to burn incense to the emperor—those who refused were usually either Jews (who were protected) or Christians (who were not). As a result, from the time of Domitian (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) to Galerius (<span>AD<\/span> 305–311), Christianity was officially illegal, punishable by death, and persecuted to varying extents depending on the zeal of those in power. Thus for over two hundred years Rome drank “the blood of God’s holy people who were witnesses for Jesus” (Rev 17:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:1-7, 15; 2 Tim 1:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rome<\/h3>\n<p>In the first century <span>AD<\/span> Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\n<p>The Founding and Early Growth of Rome<\/p>\n<p>Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 <span>BC<\/span> on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate.<\/p>\n<p>Around 600 <span>BC<\/span> the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous works, including the forum, which became the social, commercial, and political center for the city, and a temple for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Rome was now linked by roads to the Etruscans in the north, to the Greek trading cities in the south, to the sea to the west, and to the inland highlands to the east.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman Republic<\/p>\n<p>When Rome’s kings became autocratic, the Latin population rebelled. In 509 <span>BC<\/span>, Rome established a “republic,” an oligarchy of the powerful families who controlled the Senate. The small city-state steadily gained control of the region, expanding their influence across the Mediterranean. In 273 <span>BC<\/span> they made a treaty with the Ptolemies of Egypt. They expanded into North Africa, defeating the rival city-state Carthage in the course of the three Punic Wars (264–146 <span>BC<\/span>), and pressed on into Spain. Rome’s many conquests brought enormous wealth.<\/p>\n<p>With geographical expansion came social changes in Italy. Between 200 and 100 <span>BC<\/span>, rich landowners bought out small independent farmers, who subsequently drifted into Rome, landless and unemployed. Huge, overcrowded slums appeared alongside the vast wealth and magnificent buildings. The foundations of the republic were cracking under the strain of popular discontent.<\/p>\n<p>The Beginning of the Empire: Julius and Octavian<\/p>\n<p>During this time of social and political upheaval, Julius Caesar pursued an ambitious and tumultuous career which sought to centralize power in his own person. Senators who favored the old republic assassinated him in 44 <span>BC<\/span>, but their action ultimately backfired: Julius’s grandnephew and heir, Octavian, became a senator, consul, and the commander-in-chief in 43 <span>BC<\/span> with the support of the Senate. The Senate also deified Julius in 42 <span>BC<\/span>. After Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 <span>BC<\/span> and took control of Egypt, the Senate gave him the titles Augustus (“illustrious”) and Princeps (“first citizen”) in 27 <span>BC<\/span>, and Octavian began to call himself “son of a god” because of Julius’s divine status. The form of a republic survived, but the reality of a divine emperor had arrived.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the Birth of the Church<\/p>\n<p>“When the right time came, God sent his Son” (Gal 4:4). The change into an empire brought peace and stability, a <em>pax Romana<\/em> (“Roman peace”) that lasted well into the 100s <span>AD<\/span>. Many observers have noted that Roman rule during the first century <span>AD<\/span> provided the ideal setting for the spread of Christianity. The borders were secure and the roads were good, making travel relatively trouble-free. Roman laws and customs protected the rights of its citizens (see, e.g., Acts 16:35-40; 22:24-29). Judaism was protected, and the Romans viewed Christianity as a sect within Judaism (see, e.g., Acts 25:13-19). As a result, the Romans largely rejected complaints against Christians on religious grounds (see, e.g., Acts 19:23-41). Christians were free to proclaim the Good News about Jesus, and many people of all nationalities became followers of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The Changing Status of Christianity<\/p>\n<p>This favorable situation began to change in the time of Nero. Nero blamed Christians for the fire that destroyed a good part of Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 64, and he proceeded with the first large-scale persecution of Christians. The overt persecution ceased in <span>AD<\/span> 66, but Christianity was no longer viewed as a sect of Judaism and lost its protected status. It later became imperial policy to require people to burn incense to the emperor—those who refused were usually either Jews (who were protected) or Christians (who were not). As a result, from the time of Domitian (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) to Galerius (<span>AD<\/span> 305–311), Christianity was officially illegal, punishable by death, and persecuted to varying extents depending on the zeal of those in power. Thus for over two hundred years Rome drank “the blood of God’s holy people who were witnesses for Jesus” (Rev 17:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:1-7, 15; 2 Tim 1:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rome In the first century AD Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world. The Founding and Early Growth of Rome Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 BC on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate. Around 600 BC the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous ...","summary_en":"Rome In the first century AD Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world. The Founding and Early Growth of Rome Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 BC on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate. Around 600 BC the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":1052,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Alexander","title_en":"Alexander","content_ro":"<h3>ALEXANDER<\/h3>\n<li>1. The Macedonian conqueror, Alexander the Great (356–323 BC), whose life has influenced history and culture for more than two millennia, down to the present time. He was a brilliant organizer and military strategist, but his greatest achievement was the Hellenization of the empire he won. This Greek cultural influence was a unifying element among many diverse peoples.<\/li>\n<p>The introduction of the Greek language throughout this empire also had far-reaching effect. The OT was translated into Greek in Alexandria, Egypt, and the NT books were written in that language. The earliest Christian missionaries were bilingual, so that it was possible to bring the gospel “to the Jew first, and also to the Greek” (Rom 1:16).<\/p>\n<p>Alexander was the son of an illustrious father, Philip II of Macedon. A seasoned military leader in his teens, Alexander succeeded to the throne at the age of 20 after the assassination of his father. After putting down the rebellions that broke out at his father’s death, Alexander crossed the Dardanelles and conquered Asia Minor. In 333 <span>BC<\/span>, he met and defeated the vaunted Persian army of Darius III at Issus, in a battle that had a lasting historical significance. Moving down the Mediterranean coast, he captured Sidon, Tyre, and Gaza. Reaching Egypt in 332 <span>BC<\/span>, he was hailed by the oracle of Amon at Siwa as the divine pharaoh. He founded Alexandria, one of the more than 60 cities he established with this name, and then pushed on to the East. At Arbela (331 <span>BC<\/span>), he again defeated the Persians. When he reached Persia, he seized the cities of Susa, Persepolis, and Ecbatana. He forged eastward until he reached the Indus River; here, with his troops worn out and threatening mutiny, he turned back toward the West. He died in Babylon in 323 <span>BC<\/span>, a victim of fever, exhaustion, and dissipation, and master of an empire that stretched from the Danube to the Indus and south to the Egyptian Nile.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Greece, Greek; Hellenism; Hellenists; Judaism; Alexandria.<\/p>\n<li>2. Brother of Rufus and son of Simon of Cyrene, the man who was passing by at the time Jesus was being led to Golgotha and whom the Roman soldiers compelled to carry the cross (Mk 15:21).<\/li>\n<li>3. A member of the high-priestly family along with Caiaphas, Annas the high priest, and John (Acts 4:6). It was this group who summoned Peter and John to appear before them to account for the healing of the lame man at the Beautiful Gate of the temple (Acts 3).<\/li>\n<li>4. Ephesian who was put forward by the Jews to serve as their spokesman when the silversmith Demetrius roused the Ephesians to riot (Acts 19:33). The preaching of the gospel by Paul and his companions had resulted in the conversion of many people, who left the worship of the goddess Artemis (Diana) and thus reduced the income of the silversmiths, whose revenue derived from the manufacture of images of this deity (Acts 19:23-41).<\/li>\n<li>5. One who, with Hymenaeus, was mentioned as having shipwrecked his faith because of his rejection of conscience (1 Tm 1:20). Paul states that he had “turned them over to Satan so they would learn not to blaspheme God.”<\/li>\n<li>6. Coppersmith (2 Tm 4:14). Paul warns Timothy to beware of this man, who had done much harm to Paul and had strongly opposed the message of the gospel. Some scholars think this Alexander is the same as the Alexander of 1 Timothy 1:20 (#5 above).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ALEXANDER<\/h3>\n<li>1. The Macedonian conqueror, Alexander the Great (356–323 BC), whose life has influenced history and culture for more than two millennia, down to the present time. He was a brilliant organizer and military strategist, but his greatest achievement was the Hellenization of the empire he won. This Greek cultural influence was a unifying element among many diverse peoples.<\/li>\n<p>The introduction of the Greek language throughout this empire also had far-reaching effect. The OT was translated into Greek in Alexandria, Egypt, and the NT books were written in that language. The earliest Christian missionaries were bilingual, so that it was possible to bring the gospel “to the Jew first, and also to the Greek” (Rom 1:16).<\/p>\n<p>Alexander was the son of an illustrious father, Philip II of Macedon. A seasoned military leader in his teens, Alexander succeeded to the throne at the age of 20 after the assassination of his father. After putting down the rebellions that broke out at his father’s death, Alexander crossed the Dardanelles and conquered Asia Minor. In 333 <span>BC<\/span>, he met and defeated the vaunted Persian army of Darius III at Issus, in a battle that had a lasting historical significance. Moving down the Mediterranean coast, he captured Sidon, Tyre, and Gaza. Reaching Egypt in 332 <span>BC<\/span>, he was hailed by the oracle of Amon at Siwa as the divine pharaoh. He founded Alexandria, one of the more than 60 cities he established with this name, and then pushed on to the East. At Arbela (331 <span>BC<\/span>), he again defeated the Persians. When he reached Persia, he seized the cities of Susa, Persepolis, and Ecbatana. He forged eastward until he reached the Indus River; here, with his troops worn out and threatening mutiny, he turned back toward the West. He died in Babylon in 323 <span>BC<\/span>, a victim of fever, exhaustion, and dissipation, and master of an empire that stretched from the Danube to the Indus and south to the Egyptian Nile.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Greece, Greek; Hellenism; Hellenists; Judaism; Alexandria.<\/p>\n<li>2. Brother of Rufus and son of Simon of Cyrene, the man who was passing by at the time Jesus was being led to Golgotha and whom the Roman soldiers compelled to carry the cross (Mk 15:21).<\/li>\n<li>3. A member of the high-priestly family along with Caiaphas, Annas the high priest, and John (Acts 4:6). It was this group who summoned Peter and John to appear before them to account for the healing of the lame man at the Beautiful Gate of the temple (Acts 3).<\/li>\n<li>4. Ephesian who was put forward by the Jews to serve as their spokesman when the silversmith Demetrius roused the Ephesians to riot (Acts 19:33). The preaching of the gospel by Paul and his companions had resulted in the conversion of many people, who left the worship of the goddess Artemis (Diana) and thus reduced the income of the silversmiths, whose revenue derived from the manufacture of images of this deity (Acts 19:23-41).<\/li>\n<li>5. One who, with Hymenaeus, was mentioned as having shipwrecked his faith because of his rejection of conscience (1 Tm 1:20). Paul states that he had “turned them over to Satan so they would learn not to blaspheme God.”<\/li>\n<li>6. Coppersmith (2 Tm 4:14). Paul warns Timothy to beware of this man, who had done much harm to Paul and had strongly opposed the message of the gospel. Some scholars think this Alexander is the same as the Alexander of 1 Timothy 1:20 (#5 above).<\/li>","summary_ro":"ALEXANDER 1. The Macedonian conqueror, Alexander the Great (356–323 BC), whose life has influenced history and culture for more than two millennia, down to the present time. He was a brilliant organizer and military strategist, but his greatest achievement was the Hellenization of the empire he won. This Greek cultural influence was a unifying element among many diverse peoples. The introduction of the Greek language throughout this empire also had far-reaching effect. The OT was translated i...","summary_en":"ALEXANDER 1. The Macedonian conqueror, Alexander the Great (356–323 BC), whose life has influenced history and culture for more than two millennia, down to the present time. He was a brilliant organizer and military strategist, but his greatest achievement was the Hellenization of the empire he won. This Greek cultural influence was a unifying element among many diverse peoples. The introduction of the Greek language throughout this empire also had far-reaching effect. The OT was translated i...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":2799,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Artemis","title_en":"Artemis","content_ro":"<h3>ARTEMIS<\/h3>\n<p>Greek goddess of the moon, wild animals, and hunting. The cult of Artemis at Ephesus, where she is called Diana by the Romans (Acts 19:23-41), regarded her especially as a fertility goddess.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Diana.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ARTEMIS<\/h3>\n<p>Greek goddess of the moon, wild animals, and hunting. The cult of Artemis at Ephesus, where she is called Diana by the Romans (Acts 19:23-41), regarded her especially as a fertility goddess.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Diana.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ARTEMIS Greek goddess of the moon, wild animals, and hunting. The cult of Artemis at Ephesus, where she is called Diana by the Romans (Acts 19:23-41), regarded her especially as a fertility goddess. See also Diana.","summary_en":"ARTEMIS Greek goddess of the moon, wild animals, and hunting. The cult of Artemis at Ephesus, where she is called Diana by the Romans (Acts 19:23-41), regarded her especially as a fertility goddess. See also Diana.","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":7680,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Second Letter to the Corinthians","title_en":"Second Letter to the Corinthians","content_ro":"<h3>CORINTHIANS, Second Letter to the<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date and Origin<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul is the acknowledged author of 2 Corinthians. While some scholars argue that 2 Corinthians 2:14–7:4 and 10–13 are separate letters, only in the case of 6:14–7:1 is Paul’s authorship disputed. This section is admittedly a strange digression, but stranger still would be the thought that an editor could have inserted it in such an unusual place. Also the repetition of thought in 7:2 from 6:13 indicates that Paul is aware that he has digressed from his topic and is repeating a phrase to bring his readers back to the subject.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateandOrigin\">Date and Origin<\/p>\n<p>After writing both the “previous letter” (1 Cor 5:9) and 1 Corinthians from Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 55, Paul continued to work there. Sometime during the next year a crisis arose in Corinth. Paul made a quick trip across the Aegean Sea, but he could not resolve the crisis, and due to the personal opposition of a leader in the church (likely an interloper bearing letters of recommendation from Jerusalem), he had to withdraw (2 Cor 2:1, 5). Returning to Ephesus from this “painful visit,” Paul dispatched Titus with a blistering “letter of tears,” his third letter to that church (2 Cor 2:4; 7:8, 12), which led to the excommunication of the leader and the repentance of the church. This letter has been lost. Meanwhile a situation erupted in Ephesus during which death (probably execution) seemed so certain that Paul despaired of life (see Acts 19:23-41; cf. Rom 16:4; 2 Cor 1:8-9). Paul was not killed, but his escape seemed miraculous.<\/p>\n<p>Leaving Ephesus in early <span>AD<\/span> 56, Paul traveled north to Troas seeking Titus and news of Corinth. Unable to endure without news, he abandoned a promising mission in Troas and sailed to Philippi. There he met Titus, who explained the change of heart in Corinth. Second Corinthians 1–9 responds to this situation, with chapters 8–9 preparing the Corinthians for an upcoming visit. Later Paul received further news from Corinth that renewed opposition to him was present. In response he penned the self-defense found in 2 Corinthians 10–13. Paul followed up the letter with a visit later in the year (Acts 20:2-3). We do not know the response to 2 Corinthians or the outcome of his final visit, but later the troubled history of the Corinthian church continued, with another Christian leader needing to write a letter at the end of the century (Epistle of Clement).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The Corinthian house churches always had great diversity. While those who liked Apollos undoubtedly despised Paul’s crude style, others who preferred Peter likely appealed beyond Paul to the more genuine “original” apostles in Jerusalem with their Jewish customs (1 Cor 1). Traveling teachers with letters of commendation from these apostles easily drew a following when they came to Corinth and undermined Paul’s authority and even his character. Furthermore, because of this outside influence, the collection for the poor in Jerusalem that Paul had initiated (16:1-4) was left in abeyance, both because it was connected to Paul and because the teachers themselves were taking money from the church. Paul writes to reaffirm his love and to repair the damage caused by the interloper.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTeaching\">Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>In the first section of the letter, Paul has two main purposes. The first is to cement his restored relationship with Corinth, explaining situations, forgiving those who opposed him, and reflecting on the nature of ministry. For Paul, ministry meant both intense suffering and comfort. Physical and emotional suffering came from the situations and people he worked with, but his knowledge of future reward and his experience of the power of God working in him brought profound joy and comfort. Due to his own recent brush with death, Paul also reflects on what happens at death. His expectation is to receive a resurrection body and be in the presence of Jesus at death.<\/p>\n<p>The second purpose of this section is to get the collection for Jerusalem on track again. In this context he gives major teaching on giving and Christian economics: Christians are to follow Christ in giving freely; economic equality is the principle governing who gives to whom.<\/p>\n<p>The second section of the letter is an impassioned self-defense, refuting the interloper’s claims to superiority. Neither oratory nor pedigree counts in Christian ministry, but only the call of God.<\/p>\n<p>In both sections one observes Paul’s deep desire for the unity of the church, both unity within the local community and unity with leaders appointed by God, such as Paul.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting, 1:1-7<\/h5>\n<p>A standard greeting (2 Cor 1:1-2) comes before Paul’s usual thanksgiving (vv 3-7). The topic of the thanksgiving—comfort in the midst of suffering—is the topic of chapters 1–7. Paul knows what it is to suffer, but it is in suffering that he has experienced God’s comfort, which he passes on to the Corinthians.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Explanation, 1:8–2:13<\/h5>\n<p>Paul informs them of the danger he had suffered in Ephesus, one so great that he did not believe he would survive. His eventual survival seemed like a virtual resurrection, reinforcing his conviction that God, not human strength, is the only Christian refuge (1:8-11). In that and in all situations, Paul’s one boast is that of a clear conscience before God (vv 12-14).<\/p>\n<p>Paul had told them of plans for a double visit (cf. 1 Cor 16:5-6), but except for his brief “painful visit,” he had not fulfilled his plan (2 Cor 1:15–2:4). He defends himself from charges of either not planning in the Spirit or hypocritical vacillation. He was indeed as good as his word (cf. Jas 5:12), for his life reflected God’s fulfilled promise in Jesus, but he had changed plans so as not to repeat the “painful visit” of the previous year. It was love, not fickleness, that motivated the delayed visit.<\/p>\n<p>The Corinthians had responded to Paul’s “letter of tears” by excommunicating the person who had opposed Paul (not the same person as in 1 Cor 5). Since the person became repentant, Paul called for his restoration to the community, freely and graciously forgiving the man who had hurt him. Excommunication is for the unrepentant; its purpose is complete once the person repents (2 Cor 2:5-11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul then recounted his journey from Ephesus to Philippi, when he sought news of the response to the “letter of tears” (2:12-13). After telling how he left an opportunity to minister in Troas to go to find Titus in Philippi, he breaks the narrative with a long digression.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of Apostolic Ministry, 2:14–7:4<\/h5>\n<p>The apostolic ministry in which Paul took part is like the ministry of Jesus, one of suffering and glory. Even in suffering there is triumph in Christ, for Christians share Christ’s triumph. Yet just like the perfumes of a Roman triumph were joy to the victors but meant death for prisoners on their way to execution, so Jesus’ triumph is life to the believer and death to the unbeliever (2:14-17).<\/p>\n<p>This triumph may have sounded like a boast, but Paul is not engaging in self-exaltation. Indeed, he has no need of the letters of commendation that the interloper in Corinth carried from Jerusalem, for the Corinthians are themselves the proof of his ministry (3:1-3). His boast is not in himself but in the new covenant in the Spirit, which unlike the old covenant is not fading (here Paul follows one Jewish interpretation of Ex 34:29-35, that Moses put the veil over his face so the people would not see the glory fade), nor does it veil the presence of God. The new covenant is permanent; it reveals God directly in the Spirit. There is no deceit or hiddenness, for the message is not about Paul but about Jesus, who is light itself (2 Cor 3:4–4:6).<\/p>\n<p>Paul the messenger, however, is simply the cheap, breakable pot that contains the priceless treasure, revealing by way of contrast that the only power in the gospel is God’s power. This contrast of weakness and power is seen in the sufferings of the apostle, a type of living death modeled after the sufferings of Jesus, out of which the life of Jesus flows to others (4:7-15).<\/p>\n<p>Therefore, despite intense suffering, Paul has courage, for he looks beyond this life to the rewards of the coming life. His whole motivation is one of faith, not sight, for he lives already for unseen realities (4:16-18). When he dies, Paul expects to receive an eternal resurrection body. His hope is not of becoming a disembodied soul (“naked”) but of passing immediately into a glorified bodily life, already guaranteed by the presence of the Spirit. This hope was likely the fruit of his near brush with death in Ephesus, when he must have meditated and prayed about what would come at death (5:1-5). Because this future includes Christ’s judgment, Paul wanted to make every effort to live in the light of that judgment, which he already saw by faith (vv 6-10).<\/p>\n<p>Far from trying to commend or exalt himself, Paul was simply presenting what he was—a person filled with the love of Christ and convinced that all should live not for themselves but for Christ (5:11-15). No one should be valued from a merely human point of view, not Paul, nor even Christ (for Paul before his conversion had a human opinion of Christ that his conversion had radically changed); everyone should be valued from the point of view of the new creation. Paul’s job was simply to announce the reconciliation of the new creation, which God has already effected on his side and which only awaits a person’s ratification on the human side (5:16-20).<\/p>\n<p>Paul, then, was a coworker with God, announcing salvation, using every means consistent with God’s character to proclaim the message, and suffering everything imaginable to demonstrate the extent of God’s love (6:1-10). Therefore, Paul had nothing against the Corinthians. If there was any blockage in their relationship with him, it must be on their side (6:11-13).<\/p>\n<h5>Digression on Purity, 6:14–7:1<\/h5>\n<p>Perhaps suspecting that the real block in the relationship was their love of the world, or that the Corinthians might not be totally over the problems mentioned in 1 Corinthians, Paul digressed into a discussion about the purity and sanctification of believers. There are two groups, light and darkness, Christ and the devil, believers and unbelievers. Therefore, as Exodus 25:8, Leviticus 26:11-12, Isaiah 52:11, Ezekiel 37:27, and Hosea 1:10 show (phrases from these passages flow into each other in a style of chain quotation familiar to Jews), Christians should not be closely bound to unbelievers in marriage or in business, for it will affect their moral purity.<\/p>\n<h5>Return to the Nature of the Apostolic Ministry, 7:2-4<\/h5>\n<p>Picking up from 6:13, Paul points out that the Corinthians have nothing substantial against him. He is not criticizing but simply appealing to them in love; even now he is prepared to die for them.<\/p>\n<h5>Explanation Concluded, 7:5-16<\/h5>\n<p>Having concluded his digression, Paul now returns to his journey, which he left in 2:13. When he met Titus, he received good news about Corinth. He was relieved that his “letter of tears” had been effective, not in simply making them sorry but in bringing them to true repentance that yielded zeal, moral purity, and joy. Furthermore, their behavior toward Titus had been so impressive that Titus’s enthusiastic report of his own impressions had further cheered Paul.<\/p>\n<h5>Collection for Jerusalem, 8:1–9:15<\/h5>\n<p>In the context of restored relationships Paul turns to the sensitive topic of the collection for the church in Jerusalem, which had been impoverished through famines in Judea in the 40s. This collection was both an act of charity (cf. Acts 11:27-30; Gal 2:10) and a symbolic act of unity and fellowship between the Gentile and Jewish branches of the church.<\/p>\n<p>The impoverished and suffering church in Macedonia (Philippi) had given eagerly. Therefore, Titus was coming back to help the Corinthians complete what they had begun the previous year (and probably dropped during the controversy with Paul, 2 Cor 8:1-7). The principles of the collection are (1) the Corinthians should follow the example of Jesus, who became poor for them; (2) they should give freely what they can without regretting that they cannot give more, for God values the eagerness to give expressed in action, not the net amount of the gift; and (3) there should be an economic equality among sections of the church, no one section being enriched at the expense of another (cf. Ex 16:18). This economic equality extends to the relationship between two churches a continent apart (2 Cor 8:8-15).<\/p>\n<p>Titus and two absolutely trustworthy men appointed by the churches for this work will come to supervise the final gathering—Paul would have nothing to do with the money personally—for it is important that not only God but the world be able to see the honesty and integrity of the way the church handles money (8:16-24).<\/p>\n<p>In this section Paul points out that he does not need to argue the reasons for this collection; they were aware of them when they began to gather money the year before. This letter is not an argument for the collection but an encouragement to finish the work, so that when Paul arrives with representatives of other churches carrying their contributions, the Corinthians would not be embarrassed by their relatively wealthy churches not being ready or able to give generously, despite Paul’s boasts about their previous eagerness. In saying this, Paul shows himself diplomatic and insightful in motivating human behavior; he makes the best assumptions possible about the present situation (9:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>Paul would not want the Corinthians giving out of guilt, although he, like Jesus (Mt 6:19-20), pointed out that the only real value of money is in giving it to help others. Rather, he wanted them so convinced of God’s generosity and ability to provide that they give freely and joyfully. God wanted to enrich them so they could give more. The giving would result in thanksgiving to God by the recipients, who would also pray for those who gave the gift, thereby binding the church together. A closing reminder of the extent of God’s own giving finishes the section (2 Cor 9:6-15).<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Self-Defense, 10:1–13:14<\/h5>\n<p>There is an abrupt change in tone between 9:15 and 10:1. Now, instead of the tone of conciliation found in 1:1–7:16, there is argument and defense, even threat. Paul’s apostleship has been attacked, and he will defend it with vigor.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was indeed a humble person who preferred not to use his authority. Yet when forced, he had something more than authority; he had spiritual power, capable of destroying opposing arguments and bending all to obedience to Jesus. He would use that power in Corinth if he must, though up to that time he had been gentle and had shown this side of his ministry only in letters (10:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>His opponents talked of their qualifications and compared themselves favorably with other ministers. Paul would not enter into this game of comparisons. God had set the sphere of his labors, which was the area in which he founded churches. He was the one who pioneered the church in Corinth, so it is his sphere of ministry, not the interloper’s (and such like him). They boasted in having reaped the benefits of his ministry; Paul could point to an original ministry given by God, for it is God’s commendation in the end that counts (10:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the Corinthian rebellion is serious enough to force him into self-defense, ridiculous as such an exercise is. He was shocked by how readily they turned away to every novel doctrine that came along. This tendency strikes fear in Paul’s heart (11:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>Paul had been criticized for refusing financial support from Corinth (even though he accepted gifts from other churches; cf. 1 Cor 9). He would continue to refuse such support, for he wanted to undermine the claims of the interloper. If the interloper was really serving God alone, let him work on the same basis as Paul! But since the interloper was false at heart, serving Satan and not God, he sought money from the church. Paul was astonished that in the Corinthians’ vaunted wisdom they did not see through this hypocrisy, yet he hoped that even if he must play the fool in making a self-defense, they would at least accept a fool like Paul. The irony is that his very tender care and concern for the church, his gentleness, was being used against him as a supposed “weakness.” Paul, the opponent argued, knew he was false, so therefore did not dare take money from the Corinthians (11:7-21).<\/p>\n<p>Interlopers claimed to come with authority from Jerusalem. They had letters from the apostles; it is unlikely, however, that the apostles would have approved of their activities. Still, they were Jews with respectable authority behind them. Paul felt compelled to state his own credentials. If they were Jews, he was just as pure a Jew. If they served Christ, could their work and sufferings match his? The list of sufferings both gives historical information not found in Acts and points to tireless labor, including days of fasting (“gone without food”) and nights spent in prayer (“gone without sleep”) (11:21-29).<\/p>\n<p>But this boasting was repulsive to Paul, so he isolated one particular suffering—his escape from Damascus, when he had to hide and slip out of the city in a basket. The story at once shows his effectiveness as an evangelist (in that he was a target of persecution) and shames him, for he could not defend himself and had to slip away under cover of darkness. Yet that weakness was indeed his glory (11:30-33).<\/p>\n<p>His opponents boasted in revelations from God. Paul knew that this boasting was senseless; however, if he must, he would tell them of a revelation superior to theirs, a time when he actually saw the inside of heaven (he is not sure whether it was a vision or an actual bodily experience). This probably happened about <span>AD<\/span> 42, while Paul was in Tarsus, before Barnabas came for him (Acts 9:30; 11:25). Paul disliked telling about this, for God’s power is more easily seen in his weakness. In fact, Paul’s opponents were an affliction of Satan that God allowed to keep Paul humble and to demonstrate his power in Paul’s weakness. (The image of a “thorn in my flesh” is one of enemies—Nm 33:55; Jos 23:13; Paul also describes what he means more clearly in 2 Cor 12:10). If vulnerability shows God’s power, Paul willingly accepts the weakness (12:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>Paul felt ashamed that he had to boast. The opponents boasted in coming from the Jerusalem “superapostles.” Paul pointed out that he was their equal, although both are nothing. God had set his mark upon Paul’s work. With biting irony he asks forgiveness for not having taken money from the Corinthians (12:11-13).<\/p>\n<p>Yet Paul would come a third time, and he would keep to the same policy of not taking any support from them but giving himself freely to them, just as Jesus had done on earth. Not only he, but all his envoys, kept to the same policy. No one could accuse him of deceit or inconsistency (12:14-18). However, he feared coming to them, for he knew that the community had not just rebelled against him but was also in internal disorder. This disunity and immorality would humble and pain Paul (12:19–13:4).<\/p>\n<p>Therefore, the Corinthians had better examine themselves. Were they really following Jesus or not? If so, they should see that Paul was also following Jesus. Yet Paul’s concern was not for his own position—he was content to be rejected (“weak”)—but for their following the truth. He hoped for their repentance, not to protect himself, but so that he need not be severe when he came (13:5-10).<\/p>\n<p>Probably taking the pen from the scribe at this point, Paul closes with a final appeal to repent and come to unity as a church. Brief greetings from the church in Macedonia and a formal blessing closes his correspondence with the Corinthians (vv 11-13).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Corinth; Corinthians, First Letter to the; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CORINTHIANS, Second Letter to the<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date and Origin<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul is the acknowledged author of 2 Corinthians. While some scholars argue that 2 Corinthians 2:14–7:4 and 10–13 are separate letters, only in the case of 6:14–7:1 is Paul’s authorship disputed. This section is admittedly a strange digression, but stranger still would be the thought that an editor could have inserted it in such an unusual place. Also the repetition of thought in 7:2 from 6:13 indicates that Paul is aware that he has digressed from his topic and is repeating a phrase to bring his readers back to the subject.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateandOrigin\">Date and Origin<\/p>\n<p>After writing both the “previous letter” (1 Cor 5:9) and 1 Corinthians from Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 55, Paul continued to work there. Sometime during the next year a crisis arose in Corinth. Paul made a quick trip across the Aegean Sea, but he could not resolve the crisis, and due to the personal opposition of a leader in the church (likely an interloper bearing letters of recommendation from Jerusalem), he had to withdraw (2 Cor 2:1, 5). Returning to Ephesus from this “painful visit,” Paul dispatched Titus with a blistering “letter of tears,” his third letter to that church (2 Cor 2:4; 7:8, 12), which led to the excommunication of the leader and the repentance of the church. This letter has been lost. Meanwhile a situation erupted in Ephesus during which death (probably execution) seemed so certain that Paul despaired of life (see Acts 19:23-41; cf. Rom 16:4; 2 Cor 1:8-9). Paul was not killed, but his escape seemed miraculous.<\/p>\n<p>Leaving Ephesus in early <span>AD<\/span> 56, Paul traveled north to Troas seeking Titus and news of Corinth. Unable to endure without news, he abandoned a promising mission in Troas and sailed to Philippi. There he met Titus, who explained the change of heart in Corinth. Second Corinthians 1–9 responds to this situation, with chapters 8–9 preparing the Corinthians for an upcoming visit. Later Paul received further news from Corinth that renewed opposition to him was present. In response he penned the self-defense found in 2 Corinthians 10–13. Paul followed up the letter with a visit later in the year (Acts 20:2-3). We do not know the response to 2 Corinthians or the outcome of his final visit, but later the troubled history of the Corinthian church continued, with another Christian leader needing to write a letter at the end of the century (Epistle of Clement).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The Corinthian house churches always had great diversity. While those who liked Apollos undoubtedly despised Paul’s crude style, others who preferred Peter likely appealed beyond Paul to the more genuine “original” apostles in Jerusalem with their Jewish customs (1 Cor 1). Traveling teachers with letters of commendation from these apostles easily drew a following when they came to Corinth and undermined Paul’s authority and even his character. Furthermore, because of this outside influence, the collection for the poor in Jerusalem that Paul had initiated (16:1-4) was left in abeyance, both because it was connected to Paul and because the teachers themselves were taking money from the church. Paul writes to reaffirm his love and to repair the damage caused by the interloper.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTeaching\">Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>In the first section of the letter, Paul has two main purposes. The first is to cement his restored relationship with Corinth, explaining situations, forgiving those who opposed him, and reflecting on the nature of ministry. For Paul, ministry meant both intense suffering and comfort. Physical and emotional suffering came from the situations and people he worked with, but his knowledge of future reward and his experience of the power of God working in him brought profound joy and comfort. Due to his own recent brush with death, Paul also reflects on what happens at death. His expectation is to receive a resurrection body and be in the presence of Jesus at death.<\/p>\n<p>The second purpose of this section is to get the collection for Jerusalem on track again. In this context he gives major teaching on giving and Christian economics: Christians are to follow Christ in giving freely; economic equality is the principle governing who gives to whom.<\/p>\n<p>The second section of the letter is an impassioned self-defense, refuting the interloper’s claims to superiority. Neither oratory nor pedigree counts in Christian ministry, but only the call of God.<\/p>\n<p>In both sections one observes Paul’s deep desire for the unity of the church, both unity within the local community and unity with leaders appointed by God, such as Paul.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting, 1:1-7<\/h5>\n<p>A standard greeting (2 Cor 1:1-2) comes before Paul’s usual thanksgiving (vv 3-7). The topic of the thanksgiving—comfort in the midst of suffering—is the topic of chapters 1–7. Paul knows what it is to suffer, but it is in suffering that he has experienced God’s comfort, which he passes on to the Corinthians.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Explanation, 1:8–2:13<\/h5>\n<p>Paul informs them of the danger he had suffered in Ephesus, one so great that he did not believe he would survive. His eventual survival seemed like a virtual resurrection, reinforcing his conviction that God, not human strength, is the only Christian refuge (1:8-11). In that and in all situations, Paul’s one boast is that of a clear conscience before God (vv 12-14).<\/p>\n<p>Paul had told them of plans for a double visit (cf. 1 Cor 16:5-6), but except for his brief “painful visit,” he had not fulfilled his plan (2 Cor 1:15–2:4). He defends himself from charges of either not planning in the Spirit or hypocritical vacillation. He was indeed as good as his word (cf. Jas 5:12), for his life reflected God’s fulfilled promise in Jesus, but he had changed plans so as not to repeat the “painful visit” of the previous year. It was love, not fickleness, that motivated the delayed visit.<\/p>\n<p>The Corinthians had responded to Paul’s “letter of tears” by excommunicating the person who had opposed Paul (not the same person as in 1 Cor 5). Since the person became repentant, Paul called for his restoration to the community, freely and graciously forgiving the man who had hurt him. Excommunication is for the unrepentant; its purpose is complete once the person repents (2 Cor 2:5-11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul then recounted his journey from Ephesus to Philippi, when he sought news of the response to the “letter of tears” (2:12-13). After telling how he left an opportunity to minister in Troas to go to find Titus in Philippi, he breaks the narrative with a long digression.<\/p>\n<h5>Nature of Apostolic Ministry, 2:14–7:4<\/h5>\n<p>The apostolic ministry in which Paul took part is like the ministry of Jesus, one of suffering and glory. Even in suffering there is triumph in Christ, for Christians share Christ’s triumph. Yet just like the perfumes of a Roman triumph were joy to the victors but meant death for prisoners on their way to execution, so Jesus’ triumph is life to the believer and death to the unbeliever (2:14-17).<\/p>\n<p>This triumph may have sounded like a boast, but Paul is not engaging in self-exaltation. Indeed, he has no need of the letters of commendation that the interloper in Corinth carried from Jerusalem, for the Corinthians are themselves the proof of his ministry (3:1-3). His boast is not in himself but in the new covenant in the Spirit, which unlike the old covenant is not fading (here Paul follows one Jewish interpretation of Ex 34:29-35, that Moses put the veil over his face so the people would not see the glory fade), nor does it veil the presence of God. The new covenant is permanent; it reveals God directly in the Spirit. There is no deceit or hiddenness, for the message is not about Paul but about Jesus, who is light itself (2 Cor 3:4–4:6).<\/p>\n<p>Paul the messenger, however, is simply the cheap, breakable pot that contains the priceless treasure, revealing by way of contrast that the only power in the gospel is God’s power. This contrast of weakness and power is seen in the sufferings of the apostle, a type of living death modeled after the sufferings of Jesus, out of which the life of Jesus flows to others (4:7-15).<\/p>\n<p>Therefore, despite intense suffering, Paul has courage, for he looks beyond this life to the rewards of the coming life. His whole motivation is one of faith, not sight, for he lives already for unseen realities (4:16-18). When he dies, Paul expects to receive an eternal resurrection body. His hope is not of becoming a disembodied soul (“naked”) but of passing immediately into a glorified bodily life, already guaranteed by the presence of the Spirit. This hope was likely the fruit of his near brush with death in Ephesus, when he must have meditated and prayed about what would come at death (5:1-5). Because this future includes Christ’s judgment, Paul wanted to make every effort to live in the light of that judgment, which he already saw by faith (vv 6-10).<\/p>\n<p>Far from trying to commend or exalt himself, Paul was simply presenting what he was—a person filled with the love of Christ and convinced that all should live not for themselves but for Christ (5:11-15). No one should be valued from a merely human point of view, not Paul, nor even Christ (for Paul before his conversion had a human opinion of Christ that his conversion had radically changed); everyone should be valued from the point of view of the new creation. Paul’s job was simply to announce the reconciliation of the new creation, which God has already effected on his side and which only awaits a person’s ratification on the human side (5:16-20).<\/p>\n<p>Paul, then, was a coworker with God, announcing salvation, using every means consistent with God’s character to proclaim the message, and suffering everything imaginable to demonstrate the extent of God’s love (6:1-10). Therefore, Paul had nothing against the Corinthians. If there was any blockage in their relationship with him, it must be on their side (6:11-13).<\/p>\n<h5>Digression on Purity, 6:14–7:1<\/h5>\n<p>Perhaps suspecting that the real block in the relationship was their love of the world, or that the Corinthians might not be totally over the problems mentioned in 1 Corinthians, Paul digressed into a discussion about the purity and sanctification of believers. There are two groups, light and darkness, Christ and the devil, believers and unbelievers. Therefore, as Exodus 25:8, Leviticus 26:11-12, Isaiah 52:11, Ezekiel 37:27, and Hosea 1:10 show (phrases from these passages flow into each other in a style of chain quotation familiar to Jews), Christians should not be closely bound to unbelievers in marriage or in business, for it will affect their moral purity.<\/p>\n<h5>Return to the Nature of the Apostolic Ministry, 7:2-4<\/h5>\n<p>Picking up from 6:13, Paul points out that the Corinthians have nothing substantial against him. He is not criticizing but simply appealing to them in love; even now he is prepared to die for them.<\/p>\n<h5>Explanation Concluded, 7:5-16<\/h5>\n<p>Having concluded his digression, Paul now returns to his journey, which he left in 2:13. When he met Titus, he received good news about Corinth. He was relieved that his “letter of tears” had been effective, not in simply making them sorry but in bringing them to true repentance that yielded zeal, moral purity, and joy. Furthermore, their behavior toward Titus had been so impressive that Titus’s enthusiastic report of his own impressions had further cheered Paul.<\/p>\n<h5>Collection for Jerusalem, 8:1–9:15<\/h5>\n<p>In the context of restored relationships Paul turns to the sensitive topic of the collection for the church in Jerusalem, which had been impoverished through famines in Judea in the 40s. This collection was both an act of charity (cf. Acts 11:27-30; Gal 2:10) and a symbolic act of unity and fellowship between the Gentile and Jewish branches of the church.<\/p>\n<p>The impoverished and suffering church in Macedonia (Philippi) had given eagerly. Therefore, Titus was coming back to help the Corinthians complete what they had begun the previous year (and probably dropped during the controversy with Paul, 2 Cor 8:1-7). The principles of the collection are (1) the Corinthians should follow the example of Jesus, who became poor for them; (2) they should give freely what they can without regretting that they cannot give more, for God values the eagerness to give expressed in action, not the net amount of the gift; and (3) there should be an economic equality among sections of the church, no one section being enriched at the expense of another (cf. Ex 16:18). This economic equality extends to the relationship between two churches a continent apart (2 Cor 8:8-15).<\/p>\n<p>Titus and two absolutely trustworthy men appointed by the churches for this work will come to supervise the final gathering—Paul would have nothing to do with the money personally—for it is important that not only God but the world be able to see the honesty and integrity of the way the church handles money (8:16-24).<\/p>\n<p>In this section Paul points out that he does not need to argue the reasons for this collection; they were aware of them when they began to gather money the year before. This letter is not an argument for the collection but an encouragement to finish the work, so that when Paul arrives with representatives of other churches carrying their contributions, the Corinthians would not be embarrassed by their relatively wealthy churches not being ready or able to give generously, despite Paul’s boasts about their previous eagerness. In saying this, Paul shows himself diplomatic and insightful in motivating human behavior; he makes the best assumptions possible about the present situation (9:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>Paul would not want the Corinthians giving out of guilt, although he, like Jesus (Mt 6:19-20), pointed out that the only real value of money is in giving it to help others. Rather, he wanted them so convinced of God’s generosity and ability to provide that they give freely and joyfully. God wanted to enrich them so they could give more. The giving would result in thanksgiving to God by the recipients, who would also pray for those who gave the gift, thereby binding the church together. A closing reminder of the extent of God’s own giving finishes the section (2 Cor 9:6-15).<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Self-Defense, 10:1–13:14<\/h5>\n<p>There is an abrupt change in tone between 9:15 and 10:1. Now, instead of the tone of conciliation found in 1:1–7:16, there is argument and defense, even threat. Paul’s apostleship has been attacked, and he will defend it with vigor.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was indeed a humble person who preferred not to use his authority. Yet when forced, he had something more than authority; he had spiritual power, capable of destroying opposing arguments and bending all to obedience to Jesus. He would use that power in Corinth if he must, though up to that time he had been gentle and had shown this side of his ministry only in letters (10:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>His opponents talked of their qualifications and compared themselves favorably with other ministers. Paul would not enter into this game of comparisons. God had set the sphere of his labors, which was the area in which he founded churches. He was the one who pioneered the church in Corinth, so it is his sphere of ministry, not the interloper’s (and such like him). They boasted in having reaped the benefits of his ministry; Paul could point to an original ministry given by God, for it is God’s commendation in the end that counts (10:13-18).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the Corinthian rebellion is serious enough to force him into self-defense, ridiculous as such an exercise is. He was shocked by how readily they turned away to every novel doctrine that came along. This tendency strikes fear in Paul’s heart (11:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>Paul had been criticized for refusing financial support from Corinth (even though he accepted gifts from other churches; cf. 1 Cor 9). He would continue to refuse such support, for he wanted to undermine the claims of the interloper. If the interloper was really serving God alone, let him work on the same basis as Paul! But since the interloper was false at heart, serving Satan and not God, he sought money from the church. Paul was astonished that in the Corinthians’ vaunted wisdom they did not see through this hypocrisy, yet he hoped that even if he must play the fool in making a self-defense, they would at least accept a fool like Paul. The irony is that his very tender care and concern for the church, his gentleness, was being used against him as a supposed “weakness.” Paul, the opponent argued, knew he was false, so therefore did not dare take money from the Corinthians (11:7-21).<\/p>\n<p>Interlopers claimed to come with authority from Jerusalem. They had letters from the apostles; it is unlikely, however, that the apostles would have approved of their activities. Still, they were Jews with respectable authority behind them. Paul felt compelled to state his own credentials. If they were Jews, he was just as pure a Jew. If they served Christ, could their work and sufferings match his? The list of sufferings both gives historical information not found in Acts and points to tireless labor, including days of fasting (“gone without food”) and nights spent in prayer (“gone without sleep”) (11:21-29).<\/p>\n<p>But this boasting was repulsive to Paul, so he isolated one particular suffering—his escape from Damascus, when he had to hide and slip out of the city in a basket. The story at once shows his effectiveness as an evangelist (in that he was a target of persecution) and shames him, for he could not defend himself and had to slip away under cover of darkness. Yet that weakness was indeed his glory (11:30-33).<\/p>\n<p>His opponents boasted in revelations from God. Paul knew that this boasting was senseless; however, if he must, he would tell them of a revelation superior to theirs, a time when he actually saw the inside of heaven (he is not sure whether it was a vision or an actual bodily experience). This probably happened about <span>AD<\/span> 42, while Paul was in Tarsus, before Barnabas came for him (Acts 9:30; 11:25). Paul disliked telling about this, for God’s power is more easily seen in his weakness. In fact, Paul’s opponents were an affliction of Satan that God allowed to keep Paul humble and to demonstrate his power in Paul’s weakness. (The image of a “thorn in my flesh” is one of enemies—Nm 33:55; Jos 23:13; Paul also describes what he means more clearly in 2 Cor 12:10). If vulnerability shows God’s power, Paul willingly accepts the weakness (12:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>Paul felt ashamed that he had to boast. The opponents boasted in coming from the Jerusalem “superapostles.” Paul pointed out that he was their equal, although both are nothing. God had set his mark upon Paul’s work. With biting irony he asks forgiveness for not having taken money from the Corinthians (12:11-13).<\/p>\n<p>Yet Paul would come a third time, and he would keep to the same policy of not taking any support from them but giving himself freely to them, just as Jesus had done on earth. Not only he, but all his envoys, kept to the same policy. No one could accuse him of deceit or inconsistency (12:14-18). However, he feared coming to them, for he knew that the community had not just rebelled against him but was also in internal disorder. This disunity and immorality would humble and pain Paul (12:19–13:4).<\/p>\n<p>Therefore, the Corinthians had better examine themselves. Were they really following Jesus or not? If so, they should see that Paul was also following Jesus. Yet Paul’s concern was not for his own position—he was content to be rejected (“weak”)—but for their following the truth. He hoped for their repentance, not to protect himself, but so that he need not be severe when he came (13:5-10).<\/p>\n<p>Probably taking the pen from the scribe at this point, Paul closes with a final appeal to repent and come to unity as a church. Brief greetings from the church in Macedonia and a formal blessing closes his correspondence with the Corinthians (vv 11-13).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Corinth; Corinthians, First Letter to the; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CORINTHIANS, Second Letter to the Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author The apostle Paul is the acknowledged author of 2 Corinthians. While some scholars argue that 2 Corinthians 2:14–7:4 and 10–13 are separate letters, only in the case of 6:14–7:1 is Paul’s authorship disputed. This section is admittedly a strange digression, but stranger still would be the thought that an editor could have inserted it in such an unusual place. Also the repet...","summary_en":"CORINTHIANS, Second Letter to the Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author The apostle Paul is the acknowledged author of 2 Corinthians. While some scholars argue that 2 Corinthians 2:14–7:4 and 10–13 are separate letters, only in the case of 6:14–7:1 is Paul’s authorship disputed. This section is admittedly a strange digression, but stranger still would be the thought that an editor could have inserted it in such an unusual place. Also the repet...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":9251,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Demetrius","title_en":"Demetrius","content_ro":"<h3>DEMETRIUS<\/h3>\n<p>Name (“Son of Demeter”) of five persons in biblical times: three Syrian kings and two NT figures.<\/p>\n<p>1. Successor to Antiochus V Eupator. Demetrius I was king (160–151 <span>BC<\/span>) when the Jewish uprising led by Judas Maccabeus was under way. He attempted several unsuccessful campaigns against the Jews (1 Macc 7:1-10; 2 Macc 14:1-15, 26-28). Toward the end of his reign Demetrius was challenged by Alexander Epiphanes and was killed in battle (1 Macc 10:46-50).<\/p>\n<li>2. Son of Demetrius I. After his father’s defeat and death, Demetrius II sought refuge in Crete, then challenged Alexander Epiphanes by invading Syria with an army of foreign mercenaries. Demetrius eventually concluded a treaty with the Jews and gained the Syrian throne in 145 <span>BC<\/span> (1 Macc 11:32-37). The Jews also helped Demetrius against another rival, Trypho, until he broke his word to them (vv 54-55). In the subsequent contest between Demetrius and Trypho, the Jews, under Jonathan’s brother Simon Maccabeus, achieved independence (13:34-42). Demetrius was captured by Arsaces VI (Mithridates I), king of Parthia, around 138 <span>BC<\/span> (1 Macc 14:1-3). He returned to the Syrian throne 10 years later and reigned briefly until his assassination (125 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>3. Grandson of Demetrius II. Demetrius III ruled Syria (95–88 <span>BC<\/span>) in the turbulent years of the Seleucid era. One ruling party in Israel, the Pharisees, unsuccessfully enlisted his aid in their contest with the priest-king Alexander Janneus.<\/li>\n<li>4. Pagan silversmith in the city of Ephesus. He provoked a riot against Christian evangelists whose preaching had detrimental effects on his trade (Acts 19:23-41). The city of Ephesus was a center of the worship of Diana (Latin counterpart of the Greek goddess Artemis), the goddess of hunting. A huge temple, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, had been erected there for her worship. Among the commercial enterprises connected with the cult of Diana was the making of religious images out of various materials, including silver.<\/li>\n<p>Demetrius, speaking for the silversmiths, said that both his business and the worship of Diana were threatened by the preaching of the apostle Paul and his companions. Gathering the other silversmiths together, he denounced Paul. The meeting caused a general uproar, and a mob dragged three of Paul’s companions to the amphitheater. Finally the town clerk, who was responsible to the Roman authorities for maintaining civic order, was able to quiet the mob, persuading them to take any grievances they might have to the courts.<\/p>\n<li>5. Christian believer whom the apostle John commended in his third NT letter (3 Jn 1:12). Demetrius may have been the carrier of that letter.<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> John, Letters of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DEMETRIUS<\/h3>\n<p>Name (“Son of Demeter”) of five persons in biblical times: three Syrian kings and two NT figures.<\/p>\n<p>1. Successor to Antiochus V Eupator. Demetrius I was king (160–151 <span>BC<\/span>) when the Jewish uprising led by Judas Maccabeus was under way. He attempted several unsuccessful campaigns against the Jews (1 Macc 7:1-10; 2 Macc 14:1-15, 26-28). Toward the end of his reign Demetrius was challenged by Alexander Epiphanes and was killed in battle (1 Macc 10:46-50).<\/p>\n<li>2. Son of Demetrius I. After his father’s defeat and death, Demetrius II sought refuge in Crete, then challenged Alexander Epiphanes by invading Syria with an army of foreign mercenaries. Demetrius eventually concluded a treaty with the Jews and gained the Syrian throne in 145 <span>BC<\/span> (1 Macc 11:32-37). The Jews also helped Demetrius against another rival, Trypho, until he broke his word to them (vv 54-55). In the subsequent contest between Demetrius and Trypho, the Jews, under Jonathan’s brother Simon Maccabeus, achieved independence (13:34-42). Demetrius was captured by Arsaces VI (Mithridates I), king of Parthia, around 138 <span>BC<\/span> (1 Macc 14:1-3). He returned to the Syrian throne 10 years later and reigned briefly until his assassination (125 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>3. Grandson of Demetrius II. Demetrius III ruled Syria (95–88 <span>BC<\/span>) in the turbulent years of the Seleucid era. One ruling party in Israel, the Pharisees, unsuccessfully enlisted his aid in their contest with the priest-king Alexander Janneus.<\/li>\n<li>4. Pagan silversmith in the city of Ephesus. He provoked a riot against Christian evangelists whose preaching had detrimental effects on his trade (Acts 19:23-41). The city of Ephesus was a center of the worship of Diana (Latin counterpart of the Greek goddess Artemis), the goddess of hunting. A huge temple, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, had been erected there for her worship. Among the commercial enterprises connected with the cult of Diana was the making of religious images out of various materials, including silver.<\/li>\n<p>Demetrius, speaking for the silversmiths, said that both his business and the worship of Diana were threatened by the preaching of the apostle Paul and his companions. Gathering the other silversmiths together, he denounced Paul. The meeting caused a general uproar, and a mob dragged three of Paul’s companions to the amphitheater. Finally the town clerk, who was responsible to the Roman authorities for maintaining civic order, was able to quiet the mob, persuading them to take any grievances they might have to the courts.<\/p>\n<li>5. Christian believer whom the apostle John commended in his third NT letter (3 Jn 1:12). Demetrius may have been the carrier of that letter.<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> John, Letters of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DEMETRIUS Name (“Son of Demeter”) of five persons in biblical times: three Syrian kings and two NT figures. 1. Successor to Antiochus V Eupator. Demetrius I was king (160–151 BC) when the Jewish uprising led by Judas Maccabeus was under way. He attempted several unsuccessful campaigns against the Jews (1 Macc 7:1-10; 2 Macc 14:1-15, 26-28). Toward the end of his reign Demetrius was challenged by Alexander Epiphanes and was killed in battle (1 Macc 10:46-50). 2. Son of Demetrius I. After his f...","summary_en":"DEMETRIUS Name (“Son of Demeter”) of five persons in biblical times: three Syrian kings and two NT figures. 1. Successor to Antiochus V Eupator. Demetrius I was king (160–151 BC) when the Jewish uprising led by Judas Maccabeus was under way. He attempted several unsuccessful campaigns against the Jews (1 Macc 7:1-10; 2 Macc 14:1-15, 26-28). Toward the end of his reign Demetrius was challenged by Alexander Epiphanes and was killed in battle (1 Macc 10:46-50). 2. Son of Demetrius I. After his f...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":9510,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Diana*","title_en":"Diana*","content_ro":"<h3>DIANA*<\/h3>\n<p>Roman name for the mythological Greek goddess Artemis, daughter of Jupiter and Latona and the twin sister of Apollo. She renounced all idea of marriage, supposedly because she was appalled at the birth pains her mother had suffered in bearing her, and remained the unattainable virgin goddess. Although goddess of the moon, Diana was more often portrayed as the huntress with two dogs beside her.<\/p>\n<p>The Temple of Diana at Ephesus was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. The impressive building was supported on 100 large columns. The local legend was that her statue fell there from the sky (Acts 19:35). This may have been a reference to a meteorite. Pliny described a large stone over the doorway, which, according to tradition, had been put in place by Diana. Ceremonies and services of worship in her honor were conducted by eunuch priests.<\/p>\n<p>Among the statues that have been excavated, some show Diana as a multibreasted female; others show a shrine with the goddess attended by lions. Models of the temple were sold as souvenirs by the silversmiths, who were reluctant to see any slackening of this lucrative trade when Paul began his preaching in Ephesus (Acts 19:23–20:1). The discontent and agitation of the silversmiths led to the riot of the crowd, culminating in the roar “Great is Diana of the Ephesians” (19:28, 34, <span>kjv<\/span>). Inscriptions in the British Museum refer to the goddess as “Artemis the Great.” If the silversmiths are to be believed, she was worshiped throughout the known world. The form of worship is not known for certain, but the worship of the goddess Diana may have been associated with a fertility cult.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DIANA*<\/h3>\n<p>Roman name for the mythological Greek goddess Artemis, daughter of Jupiter and Latona and the twin sister of Apollo. She renounced all idea of marriage, supposedly because she was appalled at the birth pains her mother had suffered in bearing her, and remained the unattainable virgin goddess. Although goddess of the moon, Diana was more often portrayed as the huntress with two dogs beside her.<\/p>\n<p>The Temple of Diana at Ephesus was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. The impressive building was supported on 100 large columns. The local legend was that her statue fell there from the sky (Acts 19:35). This may have been a reference to a meteorite. Pliny described a large stone over the doorway, which, according to tradition, had been put in place by Diana. Ceremonies and services of worship in her honor were conducted by eunuch priests.<\/p>\n<p>Among the statues that have been excavated, some show Diana as a multibreasted female; others show a shrine with the goddess attended by lions. Models of the temple were sold as souvenirs by the silversmiths, who were reluctant to see any slackening of this lucrative trade when Paul began his preaching in Ephesus (Acts 19:23–20:1). The discontent and agitation of the silversmiths led to the riot of the crowd, culminating in the roar “Great is Diana of the Ephesians” (19:28, 34, <span>kjv<\/span>). Inscriptions in the British Museum refer to the goddess as “Artemis the Great.” If the silversmiths are to be believed, she was worshiped throughout the known world. The form of worship is not known for certain, but the worship of the goddess Diana may have been associated with a fertility cult.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DIANA* Roman name for the mythological Greek goddess Artemis, daughter of Jupiter and Latona and the twin sister of Apollo. She renounced all idea of marriage, supposedly because she was appalled at the birth pains her mother had suffered in bearing her, and remained the unattainable virgin goddess. Although goddess of the moon, Diana was more often portrayed as the huntress with two dogs beside her. The Temple of Diana at Ephesus was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. The impress...","summary_en":"DIANA* Roman name for the mythological Greek goddess Artemis, daughter of Jupiter and Latona and the twin sister of Apollo. She renounced all idea of marriage, supposedly because she was appalled at the birth pains her mother had suffered in bearing her, and remained the unattainable virgin goddess. Although goddess of the moon, Diana was more often portrayed as the huntress with two dogs beside her. The Temple of Diana at Ephesus was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. The impress...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29245,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Paul, the Apostle","title_en":"Paul, the Apostle","content_ro":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","summary_en":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29718,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Persecution","title_en":"Persecution","content_ro":"<h3>PERSECUTION<\/h3>\n<p>Infliction of suffering, injury, or death on others because of their identity or beliefs. The Bible begins with an account of the persecution of the righteous by the unrighteous (Gn 4:3-7, “regard for Abel”; Mt 23:35; Heb 11:4). The Wisdom of Solomon (Wisd of Sol 2:12-20) dramatically illustrates the envy and guilt that prompt such persecution. Lot’s experience, likewise, illustrates the suffering involved in refusing to conform to popular behavior (Gn 19:9; 2 Pt 2:7-8). The ill-treatment of Israel in Egypt, like her later oppression by the Philistines, Midianites, and others, had economic and political grounds. For those refusing to accept the royal policy of syncretism, official tolerance of injustice, and pagan immoralities, persecution becomes frequent—from Elijah’s period onward (1 Kgs 19:10). Later prophets, as spokesmen of uncompromising truth and the claims of divine law in the face of social evils, suffered severely at the hands of the ruling classes, so that persecution became, in Jewish eyes, the hallmark of the true prophet (2 Chr 36:15-16; Mt 5:12; 23:29-37; Acts 7:52; Heb 11:32-38).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s stories illustrate persecution during the exile. On the return under foreign rule, strict Jews sought to preserve the nation’s identity and religion amid alien pressures and the compromises of lax Jews anxious for accommodation and prosperity (1 Macc 1:11-15; 2:42-48). The result was the social oppression and harassment that made the repeated pleas for vindication and divine intervention, in such psalms as 10, 69, 140, and 149, painfully relevant in postexilic worship. This persecution reached a horrifying climax of cruelty during the Maccabean age, provoking armed resistance in response (2 Macc 6–7; Heb 11:35-38).<\/p>\n<p>Thus, despite her confidence in God’s sovereignty and “protection,” Israel learned that right does not always prosper in this world, that faithfulness to truth does not ensure immunity from suffering, sacrifice, or martyrdom.<\/p>\n<p>This acceptance of the high cost of righteousness was inherited by Christianity. Jesus repeatedly warned of persecution, even within households, and urged “armed” preparation for it, promising the Spirit’s assistance at judicial examinations (Mt 5:11-12; 10:16-23, 34-36; 23:34; Lk 6:26; 22:35-36). Jesus was deeply angered by the murder of John the Baptist by Herod (Lk 23:9), and he foresaw his own fate. Because he criticized the legalism and nationalism of the Pharisees, and the compromises of the Sadducees to protect their own privileges (Jn 11:47-50), and because he disappointed the militaristic hopes set upon the Messiah by the common people, Jesus knew he would be rejected. His call to discipleship came to include warnings of danger, reviling, slander, accusation, flogging, arraignment before courts, hatred, and death. He frankly invited followers to prepare for his crucifixion, as the only way to life and the kingdom (Mt 16:21-26; 20:17-22; Mk 10:29-30; Jn 15:18-25; 16:1-4). Jesus was killed on the charges of subverting the nation, forbidding payment of taxes to the Romans, and claiming to be king (Lk 23:2).<\/p>\n<p>The first persecution of the church by Jewish authorities was provoked mainly by Peter’s accusations concerning the murder of the Messiah. As apostolic influence increased, official action came to include imprisonment and beating (Acts 5:17, 40). The powerful advocacy of the Hellenist Stephen provoked a Jewish mob to stone him (Acts 6–7)—the signal for “a great persecution,” scattering most Christians from Jerusalem. The conversion of the archpersecutor Saul of Tarsus marked a resounding victory over opposition, and Herod’s sudden death just after attacking the church “to please the Jews” was another (Acts 12:1-3, 20-24).<\/p>\n<p>As Christianity moved into the Gentile world, a new cause of Jewish persecution arose as disturbances began to occur in the synagogues (Acts 13:44-45, 50; 14:1-6, 19; 17:1, 5, 13; 18:4-6, 12). In addition, the healing of the slave girl at Philippi led to the disciples’ imprisonment (16:19-24); at Ephesus, the effect of Christian preaching on the trade of idol makers occasioned a dangerous threat, which the authorities averted (19:23-41). Paul averted the plot of more than 40 men who vowed to ambush him and kill him (21:4-36; 23:12-15). And the book of Acts closes with Paul awaiting trial before Caesar (28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p>Throughout this period, persecution of Christians was sporadic, local, and mainly Jewish, provoked by envy of the church’s missionary success. Officially, Christianity, as a Jewish sect (Acts 24:5, 14), shared the state’s legal recognition won by the Jews. Thus, Paul received Roman protection at Paphos, Philippi, Corinth, Ephesus, and Jerusalem from governors Felix and Festus and their adviser Herod Agrippa, as well as from the centurion conveying him to Rome. This explains Paul’s confident appeal to Caesar; an imperial acquittal would ensure Christianity freedom from harassment throughout the empire.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s attitude to persecution included regretful remembrance of his own persecuting days (Acts 22:4; 26:9-11; Gal 1:22-24), deliberate acceptance of risks in obedience to Christ (Acts 20:22-24; 21:13), continual warning that tribulation is inseparable from discipleship (Acts 14:22; Rom 5:3; 12:12; 1 Thes 3:4), and assurance that in every form of tribulation Christians are more than conquerors (Rom 8:35-37).<\/p>\n<p>Almost certainly, Paul was beheaded during fierce persecution at Rome following the fire for which the Christians were blamed. Christians were often accused of “atheism” (rejecting polytheism), of appealing only to slave classes, of “scandalous” love feasts, and unsociable, austere behavior (cf. Jn 15:19), making them a popular target for blame.<\/p>\n<p>About this time, Peter warned Christians in the East of the danger confronting the church. For a little while, “various trials” only prove the genuineness of faith (1 Pt 1:6). Slander should be answered by blameless living. Honor should be paid to the authorities. Suffering for righteousness should be accepted without fear. Let Christians prepare respectful defenses, with consciences clear of blame. If they suffer for doing right, remember that Christ did too—for them. Thus they must “arm” themselves for suffering (4:1), and not be surprised at persecution as “something strange” (v 12). They are sharing Christ’s sufferings. His final word is “Stand fast!”<\/p>\n<p>Mark, too, is thought to have written at this time for the benefit of the suffering Roman church. His Gospel dwells upon Christ’s conflict, its causes and forms, and vividly portrays Christ’s own heroic death. Like Peter, Mark meets persecution by pointing back to the suffering Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Somewhat later, Christianity was exposed as an “illegal religion,” no longer a protected sect of Judaism, by the introduction into synagogue services of a prayer against “Nazarenes,” which Christians could not offer. Thereafter, the church was liable to official suppression. Rome readily incorporated old, national religions into state rituals for the sake of imperial unity, but she resisted new, nonconformist movements, especially those with secret meetings (i.e., the Eucharist), as politically dangerous (cf. Acts 17:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Toward the end of the century, faced with a growing church and political unrest, the state required public “worship” of “the genius of Rome” alongside any other religious rites. In Domitian’s reign (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) this became worship of the living emperor, with elaborate temples and an official priesthood. When Christians refused, acknowledging Jesus alone as divine Lord, official, and increasingly barbaric, persecution began. It is probable that Revelation reflects this situation (Rv 1:9; 2:13; 6:9; 13; 19:2). So the Bible ends as it began, with the theme of the persecution of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Suffering; Tribulation.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PERSECUTION<\/h3>\n<p>Infliction of suffering, injury, or death on others because of their identity or beliefs. The Bible begins with an account of the persecution of the righteous by the unrighteous (Gn 4:3-7, “regard for Abel”; Mt 23:35; Heb 11:4). The Wisdom of Solomon (Wisd of Sol 2:12-20) dramatically illustrates the envy and guilt that prompt such persecution. Lot’s experience, likewise, illustrates the suffering involved in refusing to conform to popular behavior (Gn 19:9; 2 Pt 2:7-8). The ill-treatment of Israel in Egypt, like her later oppression by the Philistines, Midianites, and others, had economic and political grounds. For those refusing to accept the royal policy of syncretism, official tolerance of injustice, and pagan immoralities, persecution becomes frequent—from Elijah’s period onward (1 Kgs 19:10). Later prophets, as spokesmen of uncompromising truth and the claims of divine law in the face of social evils, suffered severely at the hands of the ruling classes, so that persecution became, in Jewish eyes, the hallmark of the true prophet (2 Chr 36:15-16; Mt 5:12; 23:29-37; Acts 7:52; Heb 11:32-38).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s stories illustrate persecution during the exile. On the return under foreign rule, strict Jews sought to preserve the nation’s identity and religion amid alien pressures and the compromises of lax Jews anxious for accommodation and prosperity (1 Macc 1:11-15; 2:42-48). The result was the social oppression and harassment that made the repeated pleas for vindication and divine intervention, in such psalms as 10, 69, 140, and 149, painfully relevant in postexilic worship. This persecution reached a horrifying climax of cruelty during the Maccabean age, provoking armed resistance in response (2 Macc 6–7; Heb 11:35-38).<\/p>\n<p>Thus, despite her confidence in God’s sovereignty and “protection,” Israel learned that right does not always prosper in this world, that faithfulness to truth does not ensure immunity from suffering, sacrifice, or martyrdom.<\/p>\n<p>This acceptance of the high cost of righteousness was inherited by Christianity. Jesus repeatedly warned of persecution, even within households, and urged “armed” preparation for it, promising the Spirit’s assistance at judicial examinations (Mt 5:11-12; 10:16-23, 34-36; 23:34; Lk 6:26; 22:35-36). Jesus was deeply angered by the murder of John the Baptist by Herod (Lk 23:9), and he foresaw his own fate. Because he criticized the legalism and nationalism of the Pharisees, and the compromises of the Sadducees to protect their own privileges (Jn 11:47-50), and because he disappointed the militaristic hopes set upon the Messiah by the common people, Jesus knew he would be rejected. His call to discipleship came to include warnings of danger, reviling, slander, accusation, flogging, arraignment before courts, hatred, and death. He frankly invited followers to prepare for his crucifixion, as the only way to life and the kingdom (Mt 16:21-26; 20:17-22; Mk 10:29-30; Jn 15:18-25; 16:1-4). Jesus was killed on the charges of subverting the nation, forbidding payment of taxes to the Romans, and claiming to be king (Lk 23:2).<\/p>\n<p>The first persecution of the church by Jewish authorities was provoked mainly by Peter’s accusations concerning the murder of the Messiah. As apostolic influence increased, official action came to include imprisonment and beating (Acts 5:17, 40). The powerful advocacy of the Hellenist Stephen provoked a Jewish mob to stone him (Acts 6–7)—the signal for “a great persecution,” scattering most Christians from Jerusalem. The conversion of the archpersecutor Saul of Tarsus marked a resounding victory over opposition, and Herod’s sudden death just after attacking the church “to please the Jews” was another (Acts 12:1-3, 20-24).<\/p>\n<p>As Christianity moved into the Gentile world, a new cause of Jewish persecution arose as disturbances began to occur in the synagogues (Acts 13:44-45, 50; 14:1-6, 19; 17:1, 5, 13; 18:4-6, 12). In addition, the healing of the slave girl at Philippi led to the disciples’ imprisonment (16:19-24); at Ephesus, the effect of Christian preaching on the trade of idol makers occasioned a dangerous threat, which the authorities averted (19:23-41). Paul averted the plot of more than 40 men who vowed to ambush him and kill him (21:4-36; 23:12-15). And the book of Acts closes with Paul awaiting trial before Caesar (28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p>Throughout this period, persecution of Christians was sporadic, local, and mainly Jewish, provoked by envy of the church’s missionary success. Officially, Christianity, as a Jewish sect (Acts 24:5, 14), shared the state’s legal recognition won by the Jews. Thus, Paul received Roman protection at Paphos, Philippi, Corinth, Ephesus, and Jerusalem from governors Felix and Festus and their adviser Herod Agrippa, as well as from the centurion conveying him to Rome. This explains Paul’s confident appeal to Caesar; an imperial acquittal would ensure Christianity freedom from harassment throughout the empire.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s attitude to persecution included regretful remembrance of his own persecuting days (Acts 22:4; 26:9-11; Gal 1:22-24), deliberate acceptance of risks in obedience to Christ (Acts 20:22-24; 21:13), continual warning that tribulation is inseparable from discipleship (Acts 14:22; Rom 5:3; 12:12; 1 Thes 3:4), and assurance that in every form of tribulation Christians are more than conquerors (Rom 8:35-37).<\/p>\n<p>Almost certainly, Paul was beheaded during fierce persecution at Rome following the fire for which the Christians were blamed. Christians were often accused of “atheism” (rejecting polytheism), of appealing only to slave classes, of “scandalous” love feasts, and unsociable, austere behavior (cf. Jn 15:19), making them a popular target for blame.<\/p>\n<p>About this time, Peter warned Christians in the East of the danger confronting the church. For a little while, “various trials” only prove the genuineness of faith (1 Pt 1:6). Slander should be answered by blameless living. Honor should be paid to the authorities. Suffering for righteousness should be accepted without fear. Let Christians prepare respectful defenses, with consciences clear of blame. If they suffer for doing right, remember that Christ did too—for them. Thus they must “arm” themselves for suffering (4:1), and not be surprised at persecution as “something strange” (v 12). They are sharing Christ’s sufferings. His final word is “Stand fast!”<\/p>\n<p>Mark, too, is thought to have written at this time for the benefit of the suffering Roman church. His Gospel dwells upon Christ’s conflict, its causes and forms, and vividly portrays Christ’s own heroic death. Like Peter, Mark meets persecution by pointing back to the suffering Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Somewhat later, Christianity was exposed as an “illegal religion,” no longer a protected sect of Judaism, by the introduction into synagogue services of a prayer against “Nazarenes,” which Christians could not offer. Thereafter, the church was liable to official suppression. Rome readily incorporated old, national religions into state rituals for the sake of imperial unity, but she resisted new, nonconformist movements, especially those with secret meetings (i.e., the Eucharist), as politically dangerous (cf. Acts 17:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Toward the end of the century, faced with a growing church and political unrest, the state required public “worship” of “the genius of Rome” alongside any other religious rites. In Domitian’s reign (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) this became worship of the living emperor, with elaborate temples and an official priesthood. When Christians refused, acknowledging Jesus alone as divine Lord, official, and increasingly barbaric, persecution began. It is probable that Revelation reflects this situation (Rv 1:9; 2:13; 6:9; 13; 19:2). So the Bible ends as it began, with the theme of the persecution of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Suffering; Tribulation.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PERSECUTION Infliction of suffering, injury, or death on others because of their identity or beliefs. The Bible begins with an account of the persecution of the righteous by the unrighteous (Gn 4:3-7, “regard for Abel”; Mt 23:35; Heb 11:4). The Wisdom of Solomon (Wisd of Sol 2:12-20) dramatically illustrates the envy and guilt that prompt such persecution. Lot’s experience, likewise, illustrates the suffering involved in refusing to conform to popular behavior (Gn 19:9; 2 Pt 2:7-8). The ill-t...","summary_en":"PERSECUTION Infliction of suffering, injury, or death on others because of their identity or beliefs. The Bible begins with an account of the persecution of the righteous by the unrighteous (Gn 4:3-7, “regard for Abel”; Mt 23:35; Heb 11:4). The Wisdom of Solomon (Wisd of Sol 2:12-20) dramatically illustrates the envy and guilt that prompt such persecution. Lot’s experience, likewise, illustrates the suffering involved in refusing to conform to popular behavior (Gn 19:9; 2 Pt 2:7-8). The ill-t...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57054,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:23","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:23-41<\/strong> The patron deity of <em>Ephesus<\/em> was <em>the Greek goddess Artemis.<\/em> Her birthplace was believed to be Ephesus, so Ephesus was the <em>official guardian of the temple<\/em>. Twice annually, elaborate festivals were held in her honor with athletic, musical, and theatrical celebrations that included singing <em>Great is Artemis of the Ephesians!<\/em> The temple of Artemis at Ephesus was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Conversions to Christianity clearly damaged the worship of Artemis and the associated economic activity, but it became clear that Paul and his associates had committed no crime.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:23-41<\/strong> The patron deity of <em>Ephesus<\/em> was <em>the Greek goddess Artemis.<\/em> Her birthplace was believed to be Ephesus, so Ephesus was the <em>official guardian of the temple<\/em>. Twice annually, elaborate festivals were held in her honor with athletic, musical, and theatrical celebrations that included singing <em>Great is Artemis of the Ephesians!<\/em> The temple of Artemis at Ephesus was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Conversions to Christianity clearly damaged the worship of Artemis and the associated economic activity, but it became clear that Paul and his associates had committed no crime.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:23-41 The patron deity of Ephesus was the Greek goddess Artemis. Her birthplace was believed to be Ephesus, so Ephesus was the official guardian of the temple. Twice annually, elaborate festivals were held in her honor with athletic, musical, and theatrical celebrations that included singing Great is Artemis of the Ephesians! The temple of Artemis at Ephesus was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Conversions to Christianity clearly damaged the worship of Artemis and the associa...","summary_en":"19:23-41 The patron deity of Ephesus was the Greek goddess Artemis. Her birthplace was believed to be Ephesus, so Ephesus was the official guardian of the temple. Twice annually, elaborate festivals were held in her honor with athletic, musical, and theatrical celebrations that included singing Great is Artemis of the Ephesians! The temple of Artemis at Ephesus was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Conversions to Christianity clearly damaged the worship of Artemis and the associa...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57055,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:23","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:23<\/strong> <em>the Way:<\/em> See study note on 9:2.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:23<\/strong> <em>the Way:<\/em> See study note on 9:2.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:23 the Way: See study note on 9:2.","summary_en":"19:23 the Way: See study note on 9:2.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84680,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:23","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:23-41<\/strong> The patron deity of <em>Ephesus<\/em> was <em>the Greek goddess Artemis.<\/em> Her birthplace was believed to be Ephesus, so Ephesus was the <em>official guardian of the temple<\/em>. Twice annually, elaborate festivals were held in her honor with athletic, musical, and theatrical celebrations that included singing <em>Great is Artemis of the Ephesians!<\/em> The temple of Artemis at Ephesus was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Conversions to Christianity clearly damaged the worship of Artemis and the associated economic activity, but it became clear that Paul and his associates had committed no crime.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:23-41<\/strong> The patron deity of <em>Ephesus<\/em> was <em>the Greek goddess Artemis.<\/em> Her birthplace was believed to be Ephesus, so Ephesus was the <em>official guardian of the temple<\/em>. Twice annually, elaborate festivals were held in her honor with athletic, musical, and theatrical celebrations that included singing <em>Great is Artemis of the Ephesians!<\/em> The temple of Artemis at Ephesus was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Conversions to Christianity clearly damaged the worship of Artemis and the associated economic activity, but it became clear that Paul and his associates had committed no crime.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:23-41 The patron deity of Ephesus was the Greek goddess Artemis. Her birthplace was believed to be Ephesus, so Ephesus was the official guardian of the temple. Twice annually, elaborate festivals were held in her honor with athletic, musical, and theatrical celebrations that included singing Great is Artemis of the Ephesians! The temple of Artemis at Ephesus was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Conversions to Christianity clearly damaged the worship of Artemis and the associa...","summary_en":"19:23-41 The patron deity of Ephesus was the Greek goddess Artemis. Her birthplace was believed to be Ephesus, so Ephesus was the official guardian of the temple. Twice annually, elaborate festivals were held in her honor with athletic, musical, and theatrical celebrations that included singing Great is Artemis of the Ephesians! The temple of Artemis at Ephesus was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Conversions to Christianity clearly damaged the worship of Artemis and the associa...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84681,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:23","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:23<\/strong> <em>the Way:<\/em> See study note on 9:2.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:23<\/strong> <em>the Way:<\/em> See study note on 9:2.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:23 the Way: See study note on 9:2.","summary_en":"19:23 the Way: See study note on 9:2.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112306,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:23","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:23-41<\/strong> The patron deity of <em>Ephesus<\/em> was <em>the Greek goddess Artemis.<\/em> Her birthplace was believed to be Ephesus, so Ephesus was the <em>official guardian of the temple<\/em>. Twice annually, elaborate festivals were held in her honor with athletic, musical, and theatrical celebrations that included singing <em>Great is Artemis of the Ephesians!<\/em> The temple of Artemis at Ephesus was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Conversions to Christianity clearly damaged the worship of Artemis and the associated economic activity, but it became clear that Paul and his associates had committed no crime.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:23-41<\/strong> The patron deity of <em>Ephesus<\/em> was <em>the Greek goddess Artemis.<\/em> Her birthplace was believed to be Ephesus, so Ephesus was the <em>official guardian of the temple<\/em>. Twice annually, elaborate festivals were held in her honor with athletic, musical, and theatrical celebrations that included singing <em>Great is Artemis of the Ephesians!<\/em> The temple of Artemis at Ephesus was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Conversions to Christianity clearly damaged the worship of Artemis and the associated economic activity, but it became clear that Paul and his associates had committed no crime.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:23-41 The patron deity of Ephesus was the Greek goddess Artemis. Her birthplace was believed to be Ephesus, so Ephesus was the official guardian of the temple. Twice annually, elaborate festivals were held in her honor with athletic, musical, and theatrical celebrations that included singing Great is Artemis of the Ephesians! The temple of Artemis at Ephesus was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Conversions to Christianity clearly damaged the worship of Artemis and the associa...","summary_en":"19:23-41 The patron deity of Ephesus was the Greek goddess Artemis. Her birthplace was believed to be Ephesus, so Ephesus was the official guardian of the temple. Twice annually, elaborate festivals were held in her honor with athletic, musical, and theatrical celebrations that included singing Great is Artemis of the Ephesians! The temple of Artemis at Ephesus was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Conversions to Christianity clearly damaged the worship of Artemis and the associa...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112307,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:23","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:23<\/strong> <em>the Way:<\/em> See study note on 9:2.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:23<\/strong> <em>the Way:<\/em> See study note on 9:2.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:23 the Way: See study note on 9:2.","summary_en":"19:23 the Way: See study note on 9:2.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139932,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:23","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:23-41<\/strong> The patron deity of <em>Ephesus<\/em> was <em>the Greek goddess Artemis.<\/em> Her birthplace was believed to be Ephesus, so Ephesus was the <em>official guardian of the temple<\/em>. Twice annually, elaborate festivals were held in her honor with athletic, musical, and theatrical celebrations that included singing <em>Great is Artemis of the Ephesians!<\/em> The temple of Artemis at Ephesus was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Conversions to Christianity clearly damaged the worship of Artemis and the associated economic activity, but it became clear that Paul and his associates had committed no crime.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:23-41<\/strong> The patron deity of <em>Ephesus<\/em> was <em>the Greek goddess Artemis.<\/em> Her birthplace was believed to be Ephesus, so Ephesus was the <em>official guardian of the temple<\/em>. Twice annually, elaborate festivals were held in her honor with athletic, musical, and theatrical celebrations that included singing <em>Great is Artemis of the Ephesians!<\/em> The temple of Artemis at Ephesus was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Conversions to Christianity clearly damaged the worship of Artemis and the associated economic activity, but it became clear that Paul and his associates had committed no crime.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:23-41 The patron deity of Ephesus was the Greek goddess Artemis. Her birthplace was believed to be Ephesus, so Ephesus was the official guardian of the temple. Twice annually, elaborate festivals were held in her honor with athletic, musical, and theatrical celebrations that included singing Great is Artemis of the Ephesians! The temple of Artemis at Ephesus was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Conversions to Christianity clearly damaged the worship of Artemis and the associa...","summary_en":"19:23-41 The patron deity of Ephesus was the Greek goddess Artemis. Her birthplace was believed to be Ephesus, so Ephesus was the official guardian of the temple. Twice annually, elaborate festivals were held in her honor with athletic, musical, and theatrical celebrations that included singing Great is Artemis of the Ephesians! The temple of Artemis at Ephesus was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Conversions to Christianity clearly damaged the worship of Artemis and the associa...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139933,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:23","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:23<\/strong> <em>the Way:<\/em> See study note on 9:2.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:23<\/strong> <em>the Way:<\/em> See study note on 9:2.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:23 the Way: See study note on 9:2.","summary_en":"19:23 the Way: See study note on 9:2.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62192,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Dealing with Conflict","title_en":"Dealing with Conflict","content_ro":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","summary_en":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89818,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Dealing with Conflict","title_en":"Dealing with Conflict","content_ro":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","summary_en":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117444,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Dealing with Conflict","title_en":"Dealing with Conflict","content_ro":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","summary_en":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145070,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Dealing with Conflict","title_en":"Dealing with Conflict","content_ro":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","summary_en":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"24":[{"id":42734,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ephesus","title_en":"Ephesus","content_ro":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","summary_en":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70360,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ephesus","title_en":"Ephesus","content_ro":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","summary_en":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97986,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ephesus","title_en":"Ephesus","content_ro":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","summary_en":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":125612,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ephesus","title_en":"Ephesus","content_ro":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","summary_en":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10931,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ephesus","title_en":"Ephesus","content_ro":"<h3>EPHESUS<\/h3>\n<p>Most important city of the Roman province of Asia, located on the western shore of Asia Minor (modern Turkey). Ephesus was built on a natural harbor whose waves, according to the Roman writer Pliny the Elder, “used to wash up to the temple of Diana.” Ephesus was described by Strabo, an early Greek geographer, as the largest commercial center west of the Taurus Mountains. It was also well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis, or as the Romans called her, Diana (Acts 19:34).<\/p>\n<p>Christianity’s threat to that pagan temple and to the commerce it produced for the makers of idols almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 30-31). Priscilla and Aquila were associated with the early preaching in Ephesus (18:18-19), as were Timothy (1 Tm 1:3) and Erastus (Acts 19:22). According to Irenaeus, an early Christian writer, the apostle John, after his exile on the island of Patmos (Rv 1:9), returned to live in Ephesus until the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). The commendable practices of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned by the time John wrote the book of Revelation (Rv 2:4).<\/p>\n\n<p>Ephesus was founded by Ionian Greeks at a location where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea. It had been a city for about 1,000 years when Paul arrived there on his third missionary journey. The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was as ancient as the city itself. The temple, built in the middle of the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>, was the largest edifice in the Hellenistic world and the first of monumental size ever to be constructed entirely of marble. Two excavated images of Artemis, magnificently sculpted in marble, date to the period of the emperors Domitian and Hadrian (the lifetime of the apostle John). The temple of Diana, “mother of the gods,” was considered one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Although persistent effort by British archaeologist J. T. Wood resulted in the temple’s discovery in 1869, its great altar was not found until recently. Excavation has shown the altar to be larger than the later altar of Zeus at Pergamum. The original temple was partially destroyed in 356 <span>BC<\/span> but was later rebuilt on its original plan.<\/p>\n<p>Excavations have also uncovered the theater mentioned in Acts 19:29. Situated next to the main shopping area (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">agora<\/span>), it is known to have seated 24,000 people in three tiers. The theater was 495 feet (151 meters) in diameter with two doors opening to the most impressive street in Ephesus. That street, leading to the harbor, was about 35 feet (10.5 meters) wide and was flanked by tall columns. It passed through a magnificent monumental gateway on its western end. In the other direction the road continued around the theater and marketplace, making its way southeast between Mt Koressos and Mt Pion. It became narrower and was bordered by lovely fountains, civic buildings, houses, shops, a library, baths, and a small theater, which probably doubled as a council chamber for city officials.<\/p>\n<p>Ephesus was a wealthy city. The multistoried residences of its upper-middle-class society rested on the north terraces of Mt Koressos. Some homes had mosaic floors and marble walls. Two were found with heated bathrooms. Many had running water. The moral status of the city can be partially ascertained from a centrally located house of prostitution and gambling tables; fertility motifs are evident in the exaggerated sexual features of the Diana statues.<\/p>\n<p>The impact of Christianity was felt in Ephesus for centuries. The third ecumenical council was held there in <span>AD<\/span> 431 (in the Church of Mary northwest of the theater), a council that established Mary’s place as the “Mother of God” in Western Catholic theology. By that time Diana, whose temple had been burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, was no longer influential among the Ephesians. The truth of Paul’s message that “gods made with hands are not gods” (Acts 19:26) had to some extent been realized.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Ephesians, Letter to the.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EPHESUS<\/h3>\n<p>Most important city of the Roman province of Asia, located on the western shore of Asia Minor (modern Turkey). Ephesus was built on a natural harbor whose waves, according to the Roman writer Pliny the Elder, “used to wash up to the temple of Diana.” Ephesus was described by Strabo, an early Greek geographer, as the largest commercial center west of the Taurus Mountains. It was also well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis, or as the Romans called her, Diana (Acts 19:34).<\/p>\n<p>Christianity’s threat to that pagan temple and to the commerce it produced for the makers of idols almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 30-31). Priscilla and Aquila were associated with the early preaching in Ephesus (18:18-19), as were Timothy (1 Tm 1:3) and Erastus (Acts 19:22). According to Irenaeus, an early Christian writer, the apostle John, after his exile on the island of Patmos (Rv 1:9), returned to live in Ephesus until the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). The commendable practices of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned by the time John wrote the book of Revelation (Rv 2:4).<\/p>\n\n<p>Ephesus was founded by Ionian Greeks at a location where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea. It had been a city for about 1,000 years when Paul arrived there on his third missionary journey. The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was as ancient as the city itself. The temple, built in the middle of the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>, was the largest edifice in the Hellenistic world and the first of monumental size ever to be constructed entirely of marble. Two excavated images of Artemis, magnificently sculpted in marble, date to the period of the emperors Domitian and Hadrian (the lifetime of the apostle John). The temple of Diana, “mother of the gods,” was considered one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Although persistent effort by British archaeologist J. T. Wood resulted in the temple’s discovery in 1869, its great altar was not found until recently. Excavation has shown the altar to be larger than the later altar of Zeus at Pergamum. The original temple was partially destroyed in 356 <span>BC<\/span> but was later rebuilt on its original plan.<\/p>\n<p>Excavations have also uncovered the theater mentioned in Acts 19:29. Situated next to the main shopping area (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">agora<\/span>), it is known to have seated 24,000 people in three tiers. The theater was 495 feet (151 meters) in diameter with two doors opening to the most impressive street in Ephesus. That street, leading to the harbor, was about 35 feet (10.5 meters) wide and was flanked by tall columns. It passed through a magnificent monumental gateway on its western end. In the other direction the road continued around the theater and marketplace, making its way southeast between Mt Koressos and Mt Pion. It became narrower and was bordered by lovely fountains, civic buildings, houses, shops, a library, baths, and a small theater, which probably doubled as a council chamber for city officials.<\/p>\n<p>Ephesus was a wealthy city. The multistoried residences of its upper-middle-class society rested on the north terraces of Mt Koressos. Some homes had mosaic floors and marble walls. Two were found with heated bathrooms. Many had running water. The moral status of the city can be partially ascertained from a centrally located house of prostitution and gambling tables; fertility motifs are evident in the exaggerated sexual features of the Diana statues.<\/p>\n<p>The impact of Christianity was felt in Ephesus for centuries. The third ecumenical council was held there in <span>AD<\/span> 431 (in the Church of Mary northwest of the theater), a council that established Mary’s place as the “Mother of God” in Western Catholic theology. By that time Diana, whose temple had been burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, was no longer influential among the Ephesians. The truth of Paul’s message that “gods made with hands are not gods” (Acts 19:26) had to some extent been realized.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Ephesians, Letter to the.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EPHESUS Most important city of the Roman province of Asia, located on the western shore of Asia Minor (modern Turkey). Ephesus was built on a natural harbor whose waves, according to the Roman writer Pliny the Elder, “used to wash up to the temple of Diana.” Ephesus was described by Strabo, an early Greek geographer, as the largest commercial center west of the Taurus Mountains. It was also well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis, or as the Romans called her, Diana (Acts 19:34)....","summary_en":"EPHESUS Most important city of the Roman province of Asia, located on the western shore of Asia Minor (modern Turkey). Ephesus was built on a natural harbor whose waves, according to the Roman writer Pliny the Elder, “used to wash up to the temple of Diana.” Ephesus was described by Strabo, an early Greek geographer, as the largest commercial center west of the Taurus Mountains. It was also well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis, or as the Romans called her, Diana (Acts 19:34)....","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":14398,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gods and Goddesses","title_en":"Gods and Goddesses","content_ro":"<h3>GODS AND GODDESSES<\/h3>\n<p>Male and female deities worshiped by pagans. Although the Bible teaches that there is only one God (Is 45:18, 21-22; Mk 12:32), heathen people in ancient times quickly developed a belief in large numbers of so-called gods (Jer 10:11) and goddesses. Eventually each nation created and worshiped its own deities, usually more than one. Many of these “foreign gods” (1 Sm 7:3) are named in the Bible, and in most cases we are told to what nation each belonged. The list from Mesopotamia, a center of idol worship, is the longest: Adrammelech and Anammelech (2 Kgs 17:31), Bel (also known as Marduk, Is 46:1; Jer 50:2; 51:44), Kaiwan (Am 5:26), Nebo or Nabu (Is 46:1), Nergal (2 Kgs 17:30), Nisroch (19:37; Is 37:38), Rephan (Acts 7:43), Sakkuth (Am 5:26), Succoth-benoth (2 Kgs 17:30), Tammuz (Ez 8:14), and Tartak (2 Kgs 17:31). The Syrians were devoted to Ashima (v 30) and Rimmon (5:18), who was also worshiped under the compound name Hadad-rimmon (Zec 12:11). Israel’s eastern neighbors, Ammon and Moab, worshiped Milcom or Molech (1 Kgs 11:5-7, 33; 2 Kgs 23:13) and Chemosh, respectively, although the Moabites also worshiped a local manifestation of Baal (Nm 25:3-5). The Philistine gods were Dagon and Baal-zebub (2 Kgs 1:2-3, 6, 16), who is the equivalent of the NT Beelzebul (Mt 12:24; Lk 11:15). One Canaanite god, Baal, and two Canaanite goddesses, Asherah and Ashtoreth, are mentioned frequently in the OT; Ashtoreth was the same as the Mesopotamian Ishtar, also known as the “Queen of Heaven” (Jer 7:18; 44:17-19, 25). The gods of Egypt are represented by only two names in the Bible: Amon (Jer 46:25) and Apis (v 15). Nibhaz (2 Kgs 17:31) was probably an Elamite god.<\/p>\n<p>At least three Greco-Roman deities are mentioned in the NT: the Greek goddess Artemis (Acts 19:24-28, 34-35), known as Diana by the Romans, and the Greek gods Zeus and Hermes (Acts 14:12-13), known as Jupiter and Mercury, respectively, by the Romans.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible clearly teaches that the gods of the nations have no objective reality (Jer 2:11), even though their worshipers sincerely believe that they actually exist (v 28). But the Lord proclaims that “they are no gods,” (Jer 2:11; 16:20) or “gods that are not gods” (5:7, <span>niv<\/span>). The NT further declares of idols that “an idol has no real existence” (1 Cor 8:4) and that “gods made with hands are not gods” (Acts 19:26). It is not surprising, then, that when the Israelites began to encounter other nations in significant ways—that is, as early as the time of the exodus—they were told repeatedly that the Lord is greater than all other gods (Ex 15:11; 18:11; Dt 10:17; 1 Chr 16:25; 2 Chr 2:5; Pss 86:8; 95:3; 96:4-5; 97:7-9; 135:5, 136:2; Dn 2:47; Zep 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>Such so-called gods were not worthy of Israel’s attention or veneration. Since there is only one God, other gods could not claim and did not deserve Israel’s worship (Ex 20:3; Dt 5:7). The Hebrew language did not even have a word for “goddess” and therefore had to use its word for “god” to express that concept (see 1 Kgs 11:5, 33). The Israelites were to make no images (Ex 20:4, 23; Lv 19:4; Dt 5:8) or mention (Ex 23:13; Jos 23:7) of the gods and goddesses of their heathen neighbors.<\/p>\n<p>Yet despite all God’s warnings, idolatry was Israel’s besetting sin from the earliest times. During the patriarchal period, God’s people were attracted to the “household idols” (Gn 31:32) of their relatives, and they continued to worship other gods throughout most of their history (Ex 32:1-4, 8, 23, 31; 34:15; Hos 11:2). Idolatry eventually led to the destruction of the northern kingdom (2 Kgs 17:7-18) in 722 <span>BC<\/span> and of the southern kingdom (2 Kgs 22:17; cf. Dt 29:25-28) in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. During their time of exile in Babylonia, the Jewish people saw idolatry at its worst and turned away from it, but their ancestors could have avoided untold agony if they had simply followed the example of Joshua: “As for me and my house, we will serve the <span>Lord<\/span>” (Jos 24:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Canaanite Deities and Religion; Idols, Idolatry; High Place.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GODS AND GODDESSES<\/h3>\n<p>Male and female deities worshiped by pagans. Although the Bible teaches that there is only one God (Is 45:18, 21-22; Mk 12:32), heathen people in ancient times quickly developed a belief in large numbers of so-called gods (Jer 10:11) and goddesses. Eventually each nation created and worshiped its own deities, usually more than one. Many of these “foreign gods” (1 Sm 7:3) are named in the Bible, and in most cases we are told to what nation each belonged. The list from Mesopotamia, a center of idol worship, is the longest: Adrammelech and Anammelech (2 Kgs 17:31), Bel (also known as Marduk, Is 46:1; Jer 50:2; 51:44), Kaiwan (Am 5:26), Nebo or Nabu (Is 46:1), Nergal (2 Kgs 17:30), Nisroch (19:37; Is 37:38), Rephan (Acts 7:43), Sakkuth (Am 5:26), Succoth-benoth (2 Kgs 17:30), Tammuz (Ez 8:14), and Tartak (2 Kgs 17:31). The Syrians were devoted to Ashima (v 30) and Rimmon (5:18), who was also worshiped under the compound name Hadad-rimmon (Zec 12:11). Israel’s eastern neighbors, Ammon and Moab, worshiped Milcom or Molech (1 Kgs 11:5-7, 33; 2 Kgs 23:13) and Chemosh, respectively, although the Moabites also worshiped a local manifestation of Baal (Nm 25:3-5). The Philistine gods were Dagon and Baal-zebub (2 Kgs 1:2-3, 6, 16), who is the equivalent of the NT Beelzebul (Mt 12:24; Lk 11:15). One Canaanite god, Baal, and two Canaanite goddesses, Asherah and Ashtoreth, are mentioned frequently in the OT; Ashtoreth was the same as the Mesopotamian Ishtar, also known as the “Queen of Heaven” (Jer 7:18; 44:17-19, 25). The gods of Egypt are represented by only two names in the Bible: Amon (Jer 46:25) and Apis (v 15). Nibhaz (2 Kgs 17:31) was probably an Elamite god.<\/p>\n<p>At least three Greco-Roman deities are mentioned in the NT: the Greek goddess Artemis (Acts 19:24-28, 34-35), known as Diana by the Romans, and the Greek gods Zeus and Hermes (Acts 14:12-13), known as Jupiter and Mercury, respectively, by the Romans.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible clearly teaches that the gods of the nations have no objective reality (Jer 2:11), even though their worshipers sincerely believe that they actually exist (v 28). But the Lord proclaims that “they are no gods,” (Jer 2:11; 16:20) or “gods that are not gods” (5:7, <span>niv<\/span>). The NT further declares of idols that “an idol has no real existence” (1 Cor 8:4) and that “gods made with hands are not gods” (Acts 19:26). It is not surprising, then, that when the Israelites began to encounter other nations in significant ways—that is, as early as the time of the exodus—they were told repeatedly that the Lord is greater than all other gods (Ex 15:11; 18:11; Dt 10:17; 1 Chr 16:25; 2 Chr 2:5; Pss 86:8; 95:3; 96:4-5; 97:7-9; 135:5, 136:2; Dn 2:47; Zep 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>Such so-called gods were not worthy of Israel’s attention or veneration. Since there is only one God, other gods could not claim and did not deserve Israel’s worship (Ex 20:3; Dt 5:7). The Hebrew language did not even have a word for “goddess” and therefore had to use its word for “god” to express that concept (see 1 Kgs 11:5, 33). The Israelites were to make no images (Ex 20:4, 23; Lv 19:4; Dt 5:8) or mention (Ex 23:13; Jos 23:7) of the gods and goddesses of their heathen neighbors.<\/p>\n<p>Yet despite all God’s warnings, idolatry was Israel’s besetting sin from the earliest times. During the patriarchal period, God’s people were attracted to the “household idols” (Gn 31:32) of their relatives, and they continued to worship other gods throughout most of their history (Ex 32:1-4, 8, 23, 31; 34:15; Hos 11:2). Idolatry eventually led to the destruction of the northern kingdom (2 Kgs 17:7-18) in 722 <span>BC<\/span> and of the southern kingdom (2 Kgs 22:17; cf. Dt 29:25-28) in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. During their time of exile in Babylonia, the Jewish people saw idolatry at its worst and turned away from it, but their ancestors could have avoided untold agony if they had simply followed the example of Joshua: “As for me and my house, we will serve the <span>Lord<\/span>” (Jos 24:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Canaanite Deities and Religion; Idols, Idolatry; High Place.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GODS AND GODDESSES Male and female deities worshiped by pagans. Although the Bible teaches that there is only one God (Is 45:18, 21-22; Mk 12:32), heathen people in ancient times quickly developed a belief in large numbers of so-called gods (Jer 10:11) and goddesses. Eventually each nation created and worshiped its own deities, usually more than one. Many of these “foreign gods” (1 Sm 7:3) are named in the Bible, and in most cases we are told to what nation each belonged. The list from Mesopo...","summary_en":"GODS AND GODDESSES Male and female deities worshiped by pagans. Although the Bible teaches that there is only one God (Is 45:18, 21-22; Mk 12:32), heathen people in ancient times quickly developed a belief in large numbers of so-called gods (Jer 10:11) and goddesses. Eventually each nation created and worshiped its own deities, usually more than one. Many of these “foreign gods” (1 Sm 7:3) are named in the Bible, and in most cases we are told to what nation each belonged. The list from Mesopo...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35399,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Silversmith","title_en":"Silversmith","content_ro":"<h3>SILVERSMITH<\/h3>\n<p>One who refined silver-bearing ore and then cast it or beat it into the desired shape. Silversmiths produced musical instruments like trumpets (Nm 10:2), bases on which the frame of the tabernacle rested (Ex 26:19-25), and objects for use in the tabernacle and temple (Nm 7:13-85), as well as ornaments for private use. Silversmiths also made religious statues for false worship (Ex 20:23; Jgs 17:4). The silversmith Demetrius (Acts 19:24) made silver shrines for Artemis at Ephesus. The profession was well known in NT times (2 Tm 2:20; Rv 9:20).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SILVERSMITH<\/h3>\n<p>One who refined silver-bearing ore and then cast it or beat it into the desired shape. Silversmiths produced musical instruments like trumpets (Nm 10:2), bases on which the frame of the tabernacle rested (Ex 26:19-25), and objects for use in the tabernacle and temple (Nm 7:13-85), as well as ornaments for private use. Silversmiths also made religious statues for false worship (Ex 20:23; Jgs 17:4). The silversmith Demetrius (Acts 19:24) made silver shrines for Artemis at Ephesus. The profession was well known in NT times (2 Tm 2:20; Rv 9:20).<\/p>","summary_ro":"SILVERSMITH One who refined silver-bearing ore and then cast it or beat it into the desired shape. Silversmiths produced musical instruments like trumpets (Nm 10:2), bases on which the frame of the tabernacle rested (Ex 26:19-25), and objects for use in the tabernacle and temple (Nm 7:13-85), as well as ornaments for private use. Silversmiths also made religious statues for false worship (Ex 20:23; Jgs 17:4). The silversmith Demetrius (Acts 19:24) made silver shrines for Artemis at Ephesus. T...","summary_en":"SILVERSMITH One who refined silver-bearing ore and then cast it or beat it into the desired shape. Silversmiths produced musical instruments like trumpets (Nm 10:2), bases on which the frame of the tabernacle rested (Ex 26:19-25), and objects for use in the tabernacle and temple (Nm 7:13-85), as well as ornaments for private use. Silversmiths also made religious statues for false worship (Ex 20:23; Jgs 17:4). The silversmith Demetrius (Acts 19:24) made silver shrines for Artemis at Ephesus. T...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35671,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Smith","title_en":"Smith","content_ro":"<h3>SMITH<\/h3>\n<p>Worker in metals; a blacksmith. The earliest metalworker mentioned in the Bible is Tubal-cain (Gn 4:22). The term covers metalworkers of all kinds: copper, bronze, iron, silver, and gold. Silversmiths are mentioned in Judges 17:4 and Acts 19:24. Ironsmiths were rare or even nonexistent in Israel up to the time of Samuel, and the Israelites had to go to the Philistine smiths to have their iron tools sharpened (1 Sm 13:19). In the days of the kings, Israelite smiths were active and were subsequently taken into captivity by Nebuchadnezzar (2 Kgs 24:14-16; Jer 24:1; 29:2). Details of the work of the smith are given in several accounts (Prv 25:4; Is 44:12; 54:16). The smiths mentioned in Zechariah 1:20 are probably ironsmiths or blacksmiths.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Minerals and Metals; Stones, Precious.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SMITH<\/h3>\n<p>Worker in metals; a blacksmith. The earliest metalworker mentioned in the Bible is Tubal-cain (Gn 4:22). The term covers metalworkers of all kinds: copper, bronze, iron, silver, and gold. Silversmiths are mentioned in Judges 17:4 and Acts 19:24. Ironsmiths were rare or even nonexistent in Israel up to the time of Samuel, and the Israelites had to go to the Philistine smiths to have their iron tools sharpened (1 Sm 13:19). In the days of the kings, Israelite smiths were active and were subsequently taken into captivity by Nebuchadnezzar (2 Kgs 24:14-16; Jer 24:1; 29:2). Details of the work of the smith are given in several accounts (Prv 25:4; Is 44:12; 54:16). The smiths mentioned in Zechariah 1:20 are probably ironsmiths or blacksmiths.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Minerals and Metals; Stones, Precious.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SMITH Worker in metals; a blacksmith. The earliest metalworker mentioned in the Bible is Tubal-cain (Gn 4:22). The term covers metalworkers of all kinds: copper, bronze, iron, silver, and gold. Silversmiths are mentioned in Judges 17:4 and Acts 19:24. Ironsmiths were rare or even nonexistent in Israel up to the time of Samuel, and the Israelites had to go to the Philistine smiths to have their iron tools sharpened (1 Sm 13:19). In the days of the kings, Israelite smiths were active and were s...","summary_en":"SMITH Worker in metals; a blacksmith. The earliest metalworker mentioned in the Bible is Tubal-cain (Gn 4:22). The term covers metalworkers of all kinds: copper, bronze, iron, silver, and gold. Silversmiths are mentioned in Judges 17:4 and Acts 19:24. Ironsmiths were rare or even nonexistent in Israel up to the time of Samuel, and the Israelites had to go to the Philistine smiths to have their iron tools sharpened (1 Sm 13:19). In the days of the kings, Israelite smiths were active and were s...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57056,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:24","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:24-34<\/strong> <em>Demetrius, a silversmith<\/em> whose <em>business<\/em> was threatened by Paul’s proclaiming faith in one God, whipped up a major riot against him.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:24-34<\/strong> <em>Demetrius, a silversmith<\/em> whose <em>business<\/em> was threatened by Paul’s proclaiming faith in one God, whipped up a major riot against him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:24-34 Demetrius, a silversmith whose business was threatened by Paul’s proclaiming faith in one God, whipped up a major riot against him.","summary_en":"19:24-34 Demetrius, a silversmith whose business was threatened by Paul’s proclaiming faith in one God, whipped up a major riot against him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57057,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:24","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:24<\/strong> <em>Silver<\/em> coins and <em>shrines<\/em> carrying the image of <em>Artemis<\/em> were minted in Ephesus; statuettes of the goddess were used in civic processions and are still sold there today.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:24<\/strong> <em>Silver<\/em> coins and <em>shrines<\/em> carrying the image of <em>Artemis<\/em> were minted in Ephesus; statuettes of the goddess were used in civic processions and are still sold there today.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:24 Silver coins and shrines carrying the image of Artemis were minted in Ephesus; statuettes of the goddess were used in civic processions and are still sold there today.","summary_en":"19:24 Silver coins and shrines carrying the image of Artemis were minted in Ephesus; statuettes of the goddess were used in civic processions and are still sold there today.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84682,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:24","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:24-34<\/strong> <em>Demetrius, a silversmith<\/em> whose <em>business<\/em> was threatened by Paul’s proclaiming faith in one God, whipped up a major riot against him.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:24-34<\/strong> <em>Demetrius, a silversmith<\/em> whose <em>business<\/em> was threatened by Paul’s proclaiming faith in one God, whipped up a major riot against him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:24-34 Demetrius, a silversmith whose business was threatened by Paul’s proclaiming faith in one God, whipped up a major riot against him.","summary_en":"19:24-34 Demetrius, a silversmith whose business was threatened by Paul’s proclaiming faith in one God, whipped up a major riot against him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84683,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:24","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:24<\/strong> <em>Silver<\/em> coins and <em>shrines<\/em> carrying the image of <em>Artemis<\/em> were minted in Ephesus; statuettes of the goddess were used in civic processions and are still sold there today.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:24<\/strong> <em>Silver<\/em> coins and <em>shrines<\/em> carrying the image of <em>Artemis<\/em> were minted in Ephesus; statuettes of the goddess were used in civic processions and are still sold there today.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:24 Silver coins and shrines carrying the image of Artemis were minted in Ephesus; statuettes of the goddess were used in civic processions and are still sold there today.","summary_en":"19:24 Silver coins and shrines carrying the image of Artemis were minted in Ephesus; statuettes of the goddess were used in civic processions and are still sold there today.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112308,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:24","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:24-34<\/strong> <em>Demetrius, a silversmith<\/em> whose <em>business<\/em> was threatened by Paul’s proclaiming faith in one God, whipped up a major riot against him.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:24-34<\/strong> <em>Demetrius, a silversmith<\/em> whose <em>business<\/em> was threatened by Paul’s proclaiming faith in one God, whipped up a major riot against him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:24-34 Demetrius, a silversmith whose business was threatened by Paul’s proclaiming faith in one God, whipped up a major riot against him.","summary_en":"19:24-34 Demetrius, a silversmith whose business was threatened by Paul’s proclaiming faith in one God, whipped up a major riot against him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112309,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:24","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:24<\/strong> <em>Silver<\/em> coins and <em>shrines<\/em> carrying the image of <em>Artemis<\/em> were minted in Ephesus; statuettes of the goddess were used in civic processions and are still sold there today.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:24<\/strong> <em>Silver<\/em> coins and <em>shrines<\/em> carrying the image of <em>Artemis<\/em> were minted in Ephesus; statuettes of the goddess were used in civic processions and are still sold there today.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:24 Silver coins and shrines carrying the image of Artemis were minted in Ephesus; statuettes of the goddess were used in civic processions and are still sold there today.","summary_en":"19:24 Silver coins and shrines carrying the image of Artemis were minted in Ephesus; statuettes of the goddess were used in civic processions and are still sold there today.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139934,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:24","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:24-34<\/strong> <em>Demetrius, a silversmith<\/em> whose <em>business<\/em> was threatened by Paul’s proclaiming faith in one God, whipped up a major riot against him.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:24-34<\/strong> <em>Demetrius, a silversmith<\/em> whose <em>business<\/em> was threatened by Paul’s proclaiming faith in one God, whipped up a major riot against him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:24-34 Demetrius, a silversmith whose business was threatened by Paul’s proclaiming faith in one God, whipped up a major riot against him.","summary_en":"19:24-34 Demetrius, a silversmith whose business was threatened by Paul’s proclaiming faith in one God, whipped up a major riot against him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139935,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:24","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:24<\/strong> <em>Silver<\/em> coins and <em>shrines<\/em> carrying the image of <em>Artemis<\/em> were minted in Ephesus; statuettes of the goddess were used in civic processions and are still sold there today.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:24<\/strong> <em>Silver<\/em> coins and <em>shrines<\/em> carrying the image of <em>Artemis<\/em> were minted in Ephesus; statuettes of the goddess were used in civic processions and are still sold there today.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:24 Silver coins and shrines carrying the image of Artemis were minted in Ephesus; statuettes of the goddess were used in civic processions and are still sold there today.","summary_en":"19:24 Silver coins and shrines carrying the image of Artemis were minted in Ephesus; statuettes of the goddess were used in civic processions and are still sold there today.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"26":[{"id":42740,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ephesus","title_en":"Ephesus","content_ro":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","summary_en":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70366,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ephesus","title_en":"Ephesus","content_ro":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","summary_en":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97992,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ephesus","title_en":"Ephesus","content_ro":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","summary_en":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":125618,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ephesus","title_en":"Ephesus","content_ro":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","summary_en":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":3035,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Asia","title_en":"Asia","content_ro":"<h3>ASIA<\/h3>\n<p>In NT times, the Roman province immediately east of the Aegean Sea. The province was established in 133 <span>BC<\/span> out of the kingdom left to the Romans in the will of Attalus III, king of Pergamum. Greek geographers generally employed the name Asia to denote the whole eastern continent, but from the second century on, the Romans generally referred to the kings of Pergamum as “kings of Asia.” Hence the custom of using “Asia” for the peninsula alone (i.e., Asia Minor) gradually crept into popular usage.<\/p>\n<p>The extent of the province of Asia differed at each stage of its history. Before Roman occupation the word was used to refer to the kingdom of the Seleucid dynasty (founded by Seleucus I; 305–281 <span>BC<\/span>). The Apocrypha referred thus to Asia (1 Macc 8:6; 11:13; 12:39; 13:32; 2 Macc 3:3), as did the early Jewish historian Josephus in his Antiquities. When the territory was wrested from Seleucid control by the Romans in their war against Antiochus the Great, the Romans gave it to their allies, the Attalids; Attalus III willed it to the Romans. The limits of Roman control were not firmly established until an extensive revolt had been put down. The borders then included Mysia, Lydia, Caria, and Phrygia, and (nearer the Aegean) Aeolis, Ionia, and Troas. The islands off the coast (Lesbos, Chios, Samos, Rhodes, Patmos, etc.) were also included. The mainland now forms part of modern Turkey.<\/p>\n<p>In 116 <span>BC<\/span> the province was enlarged to include Greater Phrygia. Its geographic limits were then Bithynia to the north, Galatia to the east, Lycia to the south, and the Aegean Sea to the west. Even then, the boundaries were not solidly fixed, for in 25 <span>BC<\/span> Augustus Caesar augmented Rome’s dominion by combining other parts of Phrygia, Lyconia, Pisidia, and possibly Pamphylia into a province called Galatia. Those geographical limits remained until <span>AD<\/span> 285, when the province was greatly reduced in size and the term Asia became restricted to the coastal areas and lower valleys of the Maeander, Cayster, Hermus, and Caicus Rivers.<\/p>\n<p>During Roman occupation the capital of the province was Pergamum. By the time of Augustus, however, the residence of the Roman proconsul was at Ephesus.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Asia generally meant the Roman province of that name. Sometimes the concept was primarily geographical; at other times primarily political. For example, at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem there were Jews who had come from “Asia.” These included other provinces governed by Rome, such as Cappadocia, Phrygia, and Pamphylia (Acts 2:9-10). This seems to indicate that Luke, the writer of Acts, used the term to describe the province originally bequeathed to the Romans by Attalus III. Luke used the word again in Acts 6:9, providing tacit evidence of the strength of Jewish communities in Asia Minor as a whole and confirming the use of “Asia” in the restricted sense of the Roman province.<\/p>\n<p>On Paul’s second missionary journey, he and Timothy were prevented by the Holy Spirit from preaching in Asia (Acts 16:6-8). Evidently, from the context, Luke again had the old boundaries of the province in mind. On Paul’s return from Greece he stopped briefly at Ephesus (Acts 18:19-21). On his third missionary journey, he remained in Ephesus for more than two years, so that from this capital city “all the residents of Asia heard the word of the Lord, both Jews and Greeks” (Acts 19:10, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Luke further referred to Asia in Acts 19:26-27; 20:4, 16, 18; and 27:2. Paul also made several references to it (Rom 16:5; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Cor 1:8; 2 Tm 1:15). The apostle Peter likewise used the term (1 Pt 1:1). In the NT the risen Christ was the last to refer to Asia. He instructed the apostle John, then living in exile on the island of Patmos, to write letters to seven specific churches on the mainland of Asia (Rv 1:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>Other cities in this Roman province mentioned in the NT include Laodicea and Hierapolis (Col 4:13), and lesser-known Adramyttium (Acts 27:2), and Assos (Acts 20:13-14).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ASIA<\/h3>\n<p>In NT times, the Roman province immediately east of the Aegean Sea. The province was established in 133 <span>BC<\/span> out of the kingdom left to the Romans in the will of Attalus III, king of Pergamum. Greek geographers generally employed the name Asia to denote the whole eastern continent, but from the second century on, the Romans generally referred to the kings of Pergamum as “kings of Asia.” Hence the custom of using “Asia” for the peninsula alone (i.e., Asia Minor) gradually crept into popular usage.<\/p>\n<p>The extent of the province of Asia differed at each stage of its history. Before Roman occupation the word was used to refer to the kingdom of the Seleucid dynasty (founded by Seleucus I; 305–281 <span>BC<\/span>). The Apocrypha referred thus to Asia (1 Macc 8:6; 11:13; 12:39; 13:32; 2 Macc 3:3), as did the early Jewish historian Josephus in his Antiquities. When the territory was wrested from Seleucid control by the Romans in their war against Antiochus the Great, the Romans gave it to their allies, the Attalids; Attalus III willed it to the Romans. The limits of Roman control were not firmly established until an extensive revolt had been put down. The borders then included Mysia, Lydia, Caria, and Phrygia, and (nearer the Aegean) Aeolis, Ionia, and Troas. The islands off the coast (Lesbos, Chios, Samos, Rhodes, Patmos, etc.) were also included. The mainland now forms part of modern Turkey.<\/p>\n<p>In 116 <span>BC<\/span> the province was enlarged to include Greater Phrygia. Its geographic limits were then Bithynia to the north, Galatia to the east, Lycia to the south, and the Aegean Sea to the west. Even then, the boundaries were not solidly fixed, for in 25 <span>BC<\/span> Augustus Caesar augmented Rome’s dominion by combining other parts of Phrygia, Lyconia, Pisidia, and possibly Pamphylia into a province called Galatia. Those geographical limits remained until <span>AD<\/span> 285, when the province was greatly reduced in size and the term Asia became restricted to the coastal areas and lower valleys of the Maeander, Cayster, Hermus, and Caicus Rivers.<\/p>\n<p>During Roman occupation the capital of the province was Pergamum. By the time of Augustus, however, the residence of the Roman proconsul was at Ephesus.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Asia generally meant the Roman province of that name. Sometimes the concept was primarily geographical; at other times primarily political. For example, at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem there were Jews who had come from “Asia.” These included other provinces governed by Rome, such as Cappadocia, Phrygia, and Pamphylia (Acts 2:9-10). This seems to indicate that Luke, the writer of Acts, used the term to describe the province originally bequeathed to the Romans by Attalus III. Luke used the word again in Acts 6:9, providing tacit evidence of the strength of Jewish communities in Asia Minor as a whole and confirming the use of “Asia” in the restricted sense of the Roman province.<\/p>\n<p>On Paul’s second missionary journey, he and Timothy were prevented by the Holy Spirit from preaching in Asia (Acts 16:6-8). Evidently, from the context, Luke again had the old boundaries of the province in mind. On Paul’s return from Greece he stopped briefly at Ephesus (Acts 18:19-21). On his third missionary journey, he remained in Ephesus for more than two years, so that from this capital city “all the residents of Asia heard the word of the Lord, both Jews and Greeks” (Acts 19:10, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Luke further referred to Asia in Acts 19:26-27; 20:4, 16, 18; and 27:2. Paul also made several references to it (Rom 16:5; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Cor 1:8; 2 Tm 1:15). The apostle Peter likewise used the term (1 Pt 1:1). In the NT the risen Christ was the last to refer to Asia. He instructed the apostle John, then living in exile on the island of Patmos, to write letters to seven specific churches on the mainland of Asia (Rv 1:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>Other cities in this Roman province mentioned in the NT include Laodicea and Hierapolis (Col 4:13), and lesser-known Adramyttium (Acts 27:2), and Assos (Acts 20:13-14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ASIA In NT times, the Roman province immediately east of the Aegean Sea. The province was established in 133 BC out of the kingdom left to the Romans in the will of Attalus III, king of Pergamum. Greek geographers generally employed the name Asia to denote the whole eastern continent, but from the second century on, the Romans generally referred to the kings of Pergamum as “kings of Asia.” Hence the custom of using “Asia” for the peninsula alone (i.e., Asia Minor) gradually crept into popular...","summary_en":"ASIA In NT times, the Roman province immediately east of the Aegean Sea. The province was established in 133 BC out of the kingdom left to the Romans in the will of Attalus III, king of Pergamum. Greek geographers generally employed the name Asia to denote the whole eastern continent, but from the second century on, the Romans generally referred to the kings of Pergamum as “kings of Asia.” Hence the custom of using “Asia” for the peninsula alone (i.e., Asia Minor) gradually crept into popular...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10938,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ephesus","title_en":"Ephesus","content_ro":"<h3>EPHESUS<\/h3>\n<p>Most important city of the Roman province of Asia, located on the western shore of Asia Minor (modern Turkey). Ephesus was built on a natural harbor whose waves, according to the Roman writer Pliny the Elder, “used to wash up to the temple of Diana.” Ephesus was described by Strabo, an early Greek geographer, as the largest commercial center west of the Taurus Mountains. It was also well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis, or as the Romans called her, Diana (Acts 19:34).<\/p>\n<p>Christianity’s threat to that pagan temple and to the commerce it produced for the makers of idols almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 30-31). Priscilla and Aquila were associated with the early preaching in Ephesus (18:18-19), as were Timothy (1 Tm 1:3) and Erastus (Acts 19:22). According to Irenaeus, an early Christian writer, the apostle John, after his exile on the island of Patmos (Rv 1:9), returned to live in Ephesus until the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). The commendable practices of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned by the time John wrote the book of Revelation (Rv 2:4).<\/p>\n\n<p>Ephesus was founded by Ionian Greeks at a location where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea. It had been a city for about 1,000 years when Paul arrived there on his third missionary journey. The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was as ancient as the city itself. The temple, built in the middle of the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>, was the largest edifice in the Hellenistic world and the first of monumental size ever to be constructed entirely of marble. Two excavated images of Artemis, magnificently sculpted in marble, date to the period of the emperors Domitian and Hadrian (the lifetime of the apostle John). The temple of Diana, “mother of the gods,” was considered one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Although persistent effort by British archaeologist J. T. Wood resulted in the temple’s discovery in 1869, its great altar was not found until recently. Excavation has shown the altar to be larger than the later altar of Zeus at Pergamum. The original temple was partially destroyed in 356 <span>BC<\/span> but was later rebuilt on its original plan.<\/p>\n<p>Excavations have also uncovered the theater mentioned in Acts 19:29. Situated next to the main shopping area (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">agora<\/span>), it is known to have seated 24,000 people in three tiers. The theater was 495 feet (151 meters) in diameter with two doors opening to the most impressive street in Ephesus. That street, leading to the harbor, was about 35 feet (10.5 meters) wide and was flanked by tall columns. It passed through a magnificent monumental gateway on its western end. In the other direction the road continued around the theater and marketplace, making its way southeast between Mt Koressos and Mt Pion. It became narrower and was bordered by lovely fountains, civic buildings, houses, shops, a library, baths, and a small theater, which probably doubled as a council chamber for city officials.<\/p>\n<p>Ephesus was a wealthy city. The multistoried residences of its upper-middle-class society rested on the north terraces of Mt Koressos. Some homes had mosaic floors and marble walls. Two were found with heated bathrooms. Many had running water. The moral status of the city can be partially ascertained from a centrally located house of prostitution and gambling tables; fertility motifs are evident in the exaggerated sexual features of the Diana statues.<\/p>\n<p>The impact of Christianity was felt in Ephesus for centuries. The third ecumenical council was held there in <span>AD<\/span> 431 (in the Church of Mary northwest of the theater), a council that established Mary’s place as the “Mother of God” in Western Catholic theology. By that time Diana, whose temple had been burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, was no longer influential among the Ephesians. The truth of Paul’s message that “gods made with hands are not gods” (Acts 19:26) had to some extent been realized.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Ephesians, Letter to the.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EPHESUS<\/h3>\n<p>Most important city of the Roman province of Asia, located on the western shore of Asia Minor (modern Turkey). Ephesus was built on a natural harbor whose waves, according to the Roman writer Pliny the Elder, “used to wash up to the temple of Diana.” Ephesus was described by Strabo, an early Greek geographer, as the largest commercial center west of the Taurus Mountains. It was also well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis, or as the Romans called her, Diana (Acts 19:34).<\/p>\n<p>Christianity’s threat to that pagan temple and to the commerce it produced for the makers of idols almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 30-31). Priscilla and Aquila were associated with the early preaching in Ephesus (18:18-19), as were Timothy (1 Tm 1:3) and Erastus (Acts 19:22). According to Irenaeus, an early Christian writer, the apostle John, after his exile on the island of Patmos (Rv 1:9), returned to live in Ephesus until the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). The commendable practices of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned by the time John wrote the book of Revelation (Rv 2:4).<\/p>\n\n<p>Ephesus was founded by Ionian Greeks at a location where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea. It had been a city for about 1,000 years when Paul arrived there on his third missionary journey. The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was as ancient as the city itself. The temple, built in the middle of the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>, was the largest edifice in the Hellenistic world and the first of monumental size ever to be constructed entirely of marble. Two excavated images of Artemis, magnificently sculpted in marble, date to the period of the emperors Domitian and Hadrian (the lifetime of the apostle John). The temple of Diana, “mother of the gods,” was considered one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Although persistent effort by British archaeologist J. T. Wood resulted in the temple’s discovery in 1869, its great altar was not found until recently. Excavation has shown the altar to be larger than the later altar of Zeus at Pergamum. The original temple was partially destroyed in 356 <span>BC<\/span> but was later rebuilt on its original plan.<\/p>\n<p>Excavations have also uncovered the theater mentioned in Acts 19:29. Situated next to the main shopping area (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">agora<\/span>), it is known to have seated 24,000 people in three tiers. The theater was 495 feet (151 meters) in diameter with two doors opening to the most impressive street in Ephesus. That street, leading to the harbor, was about 35 feet (10.5 meters) wide and was flanked by tall columns. It passed through a magnificent monumental gateway on its western end. In the other direction the road continued around the theater and marketplace, making its way southeast between Mt Koressos and Mt Pion. It became narrower and was bordered by lovely fountains, civic buildings, houses, shops, a library, baths, and a small theater, which probably doubled as a council chamber for city officials.<\/p>\n<p>Ephesus was a wealthy city. The multistoried residences of its upper-middle-class society rested on the north terraces of Mt Koressos. Some homes had mosaic floors and marble walls. Two were found with heated bathrooms. Many had running water. The moral status of the city can be partially ascertained from a centrally located house of prostitution and gambling tables; fertility motifs are evident in the exaggerated sexual features of the Diana statues.<\/p>\n<p>The impact of Christianity was felt in Ephesus for centuries. The third ecumenical council was held there in <span>AD<\/span> 431 (in the Church of Mary northwest of the theater), a council that established Mary’s place as the “Mother of God” in Western Catholic theology. By that time Diana, whose temple had been burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, was no longer influential among the Ephesians. The truth of Paul’s message that “gods made with hands are not gods” (Acts 19:26) had to some extent been realized.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Ephesians, Letter to the.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EPHESUS Most important city of the Roman province of Asia, located on the western shore of Asia Minor (modern Turkey). Ephesus was built on a natural harbor whose waves, according to the Roman writer Pliny the Elder, “used to wash up to the temple of Diana.” Ephesus was described by Strabo, an early Greek geographer, as the largest commercial center west of the Taurus Mountains. It was also well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis, or as the Romans called her, Diana (Acts 19:34)....","summary_en":"EPHESUS Most important city of the Roman province of Asia, located on the western shore of Asia Minor (modern Turkey). Ephesus was built on a natural harbor whose waves, according to the Roman writer Pliny the Elder, “used to wash up to the temple of Diana.” Ephesus was described by Strabo, an early Greek geographer, as the largest commercial center west of the Taurus Mountains. It was also well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis, or as the Romans called her, Diana (Acts 19:34)....","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":14405,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gods and Goddesses","title_en":"Gods and Goddesses","content_ro":"<h3>GODS AND GODDESSES<\/h3>\n<p>Male and female deities worshiped by pagans. Although the Bible teaches that there is only one God (Is 45:18, 21-22; Mk 12:32), heathen people in ancient times quickly developed a belief in large numbers of so-called gods (Jer 10:11) and goddesses. Eventually each nation created and worshiped its own deities, usually more than one. Many of these “foreign gods” (1 Sm 7:3) are named in the Bible, and in most cases we are told to what nation each belonged. The list from Mesopotamia, a center of idol worship, is the longest: Adrammelech and Anammelech (2 Kgs 17:31), Bel (also known as Marduk, Is 46:1; Jer 50:2; 51:44), Kaiwan (Am 5:26), Nebo or Nabu (Is 46:1), Nergal (2 Kgs 17:30), Nisroch (19:37; Is 37:38), Rephan (Acts 7:43), Sakkuth (Am 5:26), Succoth-benoth (2 Kgs 17:30), Tammuz (Ez 8:14), and Tartak (2 Kgs 17:31). The Syrians were devoted to Ashima (v 30) and Rimmon (5:18), who was also worshiped under the compound name Hadad-rimmon (Zec 12:11). Israel’s eastern neighbors, Ammon and Moab, worshiped Milcom or Molech (1 Kgs 11:5-7, 33; 2 Kgs 23:13) and Chemosh, respectively, although the Moabites also worshiped a local manifestation of Baal (Nm 25:3-5). The Philistine gods were Dagon and Baal-zebub (2 Kgs 1:2-3, 6, 16), who is the equivalent of the NT Beelzebul (Mt 12:24; Lk 11:15). One Canaanite god, Baal, and two Canaanite goddesses, Asherah and Ashtoreth, are mentioned frequently in the OT; Ashtoreth was the same as the Mesopotamian Ishtar, also known as the “Queen of Heaven” (Jer 7:18; 44:17-19, 25). The gods of Egypt are represented by only two names in the Bible: Amon (Jer 46:25) and Apis (v 15). Nibhaz (2 Kgs 17:31) was probably an Elamite god.<\/p>\n<p>At least three Greco-Roman deities are mentioned in the NT: the Greek goddess Artemis (Acts 19:24-28, 34-35), known as Diana by the Romans, and the Greek gods Zeus and Hermes (Acts 14:12-13), known as Jupiter and Mercury, respectively, by the Romans.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible clearly teaches that the gods of the nations have no objective reality (Jer 2:11), even though their worshipers sincerely believe that they actually exist (v 28). But the Lord proclaims that “they are no gods,” (Jer 2:11; 16:20) or “gods that are not gods” (5:7, <span>niv<\/span>). The NT further declares of idols that “an idol has no real existence” (1 Cor 8:4) and that “gods made with hands are not gods” (Acts 19:26). It is not surprising, then, that when the Israelites began to encounter other nations in significant ways—that is, as early as the time of the exodus—they were told repeatedly that the Lord is greater than all other gods (Ex 15:11; 18:11; Dt 10:17; 1 Chr 16:25; 2 Chr 2:5; Pss 86:8; 95:3; 96:4-5; 97:7-9; 135:5, 136:2; Dn 2:47; Zep 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>Such so-called gods were not worthy of Israel’s attention or veneration. Since there is only one God, other gods could not claim and did not deserve Israel’s worship (Ex 20:3; Dt 5:7). The Hebrew language did not even have a word for “goddess” and therefore had to use its word for “god” to express that concept (see 1 Kgs 11:5, 33). The Israelites were to make no images (Ex 20:4, 23; Lv 19:4; Dt 5:8) or mention (Ex 23:13; Jos 23:7) of the gods and goddesses of their heathen neighbors.<\/p>\n<p>Yet despite all God’s warnings, idolatry was Israel’s besetting sin from the earliest times. During the patriarchal period, God’s people were attracted to the “household idols” (Gn 31:32) of their relatives, and they continued to worship other gods throughout most of their history (Ex 32:1-4, 8, 23, 31; 34:15; Hos 11:2). Idolatry eventually led to the destruction of the northern kingdom (2 Kgs 17:7-18) in 722 <span>BC<\/span> and of the southern kingdom (2 Kgs 22:17; cf. Dt 29:25-28) in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. During their time of exile in Babylonia, the Jewish people saw idolatry at its worst and turned away from it, but their ancestors could have avoided untold agony if they had simply followed the example of Joshua: “As for me and my house, we will serve the <span>Lord<\/span>” (Jos 24:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Canaanite Deities and Religion; Idols, Idolatry; High Place.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GODS AND GODDESSES<\/h3>\n<p>Male and female deities worshiped by pagans. Although the Bible teaches that there is only one God (Is 45:18, 21-22; Mk 12:32), heathen people in ancient times quickly developed a belief in large numbers of so-called gods (Jer 10:11) and goddesses. Eventually each nation created and worshiped its own deities, usually more than one. Many of these “foreign gods” (1 Sm 7:3) are named in the Bible, and in most cases we are told to what nation each belonged. The list from Mesopotamia, a center of idol worship, is the longest: Adrammelech and Anammelech (2 Kgs 17:31), Bel (also known as Marduk, Is 46:1; Jer 50:2; 51:44), Kaiwan (Am 5:26), Nebo or Nabu (Is 46:1), Nergal (2 Kgs 17:30), Nisroch (19:37; Is 37:38), Rephan (Acts 7:43), Sakkuth (Am 5:26), Succoth-benoth (2 Kgs 17:30), Tammuz (Ez 8:14), and Tartak (2 Kgs 17:31). The Syrians were devoted to Ashima (v 30) and Rimmon (5:18), who was also worshiped under the compound name Hadad-rimmon (Zec 12:11). Israel’s eastern neighbors, Ammon and Moab, worshiped Milcom or Molech (1 Kgs 11:5-7, 33; 2 Kgs 23:13) and Chemosh, respectively, although the Moabites also worshiped a local manifestation of Baal (Nm 25:3-5). The Philistine gods were Dagon and Baal-zebub (2 Kgs 1:2-3, 6, 16), who is the equivalent of the NT Beelzebul (Mt 12:24; Lk 11:15). One Canaanite god, Baal, and two Canaanite goddesses, Asherah and Ashtoreth, are mentioned frequently in the OT; Ashtoreth was the same as the Mesopotamian Ishtar, also known as the “Queen of Heaven” (Jer 7:18; 44:17-19, 25). The gods of Egypt are represented by only two names in the Bible: Amon (Jer 46:25) and Apis (v 15). Nibhaz (2 Kgs 17:31) was probably an Elamite god.<\/p>\n<p>At least three Greco-Roman deities are mentioned in the NT: the Greek goddess Artemis (Acts 19:24-28, 34-35), known as Diana by the Romans, and the Greek gods Zeus and Hermes (Acts 14:12-13), known as Jupiter and Mercury, respectively, by the Romans.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible clearly teaches that the gods of the nations have no objective reality (Jer 2:11), even though their worshipers sincerely believe that they actually exist (v 28). But the Lord proclaims that “they are no gods,” (Jer 2:11; 16:20) or “gods that are not gods” (5:7, <span>niv<\/span>). The NT further declares of idols that “an idol has no real existence” (1 Cor 8:4) and that “gods made with hands are not gods” (Acts 19:26). It is not surprising, then, that when the Israelites began to encounter other nations in significant ways—that is, as early as the time of the exodus—they were told repeatedly that the Lord is greater than all other gods (Ex 15:11; 18:11; Dt 10:17; 1 Chr 16:25; 2 Chr 2:5; Pss 86:8; 95:3; 96:4-5; 97:7-9; 135:5, 136:2; Dn 2:47; Zep 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>Such so-called gods were not worthy of Israel’s attention or veneration. Since there is only one God, other gods could not claim and did not deserve Israel’s worship (Ex 20:3; Dt 5:7). The Hebrew language did not even have a word for “goddess” and therefore had to use its word for “god” to express that concept (see 1 Kgs 11:5, 33). The Israelites were to make no images (Ex 20:4, 23; Lv 19:4; Dt 5:8) or mention (Ex 23:13; Jos 23:7) of the gods and goddesses of their heathen neighbors.<\/p>\n<p>Yet despite all God’s warnings, idolatry was Israel’s besetting sin from the earliest times. During the patriarchal period, God’s people were attracted to the “household idols” (Gn 31:32) of their relatives, and they continued to worship other gods throughout most of their history (Ex 32:1-4, 8, 23, 31; 34:15; Hos 11:2). Idolatry eventually led to the destruction of the northern kingdom (2 Kgs 17:7-18) in 722 <span>BC<\/span> and of the southern kingdom (2 Kgs 22:17; cf. Dt 29:25-28) in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. During their time of exile in Babylonia, the Jewish people saw idolatry at its worst and turned away from it, but their ancestors could have avoided untold agony if they had simply followed the example of Joshua: “As for me and my house, we will serve the <span>Lord<\/span>” (Jos 24:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Canaanite Deities and Religion; Idols, Idolatry; High Place.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GODS AND GODDESSES Male and female deities worshiped by pagans. Although the Bible teaches that there is only one God (Is 45:18, 21-22; Mk 12:32), heathen people in ancient times quickly developed a belief in large numbers of so-called gods (Jer 10:11) and goddesses. Eventually each nation created and worshiped its own deities, usually more than one. Many of these “foreign gods” (1 Sm 7:3) are named in the Bible, and in most cases we are told to what nation each belonged. The list from Mesopo...","summary_en":"GODS AND GODDESSES Male and female deities worshiped by pagans. Although the Bible teaches that there is only one God (Is 45:18, 21-22; Mk 12:32), heathen people in ancient times quickly developed a belief in large numbers of so-called gods (Jer 10:11) and goddesses. Eventually each nation created and worshiped its own deities, usually more than one. Many of these “foreign gods” (1 Sm 7:3) are named in the Bible, and in most cases we are told to what nation each belonged. The list from Mesopo...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"27":[{"id":57058,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:27","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:27","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:27<\/strong> <em>all around the world:<\/em> The ancient geographer Strabo reports that temples dedicated to Artemis existed in cities from Asia Minor (now Turkey) to what is now France and Spain (Strabo, <em>Geography<\/em> 3.4.8; 4.1.4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:27<\/strong> <em>all around the world:<\/em> The ancient geographer Strabo reports that temples dedicated to Artemis existed in cities from Asia Minor (now Turkey) to what is now France and Spain (Strabo, <em>Geography<\/em> 3.4.8; 4.1.4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:27 all around the world: The ancient geographer Strabo reports that temples dedicated to Artemis existed in cities from Asia Minor (now Turkey) to what is now France and Spain (Strabo, Geography 3.4.8; 4.1.4).","summary_en":"19:27 all around the world: The ancient geographer Strabo reports that temples dedicated to Artemis existed in cities from Asia Minor (now Turkey) to what is now France and Spain (Strabo, Geography 3.4.8; 4.1.4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84684,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:27","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:27","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:27<\/strong> <em>all around the world:<\/em> The ancient geographer Strabo reports that temples dedicated to Artemis existed in cities from Asia Minor (now Turkey) to what is now France and Spain (Strabo, <em>Geography<\/em> 3.4.8; 4.1.4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:27<\/strong> <em>all around the world:<\/em> The ancient geographer Strabo reports that temples dedicated to Artemis existed in cities from Asia Minor (now Turkey) to what is now France and Spain (Strabo, <em>Geography<\/em> 3.4.8; 4.1.4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:27 all around the world: The ancient geographer Strabo reports that temples dedicated to Artemis existed in cities from Asia Minor (now Turkey) to what is now France and Spain (Strabo, Geography 3.4.8; 4.1.4).","summary_en":"19:27 all around the world: The ancient geographer Strabo reports that temples dedicated to Artemis existed in cities from Asia Minor (now Turkey) to what is now France and Spain (Strabo, Geography 3.4.8; 4.1.4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112310,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:27","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:27","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:27<\/strong> <em>all around the world:<\/em> The ancient geographer Strabo reports that temples dedicated to Artemis existed in cities from Asia Minor (now Turkey) to what is now France and Spain (Strabo, <em>Geography<\/em> 3.4.8; 4.1.4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:27<\/strong> <em>all around the world:<\/em> The ancient geographer Strabo reports that temples dedicated to Artemis existed in cities from Asia Minor (now Turkey) to what is now France and Spain (Strabo, <em>Geography<\/em> 3.4.8; 4.1.4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:27 all around the world: The ancient geographer Strabo reports that temples dedicated to Artemis existed in cities from Asia Minor (now Turkey) to what is now France and Spain (Strabo, Geography 3.4.8; 4.1.4).","summary_en":"19:27 all around the world: The ancient geographer Strabo reports that temples dedicated to Artemis existed in cities from Asia Minor (now Turkey) to what is now France and Spain (Strabo, Geography 3.4.8; 4.1.4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139936,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:27","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:27","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:27<\/strong> <em>all around the world:<\/em> The ancient geographer Strabo reports that temples dedicated to Artemis existed in cities from Asia Minor (now Turkey) to what is now France and Spain (Strabo, <em>Geography<\/em> 3.4.8; 4.1.4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:27<\/strong> <em>all around the world:<\/em> The ancient geographer Strabo reports that temples dedicated to Artemis existed in cities from Asia Minor (now Turkey) to what is now France and Spain (Strabo, <em>Geography<\/em> 3.4.8; 4.1.4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:27 all around the world: The ancient geographer Strabo reports that temples dedicated to Artemis existed in cities from Asia Minor (now Turkey) to what is now France and Spain (Strabo, Geography 3.4.8; 4.1.4).","summary_en":"19:27 all around the world: The ancient geographer Strabo reports that temples dedicated to Artemis existed in cities from Asia Minor (now Turkey) to what is now France and Spain (Strabo, Geography 3.4.8; 4.1.4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"28":[{"id":42735,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ephesus","title_en":"Ephesus","content_ro":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","summary_en":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70361,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ephesus","title_en":"Ephesus","content_ro":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","summary_en":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97987,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ephesus","title_en":"Ephesus","content_ro":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","summary_en":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":125613,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ephesus","title_en":"Ephesus","content_ro":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","summary_en":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":9511,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Diana*","title_en":"Diana*","content_ro":"<h3>DIANA*<\/h3>\n<p>Roman name for the mythological Greek goddess Artemis, daughter of Jupiter and Latona and the twin sister of Apollo. She renounced all idea of marriage, supposedly because she was appalled at the birth pains her mother had suffered in bearing her, and remained the unattainable virgin goddess. Although goddess of the moon, Diana was more often portrayed as the huntress with two dogs beside her.<\/p>\n<p>The Temple of Diana at Ephesus was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. The impressive building was supported on 100 large columns. The local legend was that her statue fell there from the sky (Acts 19:35). This may have been a reference to a meteorite. Pliny described a large stone over the doorway, which, according to tradition, had been put in place by Diana. Ceremonies and services of worship in her honor were conducted by eunuch priests.<\/p>\n<p>Among the statues that have been excavated, some show Diana as a multibreasted female; others show a shrine with the goddess attended by lions. Models of the temple were sold as souvenirs by the silversmiths, who were reluctant to see any slackening of this lucrative trade when Paul began his preaching in Ephesus (Acts 19:23–20:1). The discontent and agitation of the silversmiths led to the riot of the crowd, culminating in the roar “Great is Diana of the Ephesians” (19:28, 34, <span>kjv<\/span>). Inscriptions in the British Museum refer to the goddess as “Artemis the Great.” If the silversmiths are to be believed, she was worshiped throughout the known world. The form of worship is not known for certain, but the worship of the goddess Diana may have been associated with a fertility cult.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DIANA*<\/h3>\n<p>Roman name for the mythological Greek goddess Artemis, daughter of Jupiter and Latona and the twin sister of Apollo. She renounced all idea of marriage, supposedly because she was appalled at the birth pains her mother had suffered in bearing her, and remained the unattainable virgin goddess. Although goddess of the moon, Diana was more often portrayed as the huntress with two dogs beside her.<\/p>\n<p>The Temple of Diana at Ephesus was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. The impressive building was supported on 100 large columns. The local legend was that her statue fell there from the sky (Acts 19:35). This may have been a reference to a meteorite. Pliny described a large stone over the doorway, which, according to tradition, had been put in place by Diana. Ceremonies and services of worship in her honor were conducted by eunuch priests.<\/p>\n<p>Among the statues that have been excavated, some show Diana as a multibreasted female; others show a shrine with the goddess attended by lions. Models of the temple were sold as souvenirs by the silversmiths, who were reluctant to see any slackening of this lucrative trade when Paul began his preaching in Ephesus (Acts 19:23–20:1). The discontent and agitation of the silversmiths led to the riot of the crowd, culminating in the roar “Great is Diana of the Ephesians” (19:28, 34, <span>kjv<\/span>). Inscriptions in the British Museum refer to the goddess as “Artemis the Great.” If the silversmiths are to be believed, she was worshiped throughout the known world. The form of worship is not known for certain, but the worship of the goddess Diana may have been associated with a fertility cult.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DIANA* Roman name for the mythological Greek goddess Artemis, daughter of Jupiter and Latona and the twin sister of Apollo. She renounced all idea of marriage, supposedly because she was appalled at the birth pains her mother had suffered in bearing her, and remained the unattainable virgin goddess. Although goddess of the moon, Diana was more often portrayed as the huntress with two dogs beside her. The Temple of Diana at Ephesus was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. The impress...","summary_en":"DIANA* Roman name for the mythological Greek goddess Artemis, daughter of Jupiter and Latona and the twin sister of Apollo. She renounced all idea of marriage, supposedly because she was appalled at the birth pains her mother had suffered in bearing her, and remained the unattainable virgin goddess. Although goddess of the moon, Diana was more often portrayed as the huntress with two dogs beside her. The Temple of Diana at Ephesus was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. The impress...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"29":[{"id":2663,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Aristarchus","title_en":"Aristarchus","content_ro":"<h3>ARISTARCHUS<\/h3>\n<p>Companion of the apostle Paul; Macedonian from Thessalonica, possibly of Jewish ancestry. He is first mentioned as one of those seized by an angry mob in Ephesus (Acts 19:29). Later he accompanied Paul on the return from his third missionary journey (Acts 20:4) as well as to Rome to face Caesar (Acts 27:1-2). Paul described him as a coworker (Phlm 1:24) and fellow prisoner from whom he received great comfort (Col 4:10-11). Tradition says that Aristarchus was martyred in Rome under Nero.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ARISTARCHUS<\/h3>\n<p>Companion of the apostle Paul; Macedonian from Thessalonica, possibly of Jewish ancestry. He is first mentioned as one of those seized by an angry mob in Ephesus (Acts 19:29). Later he accompanied Paul on the return from his third missionary journey (Acts 20:4) as well as to Rome to face Caesar (Acts 27:1-2). Paul described him as a coworker (Phlm 1:24) and fellow prisoner from whom he received great comfort (Col 4:10-11). Tradition says that Aristarchus was martyred in Rome under Nero.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ARISTARCHUS Companion of the apostle Paul; Macedonian from Thessalonica, possibly of Jewish ancestry. He is first mentioned as one of those seized by an angry mob in Ephesus (Acts 19:29). Later he accompanied Paul on the return from his third missionary journey (Acts 20:4) as well as to Rome to face Caesar (Acts 27:1-2). Paul described him as a coworker (Phlm 1:24) and fellow prisoner from whom he received great comfort (Col 4:10-11). Tradition says that Aristarchus was martyred in Rome under...","summary_en":"ARISTARCHUS Companion of the apostle Paul; Macedonian from Thessalonica, possibly of Jewish ancestry. He is first mentioned as one of those seized by an angry mob in Ephesus (Acts 19:29). Later he accompanied Paul on the return from his third missionary journey (Acts 20:4) as well as to Rome to face Caesar (Acts 27:1-2). Paul described him as a coworker (Phlm 1:24) and fellow prisoner from whom he received great comfort (Col 4:10-11). Tradition says that Aristarchus was martyred in Rome under...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10937,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ephesus","title_en":"Ephesus","content_ro":"<h3>EPHESUS<\/h3>\n<p>Most important city of the Roman province of Asia, located on the western shore of Asia Minor (modern Turkey). Ephesus was built on a natural harbor whose waves, according to the Roman writer Pliny the Elder, “used to wash up to the temple of Diana.” Ephesus was described by Strabo, an early Greek geographer, as the largest commercial center west of the Taurus Mountains. It was also well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis, or as the Romans called her, Diana (Acts 19:34).<\/p>\n<p>Christianity’s threat to that pagan temple and to the commerce it produced for the makers of idols almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 30-31). Priscilla and Aquila were associated with the early preaching in Ephesus (18:18-19), as were Timothy (1 Tm 1:3) and Erastus (Acts 19:22). According to Irenaeus, an early Christian writer, the apostle John, after his exile on the island of Patmos (Rv 1:9), returned to live in Ephesus until the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). The commendable practices of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned by the time John wrote the book of Revelation (Rv 2:4).<\/p>\n\n<p>Ephesus was founded by Ionian Greeks at a location where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea. It had been a city for about 1,000 years when Paul arrived there on his third missionary journey. The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was as ancient as the city itself. The temple, built in the middle of the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>, was the largest edifice in the Hellenistic world and the first of monumental size ever to be constructed entirely of marble. Two excavated images of Artemis, magnificently sculpted in marble, date to the period of the emperors Domitian and Hadrian (the lifetime of the apostle John). The temple of Diana, “mother of the gods,” was considered one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Although persistent effort by British archaeologist J. T. Wood resulted in the temple’s discovery in 1869, its great altar was not found until recently. Excavation has shown the altar to be larger than the later altar of Zeus at Pergamum. The original temple was partially destroyed in 356 <span>BC<\/span> but was later rebuilt on its original plan.<\/p>\n<p>Excavations have also uncovered the theater mentioned in Acts 19:29. Situated next to the main shopping area (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">agora<\/span>), it is known to have seated 24,000 people in three tiers. The theater was 495 feet (151 meters) in diameter with two doors opening to the most impressive street in Ephesus. That street, leading to the harbor, was about 35 feet (10.5 meters) wide and was flanked by tall columns. It passed through a magnificent monumental gateway on its western end. In the other direction the road continued around the theater and marketplace, making its way southeast between Mt Koressos and Mt Pion. It became narrower and was bordered by lovely fountains, civic buildings, houses, shops, a library, baths, and a small theater, which probably doubled as a council chamber for city officials.<\/p>\n<p>Ephesus was a wealthy city. The multistoried residences of its upper-middle-class society rested on the north terraces of Mt Koressos. Some homes had mosaic floors and marble walls. Two were found with heated bathrooms. Many had running water. The moral status of the city can be partially ascertained from a centrally located house of prostitution and gambling tables; fertility motifs are evident in the exaggerated sexual features of the Diana statues.<\/p>\n<p>The impact of Christianity was felt in Ephesus for centuries. The third ecumenical council was held there in <span>AD<\/span> 431 (in the Church of Mary northwest of the theater), a council that established Mary’s place as the “Mother of God” in Western Catholic theology. By that time Diana, whose temple had been burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, was no longer influential among the Ephesians. The truth of Paul’s message that “gods made with hands are not gods” (Acts 19:26) had to some extent been realized.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Ephesians, Letter to the.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EPHESUS<\/h3>\n<p>Most important city of the Roman province of Asia, located on the western shore of Asia Minor (modern Turkey). Ephesus was built on a natural harbor whose waves, according to the Roman writer Pliny the Elder, “used to wash up to the temple of Diana.” Ephesus was described by Strabo, an early Greek geographer, as the largest commercial center west of the Taurus Mountains. It was also well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis, or as the Romans called her, Diana (Acts 19:34).<\/p>\n<p>Christianity’s threat to that pagan temple and to the commerce it produced for the makers of idols almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 30-31). Priscilla and Aquila were associated with the early preaching in Ephesus (18:18-19), as were Timothy (1 Tm 1:3) and Erastus (Acts 19:22). According to Irenaeus, an early Christian writer, the apostle John, after his exile on the island of Patmos (Rv 1:9), returned to live in Ephesus until the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). The commendable practices of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned by the time John wrote the book of Revelation (Rv 2:4).<\/p>\n\n<p>Ephesus was founded by Ionian Greeks at a location where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea. It had been a city for about 1,000 years when Paul arrived there on his third missionary journey. The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was as ancient as the city itself. The temple, built in the middle of the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>, was the largest edifice in the Hellenistic world and the first of monumental size ever to be constructed entirely of marble. Two excavated images of Artemis, magnificently sculpted in marble, date to the period of the emperors Domitian and Hadrian (the lifetime of the apostle John). The temple of Diana, “mother of the gods,” was considered one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Although persistent effort by British archaeologist J. T. Wood resulted in the temple’s discovery in 1869, its great altar was not found until recently. Excavation has shown the altar to be larger than the later altar of Zeus at Pergamum. The original temple was partially destroyed in 356 <span>BC<\/span> but was later rebuilt on its original plan.<\/p>\n<p>Excavations have also uncovered the theater mentioned in Acts 19:29. Situated next to the main shopping area (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">agora<\/span>), it is known to have seated 24,000 people in three tiers. The theater was 495 feet (151 meters) in diameter with two doors opening to the most impressive street in Ephesus. That street, leading to the harbor, was about 35 feet (10.5 meters) wide and was flanked by tall columns. It passed through a magnificent monumental gateway on its western end. In the other direction the road continued around the theater and marketplace, making its way southeast between Mt Koressos and Mt Pion. It became narrower and was bordered by lovely fountains, civic buildings, houses, shops, a library, baths, and a small theater, which probably doubled as a council chamber for city officials.<\/p>\n<p>Ephesus was a wealthy city. The multistoried residences of its upper-middle-class society rested on the north terraces of Mt Koressos. Some homes had mosaic floors and marble walls. Two were found with heated bathrooms. Many had running water. The moral status of the city can be partially ascertained from a centrally located house of prostitution and gambling tables; fertility motifs are evident in the exaggerated sexual features of the Diana statues.<\/p>\n<p>The impact of Christianity was felt in Ephesus for centuries. The third ecumenical council was held there in <span>AD<\/span> 431 (in the Church of Mary northwest of the theater), a council that established Mary’s place as the “Mother of God” in Western Catholic theology. By that time Diana, whose temple had been burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, was no longer influential among the Ephesians. The truth of Paul’s message that “gods made with hands are not gods” (Acts 19:26) had to some extent been realized.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Ephesians, Letter to the.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EPHESUS Most important city of the Roman province of Asia, located on the western shore of Asia Minor (modern Turkey). Ephesus was built on a natural harbor whose waves, according to the Roman writer Pliny the Elder, “used to wash up to the temple of Diana.” Ephesus was described by Strabo, an early Greek geographer, as the largest commercial center west of the Taurus Mountains. It was also well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis, or as the Romans called her, Diana (Acts 19:34)....","summary_en":"EPHESUS Most important city of the Roman province of Asia, located on the western shore of Asia Minor (modern Turkey). Ephesus was built on a natural harbor whose waves, according to the Roman writer Pliny the Elder, “used to wash up to the temple of Diana.” Ephesus was described by Strabo, an early Greek geographer, as the largest commercial center west of the Taurus Mountains. It was also well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis, or as the Romans called her, Diana (Acts 19:34)....","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13072,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gaius","title_en":"Gaius","content_ro":"<h3>GAIUS<\/h3>\n<li>1. Native of Macedonia and traveling companion of Paul during the apostle’s third missionary journey. He and Aristarchus were both seized at Ephesus during the riot caused by Demetrius the silversmith (Acts 19:29).<\/li>\n<li>2. Native of Derbe in Lycaonia, who traveled with Paul from Ephesus to Macedonia (Acts 20:4). Some have identified him with #1 above.<\/li>\n<li>3. Prominent believer in Corinth and host to Paul and the whole church there (Rom 16:23). Since Romans was written in Corinth, the Gaius mentioned in 1 Corinthians 1:14 was probably the same person. If so, he was baptized by Paul.<\/li>\n<li>4. Man to whom John addressed his third letter (3 Jn 1:1).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>GAIUS<\/h3>\n<li>1. Native of Macedonia and traveling companion of Paul during the apostle’s third missionary journey. He and Aristarchus were both seized at Ephesus during the riot caused by Demetrius the silversmith (Acts 19:29).<\/li>\n<li>2. Native of Derbe in Lycaonia, who traveled with Paul from Ephesus to Macedonia (Acts 20:4). Some have identified him with #1 above.<\/li>\n<li>3. Prominent believer in Corinth and host to Paul and the whole church there (Rom 16:23). Since Romans was written in Corinth, the Gaius mentioned in 1 Corinthians 1:14 was probably the same person. If so, he was baptized by Paul.<\/li>\n<li>4. Man to whom John addressed his third letter (3 Jn 1:1).<\/li>","summary_ro":"GAIUS 1. Native of Macedonia and traveling companion of Paul during the apostle’s third missionary journey. He and Aristarchus were both seized at Ephesus during the riot caused by Demetrius the silversmith (Acts 19:29). 2. Native of Derbe in Lycaonia, who traveled with Paul from Ephesus to Macedonia (Acts 20:4). Some have identified him with #1 above. 3. Prominent believer in Corinth and host to Paul and the whole church there (Rom 16:23). Since Romans was written in Corinth, the Gaius menti...","summary_en":"GAIUS 1. Native of Macedonia and traveling companion of Paul during the apostle’s third missionary journey. He and Aristarchus were both seized at Ephesus during the riot caused by Demetrius the silversmith (Acts 19:29). 2. Native of Derbe in Lycaonia, who traveled with Paul from Ephesus to Macedonia (Acts 20:4). Some have identified him with #1 above. 3. Prominent believer in Corinth and host to Paul and the whole church there (Rom 16:23). Since Romans was written in Corinth, the Gaius menti...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":23836,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Macedonia","title_en":"Macedonia","content_ro":"<h3>MACEDONIA<\/h3>\n<p>Roman province in NT times, beginning as a kingdom in the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. Little is known about the first several centuries of its history, but with the coming to power of the Greek king Philip II (359–336 <span>BC<\/span>), and especially of his son Alexander III (the Great, 336–323 <span>BC<\/span>), Macedonia became a world power. After Alexander’s death, the empire was divided among his successors into several regions, one of them the original Macedonian kingdom. Instability held sway for the next 150 years, and in 167 <span>BC<\/span> Macedonia came under Roman rule. Initially divided into four districts by the Romans (Acts 16:12 is a possible reference to this division), this territory was made into a Roman province in 14 <span>BC<\/span> with Thessalonica as its capital. Briefly, from <span>AD<\/span> 15–44, Macedonia was combined with Achaia and Moesia (other parts of Greece) into one large province; however, in <span>AD<\/span> 44, the three were again separated. Macedonia’s importance continued through the Roman era, and it remained a separate entity down to modern times, though it was part of Yugoslavia from 1945 to 1991.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman province of Macedonia included the northern region of Greece and southern sections of present-day Albania, Bulgaria, and the Fomer Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. Noted for its gold, silver, timber, and farmlands, the region also served as a land route for trade between Asia and the West. Shortly after the Romans incorporated Macedonia as a province, they built the Via Egnatia, a paved road over 500 miles (804.5 kilometers) long, running from the Adriatic coast to the Aegean, no doubt traveled by the apostle Paul as he moved through the Macedonian cities of Neapolis, Philippi, Amphipolis, Apollonia, and Thessalonica (Acts 16:11-12; 17:1).<\/p>\n<p>The gospel was introduced to Europe by way of Macedonia when Paul responded to a vision while on his second missionary journey (Acts 16:9-12). Details of that work, centering in Philippi and Thessalonica, are described in Acts 16:11–17:15. On his third journey, though delayed initially (19:21-22), Paul later returned to Macedonia, and again after a stay in Corinth (20:1-3; see 1 Cor 16:5; 2 Cor 1:16 and 2:13 for other references to Macedonia visits).<\/p>\n\n<p>Macedonian believers played an important part in the collection Paul gathered for the poor in Jerusalem (Rom 15:26; 2 Cor 9:2-4); Paul commended them for their liberality (2 Cor 8:1-2). He also praised them for their example of faith, even in times of adversity (2 Cor 7:5; 1 Thes 1:7), and for their love of others (1 Thes 4:10). Some of the Macedonians worked directly with Paul in carrying out the gospel commission (Acts 19:29; 20:4; 27:2), and he addressed letters to churches in two Macedonian cities, Philippi and Thessalonica.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Greece, Greek.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MACEDONIA<\/h3>\n<p>Roman province in NT times, beginning as a kingdom in the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. Little is known about the first several centuries of its history, but with the coming to power of the Greek king Philip II (359–336 <span>BC<\/span>), and especially of his son Alexander III (the Great, 336–323 <span>BC<\/span>), Macedonia became a world power. After Alexander’s death, the empire was divided among his successors into several regions, one of them the original Macedonian kingdom. Instability held sway for the next 150 years, and in 167 <span>BC<\/span> Macedonia came under Roman rule. Initially divided into four districts by the Romans (Acts 16:12 is a possible reference to this division), this territory was made into a Roman province in 14 <span>BC<\/span> with Thessalonica as its capital. Briefly, from <span>AD<\/span> 15–44, Macedonia was combined with Achaia and Moesia (other parts of Greece) into one large province; however, in <span>AD<\/span> 44, the three were again separated. Macedonia’s importance continued through the Roman era, and it remained a separate entity down to modern times, though it was part of Yugoslavia from 1945 to 1991.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman province of Macedonia included the northern region of Greece and southern sections of present-day Albania, Bulgaria, and the Fomer Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. Noted for its gold, silver, timber, and farmlands, the region also served as a land route for trade between Asia and the West. Shortly after the Romans incorporated Macedonia as a province, they built the Via Egnatia, a paved road over 500 miles (804.5 kilometers) long, running from the Adriatic coast to the Aegean, no doubt traveled by the apostle Paul as he moved through the Macedonian cities of Neapolis, Philippi, Amphipolis, Apollonia, and Thessalonica (Acts 16:11-12; 17:1).<\/p>\n<p>The gospel was introduced to Europe by way of Macedonia when Paul responded to a vision while on his second missionary journey (Acts 16:9-12). Details of that work, centering in Philippi and Thessalonica, are described in Acts 16:11–17:15. On his third journey, though delayed initially (19:21-22), Paul later returned to Macedonia, and again after a stay in Corinth (20:1-3; see 1 Cor 16:5; 2 Cor 1:16 and 2:13 for other references to Macedonia visits).<\/p>\n\n<p>Macedonian believers played an important part in the collection Paul gathered for the poor in Jerusalem (Rom 15:26; 2 Cor 9:2-4); Paul commended them for their liberality (2 Cor 8:1-2). He also praised them for their example of faith, even in times of adversity (2 Cor 7:5; 1 Thes 1:7), and for their love of others (1 Thes 4:10). Some of the Macedonians worked directly with Paul in carrying out the gospel commission (Acts 19:29; 20:4; 27:2), and he addressed letters to churches in two Macedonian cities, Philippi and Thessalonica.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Greece, Greek.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MACEDONIA Roman province in NT times, beginning as a kingdom in the seventh century BC. Little is known about the first several centuries of its history, but with the coming to power of the Greek king Philip II (359–336 BC), and especially of his son Alexander III (the Great, 336–323 BC), Macedonia became a world power. After Alexander’s death, the empire was divided among his successors into several regions, one of them the original Macedonian kingdom. Instability held sway for the next 150 ...","summary_en":"MACEDONIA Roman province in NT times, beginning as a kingdom in the seventh century BC. Little is known about the first several centuries of its history, but with the coming to power of the Greek king Philip II (359–336 BC), and especially of his son Alexander III (the Great, 336–323 BC), Macedonia became a world power. After Alexander’s death, the empire was divided among his successors into several regions, one of them the original Macedonian kingdom. Instability held sway for the next 150 ...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37152,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Theater*","title_en":"Theater*","content_ro":"<h3>THEATER*<\/h3>\n<p>A flat, semicircular orchestra surrounded by an open-air auditorium, a Greek creation in the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>. A chorus and actors performed in the orchestra, and the audience sat on the raised hillside before them. The earliest drama was tragedy, which celebrated the deeds of the god Dionysus and began with a sacrifice on the altar in the orchestra. Later, comedy developed.<\/p>\n<p>The Golden Age of Athens (c. 450 <span>BC<\/span>) was also the golden age of Greek drama; Sophocles, Euripides, and Aeschylus wrote their dramas then. At that time audiences sat on the ground or on the wooden seats of the Theater of Dionysus in Athens, located on the south slope of the Acropolis. During the fourth century <span>BC<\/span>, theaters in Greece were equipped with stone seats arranged in concentric tiers against a concave hillside, and the orchestra was paved.<\/p>\n<p>By the second and first centuries <span>BC<\/span>, great stone theaters were being built all over the Hellenistic East, and by that time a raised stage was constructed against the straight side of the semicircle of the orchestra. Action was now transferred to the stage. The auditorium of the typical theater consisted of three great bands of seats, which were divided into great wedges by the stairways that gave access to the seating. The elaborate stage was built in stone and had dressing and storage rooms. The orchestra was always paved.<\/p>\n<p>Although initially the theater was intended for dramatic events, it came to be used for a variety of public meetings because it was one of the largest structures. For example, the great theater in Ephesus held about 25,000; the theater of Dionysus in Athens, about 17,000; and the south theater in Jerash of the Decapolis, about 5,000.<\/p>\n<p>The theater should be distinguished from the odeum, which was shaped like a theater but was roofed. The odeum held only 1,000 or 2,000 people and was used primarily for musical events. It should also be distinguished from the amphitheater, which was a freestanding structure in stone, like the Colosseum of Rome and the arena of Verona, with an oval arena surrounded by concentric tiers of seats and used for gladiatorial combats, wild-beast hunts, and other such events. Only occasionally, as at Salamis in Cyprus and Caesarea in Palestine, were theaters free-standing stone structures; almost always they were built into the side of a hill.<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, theaters were built in Greco-Roman towns all over the Mediterranean world. They even made their appearance in Palestine, as a result of the Hellenizing activities of Herod the Great, who constructed Greek-style theaters in Samaria, Caesarea, and Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p> Only one theater, that of Ephesus, figures specifically in the NT (Acts 19:29-41).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Architecture.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>THEATER*<\/h3>\n<p>A flat, semicircular orchestra surrounded by an open-air auditorium, a Greek creation in the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>. A chorus and actors performed in the orchestra, and the audience sat on the raised hillside before them. The earliest drama was tragedy, which celebrated the deeds of the god Dionysus and began with a sacrifice on the altar in the orchestra. Later, comedy developed.<\/p>\n<p>The Golden Age of Athens (c. 450 <span>BC<\/span>) was also the golden age of Greek drama; Sophocles, Euripides, and Aeschylus wrote their dramas then. At that time audiences sat on the ground or on the wooden seats of the Theater of Dionysus in Athens, located on the south slope of the Acropolis. During the fourth century <span>BC<\/span>, theaters in Greece were equipped with stone seats arranged in concentric tiers against a concave hillside, and the orchestra was paved.<\/p>\n<p>By the second and first centuries <span>BC<\/span>, great stone theaters were being built all over the Hellenistic East, and by that time a raised stage was constructed against the straight side of the semicircle of the orchestra. Action was now transferred to the stage. The auditorium of the typical theater consisted of three great bands of seats, which were divided into great wedges by the stairways that gave access to the seating. The elaborate stage was built in stone and had dressing and storage rooms. The orchestra was always paved.<\/p>\n<p>Although initially the theater was intended for dramatic events, it came to be used for a variety of public meetings because it was one of the largest structures. For example, the great theater in Ephesus held about 25,000; the theater of Dionysus in Athens, about 17,000; and the south theater in Jerash of the Decapolis, about 5,000.<\/p>\n<p>The theater should be distinguished from the odeum, which was shaped like a theater but was roofed. The odeum held only 1,000 or 2,000 people and was used primarily for musical events. It should also be distinguished from the amphitheater, which was a freestanding structure in stone, like the Colosseum of Rome and the arena of Verona, with an oval arena surrounded by concentric tiers of seats and used for gladiatorial combats, wild-beast hunts, and other such events. Only occasionally, as at Salamis in Cyprus and Caesarea in Palestine, were theaters free-standing stone structures; almost always they were built into the side of a hill.<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, theaters were built in Greco-Roman towns all over the Mediterranean world. They even made their appearance in Palestine, as a result of the Hellenizing activities of Herod the Great, who constructed Greek-style theaters in Samaria, Caesarea, and Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p> Only one theater, that of Ephesus, figures specifically in the NT (Acts 19:29-41).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Architecture.<\/p>","summary_ro":"THEATER* A flat, semicircular orchestra surrounded by an open-air auditorium, a Greek creation in the sixth century BC. A chorus and actors performed in the orchestra, and the audience sat on the raised hillside before them. The earliest drama was tragedy, which celebrated the deeds of the god Dionysus and began with a sacrifice on the altar in the orchestra. Later, comedy developed. The Golden Age of Athens (c. 450 BC) was also the golden age of Greek drama; Sophocles, Euripides, and Aeschyl...","summary_en":"THEATER* A flat, semicircular orchestra surrounded by an open-air auditorium, a Greek creation in the sixth century BC. A chorus and actors performed in the orchestra, and the audience sat on the raised hillside before them. The earliest drama was tragedy, which celebrated the deeds of the god Dionysus and began with a sacrifice on the altar in the orchestra. Later, comedy developed. The Golden Age of Athens (c. 450 BC) was also the golden age of Greek drama; Sophocles, Euripides, and Aeschyl...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57059,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:29","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:29","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:29<\/strong> Archaeologists have excavated the <em>amphitheater<\/em> where <em>the whole city<\/em> assembled; it held 24,000 people.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:29<\/strong> Archaeologists have excavated the <em>amphitheater<\/em> where <em>the whole city<\/em> assembled; it held 24,000 people.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:29 Archaeologists have excavated the amphitheater where the whole city assembled; it held 24,000 people.","summary_en":"19:29 Archaeologists have excavated the amphitheater where the whole city assembled; it held 24,000 people.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84685,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:29","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:29","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:29<\/strong> Archaeologists have excavated the <em>amphitheater<\/em> where <em>the whole city<\/em> assembled; it held 24,000 people.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:29<\/strong> Archaeologists have excavated the <em>amphitheater<\/em> where <em>the whole city<\/em> assembled; it held 24,000 people.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:29 Archaeologists have excavated the amphitheater where the whole city assembled; it held 24,000 people.","summary_en":"19:29 Archaeologists have excavated the amphitheater where the whole city assembled; it held 24,000 people.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112311,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:29","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:29","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:29<\/strong> Archaeologists have excavated the <em>amphitheater<\/em> where <em>the whole city<\/em> assembled; it held 24,000 people.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:29<\/strong> Archaeologists have excavated the <em>amphitheater<\/em> where <em>the whole city<\/em> assembled; it held 24,000 people.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:29 Archaeologists have excavated the amphitheater where the whole city assembled; it held 24,000 people.","summary_en":"19:29 Archaeologists have excavated the amphitheater where the whole city assembled; it held 24,000 people.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139937,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:29","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:29","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:29<\/strong> Archaeologists have excavated the <em>amphitheater<\/em> where <em>the whole city<\/em> assembled; it held 24,000 people.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:29<\/strong> Archaeologists have excavated the <em>amphitheater<\/em> where <em>the whole city<\/em> assembled; it held 24,000 people.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:29 Archaeologists have excavated the amphitheater where the whole city assembled; it held 24,000 people.","summary_en":"19:29 Archaeologists have excavated the amphitheater where the whole city assembled; it held 24,000 people.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"30":[{"id":30205,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter to the Philippians","title_en":"Letter to the Philippians","content_ro":"<h3>PHILIPPIANS, L<span>etter to the<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>One of Paul’s Prison Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date and Origin<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Theological Themes<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Philippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateandOrigin\">Date and Origin<\/p>\n<p>While it is clear that Paul was writing from prison (Phil 1:12-13), it is not clear where he was imprisoned. The most likely possibility is Rome, in which case the date would be around <span>AD<\/span> 62. But some have thought that all the journeys implied in 4:14 and 2:25-26 make such a distant place unlikely (the Philippians hear that Paul is in prison and send a gift by Epaphroditus; Epaphroditus hears in Rome that the Philippians have heard that he has been ill). So the alternatives of Ephesus (c. <span>AD<\/span> 55) and Caesarea (c. <span>AD<\/span> 58) have been proposed. We know that Paul was imprisoned in Caesarea (Acts 23:33-35), but the greeting “from those of Caesar’s household” is difficult to explain if it was written there, in spite of the coincidence of name. Ephesus is certainly near enough to Philippi for plenty of interchange, but no imprisonment is recorded in the account of Paul’s ministry there in Acts. So we would have to assume that Luke’s account in Acts 19 is not complete and that Paul had been placed in protective custody at the time of the riot (see esp. 19:30-31). But such an imprisonment could hardly have led Paul to wonder whether his time “to depart and be with Christ” had now come (Phil 1:23). At the time of writing, he was clearly facing a capital charge.<\/p>\n<p>The traditional location (Rome) seems the most satisfactory, especially when one reflects that Paul was imprisoned there for at least two years (Acts 28:30), and that it took about three weeks to travel from Rome to Philippi.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Philippi had the distinction of being a Roman colony (Acts 16:12), a privilege accorded to only a few cities outside Italy. Some 90 years before the gospel arrived there (c. <span>AD<\/span> 50), the city had been greatly expanded by large numbers of Roman soldiers, who were settled there by their commanding officers. As a consequence, the town acquired its coveted status as a colony, which meant that for all intents and purposes its citizens were treated as if they lived in Italy, and the town had a fully Roman administration. Paul alludes to this status in Philippians 3:20, where he teaches that Christians likewise are citizens of another city, the heavenly one, while yet residents elsewhere. It was a rich and busy place, one of the main centers of life in Macedonia, and consequently was “home” to the adherents of many different religions, from both east and west. There was a strong Jewish community there, as well as pagans of many sorts.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalThemes\">Theological Themes<\/p>\n<p>In a sense Paul’s imprisonment is not just background material but lies at the heart of the letter’s message. In his imprisonment he was experiencing the abasement that he mentions in 4:12, using there the same word found in 2:8 to describe the self-humbling of Christ unto death. The pattern of the ministry of Jesus described in the great “hymn” of 2:6-11—humiliation followed by glorification—becomes the pattern of Paul’s own life and of the vision he holds out before the Philippians. So alongside abasement and suffering, joy is the other great theme of the letter. Within suffering and self-sacrifice, true joy is born. In fact, Philippians could justly be titled “The Epistle of Joy.” Other prominent themes include the gospel, the Day of the Lord, and in addition to the famous “hymn” in chapter 2, a comparison of Paul’s Jewish past with his present Christian experience (3:4-16).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting and Opening Prayer (1:1-11)<\/h5>\n<p>In the opening paragraph of his letter, Paul presents the themes that will be uppermost in his mind throughout. His personal warmth toward the Philippians is immediately striking: “I have you in my heart. . . . I long for all of you” (1:7-8), and this thought of outgoing and suffering love undergirds the whole letter. It is notable, too, that the letter begins and ends with the themes of “grace” and of “the saints” (1:1-2; 4:21-23). The grace of Christ, which reaches out to sinful people and transforms them, separating them from the world, occupies Paul throughout. “The saints” are the ones who, touched by that grace, are transformed in heart and mind, so that their love abounds more and more in knowledge and depth of insight (1:9).<\/p>\n<p>Two more great themes appear here. The Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">phroneo<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to think,” is used more in Philippians than in any other letter of Paul, no fewer than nine times (as against seven in Romans). Unfortunately, it is not uniformly translated in the English versions, and so it is hard for the English reader to notice its repeated appearance and the emphasis on the right use of the mind that goes with it. But for Paul this is vital: the way we think is at the heart of the Christian life, and in these opening verses he makes it clear that the love he feels for the Philippians is actually the Christian way of thinking about them (v 7: literally, “It is right for me to think this way about you”). This leads naturally to another emphasis—growth. For the “Christian mind” does not appear overnight. So Paul prays that this mind may grow, giving the Philippians powers of discernment that will transform their character and prepare them for “the day of Christ” (vv 10-11; cf. v 6).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, we note in this opening prayer the twin emphases on the gospel and on fellowship—linked in Paul’s prayer of thanksgiving for the Philippians’ partnership in the gospel (v 5; cf. v 7)—and also the introduction of the great theme of joy (v 4). All three are vital to the whole letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul and His Imprisonment: Christ Exalted (1:12-26)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul writes about his own situation to present the heart of his message. For when he writes, “For me to live is Christ” (v 21), he means more than that his every waking moment is taken up by fellowship with his Lord and service for him. He means also that, in his own person and experience, he displays Christ and “lives” him. Later he will say, “Keep putting into practice all you learned from me and heard from me and saw me doing” (4:9, <span>nlt<\/span>). Few Christian ministers would dare make such a claim today! Yet Paul believed that, as an apostle of Christ, it was his privilege not just to speak on Christ’s behalf but also to live out Christ’s life in his own person, even if that meant suffering and humiliation.<\/p>\n<p>There are two historical difficulties here. First, it is hard to reconstruct the situation to which Paul refers in 1:12-18. The church in Rome (if that is where he is) was clearly divided about his imprisonment—some believers actually being glad that he was behind bars. It seems as though they were prompted by his imprisonment to get on with preaching their own version of the gospel. Far from being upset by this, Paul is delighted! “What does it matter?” he asks (v 18). Whether by friend or foe, Christ is being proclaimed in a new way as a result of his imprisonment (v 14). He was normally quick to defend the purity of the Word proclaimed, so these rivals of Paul could not have been heretics.<\/p>\n<p>The other historical difficulty surrounds verses 19-26. At one moment Paul seems not to know what the outcome of imprisonment will be (vv 19-21). Yet he then suggests that he can choose whether to live or die (v 22), and finally tells the Philippians that he is sure he will remain alive (v 25). The best explanation is that Paul believed he had received a personal assurance from the Holy Spirit that his imprisonment would not end with his execution.<\/p>\n<p>At any rate, his attitude about his own death is most moving. He expected deliverance, whether by life or by death (vv 19-20), and had an unshakeable confidence that to die is “better by far” (v 23), because it means being “with Christ.” This section ends with a note of joy.<\/p>\n<h5>The Life Worthy of the Gospel (1:27–2:18)<\/h5>\n<p>This section ends with “joy,” just as the last did, and its whole message is summed up in the opening exhortation of verse 27. Paul wanted the Philippians to be people in whom there is no gap between profession and practice, in whom the gospel believed is the gospel lived. The section falls into four portions, which might be entitled as follows: (1) 1:27-30—the worthy life in a hostile world; (2) 2:1-4—the worthy life in Christian fellowship; (3) 2:5-11—the gospel that inspires us; (4) 2:12-18—priorities for lives worthy of the gospel.<\/p>\n<p>Paul refused to let the Philippians feel that he was worse off than they. He wrote, “We are in this fight together. You have seen me suffer for him in the past, and you know that I am still in the midst of this great struggle” (1:30, <span>nlt<\/span>). For suffering at the hands of a hostile world is part and parcel of Christian discipleship. If we profess to believe a gospel about one who, though equal with God, left aside the glory of heaven and submitted not just to incarnation but also to a horrible death (2:6-8), then we must think of suffering not as an unfortunate necessity but as a privilege! “For you have been given not only the privilege of trusting in Christ but also the privilege of suffering for him” (1:29, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The essential quality the believers need, in order to face successfully the hostility of the world, is unity. They must be “standing side by side, fighting together for the Good News” (1:27), and believing one gospel will produce a united front against the world—and not a purely defensive front, either. The theme of unity continues into chapter 2, where Paul turns to life within the fellowship (2:1-4), as if to say that external unity before the world will not be possible unless their hearts and minds are truly united in one love, spirit, and purpose (v 2), whatever their outward situation. Such a unity will come only if there is tenderness and compassion among them (v 1). The lovely progression in verse 1 reaches a climax with this phrase, and that in turn leads into the famous “hymn” in 2:6-11. Such tenderness will not find its home in their hearts unless they believe the gospel about which the hymn sings.<\/p>\n<p>Whether 2:6-11 was in fact a real hymn, sung in the context of early Christian worship, is now impossible to know for sure. Certainly Paul’s language here takes on a hymnic quality, though it is not in poetic form. Many scholars have thought that Paul did not write these verses himself but was quoting a well-known piece of liturgy. All one can say for certain is that his language changes in style, and he expressed here ideas that are unique in his writings.<\/p>\n<p>The hymn blends in with its context beautifully, and in fact forms the core of the whole letter. For we see here how the experience of imprisonment and deliverance, and of suffering and joy, is an entering into the experience of Jesus himself, who died and rose, was humbled and glorified.<\/p>\n<h5>Two Worthy Examples and Friends (2:19-30)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul again writes about his own situation and plans, but as before, this section is not just concerned with practical arrangements. On the face of it, he was simply explaining why he was sending the letter by the hand of Epaphroditus instead of Timothy. But actually he was holding them up as practical examples of the life lived by the gospel, about which he had just written. Timothy “genuinely cares about your welfare” (2:20), because, unlike everyone else, he did not seek his own interests but those of Jesus Christ (v 21). He lived the gospel! He was committed to the work of the gospel (v 22). And Epaphroditus was the same, though in a different way. His union with Jesus was expressed not so much in his self-giving service for the gospel and his fellow saints, as in the illness that he suffered and the pains of separation that he endured. Like Jesus, he put his life on the line (v 30), and like Jesus, he was restored to life again (v 27). Now he was to be restored to his beloved Philippians, and the joy that they would experience together would be a further outworking of the gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>Pressing Forward and Standing Firm (3:1–4:1)<\/h5>\n<p>This section also begins and ends on the note of joy (3:1; 4:1)—not accidentally. The way of the cross that Paul describes is also the way of joy (cf. Heb 12:2). It begins and ends also with the address “dear brothers and sisters,” and this, too, is not accidental, for once again in this passage Paul writes about himself, and once again the underlying thought is that his experience is typical and that his readers should expect and seek to see the same pattern in their lives. He wrote, “Dear brothers and sisters, pattern your lives after mine, and learn from those who follow our example” (3:17, <span>nlt<\/span>). Having put forward Timothy and Epaphroditus as examples in 2:19-30, Paul now does the same with himself.<\/p>\n<p>The tone seems to change dramatically in 3:2, as Paul turns to warn the Philippians against “those dogs,” who are probably the same as those to whom he refers in 1:28 as “your enemies.” There, he was much concerned about the inner foundation of the Philippians’ stand against them, so he did not specify who they were. But now he examines them more closely, in order to show the Philippians that the Christian life entails a complete reversal of the values held by their opponents.<\/p>\n<p>It seems that they were Jews, the sort in Acts 17:5 who opposed Paul’s ministry in nearby Thessalonica. They believed that they were God’s chosen race, but Paul thought that was nothing more than placing confidence in the flesh (Phil 3:4). They thought they knew the way of righteousness—it is the way of rigorous and disciplined obedience to God’s law in every detail of life. But Paul thought that was to seek a righteousness of one’s own (v 9), having nothing to do with the righteousness that God wants to give. The true way to be God’s people, he movingly insists, is the way of self-renunciation, so that all he previously held dear as a Jew came to be seen as rubbish (v 8), considered as loss for the sake of Christ (v 7). The only way to attain righteousness is through faith in Christ (v 9), for Christians must become like him in his death if they are to know the power of his resurrection (v 10). For Paul, dying with Christ meant not just suffering imprisonment and many other indignities for Christ’s sake but also renouncing all the prized possessions that his Judaism had given him.<\/p>\n<h5>Thinking, Rejoicing, Sharing (4:2-23)<\/h5>\n<p>Again, the tone changes suddenly (both at 4:2 and at 4:10)—so much so that some scholars have suggested that Philippians was compiled by an editor using several different letters. But when Paul turns (in v 2) to address Euodia and Syntyche, he was not really changing the subject. The link with the last section is the same as that between 1:27-30 and the first paragraph in chapter 2: how can Christians expect to be able to hold their own in the face of some enemies of the cross of Christ (3:18) if they are disunited and at odds with each other? For if there is just one gospel, disharmony between Christians means that the gospel is not having its full effect. So Euodia and Syntyche are urged (literally) to “think the same thing in the Lord” (4:2), and are then reminded of how they once found a wonderful unity in striving side by side in the cause of the gospel (v 3).<\/p>\n<p>The agreement that Paul urges them to come to does not mean complete identity of opinions on all subjects. It means a oneness of heart in a common love for Christ and the gospel. In the rest of the letter Paul spells out what this oneness means in practice—both what it should mean and what it has meant for the Philippians. The use of the mind is vital, and in verses 4-9 Paul paints a picture of the Christian life in which careful and intelligent prayer (vv 6-7) and the deliberate directing of the mind toward “whatever is true and honorable” (v 8) will produce a life marked by the two qualities of peace and joy, whatever the circumstances.<\/p>\n<p>That leads to the final paragraph, in which Paul gives thanks that, in spite of the disharmony evident in one part of the Philippian church, the church as a whole has already displayed this true Christian “mind.” For they have shown their oneness with Paul in the cause of the gospel by sending him a gift by Epaphroditus. “You have done well to share with me in my present difficulty,” Paul writes (4:14), and our thoughts go back again to the hymn in 2:6-11. From the gospel about the one who came from heaven to bear our burdens comes this mutual sharing—and so does Paul’s wonderful attitude to his circumstances: “I know how to be humbled [the same word as in 2:8], and I know how to abound” (4:12). Joined to Christ, we do not anxiously seek provision for our needs (v 17; cf. v 6), but share with him and with others whatever humiliation and exaltation he sends, confident that God will meet all our needs “from his glorious riches, which have been given to us in Christ Jesus” (4:19, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Philippi.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PHILIPPIANS, L<span>etter to the<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>One of Paul’s Prison Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date and Origin<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Theological Themes<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Philippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateandOrigin\">Date and Origin<\/p>\n<p>While it is clear that Paul was writing from prison (Phil 1:12-13), it is not clear where he was imprisoned. The most likely possibility is Rome, in which case the date would be around <span>AD<\/span> 62. But some have thought that all the journeys implied in 4:14 and 2:25-26 make such a distant place unlikely (the Philippians hear that Paul is in prison and send a gift by Epaphroditus; Epaphroditus hears in Rome that the Philippians have heard that he has been ill). So the alternatives of Ephesus (c. <span>AD<\/span> 55) and Caesarea (c. <span>AD<\/span> 58) have been proposed. We know that Paul was imprisoned in Caesarea (Acts 23:33-35), but the greeting “from those of Caesar’s household” is difficult to explain if it was written there, in spite of the coincidence of name. Ephesus is certainly near enough to Philippi for plenty of interchange, but no imprisonment is recorded in the account of Paul’s ministry there in Acts. So we would have to assume that Luke’s account in Acts 19 is not complete and that Paul had been placed in protective custody at the time of the riot (see esp. 19:30-31). But such an imprisonment could hardly have led Paul to wonder whether his time “to depart and be with Christ” had now come (Phil 1:23). At the time of writing, he was clearly facing a capital charge.<\/p>\n<p>The traditional location (Rome) seems the most satisfactory, especially when one reflects that Paul was imprisoned there for at least two years (Acts 28:30), and that it took about three weeks to travel from Rome to Philippi.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Philippi had the distinction of being a Roman colony (Acts 16:12), a privilege accorded to only a few cities outside Italy. Some 90 years before the gospel arrived there (c. <span>AD<\/span> 50), the city had been greatly expanded by large numbers of Roman soldiers, who were settled there by their commanding officers. As a consequence, the town acquired its coveted status as a colony, which meant that for all intents and purposes its citizens were treated as if they lived in Italy, and the town had a fully Roman administration. Paul alludes to this status in Philippians 3:20, where he teaches that Christians likewise are citizens of another city, the heavenly one, while yet residents elsewhere. It was a rich and busy place, one of the main centers of life in Macedonia, and consequently was “home” to the adherents of many different religions, from both east and west. There was a strong Jewish community there, as well as pagans of many sorts.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalThemes\">Theological Themes<\/p>\n<p>In a sense Paul’s imprisonment is not just background material but lies at the heart of the letter’s message. In his imprisonment he was experiencing the abasement that he mentions in 4:12, using there the same word found in 2:8 to describe the self-humbling of Christ unto death. The pattern of the ministry of Jesus described in the great “hymn” of 2:6-11—humiliation followed by glorification—becomes the pattern of Paul’s own life and of the vision he holds out before the Philippians. So alongside abasement and suffering, joy is the other great theme of the letter. Within suffering and self-sacrifice, true joy is born. In fact, Philippians could justly be titled “The Epistle of Joy.” Other prominent themes include the gospel, the Day of the Lord, and in addition to the famous “hymn” in chapter 2, a comparison of Paul’s Jewish past with his present Christian experience (3:4-16).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting and Opening Prayer (1:1-11)<\/h5>\n<p>In the opening paragraph of his letter, Paul presents the themes that will be uppermost in his mind throughout. His personal warmth toward the Philippians is immediately striking: “I have you in my heart. . . . I long for all of you” (1:7-8), and this thought of outgoing and suffering love undergirds the whole letter. It is notable, too, that the letter begins and ends with the themes of “grace” and of “the saints” (1:1-2; 4:21-23). The grace of Christ, which reaches out to sinful people and transforms them, separating them from the world, occupies Paul throughout. “The saints” are the ones who, touched by that grace, are transformed in heart and mind, so that their love abounds more and more in knowledge and depth of insight (1:9).<\/p>\n<p>Two more great themes appear here. The Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">phroneo<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to think,” is used more in Philippians than in any other letter of Paul, no fewer than nine times (as against seven in Romans). Unfortunately, it is not uniformly translated in the English versions, and so it is hard for the English reader to notice its repeated appearance and the emphasis on the right use of the mind that goes with it. But for Paul this is vital: the way we think is at the heart of the Christian life, and in these opening verses he makes it clear that the love he feels for the Philippians is actually the Christian way of thinking about them (v 7: literally, “It is right for me to think this way about you”). This leads naturally to another emphasis—growth. For the “Christian mind” does not appear overnight. So Paul prays that this mind may grow, giving the Philippians powers of discernment that will transform their character and prepare them for “the day of Christ” (vv 10-11; cf. v 6).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, we note in this opening prayer the twin emphases on the gospel and on fellowship—linked in Paul’s prayer of thanksgiving for the Philippians’ partnership in the gospel (v 5; cf. v 7)—and also the introduction of the great theme of joy (v 4). All three are vital to the whole letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul and His Imprisonment: Christ Exalted (1:12-26)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul writes about his own situation to present the heart of his message. For when he writes, “For me to live is Christ” (v 21), he means more than that his every waking moment is taken up by fellowship with his Lord and service for him. He means also that, in his own person and experience, he displays Christ and “lives” him. Later he will say, “Keep putting into practice all you learned from me and heard from me and saw me doing” (4:9, <span>nlt<\/span>). Few Christian ministers would dare make such a claim today! Yet Paul believed that, as an apostle of Christ, it was his privilege not just to speak on Christ’s behalf but also to live out Christ’s life in his own person, even if that meant suffering and humiliation.<\/p>\n<p>There are two historical difficulties here. First, it is hard to reconstruct the situation to which Paul refers in 1:12-18. The church in Rome (if that is where he is) was clearly divided about his imprisonment—some believers actually being glad that he was behind bars. It seems as though they were prompted by his imprisonment to get on with preaching their own version of the gospel. Far from being upset by this, Paul is delighted! “What does it matter?” he asks (v 18). Whether by friend or foe, Christ is being proclaimed in a new way as a result of his imprisonment (v 14). He was normally quick to defend the purity of the Word proclaimed, so these rivals of Paul could not have been heretics.<\/p>\n<p>The other historical difficulty surrounds verses 19-26. At one moment Paul seems not to know what the outcome of imprisonment will be (vv 19-21). Yet he then suggests that he can choose whether to live or die (v 22), and finally tells the Philippians that he is sure he will remain alive (v 25). The best explanation is that Paul believed he had received a personal assurance from the Holy Spirit that his imprisonment would not end with his execution.<\/p>\n<p>At any rate, his attitude about his own death is most moving. He expected deliverance, whether by life or by death (vv 19-20), and had an unshakeable confidence that to die is “better by far” (v 23), because it means being “with Christ.” This section ends with a note of joy.<\/p>\n<h5>The Life Worthy of the Gospel (1:27–2:18)<\/h5>\n<p>This section ends with “joy,” just as the last did, and its whole message is summed up in the opening exhortation of verse 27. Paul wanted the Philippians to be people in whom there is no gap between profession and practice, in whom the gospel believed is the gospel lived. The section falls into four portions, which might be entitled as follows: (1) 1:27-30—the worthy life in a hostile world; (2) 2:1-4—the worthy life in Christian fellowship; (3) 2:5-11—the gospel that inspires us; (4) 2:12-18—priorities for lives worthy of the gospel.<\/p>\n<p>Paul refused to let the Philippians feel that he was worse off than they. He wrote, “We are in this fight together. You have seen me suffer for him in the past, and you know that I am still in the midst of this great struggle” (1:30, <span>nlt<\/span>). For suffering at the hands of a hostile world is part and parcel of Christian discipleship. If we profess to believe a gospel about one who, though equal with God, left aside the glory of heaven and submitted not just to incarnation but also to a horrible death (2:6-8), then we must think of suffering not as an unfortunate necessity but as a privilege! “For you have been given not only the privilege of trusting in Christ but also the privilege of suffering for him” (1:29, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The essential quality the believers need, in order to face successfully the hostility of the world, is unity. They must be “standing side by side, fighting together for the Good News” (1:27), and believing one gospel will produce a united front against the world—and not a purely defensive front, either. The theme of unity continues into chapter 2, where Paul turns to life within the fellowship (2:1-4), as if to say that external unity before the world will not be possible unless their hearts and minds are truly united in one love, spirit, and purpose (v 2), whatever their outward situation. Such a unity will come only if there is tenderness and compassion among them (v 1). The lovely progression in verse 1 reaches a climax with this phrase, and that in turn leads into the famous “hymn” in 2:6-11. Such tenderness will not find its home in their hearts unless they believe the gospel about which the hymn sings.<\/p>\n<p>Whether 2:6-11 was in fact a real hymn, sung in the context of early Christian worship, is now impossible to know for sure. Certainly Paul’s language here takes on a hymnic quality, though it is not in poetic form. Many scholars have thought that Paul did not write these verses himself but was quoting a well-known piece of liturgy. All one can say for certain is that his language changes in style, and he expressed here ideas that are unique in his writings.<\/p>\n<p>The hymn blends in with its context beautifully, and in fact forms the core of the whole letter. For we see here how the experience of imprisonment and deliverance, and of suffering and joy, is an entering into the experience of Jesus himself, who died and rose, was humbled and glorified.<\/p>\n<h5>Two Worthy Examples and Friends (2:19-30)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul again writes about his own situation and plans, but as before, this section is not just concerned with practical arrangements. On the face of it, he was simply explaining why he was sending the letter by the hand of Epaphroditus instead of Timothy. But actually he was holding them up as practical examples of the life lived by the gospel, about which he had just written. Timothy “genuinely cares about your welfare” (2:20), because, unlike everyone else, he did not seek his own interests but those of Jesus Christ (v 21). He lived the gospel! He was committed to the work of the gospel (v 22). And Epaphroditus was the same, though in a different way. His union with Jesus was expressed not so much in his self-giving service for the gospel and his fellow saints, as in the illness that he suffered and the pains of separation that he endured. Like Jesus, he put his life on the line (v 30), and like Jesus, he was restored to life again (v 27). Now he was to be restored to his beloved Philippians, and the joy that they would experience together would be a further outworking of the gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>Pressing Forward and Standing Firm (3:1–4:1)<\/h5>\n<p>This section also begins and ends on the note of joy (3:1; 4:1)—not accidentally. The way of the cross that Paul describes is also the way of joy (cf. Heb 12:2). It begins and ends also with the address “dear brothers and sisters,” and this, too, is not accidental, for once again in this passage Paul writes about himself, and once again the underlying thought is that his experience is typical and that his readers should expect and seek to see the same pattern in their lives. He wrote, “Dear brothers and sisters, pattern your lives after mine, and learn from those who follow our example” (3:17, <span>nlt<\/span>). Having put forward Timothy and Epaphroditus as examples in 2:19-30, Paul now does the same with himself.<\/p>\n<p>The tone seems to change dramatically in 3:2, as Paul turns to warn the Philippians against “those dogs,” who are probably the same as those to whom he refers in 1:28 as “your enemies.” There, he was much concerned about the inner foundation of the Philippians’ stand against them, so he did not specify who they were. But now he examines them more closely, in order to show the Philippians that the Christian life entails a complete reversal of the values held by their opponents.<\/p>\n<p>It seems that they were Jews, the sort in Acts 17:5 who opposed Paul’s ministry in nearby Thessalonica. They believed that they were God’s chosen race, but Paul thought that was nothing more than placing confidence in the flesh (Phil 3:4). They thought they knew the way of righteousness—it is the way of rigorous and disciplined obedience to God’s law in every detail of life. But Paul thought that was to seek a righteousness of one’s own (v 9), having nothing to do with the righteousness that God wants to give. The true way to be God’s people, he movingly insists, is the way of self-renunciation, so that all he previously held dear as a Jew came to be seen as rubbish (v 8), considered as loss for the sake of Christ (v 7). The only way to attain righteousness is through faith in Christ (v 9), for Christians must become like him in his death if they are to know the power of his resurrection (v 10). For Paul, dying with Christ meant not just suffering imprisonment and many other indignities for Christ’s sake but also renouncing all the prized possessions that his Judaism had given him.<\/p>\n<h5>Thinking, Rejoicing, Sharing (4:2-23)<\/h5>\n<p>Again, the tone changes suddenly (both at 4:2 and at 4:10)—so much so that some scholars have suggested that Philippians was compiled by an editor using several different letters. But when Paul turns (in v 2) to address Euodia and Syntyche, he was not really changing the subject. The link with the last section is the same as that between 1:27-30 and the first paragraph in chapter 2: how can Christians expect to be able to hold their own in the face of some enemies of the cross of Christ (3:18) if they are disunited and at odds with each other? For if there is just one gospel, disharmony between Christians means that the gospel is not having its full effect. So Euodia and Syntyche are urged (literally) to “think the same thing in the Lord” (4:2), and are then reminded of how they once found a wonderful unity in striving side by side in the cause of the gospel (v 3).<\/p>\n<p>The agreement that Paul urges them to come to does not mean complete identity of opinions on all subjects. It means a oneness of heart in a common love for Christ and the gospel. In the rest of the letter Paul spells out what this oneness means in practice—both what it should mean and what it has meant for the Philippians. The use of the mind is vital, and in verses 4-9 Paul paints a picture of the Christian life in which careful and intelligent prayer (vv 6-7) and the deliberate directing of the mind toward “whatever is true and honorable” (v 8) will produce a life marked by the two qualities of peace and joy, whatever the circumstances.<\/p>\n<p>That leads to the final paragraph, in which Paul gives thanks that, in spite of the disharmony evident in one part of the Philippian church, the church as a whole has already displayed this true Christian “mind.” For they have shown their oneness with Paul in the cause of the gospel by sending him a gift by Epaphroditus. “You have done well to share with me in my present difficulty,” Paul writes (4:14), and our thoughts go back again to the hymn in 2:6-11. From the gospel about the one who came from heaven to bear our burdens comes this mutual sharing—and so does Paul’s wonderful attitude to his circumstances: “I know how to be humbled [the same word as in 2:8], and I know how to abound” (4:12). Joined to Christ, we do not anxiously seek provision for our needs (v 17; cf. v 6), but share with him and with others whatever humiliation and exaltation he sends, confident that God will meet all our needs “from his glorious riches, which have been given to us in Christ Jesus” (4:19, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Philippi.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the One of Paul’s Prison Epistles. Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Theological Themes • Content Author Philippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary. Date and Origin While it is clear ...","summary_en":"PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the One of Paul’s Prison Epistles. Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Theological Themes • Content Author Philippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary. Date and Origin While it is clear ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"31":[{"id":3046,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Asiarch*","title_en":"Asiarch*","content_ro":"<h3>ASIARCH*<\/h3>\n<p>Title of an official of unknown function in the Roman province of Asia. Several such officials were concerned for the safety of Paul during a silversmiths’ riot in Ephesus (Acts 19:31). Nothing else is known about their qualifications, periods of tenure, or duties. Why there were a number of such officers in Ephesus at the time of the riot, or why the Asiarchs showed such concern for Paul, is not clear. Perhaps they were deputies of the “Commune of Asia,” responsible to promote and protect the imperial cult (the worship practices of Rome and the emperor). The Asiarchs mentioned were evidently not adverse to a religious movement like Christianity, which embarrassed the prevailing pagan cult of Artemis. The long account in Acts 19 repeats one of Luke’s themes, that Christianity was not subversive, nor was Paul a political menace. Otherwise the Asiarchs would not have favored him in such a manner.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ASIARCH*<\/h3>\n<p>Title of an official of unknown function in the Roman province of Asia. Several such officials were concerned for the safety of Paul during a silversmiths’ riot in Ephesus (Acts 19:31). Nothing else is known about their qualifications, periods of tenure, or duties. Why there were a number of such officers in Ephesus at the time of the riot, or why the Asiarchs showed such concern for Paul, is not clear. Perhaps they were deputies of the “Commune of Asia,” responsible to promote and protect the imperial cult (the worship practices of Rome and the emperor). The Asiarchs mentioned were evidently not adverse to a religious movement like Christianity, which embarrassed the prevailing pagan cult of Artemis. The long account in Acts 19 repeats one of Luke’s themes, that Christianity was not subversive, nor was Paul a political menace. Otherwise the Asiarchs would not have favored him in such a manner.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ASIARCH* Title of an official of unknown function in the Roman province of Asia. Several such officials were concerned for the safety of Paul during a silversmiths’ riot in Ephesus (Acts 19:31). Nothing else is known about their qualifications, periods of tenure, or duties. Why there were a number of such officers in Ephesus at the time of the riot, or why the Asiarchs showed such concern for Paul, is not clear. Perhaps they were deputies of the “Commune of Asia,” responsible to promote and p...","summary_en":"ASIARCH* Title of an official of unknown function in the Roman province of Asia. Several such officials were concerned for the safety of Paul during a silversmiths’ riot in Ephesus (Acts 19:31). Nothing else is known about their qualifications, periods of tenure, or duties. Why there were a number of such officers in Ephesus at the time of the riot, or why the Asiarchs showed such concern for Paul, is not clear. Perhaps they were deputies of the “Commune of Asia,” responsible to promote and p...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29243,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Paul, the Apostle","title_en":"Paul, the Apostle","content_ro":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","summary_en":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57060,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:31","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:31","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:31<\/strong> <em>Some of the officials of the province<\/em> (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Asiarchai,<\/span> “rulers of Asia”): The “Asiarchs” were the appointed leaders in the Roman province of Asia. They served as civic benefactors and usually championed the emperor cult. Some of these officials in high places were <em>friends of Paul<\/em>—Luke highlights that Christianity was attractive to people of high standing in society.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:31<\/strong> <em>Some of the officials of the province<\/em> (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Asiarchai,<\/span> “rulers of Asia”): The “Asiarchs” were the appointed leaders in the Roman province of Asia. They served as civic benefactors and usually championed the emperor cult. Some of these officials in high places were <em>friends of Paul<\/em>—Luke highlights that Christianity was attractive to people of high standing in society.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:31 Some of the officials of the province (Greek Asiarchai, “rulers of Asia”): The “Asiarchs” were the appointed leaders in the Roman province of Asia. They served as civic benefactors and usually championed the emperor cult. Some of these officials in high places were friends of Paul—Luke highlights that Christianity was attractive to people of high standing in society.","summary_en":"19:31 Some of the officials of the province (Greek Asiarchai, “rulers of Asia”): The “Asiarchs” were the appointed leaders in the Roman province of Asia. They served as civic benefactors and usually championed the emperor cult. Some of these officials in high places were friends of Paul—Luke highlights that Christianity was attractive to people of high standing in society.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84686,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:31","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:31","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:31<\/strong> <em>Some of the officials of the province<\/em> (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Asiarchai,<\/span> “rulers of Asia”): The “Asiarchs” were the appointed leaders in the Roman province of Asia. They served as civic benefactors and usually championed the emperor cult. Some of these officials in high places were <em>friends of Paul<\/em>—Luke highlights that Christianity was attractive to people of high standing in society.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:31<\/strong> <em>Some of the officials of the province<\/em> (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Asiarchai,<\/span> “rulers of Asia”): The “Asiarchs” were the appointed leaders in the Roman province of Asia. They served as civic benefactors and usually championed the emperor cult. Some of these officials in high places were <em>friends of Paul<\/em>—Luke highlights that Christianity was attractive to people of high standing in society.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:31 Some of the officials of the province (Greek Asiarchai, “rulers of Asia”): The “Asiarchs” were the appointed leaders in the Roman province of Asia. They served as civic benefactors and usually championed the emperor cult. Some of these officials in high places were friends of Paul—Luke highlights that Christianity was attractive to people of high standing in society.","summary_en":"19:31 Some of the officials of the province (Greek Asiarchai, “rulers of Asia”): The “Asiarchs” were the appointed leaders in the Roman province of Asia. They served as civic benefactors and usually championed the emperor cult. Some of these officials in high places were friends of Paul—Luke highlights that Christianity was attractive to people of high standing in society.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112312,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:31","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:31","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:31<\/strong> <em>Some of the officials of the province<\/em> (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Asiarchai,<\/span> “rulers of Asia”): The “Asiarchs” were the appointed leaders in the Roman province of Asia. They served as civic benefactors and usually championed the emperor cult. Some of these officials in high places were <em>friends of Paul<\/em>—Luke highlights that Christianity was attractive to people of high standing in society.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:31<\/strong> <em>Some of the officials of the province<\/em> (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Asiarchai,<\/span> “rulers of Asia”): The “Asiarchs” were the appointed leaders in the Roman province of Asia. They served as civic benefactors and usually championed the emperor cult. Some of these officials in high places were <em>friends of Paul<\/em>—Luke highlights that Christianity was attractive to people of high standing in society.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:31 Some of the officials of the province (Greek Asiarchai, “rulers of Asia”): The “Asiarchs” were the appointed leaders in the Roman province of Asia. They served as civic benefactors and usually championed the emperor cult. Some of these officials in high places were friends of Paul—Luke highlights that Christianity was attractive to people of high standing in society.","summary_en":"19:31 Some of the officials of the province (Greek Asiarchai, “rulers of Asia”): The “Asiarchs” were the appointed leaders in the Roman province of Asia. They served as civic benefactors and usually championed the emperor cult. Some of these officials in high places were friends of Paul—Luke highlights that Christianity was attractive to people of high standing in society.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139938,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:31","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:31","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:31<\/strong> <em>Some of the officials of the province<\/em> (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Asiarchai,<\/span> “rulers of Asia”): The “Asiarchs” were the appointed leaders in the Roman province of Asia. They served as civic benefactors and usually championed the emperor cult. Some of these officials in high places were <em>friends of Paul<\/em>—Luke highlights that Christianity was attractive to people of high standing in society.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:31<\/strong> <em>Some of the officials of the province<\/em> (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Asiarchai,<\/span> “rulers of Asia”): The “Asiarchs” were the appointed leaders in the Roman province of Asia. They served as civic benefactors and usually championed the emperor cult. Some of these officials in high places were <em>friends of Paul<\/em>—Luke highlights that Christianity was attractive to people of high standing in society.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:31 Some of the officials of the province (Greek Asiarchai, “rulers of Asia”): The “Asiarchs” were the appointed leaders in the Roman province of Asia. They served as civic benefactors and usually championed the emperor cult. Some of these officials in high places were friends of Paul—Luke highlights that Christianity was attractive to people of high standing in society.","summary_en":"19:31 Some of the officials of the province (Greek Asiarchai, “rulers of Asia”): The “Asiarchs” were the appointed leaders in the Roman province of Asia. They served as civic benefactors and usually championed the emperor cult. Some of these officials in high places were friends of Paul—Luke highlights that Christianity was attractive to people of high standing in society.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"32":[{"id":6556,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Church","title_en":"Church","content_ro":"<h3>CHURCH<\/h3>\n<p>A group or assembly of persons called together for a particular purpose. The term appears in only two verses in the Gospels (Mt 16:18; 18:17) but frequently in the book of Acts, most of the letters of Paul, as well as most of the remaining NT writings, especially the Revelation of John.<\/p>\n<p>One way of referring to the body of Israel in the OT was simply “the congregation.” Groups claiming to be the true Israel spiritually rather then naturally called themselves “the congregation.” The term was used by the writers of the Dead Sea Scrolls as well as by early Christians; it is the actual meaning of the word “church.” Christians often referred to themselves simply as the church or the congregation (with “of God” being understood). The term could be applied either to all believers in the world or to any local group of them. It meant the total presence of God’s people in a given location. That is why the NT often uses the singular “church” even when many groups of believers are included together (Acts 9:31; 2 Cor 1:1); the term “churches” is rarely found (Acts 15:41; 16:5). Each group or the whole group was the place where God was present (Mt 16:18; 18:17); God had purchased the congregation with the blood of his Son (Acts 20:28). The use of the word “church” in the NT is also somewhat dependent upon the Greek world. In the Greek world the word translated “church” designated an <em>assembly<\/em> of people, a meeting, such as a regularly summoned political body, or simply a <em>gathering<\/em> of people. The word is used in such a secular way in Acts 19:32, 39, 41.<\/p>\n<p>The specifically Christian usages of this concept vary considerably in the NT. (1) In analogy to the OT, it sometimes refers to a church meeting, as when Paul says to the Christians in Corinth: “When you meet as a church . . .” (1 Cor 11:18). This means that Christians are the people of God especially when they are gathered for worship. (2) In texts such as Matthew 18:17, Acts 5:11, 1 Corinthians 4:17, and Philippians 4:15, “church” refers to the entire group of Christians living in one place. Often, the local character of a Christian congregation is emphasized, as in the phrases, “the church in Jerusalem” (Acts 8:1), “in Corinth” (1 Cor 1:2), “in Thessalonica” (1 Thes 1:1). (3) In other texts, house assemblies of Christians are called churches, such as those who met in the house of Priscilla and Aquila (Rom 16:5; 1 Cor 16:19). (4) Throughout the NT, “the church” designates the universal church, to which all believers belong (see Acts 9:31; 1 Cor 6:4; Eph 1:22; Col 1:18). Jesus’ first word about the founding of the Christian movement in Matthew 16:18 has this larger meaning: “I will build my church, and the powers of death shall not prevail against it” (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The church, both as a universal reality and in its local, concrete expression, is more specifically designated in Paul’s writings as “the church of God” (e.g., 1 Cor 1:2; 10:32) or “the churches of Christ” (Rom 16:16). In this way a common, secular Greek term receives its distinctive Christian meaning and sets the Christian assembly\/ gathering\/community apart from all other secular or religious groups.<\/p>\n<p>It is clear from the NT as a whole that the Christian community understood itself as the community of the end time, as the community called into being by God’s end-time act of revelation and divine presence in Jesus of Nazareth. So Paul tells the Christians in Corinth that they are those “upon whom the end of the ages has come” (1 Cor 10:11, <span>rsv<\/span>). That is, God had visited his creation, had called out of both Judaism and the gentile world a new people, empowered by his Spirit to be present in the world, sharing the Good News (gospel) of his radical, unconditional love for his creation (Eph 2:11-22). The Gospels tell us that Jesus chose 12 disciples who became the foundation of this new people. The correspondence to the 12 tribes of Israel is clear, and it shows that the church was understood both as grounded in Judaism and as the fulfillment of God’s intention in calling Israel to become “a light to the nations, that my salvation may reach to the end of the earth” (Is 49:6, <span>rsv<\/span>; Rom 11:1-5). It is this recognition that allows Paul to call this new Gentile-Jewish community, this new creation, “the Israel of God” (Gal 6:15-16). In this new community the traditional barriers of race, social standing, and sex—barriers that divided people from one another and categorized them into inferior and superior classes—are seen to be shattered: “There is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus” (Gal 3:28, <span>niv<\/span>). This one entity is called “the body of Christ.”<\/p>\n<p>Paul is alone among NT writers in speaking of the church as Christ’s body (Rom 12:5; 1 Cor 12:27; Eph 1:22-23; 4:12; see also 1 Cor 10:16-17; 12:12-13), or as “the body” of which Christ is the “head” (Eph 4:15; Col 1:18). The origin of this way of speaking about the church is not clear. Among a number of suggestions, two are particularly revealing about Paul’s thought: (1) The Damascus road experience. According to the accounts in Acts (9:3-7; 22:6-11; 26:12-18), Jesus identifies himself with his persecuted disciples. By persecuting these early Christians, Paul was actually fighting against Christ himself. It is possible that later reflection on this experience led Paul to the conviction that the living Christ was so identified with his community that it could be spoken of as his “body,” that is, the concrete expression of his real presence. (2) The Hebrew concept of corporate solidarity. Paul was a Hebrew of the Hebrews (Phil 3:5), and his thinking was thoroughly Jewish. In that context, the individual is largely thought of as intimately tied into the nation as a whole; the individual does not have real existence apart from the whole people. At the same time, the entire people can be seen as represented by one individual. Thus, “Israel” is both the name of one individual and the name of a whole people. The “servant” of Isaiah 42–53 can be both an individual (Is 42:1-4) and the nation of Israel (49:1-6). This idea of corporate solidarity (or personality) is the background for the intimate connection Paul makes between “the first Adam” and sinful humanity as well as between “the last (or second) Adam” (Christ) and renewed humanity (1 Cor 15:45-49; see also Rom 5:12-21).<\/p>\n<p>The reality of the intimate relation between Christ and his church is thus expressed by Paul as the organic unity and integration of the physical body (Rom 12:4-8; 1 Cor 12:12-27). For Paul, the Lord’s Supper is a specific manifestation of this reality: “The bread which we break, is it not a participation in the body of Christ? Because there is one bread, we who are many are one body, for we all partake of the one bread” (1 Cor 10:16b-17, <span>rsv<\/span>). Since this is the case, Paul goes on to argue, all the functions of the body have their legitimate and rightful place. Division within the body (i.e., the church) reveals that there is something unhealthy within. It is this image of the church as the “body of Christ” that lies behind Paul’s repeated call for and insistence upon unity within the Christian community.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CHURCH<\/h3>\n<p>A group or assembly of persons called together for a particular purpose. The term appears in only two verses in the Gospels (Mt 16:18; 18:17) but frequently in the book of Acts, most of the letters of Paul, as well as most of the remaining NT writings, especially the Revelation of John.<\/p>\n<p>One way of referring to the body of Israel in the OT was simply “the congregation.” Groups claiming to be the true Israel spiritually rather then naturally called themselves “the congregation.” The term was used by the writers of the Dead Sea Scrolls as well as by early Christians; it is the actual meaning of the word “church.” Christians often referred to themselves simply as the church or the congregation (with “of God” being understood). The term could be applied either to all believers in the world or to any local group of them. It meant the total presence of God’s people in a given location. That is why the NT often uses the singular “church” even when many groups of believers are included together (Acts 9:31; 2 Cor 1:1); the term “churches” is rarely found (Acts 15:41; 16:5). Each group or the whole group was the place where God was present (Mt 16:18; 18:17); God had purchased the congregation with the blood of his Son (Acts 20:28). The use of the word “church” in the NT is also somewhat dependent upon the Greek world. In the Greek world the word translated “church” designated an <em>assembly<\/em> of people, a meeting, such as a regularly summoned political body, or simply a <em>gathering<\/em> of people. The word is used in such a secular way in Acts 19:32, 39, 41.<\/p>\n<p>The specifically Christian usages of this concept vary considerably in the NT. (1) In analogy to the OT, it sometimes refers to a church meeting, as when Paul says to the Christians in Corinth: “When you meet as a church . . .” (1 Cor 11:18). This means that Christians are the people of God especially when they are gathered for worship. (2) In texts such as Matthew 18:17, Acts 5:11, 1 Corinthians 4:17, and Philippians 4:15, “church” refers to the entire group of Christians living in one place. Often, the local character of a Christian congregation is emphasized, as in the phrases, “the church in Jerusalem” (Acts 8:1), “in Corinth” (1 Cor 1:2), “in Thessalonica” (1 Thes 1:1). (3) In other texts, house assemblies of Christians are called churches, such as those who met in the house of Priscilla and Aquila (Rom 16:5; 1 Cor 16:19). (4) Throughout the NT, “the church” designates the universal church, to which all believers belong (see Acts 9:31; 1 Cor 6:4; Eph 1:22; Col 1:18). Jesus’ first word about the founding of the Christian movement in Matthew 16:18 has this larger meaning: “I will build my church, and the powers of death shall not prevail against it” (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The church, both as a universal reality and in its local, concrete expression, is more specifically designated in Paul’s writings as “the church of God” (e.g., 1 Cor 1:2; 10:32) or “the churches of Christ” (Rom 16:16). In this way a common, secular Greek term receives its distinctive Christian meaning and sets the Christian assembly\/ gathering\/community apart from all other secular or religious groups.<\/p>\n<p>It is clear from the NT as a whole that the Christian community understood itself as the community of the end time, as the community called into being by God’s end-time act of revelation and divine presence in Jesus of Nazareth. So Paul tells the Christians in Corinth that they are those “upon whom the end of the ages has come” (1 Cor 10:11, <span>rsv<\/span>). That is, God had visited his creation, had called out of both Judaism and the gentile world a new people, empowered by his Spirit to be present in the world, sharing the Good News (gospel) of his radical, unconditional love for his creation (Eph 2:11-22). The Gospels tell us that Jesus chose 12 disciples who became the foundation of this new people. The correspondence to the 12 tribes of Israel is clear, and it shows that the church was understood both as grounded in Judaism and as the fulfillment of God’s intention in calling Israel to become “a light to the nations, that my salvation may reach to the end of the earth” (Is 49:6, <span>rsv<\/span>; Rom 11:1-5). It is this recognition that allows Paul to call this new Gentile-Jewish community, this new creation, “the Israel of God” (Gal 6:15-16). In this new community the traditional barriers of race, social standing, and sex—barriers that divided people from one another and categorized them into inferior and superior classes—are seen to be shattered: “There is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus” (Gal 3:28, <span>niv<\/span>). This one entity is called “the body of Christ.”<\/p>\n<p>Paul is alone among NT writers in speaking of the church as Christ’s body (Rom 12:5; 1 Cor 12:27; Eph 1:22-23; 4:12; see also 1 Cor 10:16-17; 12:12-13), or as “the body” of which Christ is the “head” (Eph 4:15; Col 1:18). The origin of this way of speaking about the church is not clear. Among a number of suggestions, two are particularly revealing about Paul’s thought: (1) The Damascus road experience. According to the accounts in Acts (9:3-7; 22:6-11; 26:12-18), Jesus identifies himself with his persecuted disciples. By persecuting these early Christians, Paul was actually fighting against Christ himself. It is possible that later reflection on this experience led Paul to the conviction that the living Christ was so identified with his community that it could be spoken of as his “body,” that is, the concrete expression of his real presence. (2) The Hebrew concept of corporate solidarity. Paul was a Hebrew of the Hebrews (Phil 3:5), and his thinking was thoroughly Jewish. In that context, the individual is largely thought of as intimately tied into the nation as a whole; the individual does not have real existence apart from the whole people. At the same time, the entire people can be seen as represented by one individual. Thus, “Israel” is both the name of one individual and the name of a whole people. The “servant” of Isaiah 42–53 can be both an individual (Is 42:1-4) and the nation of Israel (49:1-6). This idea of corporate solidarity (or personality) is the background for the intimate connection Paul makes between “the first Adam” and sinful humanity as well as between “the last (or second) Adam” (Christ) and renewed humanity (1 Cor 15:45-49; see also Rom 5:12-21).<\/p>\n<p>The reality of the intimate relation between Christ and his church is thus expressed by Paul as the organic unity and integration of the physical body (Rom 12:4-8; 1 Cor 12:12-27). For Paul, the Lord’s Supper is a specific manifestation of this reality: “The bread which we break, is it not a participation in the body of Christ? Because there is one bread, we who are many are one body, for we all partake of the one bread” (1 Cor 10:16b-17, <span>rsv<\/span>). Since this is the case, Paul goes on to argue, all the functions of the body have their legitimate and rightful place. Division within the body (i.e., the church) reveals that there is something unhealthy within. It is this image of the church as the “body of Christ” that lies behind Paul’s repeated call for and insistence upon unity within the Christian community.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CHURCH A group or assembly of persons called together for a particular purpose. The term appears in only two verses in the Gospels (Mt 16:18; 18:17) but frequently in the book of Acts, most of the letters of Paul, as well as most of the remaining NT writings, especially the Revelation of John. One way of referring to the body of Israel in the OT was simply “the congregation.” Groups claiming to be the true Israel spiritually rather then naturally called themselves “the congregation.” The term...","summary_en":"CHURCH A group or assembly of persons called together for a particular purpose. The term appears in only two verses in the Gospels (Mt 16:18; 18:17) but frequently in the book of Acts, most of the letters of Paul, as well as most of the remaining NT writings, especially the Revelation of John. One way of referring to the body of Israel in the OT was simply “the congregation.” Groups claiming to be the true Israel spiritually rather then naturally called themselves “the congregation.” The term...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":6592,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Church Meetings","title_en":"Church Meetings","content_ro":"<h3>CHURCH MEETINGS<\/h3>\n<p>The assembling together of the believers. In the NT, the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> (usually translated “church”) is used primarily in two ways: (1) to describe a meeting or an assembly, and (2) to designate the people who participate in such assembling together—whether they are actually assembled or not. The NT contains a few places that speak of a secular Greek assembly (Acts 19:32, 41); every other instance speaks of a Christian assembly. Sometimes the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> is used to designate the actual meeting together of Christians. This is certainly what Paul intended in 1 Corinthians 14:19, 28, and 35, in that the expression <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">en ekklesia<\/span> must mean “in a meeting” and not “in the church.” To translate this phrase “in the church” (as is done in most modern English versions) is misleading, for most readers will think it means “in the church building.” The NT never once names the place of assembly a “church.” Aside from the few instances where the word clearly means the actual meeting together of believers, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> most often is used as a descriptor for the believers who constitute a local church (such as the church in Corinth, the church in Philippi, and the church in Colosse) or all the believers (past, present, and future) who constitute the universal church, the complete body of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>When reading the NT, Christians need to be aware of the various ways in which the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> (“church”) is used. On the most basic level, the <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> is any gathering of believers. On another level, the <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> is an organized local entity—comprised of all the believers in any given locality, under one pluralistic eldership. On another level, the <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> is the universal church whose constituents are all the believers who have ever been, are now existing, and will ever be. The word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> was used by the NT writers with these various aspects of meaning, though, at times, it is not possible to differentiate one from the other. Nevertheless, students of the NT could avoid some confusion if they used discrimination in their exegesis of the text. Some interpreters have taught that the smallest unit of the church is the local church, but the NT writers sometimes used the word “church” to indicate a small home gathering. Other interpreters confuse the local church with the universal church. But some things in the NT are addressed to a local church that do not necessarily apply to the whole church, and some great things are spoken of the universal church that could never be attained by any particular local group. The things Paul said about the church in the Epistle to the Ephesians (which was written as an encyclical for several churches and not just for the church in Ephesus) could never be attained by a local church. For example, what local church could attain to the fullness of the stature of Christ?<\/p>\n<p>There is much to be said about how interpreters have confused the local church with the universal church, but this article is devoted to clearing up the confusion about what constitutes the smallest unit of the church—the local church, or what could be called the house church or home gathering.<\/p>\n<p>The NT seems to present the fact that a particular local church (i.e., a church comprising all the believers in a given locality under one eldership) could and did have several <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span>—“meetings” or “assemblies” (carried on in homes of the local Christians). Thus, the smallest unit to comprise a “church” was one of these home meetings. However, there is no indication in the NT that each of these home meetings had its own eldership or was a distinct entity separate from the other gatherings <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span><em>)<\/em> in the same locality. According to Acts 14:23 and Titus 1:5, elders were appointed for every local church (compare the expressions “appointed elders in every church” and “appoint elders in every city”)—not for every house church. Nevertheless, it appears that every local church of some size had several such <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span> (“meetings”) going on within that locality.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Jerusalem must have had several home meetings (see Acts 2:46; 5:42; 8:3; 12:5, 12), as did the church in Rome (see Rom 16:3-5, 14-15 and comments below). A small local church may have had only one home gathering—as was probably the case with the church at Colosse (see Phlm 1:2 and comments below), but this would have been impossible for large local churches like those in Jerusalem, Rome, and Ephesus, in which there must have been several “house churches” (see 1 Cor 16:19-20 [1 Cor was written from Ephesus] and comments below). An examination of the passages that deal with the issue of the “house church” should affirm this. These passages are Romans 16:3-5, 14-15; 1 Corinthians 16:19-20; Colossians 4:15-16; and Philemon 1:1-2 (all quoted from the <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h4>Romans 16:3-5, 14-15<\/h4>\n<p>In the last chapter of Romans, Paul asked the believers in Rome, to whom he had written this epistle, to greet Priscilla and Aquila and the church that met in their home (16:3-5). The entire church in Rome could not have met in Priscilla and Aquila’s home, for the church was much too large to have assembled in a single home. Rather, the church in Priscilla and Aquila’s home must have been one among several such “house churches” in Rome. The following discussion should substantiate this position.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s Epistle to the Romans was addressed to “all God’s beloved in Rome” (1:7), not to “the church in Rome.” At the time of writing, Paul had not been to Rome—nor had any other apostle. The church was probably started there by Jewish Romans who had been converted during their visit to Jerusalem during Pentecost (Acts 2:10) and then returned to Rome. Since the church had not been started by an apostle, it could have been that there were no “ordained” elders in the church at Rome and that there were several gatherings of believers in various parts of Rome and its suburbs. Paul knew some of the saints in Rome (whom he addressed by name in the last chapter) and thus addressed an epistle to all the saints in that locality, instead of to the church in that locality—which was his usual practice (see 1 Cor 1:1; 2 Cor 1:1; 1 Thes 1:1; 2 Thes 1:1). Nonetheless, “all the saints in Rome” would comprise “the church in Rome” (cf. Phil 1:1, in which Paul addressed his epistle to all the saints in Philippi).<\/p>\n<p>In the final chapter of Romans, Paul asks all the believers in Rome (which equals the “local” church in Rome) to greet the church in Priscilla and Aquila’s house. Later in the chapter, Paul asks the church to greet Asyncritus, Phlegon, Hermas, Patrobas, Hermes, and the brothers with them; and then again he asks the church to greet Philologus, Julia, Nereus and his sister, Olympas, and all the saints with them (16:14-15). Evidently, Paul was identifying two other groups of believers who must have met together. (And perhaps Paul was referring to two more groups in 16:10-11, which in the Greek could mean the ones of Aristobulus’s and Narcissus’s <em>households<\/em> or the ones of their <em>fellowships.<\/em>) It seems that the church in Rome, like the church in Jerusalem and Ephesus, had several home <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span> (meetings).<\/p>\n<p>The Epistle to the Romans was written around <span>AD<\/span> 58. The Neronian persecution began around <span>AD<\/span> 64. Secular historians such as Tacitus tell us that a vast multitude <em>(ingens multitudo)<\/em> of Christians were tortured and killed during this persecution (<em>Annals<\/em> 15.44). Seutonius (in his book <em>Nero,<\/em> ch 16) said that the rapid increase of the Christians in Rome had made them unpopular. Indeed, at the time Paul penned the Epistle to the Romans he said their faith was known throughout the world (1:8), which indicates that the church in Rome had already made an impact on the Mediterranean world. When Paul came to Rome three years later (<span>AD<\/span> 61), he came to a city that had a large church there already. From Romans 15:23, we know that the church had been in existence for many years even before Paul wrote his epistle to them. In short, the church in Rome was a large church around the time Paul wrote his epistle to them. The entire church could not have met in the home of Aquila and Priscilla, who would have had only a modest-sized dwelling (for they were tentmakers). Besides, Paul greeted over 25 individuals by name in chapter 16—and he had not yet even been to Rome!<\/p>\n<p>There must have been several <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span> in Rome, i.e., several home churches all unified as the one local church in Rome. For example, the Christians in Rome apparently worshiped in numerous homes such as Priscilla and Aquila’s. Other churches in homes are mentioned in Colossians 4:15 and Philemon 1:2. Groups of Christians met in houses of prominent believers or in other available rooms (cf. Mt 26:16; Acts 12:12; 1 Cor 16:19; Col 4:15; Phlm 1:2). The church in Priscilla and Aquila’s house is the first of five groups of believers in Paul’s list, but the only one referred to definitely as a church (see Rom 16:5, 10-11, 14-15). Priscilla and Aquila opened their home for Christian meetings. The church mentioned there was obviously only a part of the total number of Christians in Rome. Verses 10-11 and 14-15 seem to refer to two other household churches in Rome. Apparently, there were at least three churches there, and probably more. Each house church could not have been a separate entity with a separate church government; rather, each house church must have been simply one home meeting of some of the saints in the one local church at Rome.<\/p>\n<h4>1 Corinthians 16:19-20<\/h4>\n<p>In this passage we again see Aquila and Priscilla and again discover that a church met in their house. According to Romans, their house church was, of course, in Rome. According to 1 Corinthians (written from Ephesus), their house church was in Ephesus. Many scholars think Aquila and Priscilla left Rome around <span>AD<\/span> 49 at the time of Claudius’s edict expelling Jews from Rome. They very well could have already been Christians at this time. According to Acts 18, they joined Paul in Corinth (where they all worked together in their craft of tentmaking) and then went on with him to Ephesus, during the time (around <span>AD<\/span> 51) the church in Ephesus was first established. Paul continued on with his second missionary journey, while Aquila and Priscilla remained in Ephesus. No doubt, the early church there first met in their home. Paul returned to Ephesus a few years later and remained there for two years (around <span>AD<\/span> 53–54). During this time, Paul’s proclamation of the gospel went out from Ephesus (as a center) to all of Asia Minor (see Acts 19:8-10). As this was going on, the church in Ephesus grew (see vv 18-20).<\/p>\n<p>It was during these years that Paul wrote to the Corinthians, in which he sent greetings from the churches in Asia, from Aquila and Priscilla—and the church in their house, and from all the brothers (1 Cor 16:19-20). In giving this kind of greeting, it seems that Paul was sending greetings from (1) all the churches in Asia Minor, (2) the church in Ephesus (equivalent to “all the brothers”), and (3) those believers who gathered with Aquila and Priscilla in their home. It would be hard to imagine that all the saints in Ephesus met at Aquila and Priscilla’s home. The church probably began that way, but as it grew, so did the number of home meetings. From other portions of the NT (specifically 1 Timothy, which was written around <span>AD<\/span> 64 by Paul to Timothy while Timothy was leading the church in Ephesus), we discover that there must have been several home meetings in Ephesus because there were so many saints there (see 1 Timothy 5–6, which reveal that there must have been a large number of saints in Ephesus—young men, young women, older men, widows, and so forth). At any rate, several saints must have hosted an <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span><em>,<\/em> a meeting, in their home. (Aquila and Priscilla left Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 56\/57 and returned to Rome, where again they hosted a church in their home. Others in Ephesus would have to open their homes.) But each such <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> did not have its own eldership; rather, all of the church in Ephesus was under one eldership—headed up by Timothy, Paul’s coworker.<\/p>\n<h4>Colossians 4:15-16<\/h4>\n<p>In this portion, we again read about a church existing in the home of one called Nymphas. In his final remarks to the church in Colosse, Paul asked the saints in Colosse to send his greetings to (1) the brothers that are in Laodicea, (2) Nymphas in particular, and (3) the church in Nymphas’s house. According to the structure of Colossians 4:15, it seems evident that the first greeting included all the believers in Laodicea (a neighboring church to Colosse), who would comprise the entire church in Laodicea (called “the church of the Laodiceans” in Col 4:16), and that the second and third greetings were to a specific individual (Nymphas) in the church in Laodicea and a church meeting in Nymphas’s house. This church meeting in Nymphas’s house would probably be one of several home meetings—all part of the one local church in Laodicea.<\/p>\n<p>There is a textual problem in this passage that could have some effect on the interpretation of it. Some manuscripts read “his house”; others read “her house”; still others read “their house.” Because it cannot be determined from the Greek text whether Nymphas was male or female, various scribes used different pronouns before “house.” Between the readings “her” and “his,” it is far more likely that the pronoun “her” was changed to “his” than vice versa. Some scholars say that “their” refers to “the brothers” at Laodicea. But that does not make sense if we understand that “the brothers in Laodicea” is equal to the church in Laodicea. How could the church in Laodicea have the church in their house? Other scholars indicate that the Greek word for “their” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">auton<\/span><em>)<\/em> refers to the ones with Nymphas—i.e., the members of his household. Whether the reading was “her house” or “their house,” a particular group of believers within the church of Laodicea met there. Their meeting could legitimately be called an <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span>—an assembling together.<\/p>\n<h4>Philemon 1:1-2<\/h4>\n<p>This is the last time in the NT we read about a church in a particular home. Paul wrote a short epistle to Philemon, an elder of the church in Colosse, on behalf of Onesimus, Philemon’s runaway slave converted by Paul to Christ. In his introduction to this short epistle, Paul sends his greetings to Philemon, Apphia, Archippus, and the church in Philemon’s house. It is important to note that Paul did not send greetings to all the saints in Colosse and then to the church in Philemon’s house (as is the pattern in 1 Cor 16:19-20 and Col 4:15); instead, he just sent greetings to Philemon and to the church in his house. Therefore, we can assume that the entire church in Colosse must have met at Philemon’s house.<\/p>\n<h4>Worship in the Home Meetings and Church Meetings<\/h4>\n<p>When the church first began in Jerusalem, the believers met in homes for fellowship and worship. Acts 2:42-47 tells us that the early Christians met in homes to hear the apostles’ teachings and to celebrate Communion (which is called “the breaking of bread”). During such gatherings, the Christians often shared meals with one another in what was called a love feast (2 Pt 2:13; Jude 1:12). At these meetings, the Christians recited Scripture, sang hymns and psalms, and joyfully praised the Lord (see Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16-17). Christians also gathered together in homes to pray (Acts 12:12) and read the Word.<\/p>\n<p>Small groups of believers met in homes for worship quite regularly; in a city where there were several such <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span><em>,<\/em> all the believers would gather together for special occasions. Scripture tells us that all the believers would come together to hear an epistle from the apostles read out loud (see Acts 15:30; Col 4:16), and we can surmise from the NT record that all the Christians in a city met together once a week on Sunday, which was called the Lord’s Day. First Corinthians provides several insights about how the early Christians worshiped together when all the believers in one city met together. We know that 1 Corinthians pertains to this larger gathering because in 11:20 Paul spoke of all the believers coming together in one place and in 14:23 he spoke of the whole church coming together in one place.<\/p>\n<p>Paul used this epistle to correct the Corinthians’ behavior in the celebration of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:17-34) and in the exercising of spiritual gifts during church meetings (ch 14). Paul’s adjustments reveal his perceptions of a model Christian meeting, and his preceptions were probably developed from actual experience in other church meetings. Paul urged the Corinthians to celebrate the Lord’s Supper together in a manner that reflected Jesus’ institution of that meal. They were to remember the Lord and his death for them, and they were to partake of the bread and wine with all seriousness. At the same time, they were to be conscious of the fact that they were members of the same body of Christ—joined to one another, and also to Christ.<\/p>\n<p>According to Paul’s presentation in chapter 14, this “body consciousness” should be evident in the way the believers worshiped together. One’s personal experience and liberty should not hinder the coordination of the body in worshiping God corporately. Thus, when the believers exercised their spiritual gifts—whether it be prophesying, speaking in tongues, providing interpretations of the tongues, or teaching—it should be done in good order and for the edification of the congregation, not personal edification. When all the church assembled together to worship God, it should be a display of spiritual unity.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Church.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CHURCH MEETINGS<\/h3>\n<p>The assembling together of the believers. In the NT, the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> (usually translated “church”) is used primarily in two ways: (1) to describe a meeting or an assembly, and (2) to designate the people who participate in such assembling together—whether they are actually assembled or not. The NT contains a few places that speak of a secular Greek assembly (Acts 19:32, 41); every other instance speaks of a Christian assembly. Sometimes the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> is used to designate the actual meeting together of Christians. This is certainly what Paul intended in 1 Corinthians 14:19, 28, and 35, in that the expression <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">en ekklesia<\/span> must mean “in a meeting” and not “in the church.” To translate this phrase “in the church” (as is done in most modern English versions) is misleading, for most readers will think it means “in the church building.” The NT never once names the place of assembly a “church.” Aside from the few instances where the word clearly means the actual meeting together of believers, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> most often is used as a descriptor for the believers who constitute a local church (such as the church in Corinth, the church in Philippi, and the church in Colosse) or all the believers (past, present, and future) who constitute the universal church, the complete body of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>When reading the NT, Christians need to be aware of the various ways in which the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> (“church”) is used. On the most basic level, the <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> is any gathering of believers. On another level, the <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> is an organized local entity—comprised of all the believers in any given locality, under one pluralistic eldership. On another level, the <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> is the universal church whose constituents are all the believers who have ever been, are now existing, and will ever be. The word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> was used by the NT writers with these various aspects of meaning, though, at times, it is not possible to differentiate one from the other. Nevertheless, students of the NT could avoid some confusion if they used discrimination in their exegesis of the text. Some interpreters have taught that the smallest unit of the church is the local church, but the NT writers sometimes used the word “church” to indicate a small home gathering. Other interpreters confuse the local church with the universal church. But some things in the NT are addressed to a local church that do not necessarily apply to the whole church, and some great things are spoken of the universal church that could never be attained by any particular local group. The things Paul said about the church in the Epistle to the Ephesians (which was written as an encyclical for several churches and not just for the church in Ephesus) could never be attained by a local church. For example, what local church could attain to the fullness of the stature of Christ?<\/p>\n<p>There is much to be said about how interpreters have confused the local church with the universal church, but this article is devoted to clearing up the confusion about what constitutes the smallest unit of the church—the local church, or what could be called the house church or home gathering.<\/p>\n<p>The NT seems to present the fact that a particular local church (i.e., a church comprising all the believers in a given locality under one eldership) could and did have several <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span>—“meetings” or “assemblies” (carried on in homes of the local Christians). Thus, the smallest unit to comprise a “church” was one of these home meetings. However, there is no indication in the NT that each of these home meetings had its own eldership or was a distinct entity separate from the other gatherings <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span><em>)<\/em> in the same locality. According to Acts 14:23 and Titus 1:5, elders were appointed for every local church (compare the expressions “appointed elders in every church” and “appoint elders in every city”)—not for every house church. Nevertheless, it appears that every local church of some size had several such <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span> (“meetings”) going on within that locality.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Jerusalem must have had several home meetings (see Acts 2:46; 5:42; 8:3; 12:5, 12), as did the church in Rome (see Rom 16:3-5, 14-15 and comments below). A small local church may have had only one home gathering—as was probably the case with the church at Colosse (see Phlm 1:2 and comments below), but this would have been impossible for large local churches like those in Jerusalem, Rome, and Ephesus, in which there must have been several “house churches” (see 1 Cor 16:19-20 [1 Cor was written from Ephesus] and comments below). An examination of the passages that deal with the issue of the “house church” should affirm this. These passages are Romans 16:3-5, 14-15; 1 Corinthians 16:19-20; Colossians 4:15-16; and Philemon 1:1-2 (all quoted from the <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h4>Romans 16:3-5, 14-15<\/h4>\n<p>In the last chapter of Romans, Paul asked the believers in Rome, to whom he had written this epistle, to greet Priscilla and Aquila and the church that met in their home (16:3-5). The entire church in Rome could not have met in Priscilla and Aquila’s home, for the church was much too large to have assembled in a single home. Rather, the church in Priscilla and Aquila’s home must have been one among several such “house churches” in Rome. The following discussion should substantiate this position.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s Epistle to the Romans was addressed to “all God’s beloved in Rome” (1:7), not to “the church in Rome.” At the time of writing, Paul had not been to Rome—nor had any other apostle. The church was probably started there by Jewish Romans who had been converted during their visit to Jerusalem during Pentecost (Acts 2:10) and then returned to Rome. Since the church had not been started by an apostle, it could have been that there were no “ordained” elders in the church at Rome and that there were several gatherings of believers in various parts of Rome and its suburbs. Paul knew some of the saints in Rome (whom he addressed by name in the last chapter) and thus addressed an epistle to all the saints in that locality, instead of to the church in that locality—which was his usual practice (see 1 Cor 1:1; 2 Cor 1:1; 1 Thes 1:1; 2 Thes 1:1). Nonetheless, “all the saints in Rome” would comprise “the church in Rome” (cf. Phil 1:1, in which Paul addressed his epistle to all the saints in Philippi).<\/p>\n<p>In the final chapter of Romans, Paul asks all the believers in Rome (which equals the “local” church in Rome) to greet the church in Priscilla and Aquila’s house. Later in the chapter, Paul asks the church to greet Asyncritus, Phlegon, Hermas, Patrobas, Hermes, and the brothers with them; and then again he asks the church to greet Philologus, Julia, Nereus and his sister, Olympas, and all the saints with them (16:14-15). Evidently, Paul was identifying two other groups of believers who must have met together. (And perhaps Paul was referring to two more groups in 16:10-11, which in the Greek could mean the ones of Aristobulus’s and Narcissus’s <em>households<\/em> or the ones of their <em>fellowships.<\/em>) It seems that the church in Rome, like the church in Jerusalem and Ephesus, had several home <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span> (meetings).<\/p>\n<p>The Epistle to the Romans was written around <span>AD<\/span> 58. The Neronian persecution began around <span>AD<\/span> 64. Secular historians such as Tacitus tell us that a vast multitude <em>(ingens multitudo)<\/em> of Christians were tortured and killed during this persecution (<em>Annals<\/em> 15.44). Seutonius (in his book <em>Nero,<\/em> ch 16) said that the rapid increase of the Christians in Rome had made them unpopular. Indeed, at the time Paul penned the Epistle to the Romans he said their faith was known throughout the world (1:8), which indicates that the church in Rome had already made an impact on the Mediterranean world. When Paul came to Rome three years later (<span>AD<\/span> 61), he came to a city that had a large church there already. From Romans 15:23, we know that the church had been in existence for many years even before Paul wrote his epistle to them. In short, the church in Rome was a large church around the time Paul wrote his epistle to them. The entire church could not have met in the home of Aquila and Priscilla, who would have had only a modest-sized dwelling (for they were tentmakers). Besides, Paul greeted over 25 individuals by name in chapter 16—and he had not yet even been to Rome!<\/p>\n<p>There must have been several <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span> in Rome, i.e., several home churches all unified as the one local church in Rome. For example, the Christians in Rome apparently worshiped in numerous homes such as Priscilla and Aquila’s. Other churches in homes are mentioned in Colossians 4:15 and Philemon 1:2. Groups of Christians met in houses of prominent believers or in other available rooms (cf. Mt 26:16; Acts 12:12; 1 Cor 16:19; Col 4:15; Phlm 1:2). The church in Priscilla and Aquila’s house is the first of five groups of believers in Paul’s list, but the only one referred to definitely as a church (see Rom 16:5, 10-11, 14-15). Priscilla and Aquila opened their home for Christian meetings. The church mentioned there was obviously only a part of the total number of Christians in Rome. Verses 10-11 and 14-15 seem to refer to two other household churches in Rome. Apparently, there were at least three churches there, and probably more. Each house church could not have been a separate entity with a separate church government; rather, each house church must have been simply one home meeting of some of the saints in the one local church at Rome.<\/p>\n<h4>1 Corinthians 16:19-20<\/h4>\n<p>In this passage we again see Aquila and Priscilla and again discover that a church met in their house. According to Romans, their house church was, of course, in Rome. According to 1 Corinthians (written from Ephesus), their house church was in Ephesus. Many scholars think Aquila and Priscilla left Rome around <span>AD<\/span> 49 at the time of Claudius’s edict expelling Jews from Rome. They very well could have already been Christians at this time. According to Acts 18, they joined Paul in Corinth (where they all worked together in their craft of tentmaking) and then went on with him to Ephesus, during the time (around <span>AD<\/span> 51) the church in Ephesus was first established. Paul continued on with his second missionary journey, while Aquila and Priscilla remained in Ephesus. No doubt, the early church there first met in their home. Paul returned to Ephesus a few years later and remained there for two years (around <span>AD<\/span> 53–54). During this time, Paul’s proclamation of the gospel went out from Ephesus (as a center) to all of Asia Minor (see Acts 19:8-10). As this was going on, the church in Ephesus grew (see vv 18-20).<\/p>\n<p>It was during these years that Paul wrote to the Corinthians, in which he sent greetings from the churches in Asia, from Aquila and Priscilla—and the church in their house, and from all the brothers (1 Cor 16:19-20). In giving this kind of greeting, it seems that Paul was sending greetings from (1) all the churches in Asia Minor, (2) the church in Ephesus (equivalent to “all the brothers”), and (3) those believers who gathered with Aquila and Priscilla in their home. It would be hard to imagine that all the saints in Ephesus met at Aquila and Priscilla’s home. The church probably began that way, but as it grew, so did the number of home meetings. From other portions of the NT (specifically 1 Timothy, which was written around <span>AD<\/span> 64 by Paul to Timothy while Timothy was leading the church in Ephesus), we discover that there must have been several home meetings in Ephesus because there were so many saints there (see 1 Timothy 5–6, which reveal that there must have been a large number of saints in Ephesus—young men, young women, older men, widows, and so forth). At any rate, several saints must have hosted an <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span><em>,<\/em> a meeting, in their home. (Aquila and Priscilla left Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 56\/57 and returned to Rome, where again they hosted a church in their home. Others in Ephesus would have to open their homes.) But each such <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span> did not have its own eldership; rather, all of the church in Ephesus was under one eldership—headed up by Timothy, Paul’s coworker.<\/p>\n<h4>Colossians 4:15-16<\/h4>\n<p>In this portion, we again read about a church existing in the home of one called Nymphas. In his final remarks to the church in Colosse, Paul asked the saints in Colosse to send his greetings to (1) the brothers that are in Laodicea, (2) Nymphas in particular, and (3) the church in Nymphas’s house. According to the structure of Colossians 4:15, it seems evident that the first greeting included all the believers in Laodicea (a neighboring church to Colosse), who would comprise the entire church in Laodicea (called “the church of the Laodiceans” in Col 4:16), and that the second and third greetings were to a specific individual (Nymphas) in the church in Laodicea and a church meeting in Nymphas’s house. This church meeting in Nymphas’s house would probably be one of several home meetings—all part of the one local church in Laodicea.<\/p>\n<p>There is a textual problem in this passage that could have some effect on the interpretation of it. Some manuscripts read “his house”; others read “her house”; still others read “their house.” Because it cannot be determined from the Greek text whether Nymphas was male or female, various scribes used different pronouns before “house.” Between the readings “her” and “his,” it is far more likely that the pronoun “her” was changed to “his” than vice versa. Some scholars say that “their” refers to “the brothers” at Laodicea. But that does not make sense if we understand that “the brothers in Laodicea” is equal to the church in Laodicea. How could the church in Laodicea have the church in their house? Other scholars indicate that the Greek word for “their” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">auton<\/span><em>)<\/em> refers to the ones with Nymphas—i.e., the members of his household. Whether the reading was “her house” or “their house,” a particular group of believers within the church of Laodicea met there. Their meeting could legitimately be called an <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesia<\/span>—an assembling together.<\/p>\n<h4>Philemon 1:1-2<\/h4>\n<p>This is the last time in the NT we read about a church in a particular home. Paul wrote a short epistle to Philemon, an elder of the church in Colosse, on behalf of Onesimus, Philemon’s runaway slave converted by Paul to Christ. In his introduction to this short epistle, Paul sends his greetings to Philemon, Apphia, Archippus, and the church in Philemon’s house. It is important to note that Paul did not send greetings to all the saints in Colosse and then to the church in Philemon’s house (as is the pattern in 1 Cor 16:19-20 and Col 4:15); instead, he just sent greetings to Philemon and to the church in his house. Therefore, we can assume that the entire church in Colosse must have met at Philemon’s house.<\/p>\n<h4>Worship in the Home Meetings and Church Meetings<\/h4>\n<p>When the church first began in Jerusalem, the believers met in homes for fellowship and worship. Acts 2:42-47 tells us that the early Christians met in homes to hear the apostles’ teachings and to celebrate Communion (which is called “the breaking of bread”). During such gatherings, the Christians often shared meals with one another in what was called a love feast (2 Pt 2:13; Jude 1:12). At these meetings, the Christians recited Scripture, sang hymns and psalms, and joyfully praised the Lord (see Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16-17). Christians also gathered together in homes to pray (Acts 12:12) and read the Word.<\/p>\n<p>Small groups of believers met in homes for worship quite regularly; in a city where there were several such <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ekklesiai<\/span><em>,<\/em> all the believers would gather together for special occasions. Scripture tells us that all the believers would come together to hear an epistle from the apostles read out loud (see Acts 15:30; Col 4:16), and we can surmise from the NT record that all the Christians in a city met together once a week on Sunday, which was called the Lord’s Day. First Corinthians provides several insights about how the early Christians worshiped together when all the believers in one city met together. We know that 1 Corinthians pertains to this larger gathering because in 11:20 Paul spoke of all the believers coming together in one place and in 14:23 he spoke of the whole church coming together in one place.<\/p>\n<p>Paul used this epistle to correct the Corinthians’ behavior in the celebration of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:17-34) and in the exercising of spiritual gifts during church meetings (ch 14). Paul’s adjustments reveal his perceptions of a model Christian meeting, and his preceptions were probably developed from actual experience in other church meetings. Paul urged the Corinthians to celebrate the Lord’s Supper together in a manner that reflected Jesus’ institution of that meal. They were to remember the Lord and his death for them, and they were to partake of the bread and wine with all seriousness. At the same time, they were to be conscious of the fact that they were members of the same body of Christ—joined to one another, and also to Christ.<\/p>\n<p>According to Paul’s presentation in chapter 14, this “body consciousness” should be evident in the way the believers worshiped together. One’s personal experience and liberty should not hinder the coordination of the body in worshiping God corporately. Thus, when the believers exercised their spiritual gifts—whether it be prophesying, speaking in tongues, providing interpretations of the tongues, or teaching—it should be done in good order and for the edification of the congregation, not personal edification. When all the church assembled together to worship God, it should be a display of spiritual unity.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Church.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CHURCH MEETINGS The assembling together of the believers. In the NT, the Greek word ekklesia (usually translated “church”) is used primarily in two ways: (1) to describe a meeting or an assembly, and (2) to designate the people who participate in such assembling together—whether they are actually assembled or not. The NT contains a few places that speak of a secular Greek assembly (Acts 19:32, 41); every other instance speaks of a Christian assembly. Sometimes the word ekklesia is used to des...","summary_en":"CHURCH MEETINGS The assembling together of the believers. In the NT, the Greek word ekklesia (usually translated “church”) is used primarily in two ways: (1) to describe a meeting or an assembly, and (2) to designate the people who participate in such assembling together—whether they are actually assembled or not. The NT contains a few places that speak of a secular Greek assembly (Acts 19:32, 41); every other instance speaks of a Christian assembly. Sometimes the word ekklesia is used to des...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"33":[{"id":1051,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Alexander","title_en":"Alexander","content_ro":"<h3>ALEXANDER<\/h3>\n<li>1. The Macedonian conqueror, Alexander the Great (356–323 BC), whose life has influenced history and culture for more than two millennia, down to the present time. He was a brilliant organizer and military strategist, but his greatest achievement was the Hellenization of the empire he won. This Greek cultural influence was a unifying element among many diverse peoples.<\/li>\n<p>The introduction of the Greek language throughout this empire also had far-reaching effect. The OT was translated into Greek in Alexandria, Egypt, and the NT books were written in that language. The earliest Christian missionaries were bilingual, so that it was possible to bring the gospel “to the Jew first, and also to the Greek” (Rom 1:16).<\/p>\n<p>Alexander was the son of an illustrious father, Philip II of Macedon. A seasoned military leader in his teens, Alexander succeeded to the throne at the age of 20 after the assassination of his father. After putting down the rebellions that broke out at his father’s death, Alexander crossed the Dardanelles and conquered Asia Minor. In 333 <span>BC<\/span>, he met and defeated the vaunted Persian army of Darius III at Issus, in a battle that had a lasting historical significance. Moving down the Mediterranean coast, he captured Sidon, Tyre, and Gaza. Reaching Egypt in 332 <span>BC<\/span>, he was hailed by the oracle of Amon at Siwa as the divine pharaoh. He founded Alexandria, one of the more than 60 cities he established with this name, and then pushed on to the East. At Arbela (331 <span>BC<\/span>), he again defeated the Persians. When he reached Persia, he seized the cities of Susa, Persepolis, and Ecbatana. He forged eastward until he reached the Indus River; here, with his troops worn out and threatening mutiny, he turned back toward the West. He died in Babylon in 323 <span>BC<\/span>, a victim of fever, exhaustion, and dissipation, and master of an empire that stretched from the Danube to the Indus and south to the Egyptian Nile.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Greece, Greek; Hellenism; Hellenists; Judaism; Alexandria.<\/p>\n<li>2. Brother of Rufus and son of Simon of Cyrene, the man who was passing by at the time Jesus was being led to Golgotha and whom the Roman soldiers compelled to carry the cross (Mk 15:21).<\/li>\n<li>3. A member of the high-priestly family along with Caiaphas, Annas the high priest, and John (Acts 4:6). It was this group who summoned Peter and John to appear before them to account for the healing of the lame man at the Beautiful Gate of the temple (Acts 3).<\/li>\n<li>4. Ephesian who was put forward by the Jews to serve as their spokesman when the silversmith Demetrius roused the Ephesians to riot (Acts 19:33). The preaching of the gospel by Paul and his companions had resulted in the conversion of many people, who left the worship of the goddess Artemis (Diana) and thus reduced the income of the silversmiths, whose revenue derived from the manufacture of images of this deity (Acts 19:23-41).<\/li>\n<li>5. One who, with Hymenaeus, was mentioned as having shipwrecked his faith because of his rejection of conscience (1 Tm 1:20). Paul states that he had “turned them over to Satan so they would learn not to blaspheme God.”<\/li>\n<li>6. Coppersmith (2 Tm 4:14). Paul warns Timothy to beware of this man, who had done much harm to Paul and had strongly opposed the message of the gospel. Some scholars think this Alexander is the same as the Alexander of 1 Timothy 1:20 (#5 above).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ALEXANDER<\/h3>\n<li>1. The Macedonian conqueror, Alexander the Great (356–323 BC), whose life has influenced history and culture for more than two millennia, down to the present time. He was a brilliant organizer and military strategist, but his greatest achievement was the Hellenization of the empire he won. This Greek cultural influence was a unifying element among many diverse peoples.<\/li>\n<p>The introduction of the Greek language throughout this empire also had far-reaching effect. The OT was translated into Greek in Alexandria, Egypt, and the NT books were written in that language. The earliest Christian missionaries were bilingual, so that it was possible to bring the gospel “to the Jew first, and also to the Greek” (Rom 1:16).<\/p>\n<p>Alexander was the son of an illustrious father, Philip II of Macedon. A seasoned military leader in his teens, Alexander succeeded to the throne at the age of 20 after the assassination of his father. After putting down the rebellions that broke out at his father’s death, Alexander crossed the Dardanelles and conquered Asia Minor. In 333 <span>BC<\/span>, he met and defeated the vaunted Persian army of Darius III at Issus, in a battle that had a lasting historical significance. Moving down the Mediterranean coast, he captured Sidon, Tyre, and Gaza. Reaching Egypt in 332 <span>BC<\/span>, he was hailed by the oracle of Amon at Siwa as the divine pharaoh. He founded Alexandria, one of the more than 60 cities he established with this name, and then pushed on to the East. At Arbela (331 <span>BC<\/span>), he again defeated the Persians. When he reached Persia, he seized the cities of Susa, Persepolis, and Ecbatana. He forged eastward until he reached the Indus River; here, with his troops worn out and threatening mutiny, he turned back toward the West. He died in Babylon in 323 <span>BC<\/span>, a victim of fever, exhaustion, and dissipation, and master of an empire that stretched from the Danube to the Indus and south to the Egyptian Nile.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Greece, Greek; Hellenism; Hellenists; Judaism; Alexandria.<\/p>\n<li>2. Brother of Rufus and son of Simon of Cyrene, the man who was passing by at the time Jesus was being led to Golgotha and whom the Roman soldiers compelled to carry the cross (Mk 15:21).<\/li>\n<li>3. A member of the high-priestly family along with Caiaphas, Annas the high priest, and John (Acts 4:6). It was this group who summoned Peter and John to appear before them to account for the healing of the lame man at the Beautiful Gate of the temple (Acts 3).<\/li>\n<li>4. Ephesian who was put forward by the Jews to serve as their spokesman when the silversmith Demetrius roused the Ephesians to riot (Acts 19:33). The preaching of the gospel by Paul and his companions had resulted in the conversion of many people, who left the worship of the goddess Artemis (Diana) and thus reduced the income of the silversmiths, whose revenue derived from the manufacture of images of this deity (Acts 19:23-41).<\/li>\n<li>5. One who, with Hymenaeus, was mentioned as having shipwrecked his faith because of his rejection of conscience (1 Tm 1:20). Paul states that he had “turned them over to Satan so they would learn not to blaspheme God.”<\/li>\n<li>6. Coppersmith (2 Tm 4:14). Paul warns Timothy to beware of this man, who had done much harm to Paul and had strongly opposed the message of the gospel. Some scholars think this Alexander is the same as the Alexander of 1 Timothy 1:20 (#5 above).<\/li>","summary_ro":"ALEXANDER 1. The Macedonian conqueror, Alexander the Great (356–323 BC), whose life has influenced history and culture for more than two millennia, down to the present time. He was a brilliant organizer and military strategist, but his greatest achievement was the Hellenization of the empire he won. This Greek cultural influence was a unifying element among many diverse peoples. The introduction of the Greek language throughout this empire also had far-reaching effect. The OT was translated i...","summary_en":"ALEXANDER 1. The Macedonian conqueror, Alexander the Great (356–323 BC), whose life has influenced history and culture for more than two millennia, down to the present time. He was a brilliant organizer and military strategist, but his greatest achievement was the Hellenization of the empire he won. This Greek cultural influence was a unifying element among many diverse peoples. The introduction of the Greek language throughout this empire also had far-reaching effect. The OT was translated i...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"34":[{"id":10930,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ephesus","title_en":"Ephesus","content_ro":"<h3>EPHESUS<\/h3>\n<p>Most important city of the Roman province of Asia, located on the western shore of Asia Minor (modern Turkey). Ephesus was built on a natural harbor whose waves, according to the Roman writer Pliny the Elder, “used to wash up to the temple of Diana.” Ephesus was described by Strabo, an early Greek geographer, as the largest commercial center west of the Taurus Mountains. It was also well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis, or as the Romans called her, Diana (Acts 19:34).<\/p>\n<p>Christianity’s threat to that pagan temple and to the commerce it produced for the makers of idols almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 30-31). Priscilla and Aquila were associated with the early preaching in Ephesus (18:18-19), as were Timothy (1 Tm 1:3) and Erastus (Acts 19:22). According to Irenaeus, an early Christian writer, the apostle John, after his exile on the island of Patmos (Rv 1:9), returned to live in Ephesus until the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). The commendable practices of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned by the time John wrote the book of Revelation (Rv 2:4).<\/p>\n\n<p>Ephesus was founded by Ionian Greeks at a location where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea. It had been a city for about 1,000 years when Paul arrived there on his third missionary journey. The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was as ancient as the city itself. The temple, built in the middle of the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>, was the largest edifice in the Hellenistic world and the first of monumental size ever to be constructed entirely of marble. Two excavated images of Artemis, magnificently sculpted in marble, date to the period of the emperors Domitian and Hadrian (the lifetime of the apostle John). The temple of Diana, “mother of the gods,” was considered one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Although persistent effort by British archaeologist J. T. Wood resulted in the temple’s discovery in 1869, its great altar was not found until recently. Excavation has shown the altar to be larger than the later altar of Zeus at Pergamum. The original temple was partially destroyed in 356 <span>BC<\/span> but was later rebuilt on its original plan.<\/p>\n<p>Excavations have also uncovered the theater mentioned in Acts 19:29. Situated next to the main shopping area (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">agora<\/span>), it is known to have seated 24,000 people in three tiers. The theater was 495 feet (151 meters) in diameter with two doors opening to the most impressive street in Ephesus. That street, leading to the harbor, was about 35 feet (10.5 meters) wide and was flanked by tall columns. It passed through a magnificent monumental gateway on its western end. In the other direction the road continued around the theater and marketplace, making its way southeast between Mt Koressos and Mt Pion. It became narrower and was bordered by lovely fountains, civic buildings, houses, shops, a library, baths, and a small theater, which probably doubled as a council chamber for city officials.<\/p>\n<p>Ephesus was a wealthy city. The multistoried residences of its upper-middle-class society rested on the north terraces of Mt Koressos. Some homes had mosaic floors and marble walls. Two were found with heated bathrooms. Many had running water. The moral status of the city can be partially ascertained from a centrally located house of prostitution and gambling tables; fertility motifs are evident in the exaggerated sexual features of the Diana statues.<\/p>\n<p>The impact of Christianity was felt in Ephesus for centuries. The third ecumenical council was held there in <span>AD<\/span> 431 (in the Church of Mary northwest of the theater), a council that established Mary’s place as the “Mother of God” in Western Catholic theology. By that time Diana, whose temple had been burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, was no longer influential among the Ephesians. The truth of Paul’s message that “gods made with hands are not gods” (Acts 19:26) had to some extent been realized.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Ephesians, Letter to the.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EPHESUS<\/h3>\n<p>Most important city of the Roman province of Asia, located on the western shore of Asia Minor (modern Turkey). Ephesus was built on a natural harbor whose waves, according to the Roman writer Pliny the Elder, “used to wash up to the temple of Diana.” Ephesus was described by Strabo, an early Greek geographer, as the largest commercial center west of the Taurus Mountains. It was also well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis, or as the Romans called her, Diana (Acts 19:34).<\/p>\n<p>Christianity’s threat to that pagan temple and to the commerce it produced for the makers of idols almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 30-31). Priscilla and Aquila were associated with the early preaching in Ephesus (18:18-19), as were Timothy (1 Tm 1:3) and Erastus (Acts 19:22). According to Irenaeus, an early Christian writer, the apostle John, after his exile on the island of Patmos (Rv 1:9), returned to live in Ephesus until the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). The commendable practices of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned by the time John wrote the book of Revelation (Rv 2:4).<\/p>\n\n<p>Ephesus was founded by Ionian Greeks at a location where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea. It had been a city for about 1,000 years when Paul arrived there on his third missionary journey. The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was as ancient as the city itself. The temple, built in the middle of the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>, was the largest edifice in the Hellenistic world and the first of monumental size ever to be constructed entirely of marble. Two excavated images of Artemis, magnificently sculpted in marble, date to the period of the emperors Domitian and Hadrian (the lifetime of the apostle John). The temple of Diana, “mother of the gods,” was considered one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Although persistent effort by British archaeologist J. T. Wood resulted in the temple’s discovery in 1869, its great altar was not found until recently. Excavation has shown the altar to be larger than the later altar of Zeus at Pergamum. The original temple was partially destroyed in 356 <span>BC<\/span> but was later rebuilt on its original plan.<\/p>\n<p>Excavations have also uncovered the theater mentioned in Acts 19:29. Situated next to the main shopping area (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">agora<\/span>), it is known to have seated 24,000 people in three tiers. The theater was 495 feet (151 meters) in diameter with two doors opening to the most impressive street in Ephesus. That street, leading to the harbor, was about 35 feet (10.5 meters) wide and was flanked by tall columns. It passed through a magnificent monumental gateway on its western end. In the other direction the road continued around the theater and marketplace, making its way southeast between Mt Koressos and Mt Pion. It became narrower and was bordered by lovely fountains, civic buildings, houses, shops, a library, baths, and a small theater, which probably doubled as a council chamber for city officials.<\/p>\n<p>Ephesus was a wealthy city. The multistoried residences of its upper-middle-class society rested on the north terraces of Mt Koressos. Some homes had mosaic floors and marble walls. Two were found with heated bathrooms. Many had running water. The moral status of the city can be partially ascertained from a centrally located house of prostitution and gambling tables; fertility motifs are evident in the exaggerated sexual features of the Diana statues.<\/p>\n<p>The impact of Christianity was felt in Ephesus for centuries. The third ecumenical council was held there in <span>AD<\/span> 431 (in the Church of Mary northwest of the theater), a council that established Mary’s place as the “Mother of God” in Western Catholic theology. By that time Diana, whose temple had been burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, was no longer influential among the Ephesians. The truth of Paul’s message that “gods made with hands are not gods” (Acts 19:26) had to some extent been realized.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Ephesians, Letter to the.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EPHESUS Most important city of the Roman province of Asia, located on the western shore of Asia Minor (modern Turkey). Ephesus was built on a natural harbor whose waves, according to the Roman writer Pliny the Elder, “used to wash up to the temple of Diana.” Ephesus was described by Strabo, an early Greek geographer, as the largest commercial center west of the Taurus Mountains. It was also well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis, or as the Romans called her, Diana (Acts 19:34)....","summary_en":"EPHESUS Most important city of the Roman province of Asia, located on the western shore of Asia Minor (modern Turkey). Ephesus was built on a natural harbor whose waves, according to the Roman writer Pliny the Elder, “used to wash up to the temple of Diana.” Ephesus was described by Strabo, an early Greek geographer, as the largest commercial center west of the Taurus Mountains. It was also well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis, or as the Romans called her, Diana (Acts 19:34)....","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"35":[{"id":42732,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ephesus","title_en":"Ephesus","content_ro":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","summary_en":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70358,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ephesus","title_en":"Ephesus","content_ro":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","summary_en":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97984,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ephesus","title_en":"Ephesus","content_ro":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","summary_en":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":125610,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ephesus","title_en":"Ephesus","content_ro":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ephesus<\/h3>\n<p>Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 <span>BC<\/span> on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 <span>BC<\/span>. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most important city of the Roman province of Asia.<\/p>\n<p>The worship of Artemis in Ephesus was nearly as ancient as the city itself. The temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was a key to the wealth and commerce of Ephesus, because the worship of Artemis brought many pilgrims to Ephesus and provided many commercial opportunities for idol makers and other vendors of goods and services.<\/p>\n<p>When Paul arrived on his third missionary journey in <span>AD<\/span> 53 (Acts 19), Ephesus had been a city continuously for over a thousand years and was deeply devoted to its patron goddess and her temple. As Paul’s message began to gain more adherents, Christianity threatened the pagan temple and the commerce it produced for the makers of idols. The ensuing riot almost cost the apostle Paul his life (Acts 19:24, 28-31).<\/p>\n<p>The church of Ephesus became strong under Paul’s teaching and leadership, and churches in the surrounding communities were founded by people who had learned from Paul in Ephesus (e.g., Colosse; see Colossians Book Introduction, “Setting”). But Paul warned the leaders of the Ephesian church that they would be troubled by false teachers (Acts 20:29-31).<\/p> \n<p>The apostle John is thought to have settled in Ephesus around <span>AD<\/span> 70; from there he was exiled to the island of Patmos (Rev 1:9), where he wrote Revelation (probably in the <span>AD<\/span> 90s). At that time, the commendable love and good works of the Christian community described in the letter to the Ephesians had been largely abandoned (Rev 2:4). Irenaeus records that, after John’s exile on Patmos, the apostle returned to live in Ephesus and lived there until the end of his life during the time of the emperor Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117). According to tradition, Mary the mother of Jesus also finished her days on earth in Ephesus under John’s care (see John 19:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The temple of Artemis was burned by the Goths in <span>AD<\/span> 262, and Artemis was no longer influential among the Ephesians when the third ecumenical council was held in Ephesus in <span>AD<\/span> 431, thus illustrating the truth of Paul’s message that “handmade gods” like Artemis “aren’t really gods at all” (Acts 19:26).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 18:19–19:41; 20:16-38; Eph 1:1; Rev 2:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","summary_en":"Ephesus Ephesus stood at the crossroads of both north-south and east-west trade routes and was well known as the “guardian” of the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:35). It was founded by Ionian Greeks around 1044 BC on a natural harbor where the Cayster River emptied into a gulf of the Aegean Sea (the site of the ancient city is now well inland). The city came under Roman rule in 41 BC. At the time of the apostles, Ephesus was a wealthy city, a commercial and religious hub, and thus the most import...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":430,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of the Acts of the Apostles","title_en":"Book of the Acts of the Apostles","content_ro":"<h3>ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, B<span>ook of the<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>NT book presenting the history of the early church and written as a sequel to the Gospel of Luke. In the arrangement of the NT books, Acts comes after the four Gospels and before the Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background and Content<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts does not state clearly who its writer is, but the general consensus is that Luke was its author.<\/p>\n<p>Early church tradition from the second century states that Acts (as well as the third Gospel) was written by a traveling companion and fellow worker of the apostle Paul. That companion is identified in Colossians 4:14 as “Luke, the beloved physician” (<span>nasb<\/span>) and mentioned among Paul’s coworkers (Col 4:10-17; see also 2 Tm 4:11; Phlm 1:24).<\/p>\n<p>Strong support for the tradition that the author of Acts was a companion of Paul comes from the second half of the book recounting Paul’s ministry. There, several narratives are told in the first person plural:<\/p>\n<p>1. “That night Paul had a vision. He saw a man from Macedonia in northern Greece, pleading with him, ‘Come over here and help us.’ So we decided to leave for Macedonia at once, for we could only conclude that God was calling us to preach the Good News there” (16:9-10, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<li>2. “They went ahead and waited for us at Troas . . . we boarded a ship at Philippi in Macedonia and five days later arrived in Troas, where we stayed a week” (20:5-6, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>3. “When the time came, we set sail for Italy” (27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n<p>These “we” sections (16:9-18; 20:5–21:18; 27:1–28:16) sound like part of a travel narrative or diary written by an eyewitness who accompanied Paul from Troas to Philippi on his second missionary journey; from Philippi to Miletus on the third; from Miletus to Jerusalem; and from Caesarea to Rome. Since the style and vocabulary of these travel narratives resemble those of the rest of the book, it is highly probably that the diarist was also the author of the entire book.<\/p>\n<p>The sophisticated literary style and polished use of the Greek language in the book, as well as the fact that it is addressed to someone called Theophilus (possibly a high-ranking Roman official), provide strong support for the tradition that Luke was a gentile convert to Christianity. His consistent and frequent use of the Greek OT may indicate that he had been a gentile “God-fearer” before conversion to the new faith.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginDestination\">Date, Origin, Destination<\/p>\n\n<p>The question of the date and place of the origin of Acts continues to be debated. There are no clear indications in the book itself. With regard to its destination, however, Luke did not leave any doubt. In the opening verse he addresses a certain Theophilus, to whom he had already written an earlier book about the life of Jesus. There can be no doubt that he was referring to the work we know as the Gospel of Luke. In the preface to that Gospel (Lk 1:1-4), Luke clearly stated his purpose for writing and addressed his account to the “most honorable Theophilus.” It is not clear who that person was. Some interpreters think that Theophilus (which means “dear to God” or “lover of God”) stands for Christian readers in general rather than any specific individual. However, the designation “most honorable” argues against such an assumption. That ascription was a common title of honor, designating a person with official standing in the Roman sociopolitical order (cf. use of the title for Felix, Acts 23:26; 24:2; and for Festus, 26:25). It is thus likely that Luke intended his two-volume work for an official representative of Roman society.<\/p>\n<p>When was Acts written? Some scholars date it in the last quarter of the first century. Since the Gospel was written first, and since Luke based his story of Jesus on eyewitness accounts and written sources (among which was possibly the Gospel of Mark, probably written in the 60s), Acts should not be dated much before <span>AD<\/span> 85. Proponents of such a late date claim support from the theology of Acts, which they see as picturing a Christian church settled into history, adjusted to the prospect of a lengthy period before the Lord’s return. Since expectation of the Lord’s imminent return was fanned into a living flame by the Jewish revolt and the fall of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 70, time must be allowed for that flame to have died down a bit.<\/p>\n<p>Other scholars date Acts around <span>AD<\/span> 70 or shortly thereafter. The Jewish rebellion of <span>AD<\/span> 66–70, which culminated in the destruction of Jerusalem, brought the Jewish faith—legal until then—into disrepute. The Christian movement, which had been accepted as a Jewish sect, became suspect. Christians were increasingly charged with being enemies of Rome. A study of Acts shows that among a number of purposes (see below), Luke seems to have been defending the Christians against the charge of hostility toward the state. He showed how Roman officials repeatedly testified to the complete innocence of Christians and above all else of Paul (16:39; 18:14-17; 19:37; 23:29; 25:25; 26:32). Luke also made it clear that Paul was allowed to carry on his mission with full approval of Roman officials in the very heart of the imperial capital (28:16-31).<\/p>\n<p>A still earlier date, closer to Paul’s Roman imprisonment (early 60s), has been advocated by a number of scholars. There are two compelling reasons: (1) The abrupt ending of Acts, describing Paul carrying on a ministry in Rome before his trial had commenced, may indicate that Luke was writing at that point. It is possible, of course, that Luke ended his story with Paul preaching the gospel in Rome because one of his purposes had been accomplished: namely, showing how the gospel spread from Jerusalem to Rome. But it seems highly unlikely that Luke would close his history without Paul’s defense of the gospel before Caesar himself if that had already happened. (2) The most appropriate period for Luke’s history, with its defense of the Christian movement against all kinds of accusations from both Jews and Gentiles, is the period when Christianity was becoming suspect but was not yet proscribed. That was the time before the start of the persecutions under Nero in <span>AD<\/span> 64. The early date would correspond with the contention that Luke was with Paul during his Roman imprisonment and that he wrote his history in Rome while waiting for Paul’s trial to begin. It is possible that Luke’s work was partially intended to influence the verdict. Luke presented a picture of Christianity and of Paul that he hoped would enable Paul to continue his work among the Gentiles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BackgroundandContent\">Background and Content<\/p>\n<p>Luke grounds his documentary of the rapid expansion of Christianity in the history of the Roman Empire and Palestine during the three decades from <span>AD<\/span> 30 to 60. Some brief historical and geographical considerations will aid in understanding Luke’s history.<\/p>\n<p>Acts 1–12 reports the beginnings of the Christian movement within the imperial province of Syria, which included Judea and Samaria. In the first century <span>AD<\/span>, those regions were generally governed by Roman procurators or puppet kings. At the time of Jesus’ death and resurrection (c. <span>AD<\/span> 30), Pontius Pilate was procurator in Judea and Samaria (<span>AD<\/span> 26–36). Galilee was ruled by King Herod Antipas (4 <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 39). Tiberius was emperor of the Roman Empire (<span>AD<\/span> 14–37). The account of Acts 1–12 took place in the period <span>AD<\/span> 30–44.<\/p>\n<p>The conversion of Saul (Acts 9) is generally dated in <span>AD <\/span>33. After Saul’s conversion and departure to his native Tarsus, the church evidently enjoyed a period of tranquility, consolidating its gains and growing steadily (9:31–11:26). It can be assumed, from Galatians 1:18-21 and the existence of Christian communities that Paul and Silas visited on the second missionary tour (Acts 15:40-41), that Paul was not idle during that decade, but intensely involved in the mission to the Gentiles. (After Acts 13:9, the name “Saul” is dropped from the narrative.)<\/p>\n<p>In <span>AD<\/span> 41, Claudius became emperor of Rome and installed Herod Agrippa I as king of the Jews. (The procurator Pontius Pilate had been removed several years earlier for inept administration of the region.) Agrippa I was grandson of Herod the Great and his Jewish princess Mariamne. Because of his Jewish roots, he was more popular with his subjects than the former Herods. No doubt it was his desire to increase that popularity and gain the support of the Jewish religious authorities that led to a renewed outbreak of violence against the Jerusalem church. Acts 12 recounts the execution of James (the brother of the apostle John) and the imprisonment of Peter. The story of Agrippa I’s death (12:20-23) is paralleled in an account by the Jewish historian Josephus, who dates the event in <span>AD<\/span> 44.<\/p>\n<p>A second event providing a time reference for the unfolding story of the early church is the collection of famine relief in Antioch for Christians in Judea (11:27-29). Luke stated that a severe famine took place (v 28) during the reign of Emperor Claudius (<span>AD<\/span> 41–54). Josephus, writing his <em>Antiquities<\/em> at the end of the first century, spoke of a severe famine in Palestine between the years <span>AD<\/span> 44 and 48. According to Acts 12:25, Barnabas and Paul finished their mission to famine-stricken Christians in Judea after the death of Agrippa I, making it possible to date their mission about <span>AD<\/span> 45.<\/p>\n<p>At that point in the narrative of Acts, Paul is launched officially into his mission to the Gentiles (13:1-3), for which the history and geography of the larger Roman Empire form the backdrop. The official Roman policy toward the various religions in the empire was one of toleration. That policy, plus use of the Greek language throughout the empire and a phenomenal network of roads and sea routes, paved the way for Paul’s far-ranging missionary work.<\/p>\n<p>The first tour (<span>AD<\/span> 46–47) took Paul and Barnabas through the island province of Cyprus in the northeastern tip of the Mediterranean Sea and into the province of Galatia, where churches were established in several cities of southern Galatia (Antioch of Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra, Derbe). Galatia is located in Asia Minor, bordered by the Black Sea, the Aegean Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea on its northern, western, and southern sides. Those cities, important colonial outposts for the Romans, contained mixed populations, including large Jewish communities. It was in the synagogues of those communities that Paul launched his missionary efforts, almost always meeting with considerable opposition (chs 13–14).<\/p>\n<p>The deliberation of the Jerusalem Council about differences between Jewish and gentile Christians (ch 15) can be dated in the year <span>AD<\/span> 48. It was followed by Paul’s second missionary journey, which led him through the already evangelized territory of his native Cilicia, Galatia, and through Troas on the Aegean coast to Macedonia and down into Achaia, the Greek Peninsula (15:40–18:22). Churches were established in the important Macedonian cities of Philippi, Thessalonica, and Beroea.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s one and a half years in Corinth (18:11) can be dated with some certainty in <span>AD<\/span> 51–52. An ancient inscription among the ruins of Delphi, a city in central Greece, states that Gallio became proconsul of Achaia in 51. Acts 18:12-17 tells how Paul was accused by antagonistic Jews before Gallio. The implication is that Paul’s adversaries in Corinth felt that a new proconsul could be persuaded to side with their cause. Thus, Paul’s stay in Corinth can be dated around the beginning of Gallio’s proconsulship.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s account of Paul’s return to Palestine and the beginning of his third missionary tour brings up a fascinating historical question about what happened to the followers of John the Baptist (13:13–19:7). Acts 18:24-28 refers to a learned Jew, Apollos, who was actively teaching about Jesus in the synagogue at Ephesus, but who was apparently not a member of a distinctively Christian community, not having been baptized in the name of Jesus. He was acquainted only with the baptism of repentance practiced by John the Baptist. After Apollos went to Corinth to minister to the young congregation that Paul founded the previous year, Paul went to Ephesus. There he met several disciples of Jesus who, like Apollos, had experienced John’s baptism of repentance, but who had not been baptized as Christians.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s reference to Apollos and those disciples, as well as several passages in the Gospels, indicate that the movement begun by John the Baptist did not simply come to an end when Jesus began his ministry. Evidently John continued to baptize until his death (Jn 3:22-24), and many of his disciples maintained John’s work after his death. Probably both Apollos and the disciples at Ephesus were products of the continuing ministry of John’s disciples. Eventually they were introduced to “the way of the Lord” (18:25). Their lack of knowledge about a distinctive Christian baptism or about the reality of the Holy Spirit (19:2-4) shows how much diversity in both belief and practice existed in early Christianity.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s third missionary tour began with a three-year ministry in Ephesus (19:1–20:1), continued with a visit to churches established on the previous journey (20:2-12), and came to a climax with his arrest in Jerusalem (Acts 21). It took place in the mid-50s (<span>AD<\/span> 53–57). Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem and arraignment before the provincial governor, Felix, in Caesarea (23:23–24:23) must be dated about 57. After Paul had spent two years under house arrest, no doubt prolonged by Felix to gain favor with Jewish subjects, Felix was replaced by Porcius Festus (<span>AD<\/span> 59–60). Josephus noted that Felix was recalled because of an outbreak of civil strife between Jewish and gentile inhabitants of Caesarea and Felix’s unwise handling of the situation.<\/p>\n<p>The new procurator, Festus, was uncertain about what to do with his prisoner. The Jewish leadership sought to seize that opportunity, aware of the desire of new procurators to gain popularity with their subjects (25:1-9). Realizing the threat, Paul appealed his case to the highest court of the empire, presided over by Caesar himself (25:10-12).<\/p>\n<p>Festus was then left with a problem. He had to send with his prisoner a report to the emperor, clearly outlining the charges. Since he did not really comprehend the case (25:25-27), he sought the advice of Herod Agrippa II, who with his sister had come to Caesarea to pay their respects to the new imperial governor of Palestine (25:13). Agrippa II was the son of Herod Agrippa I and, at least in theory, a Jew. He ruled over parts of Palestine from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 100 and had been given the right to appoint the Jewish high priests. His familiarity with Jewish religious traditions and the Law thus put him in a better position to understand Jerusalem’s case against Paul. The outcome of Paul’s appearance before Festus and Agrippa (26:1-29) was recognition of Paul’s innocence (26:31). Yet Paul’s appeal to Rome had to be honored; the law governing such cases had to be followed (26:32).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s relative freedom during the next two-year period (28:30) seems unusual but was a rather common practice in Roman judicial proceedings, especially for Roman citizens who had appealed to the emperor. There is no good reason to believe that Paul was executed at the time when Luke’s narrative ends (c. <span>AD<\/span> 61–62). The great fire of Rome and Nero’s subsequent persecution of Christians were still a few years away (<span>AD<\/span> 64). It is likely that the case against Paul was dismissed, especially in light of the favorable verdict by Festus and King Agrippa. It is also likely that Paul was executed during the later, more general persecution of Christians. Such a sequence would correspond with the tradition cited by Eusebius, a fourth-century church historian, that Paul resumed his ministry and later suffered martyrdom under Nero.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>In the preface to the Gospel, intended to cover the second volume also, Luke told Theophilus (and the audience he represented) that he had set out to write an accurate, orderly account about the beginnings of the Christian movement in the ministry of Jesus of Nazareth (Lk 1:1-4). The opening lines in Acts indicate that the narrative beginning with Jesus of Nazareth (vol 1) is continuing and that Luke’s second volume intends to trace the story from Palestine to Rome (Acts 1:1-8).<\/p>\n<p>While recounting this story, Luke attempted to defend the Christian movement against false charges brought against it. A number of misconceptions attended the birth and growth of the Christian movement. One concerned the relationship between the new faith and Judaism. Many, both within the church and among Roman officials, understood the Christian faith as no more than a particular expression of, or sect within, Judaism. Against that restricted notion, Luke-Acts strikes a universal note. The Gospel proclaims Jesus as Savior of the world (Lk 2:29-32). In Acts, Stephen’s defense before the Jewish council (ch 7), Peter’s experience in Joppa with Cornelius (ch 10), and Paul’s speech at Athens (ch 17) all demonstrate that Christianity is not merely a Jewish sect, some narrow messianic movement, but rather a universal faith. Another problem was popular identification of the new faith with the various religious cults and mystery religions in the Roman Empire. The accounts of the early church’s conflict with Simon the magician (ch 8) and of Paul and Barnabas’s rejection of an attempt to worship them at Lystra (ch 14) undermine the popular charge of superstition. Also, Christianity is not a mystery cult in which esoteric, secret rites bring a worshiper into union with the divine. The Lord worshiped by Christians, said Luke, belongs to real history; he lived his life in Palestine in the then-recent past, openly, for all to observe (see the speeches of Peter and Paul in Acts 2; 10; 13).<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s major purpose, however, was defense of Christianity against the charge that it posed a threat to the order and stability of the Roman Empire. There were, of course, grounds for such suspicions. After all, the founder of the movement had been crucified on a charge of sedition by a Roman procurator, and the movement that claimed his name seemed to evoke tumult, disorder, and riots wherever it spread. Luke’s account met those problems head-on. In the Gospel he presented the trial of Jesus as a serious miscarriage of justice. Pilate had handed Jesus over for crucifixion, but he had found Jesus not guilty. Herod Antipas likewise found no substance in the charges against Jesus (Lk 23:13-16; Acts 13:28). A neutral or even friendly attitude of Roman officials toward leading Christians and the movement as a whole is documented throughout Acts. The Roman proconsul of Cyprus, Sergius Paulus, gladly received Paul and Barnabas and responded positively to their message (Acts 13:7-12). The chief magistrate in Philippi apologized for the illegal beating and imprisonment of Paul and Silas (16:37-39). The proconsul of Achaia, Gallio, found Paul guiltless in the eyes of Roman law (18:12-16). In Ephesus the magistrate intervened in a crowd’s attack on Paul and his companions, rejecting the charges against them (19:35-39). A tribune of the Roman military contingent in Jerusalem arrested Paul, but it turned out that he really saved the apostle from the wrath of a mob; in his letter to the procurator Felix, the tribune acknowledged that Paul was not guilty by Roman law (23:26-29). The same verdict was repeated after Paul’s arraignment before Felix, his successor Festus, and Herod Agrippa II: “This man hasn’t done anything worthy of death or imprisonment” (26:31, <span>nlt<\/span>). Luke climaxed his story by telling how Paul carried on his missionary activity in Rome, the very heart of the empire, and with the permission of the imperial guards (28:30-31). It is clear throughout Luke’s defense that the strife that attended the beginnings and progress of Christianity was not due primarily to anything within the movement, but rather to Jewish opposition and falsification.<\/p>\n<p>Within his lengthy apology for the integrity of Christianity, Luke’s specific theological perspectives can be clearly seen. The two volume work presents a grand scheme of the history of redemption, extending from the <em>time of Israel<\/em> (Lk 1–2) through the <em>time of Jesus,<\/em> and continuing through the <em>time of the church,<\/em> when the good news for Israel is extended to all nations. Paralleling that emphasis is an insistence that God is present in the redemptive story through the Holy Spirit. In the Gospel, Jesus is presented as the Man of the Spirit; the reality of the Spirit empowered him for his work (Lk 3:22; 4:1, 14, 18). In Acts, the fellowship of Jesus’ disciples is presented as the community of the Spirit (1:8; 2:1-8). What Jesus in the power of the Spirit had begun in his own ministry, the church in the power of the Spirit continues to do.<\/p>\n<p>For Luke, the empowering presence of God’s Spirit was a reality that gave the new faith its power, integrity, and perseverance. It enabled faithful witness (1:8) and created genuine community (2:44-47; 4:32-37), something for which the ancient world desperately longed. The Spirit in the new community produced courage and boldness (see Peter’s defenses in chs 2–5), empowered for service (ch 6), overcame prejudice as in the mission in Samaria (ch 8), broke down walls as in the Cornelius episode (chs 10–11), and sent believers out on missions (ch 13).<\/p>\n<p>The entire story is also punctuated by the centrality of Jesus’ resurrection. Luke, like Paul (see 1 Cor 15:12-21), must have been convinced that without the resurrection of Jesus there would be no Christian faith at all. More than that, the resurrection put God’s stamp of approval on Jesus’ life and ministry, authenticating the truth of his claims. Luke announced his interest in that theme at the outset: the ultimate criterion for an apostolic replacement for Judas was that he must have been, with the other disciples, a witness to Jesus’ resurrection. Throughout Acts, from Peter’s Pentecost sermon and defenses before the Sanhedrin to Paul’s speeches before Felix and Agrippa, the church is shown bearing witness to Jesus’ resurrection as a great reversal executed by God (2:22-24, 36; 3:14-15; 5:30-31; 10:39-42).<\/p>\n<p>Acts falls naturally into two parts, chapters 1–12, and 13–28. The first part, roughly speaking, contains the “acts of Peter.” Part two is largely concerned with the “acts of Paul.” In the first 12 chapters, Peter is the central figure who initiates the choosing of a replacement for Judas Iscariot (ch 1); addresses the multitudes at Pentecost (ch 2); interprets the significance of the healing of a lame man to a temple crowd (ch 3); delivers a defense of the Christian proclamation before the supreme Jewish council (ch 4); leads the apostles in a healing ministry and speaks for them (ch 5); stands in the forefront of conflict with a Samaritan magician, “Simon the Great” (ch 8); launches—though somewhat unwillingly—the movement of the gospel to the Gentiles through Cornelius (chs 10–11); and draws the fire of Herod’s campaign against the church but is miraculously delivered from prison (ch 12).<\/p>\n<p>Proclamation of the gospel to the Gentiles through Paul’s ministry is the theme of part two of Acts (chs 13–28). The story primarily concerns three major missionary tours, each of which moved the gospel into yet untouched territory and expanded earlier missionary efforts. The account of Paul’s life and work climaxes in his arrest in Jerusalem (chs 21–22), a lengthy imprisonment in Caesarea (chs 23–26), and a voyage to Rome (chs 27–28).<\/p>\n<p>Another way of getting at the structure and content of Acts is thematic. It has its starting point in Jesus’ statement, “You shall receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you; and you shall be my witnesses in Jerusalem and in all Judea and Samaria and to the ends of the earth” (1:8). Acts can be seen as the story of the fulfillment of that “Great Commission,” unfolding essentially in three stages: (1) witness to Judaism, focused in Jerusalem but also expanding into surrounding Judea and north into Galilee (chs 1–7); (2) witness to Samaria through Philip, Peter, and John (8:1–9:31); (3) witness to the gentile world, first haltingly through Peter (9:32–12:25), and then decisively through Paul (chs 13–28).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Luke (Person); Paul, The Apostle; Simon Peter; Theophilus #1; Chronology of the Bible (New Testament).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, B<span>ook of the<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>NT book presenting the history of the early church and written as a sequel to the Gospel of Luke. In the arrangement of the NT books, Acts comes after the four Gospels and before the Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background and Content<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts does not state clearly who its writer is, but the general consensus is that Luke was its author.<\/p>\n<p>Early church tradition from the second century states that Acts (as well as the third Gospel) was written by a traveling companion and fellow worker of the apostle Paul. That companion is identified in Colossians 4:14 as “Luke, the beloved physician” (<span>nasb<\/span>) and mentioned among Paul’s coworkers (Col 4:10-17; see also 2 Tm 4:11; Phlm 1:24).<\/p>\n<p>Strong support for the tradition that the author of Acts was a companion of Paul comes from the second half of the book recounting Paul’s ministry. There, several narratives are told in the first person plural:<\/p>\n<p>1. “That night Paul had a vision. He saw a man from Macedonia in northern Greece, pleading with him, ‘Come over here and help us.’ So we decided to leave for Macedonia at once, for we could only conclude that God was calling us to preach the Good News there” (16:9-10, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<li>2. “They went ahead and waited for us at Troas . . . we boarded a ship at Philippi in Macedonia and five days later arrived in Troas, where we stayed a week” (20:5-6, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>3. “When the time came, we set sail for Italy” (27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n<p>These “we” sections (16:9-18; 20:5–21:18; 27:1–28:16) sound like part of a travel narrative or diary written by an eyewitness who accompanied Paul from Troas to Philippi on his second missionary journey; from Philippi to Miletus on the third; from Miletus to Jerusalem; and from Caesarea to Rome. Since the style and vocabulary of these travel narratives resemble those of the rest of the book, it is highly probably that the diarist was also the author of the entire book.<\/p>\n<p>The sophisticated literary style and polished use of the Greek language in the book, as well as the fact that it is addressed to someone called Theophilus (possibly a high-ranking Roman official), provide strong support for the tradition that Luke was a gentile convert to Christianity. His consistent and frequent use of the Greek OT may indicate that he had been a gentile “God-fearer” before conversion to the new faith.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginDestination\">Date, Origin, Destination<\/p>\n\n<p>The question of the date and place of the origin of Acts continues to be debated. There are no clear indications in the book itself. With regard to its destination, however, Luke did not leave any doubt. In the opening verse he addresses a certain Theophilus, to whom he had already written an earlier book about the life of Jesus. There can be no doubt that he was referring to the work we know as the Gospel of Luke. In the preface to that Gospel (Lk 1:1-4), Luke clearly stated his purpose for writing and addressed his account to the “most honorable Theophilus.” It is not clear who that person was. Some interpreters think that Theophilus (which means “dear to God” or “lover of God”) stands for Christian readers in general rather than any specific individual. However, the designation “most honorable” argues against such an assumption. That ascription was a common title of honor, designating a person with official standing in the Roman sociopolitical order (cf. use of the title for Felix, Acts 23:26; 24:2; and for Festus, 26:25). It is thus likely that Luke intended his two-volume work for an official representative of Roman society.<\/p>\n<p>When was Acts written? Some scholars date it in the last quarter of the first century. Since the Gospel was written first, and since Luke based his story of Jesus on eyewitness accounts and written sources (among which was possibly the Gospel of Mark, probably written in the 60s), Acts should not be dated much before <span>AD<\/span> 85. Proponents of such a late date claim support from the theology of Acts, which they see as picturing a Christian church settled into history, adjusted to the prospect of a lengthy period before the Lord’s return. Since expectation of the Lord’s imminent return was fanned into a living flame by the Jewish revolt and the fall of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 70, time must be allowed for that flame to have died down a bit.<\/p>\n<p>Other scholars date Acts around <span>AD<\/span> 70 or shortly thereafter. The Jewish rebellion of <span>AD<\/span> 66–70, which culminated in the destruction of Jerusalem, brought the Jewish faith—legal until then—into disrepute. The Christian movement, which had been accepted as a Jewish sect, became suspect. Christians were increasingly charged with being enemies of Rome. A study of Acts shows that among a number of purposes (see below), Luke seems to have been defending the Christians against the charge of hostility toward the state. He showed how Roman officials repeatedly testified to the complete innocence of Christians and above all else of Paul (16:39; 18:14-17; 19:37; 23:29; 25:25; 26:32). Luke also made it clear that Paul was allowed to carry on his mission with full approval of Roman officials in the very heart of the imperial capital (28:16-31).<\/p>\n<p>A still earlier date, closer to Paul’s Roman imprisonment (early 60s), has been advocated by a number of scholars. There are two compelling reasons: (1) The abrupt ending of Acts, describing Paul carrying on a ministry in Rome before his trial had commenced, may indicate that Luke was writing at that point. It is possible, of course, that Luke ended his story with Paul preaching the gospel in Rome because one of his purposes had been accomplished: namely, showing how the gospel spread from Jerusalem to Rome. But it seems highly unlikely that Luke would close his history without Paul’s defense of the gospel before Caesar himself if that had already happened. (2) The most appropriate period for Luke’s history, with its defense of the Christian movement against all kinds of accusations from both Jews and Gentiles, is the period when Christianity was becoming suspect but was not yet proscribed. That was the time before the start of the persecutions under Nero in <span>AD<\/span> 64. The early date would correspond with the contention that Luke was with Paul during his Roman imprisonment and that he wrote his history in Rome while waiting for Paul’s trial to begin. It is possible that Luke’s work was partially intended to influence the verdict. Luke presented a picture of Christianity and of Paul that he hoped would enable Paul to continue his work among the Gentiles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BackgroundandContent\">Background and Content<\/p>\n<p>Luke grounds his documentary of the rapid expansion of Christianity in the history of the Roman Empire and Palestine during the three decades from <span>AD<\/span> 30 to 60. Some brief historical and geographical considerations will aid in understanding Luke’s history.<\/p>\n<p>Acts 1–12 reports the beginnings of the Christian movement within the imperial province of Syria, which included Judea and Samaria. In the first century <span>AD<\/span>, those regions were generally governed by Roman procurators or puppet kings. At the time of Jesus’ death and resurrection (c. <span>AD<\/span> 30), Pontius Pilate was procurator in Judea and Samaria (<span>AD<\/span> 26–36). Galilee was ruled by King Herod Antipas (4 <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 39). Tiberius was emperor of the Roman Empire (<span>AD<\/span> 14–37). The account of Acts 1–12 took place in the period <span>AD<\/span> 30–44.<\/p>\n<p>The conversion of Saul (Acts 9) is generally dated in <span>AD <\/span>33. After Saul’s conversion and departure to his native Tarsus, the church evidently enjoyed a period of tranquility, consolidating its gains and growing steadily (9:31–11:26). It can be assumed, from Galatians 1:18-21 and the existence of Christian communities that Paul and Silas visited on the second missionary tour (Acts 15:40-41), that Paul was not idle during that decade, but intensely involved in the mission to the Gentiles. (After Acts 13:9, the name “Saul” is dropped from the narrative.)<\/p>\n<p>In <span>AD<\/span> 41, Claudius became emperor of Rome and installed Herod Agrippa I as king of the Jews. (The procurator Pontius Pilate had been removed several years earlier for inept administration of the region.) Agrippa I was grandson of Herod the Great and his Jewish princess Mariamne. Because of his Jewish roots, he was more popular with his subjects than the former Herods. No doubt it was his desire to increase that popularity and gain the support of the Jewish religious authorities that led to a renewed outbreak of violence against the Jerusalem church. Acts 12 recounts the execution of James (the brother of the apostle John) and the imprisonment of Peter. The story of Agrippa I’s death (12:20-23) is paralleled in an account by the Jewish historian Josephus, who dates the event in <span>AD<\/span> 44.<\/p>\n<p>A second event providing a time reference for the unfolding story of the early church is the collection of famine relief in Antioch for Christians in Judea (11:27-29). Luke stated that a severe famine took place (v 28) during the reign of Emperor Claudius (<span>AD<\/span> 41–54). Josephus, writing his <em>Antiquities<\/em> at the end of the first century, spoke of a severe famine in Palestine between the years <span>AD<\/span> 44 and 48. According to Acts 12:25, Barnabas and Paul finished their mission to famine-stricken Christians in Judea after the death of Agrippa I, making it possible to date their mission about <span>AD<\/span> 45.<\/p>\n<p>At that point in the narrative of Acts, Paul is launched officially into his mission to the Gentiles (13:1-3), for which the history and geography of the larger Roman Empire form the backdrop. The official Roman policy toward the various religions in the empire was one of toleration. That policy, plus use of the Greek language throughout the empire and a phenomenal network of roads and sea routes, paved the way for Paul’s far-ranging missionary work.<\/p>\n<p>The first tour (<span>AD<\/span> 46–47) took Paul and Barnabas through the island province of Cyprus in the northeastern tip of the Mediterranean Sea and into the province of Galatia, where churches were established in several cities of southern Galatia (Antioch of Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra, Derbe). Galatia is located in Asia Minor, bordered by the Black Sea, the Aegean Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea on its northern, western, and southern sides. Those cities, important colonial outposts for the Romans, contained mixed populations, including large Jewish communities. It was in the synagogues of those communities that Paul launched his missionary efforts, almost always meeting with considerable opposition (chs 13–14).<\/p>\n<p>The deliberation of the Jerusalem Council about differences between Jewish and gentile Christians (ch 15) can be dated in the year <span>AD<\/span> 48. It was followed by Paul’s second missionary journey, which led him through the already evangelized territory of his native Cilicia, Galatia, and through Troas on the Aegean coast to Macedonia and down into Achaia, the Greek Peninsula (15:40–18:22). Churches were established in the important Macedonian cities of Philippi, Thessalonica, and Beroea.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s one and a half years in Corinth (18:11) can be dated with some certainty in <span>AD<\/span> 51–52. An ancient inscription among the ruins of Delphi, a city in central Greece, states that Gallio became proconsul of Achaia in 51. Acts 18:12-17 tells how Paul was accused by antagonistic Jews before Gallio. The implication is that Paul’s adversaries in Corinth felt that a new proconsul could be persuaded to side with their cause. Thus, Paul’s stay in Corinth can be dated around the beginning of Gallio’s proconsulship.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s account of Paul’s return to Palestine and the beginning of his third missionary tour brings up a fascinating historical question about what happened to the followers of John the Baptist (13:13–19:7). Acts 18:24-28 refers to a learned Jew, Apollos, who was actively teaching about Jesus in the synagogue at Ephesus, but who was apparently not a member of a distinctively Christian community, not having been baptized in the name of Jesus. He was acquainted only with the baptism of repentance practiced by John the Baptist. After Apollos went to Corinth to minister to the young congregation that Paul founded the previous year, Paul went to Ephesus. There he met several disciples of Jesus who, like Apollos, had experienced John’s baptism of repentance, but who had not been baptized as Christians.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s reference to Apollos and those disciples, as well as several passages in the Gospels, indicate that the movement begun by John the Baptist did not simply come to an end when Jesus began his ministry. Evidently John continued to baptize until his death (Jn 3:22-24), and many of his disciples maintained John’s work after his death. Probably both Apollos and the disciples at Ephesus were products of the continuing ministry of John’s disciples. Eventually they were introduced to “the way of the Lord” (18:25). Their lack of knowledge about a distinctive Christian baptism or about the reality of the Holy Spirit (19:2-4) shows how much diversity in both belief and practice existed in early Christianity.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s third missionary tour began with a three-year ministry in Ephesus (19:1–20:1), continued with a visit to churches established on the previous journey (20:2-12), and came to a climax with his arrest in Jerusalem (Acts 21). It took place in the mid-50s (<span>AD<\/span> 53–57). Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem and arraignment before the provincial governor, Felix, in Caesarea (23:23–24:23) must be dated about 57. After Paul had spent two years under house arrest, no doubt prolonged by Felix to gain favor with Jewish subjects, Felix was replaced by Porcius Festus (<span>AD<\/span> 59–60). Josephus noted that Felix was recalled because of an outbreak of civil strife between Jewish and gentile inhabitants of Caesarea and Felix’s unwise handling of the situation.<\/p>\n<p>The new procurator, Festus, was uncertain about what to do with his prisoner. The Jewish leadership sought to seize that opportunity, aware of the desire of new procurators to gain popularity with their subjects (25:1-9). Realizing the threat, Paul appealed his case to the highest court of the empire, presided over by Caesar himself (25:10-12).<\/p>\n<p>Festus was then left with a problem. He had to send with his prisoner a report to the emperor, clearly outlining the charges. Since he did not really comprehend the case (25:25-27), he sought the advice of Herod Agrippa II, who with his sister had come to Caesarea to pay their respects to the new imperial governor of Palestine (25:13). Agrippa II was the son of Herod Agrippa I and, at least in theory, a Jew. He ruled over parts of Palestine from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 100 and had been given the right to appoint the Jewish high priests. His familiarity with Jewish religious traditions and the Law thus put him in a better position to understand Jerusalem’s case against Paul. The outcome of Paul’s appearance before Festus and Agrippa (26:1-29) was recognition of Paul’s innocence (26:31). Yet Paul’s appeal to Rome had to be honored; the law governing such cases had to be followed (26:32).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s relative freedom during the next two-year period (28:30) seems unusual but was a rather common practice in Roman judicial proceedings, especially for Roman citizens who had appealed to the emperor. There is no good reason to believe that Paul was executed at the time when Luke’s narrative ends (c. <span>AD<\/span> 61–62). The great fire of Rome and Nero’s subsequent persecution of Christians were still a few years away (<span>AD<\/span> 64). It is likely that the case against Paul was dismissed, especially in light of the favorable verdict by Festus and King Agrippa. It is also likely that Paul was executed during the later, more general persecution of Christians. Such a sequence would correspond with the tradition cited by Eusebius, a fourth-century church historian, that Paul resumed his ministry and later suffered martyrdom under Nero.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>In the preface to the Gospel, intended to cover the second volume also, Luke told Theophilus (and the audience he represented) that he had set out to write an accurate, orderly account about the beginnings of the Christian movement in the ministry of Jesus of Nazareth (Lk 1:1-4). The opening lines in Acts indicate that the narrative beginning with Jesus of Nazareth (vol 1) is continuing and that Luke’s second volume intends to trace the story from Palestine to Rome (Acts 1:1-8).<\/p>\n<p>While recounting this story, Luke attempted to defend the Christian movement against false charges brought against it. A number of misconceptions attended the birth and growth of the Christian movement. One concerned the relationship between the new faith and Judaism. Many, both within the church and among Roman officials, understood the Christian faith as no more than a particular expression of, or sect within, Judaism. Against that restricted notion, Luke-Acts strikes a universal note. The Gospel proclaims Jesus as Savior of the world (Lk 2:29-32). In Acts, Stephen’s defense before the Jewish council (ch 7), Peter’s experience in Joppa with Cornelius (ch 10), and Paul’s speech at Athens (ch 17) all demonstrate that Christianity is not merely a Jewish sect, some narrow messianic movement, but rather a universal faith. Another problem was popular identification of the new faith with the various religious cults and mystery religions in the Roman Empire. The accounts of the early church’s conflict with Simon the magician (ch 8) and of Paul and Barnabas’s rejection of an attempt to worship them at Lystra (ch 14) undermine the popular charge of superstition. Also, Christianity is not a mystery cult in which esoteric, secret rites bring a worshiper into union with the divine. The Lord worshiped by Christians, said Luke, belongs to real history; he lived his life in Palestine in the then-recent past, openly, for all to observe (see the speeches of Peter and Paul in Acts 2; 10; 13).<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s major purpose, however, was defense of Christianity against the charge that it posed a threat to the order and stability of the Roman Empire. There were, of course, grounds for such suspicions. After all, the founder of the movement had been crucified on a charge of sedition by a Roman procurator, and the movement that claimed his name seemed to evoke tumult, disorder, and riots wherever it spread. Luke’s account met those problems head-on. In the Gospel he presented the trial of Jesus as a serious miscarriage of justice. Pilate had handed Jesus over for crucifixion, but he had found Jesus not guilty. Herod Antipas likewise found no substance in the charges against Jesus (Lk 23:13-16; Acts 13:28). A neutral or even friendly attitude of Roman officials toward leading Christians and the movement as a whole is documented throughout Acts. The Roman proconsul of Cyprus, Sergius Paulus, gladly received Paul and Barnabas and responded positively to their message (Acts 13:7-12). The chief magistrate in Philippi apologized for the illegal beating and imprisonment of Paul and Silas (16:37-39). The proconsul of Achaia, Gallio, found Paul guiltless in the eyes of Roman law (18:12-16). In Ephesus the magistrate intervened in a crowd’s attack on Paul and his companions, rejecting the charges against them (19:35-39). A tribune of the Roman military contingent in Jerusalem arrested Paul, but it turned out that he really saved the apostle from the wrath of a mob; in his letter to the procurator Felix, the tribune acknowledged that Paul was not guilty by Roman law (23:26-29). The same verdict was repeated after Paul’s arraignment before Felix, his successor Festus, and Herod Agrippa II: “This man hasn’t done anything worthy of death or imprisonment” (26:31, <span>nlt<\/span>). Luke climaxed his story by telling how Paul carried on his missionary activity in Rome, the very heart of the empire, and with the permission of the imperial guards (28:30-31). It is clear throughout Luke’s defense that the strife that attended the beginnings and progress of Christianity was not due primarily to anything within the movement, but rather to Jewish opposition and falsification.<\/p>\n<p>Within his lengthy apology for the integrity of Christianity, Luke’s specific theological perspectives can be clearly seen. The two volume work presents a grand scheme of the history of redemption, extending from the <em>time of Israel<\/em> (Lk 1–2) through the <em>time of Jesus,<\/em> and continuing through the <em>time of the church,<\/em> when the good news for Israel is extended to all nations. Paralleling that emphasis is an insistence that God is present in the redemptive story through the Holy Spirit. In the Gospel, Jesus is presented as the Man of the Spirit; the reality of the Spirit empowered him for his work (Lk 3:22; 4:1, 14, 18). In Acts, the fellowship of Jesus’ disciples is presented as the community of the Spirit (1:8; 2:1-8). What Jesus in the power of the Spirit had begun in his own ministry, the church in the power of the Spirit continues to do.<\/p>\n<p>For Luke, the empowering presence of God’s Spirit was a reality that gave the new faith its power, integrity, and perseverance. It enabled faithful witness (1:8) and created genuine community (2:44-47; 4:32-37), something for which the ancient world desperately longed. The Spirit in the new community produced courage and boldness (see Peter’s defenses in chs 2–5), empowered for service (ch 6), overcame prejudice as in the mission in Samaria (ch 8), broke down walls as in the Cornelius episode (chs 10–11), and sent believers out on missions (ch 13).<\/p>\n<p>The entire story is also punctuated by the centrality of Jesus’ resurrection. Luke, like Paul (see 1 Cor 15:12-21), must have been convinced that without the resurrection of Jesus there would be no Christian faith at all. More than that, the resurrection put God’s stamp of approval on Jesus’ life and ministry, authenticating the truth of his claims. Luke announced his interest in that theme at the outset: the ultimate criterion for an apostolic replacement for Judas was that he must have been, with the other disciples, a witness to Jesus’ resurrection. Throughout Acts, from Peter’s Pentecost sermon and defenses before the Sanhedrin to Paul’s speeches before Felix and Agrippa, the church is shown bearing witness to Jesus’ resurrection as a great reversal executed by God (2:22-24, 36; 3:14-15; 5:30-31; 10:39-42).<\/p>\n<p>Acts falls naturally into two parts, chapters 1–12, and 13–28. The first part, roughly speaking, contains the “acts of Peter.” Part two is largely concerned with the “acts of Paul.” In the first 12 chapters, Peter is the central figure who initiates the choosing of a replacement for Judas Iscariot (ch 1); addresses the multitudes at Pentecost (ch 2); interprets the significance of the healing of a lame man to a temple crowd (ch 3); delivers a defense of the Christian proclamation before the supreme Jewish council (ch 4); leads the apostles in a healing ministry and speaks for them (ch 5); stands in the forefront of conflict with a Samaritan magician, “Simon the Great” (ch 8); launches—though somewhat unwillingly—the movement of the gospel to the Gentiles through Cornelius (chs 10–11); and draws the fire of Herod’s campaign against the church but is miraculously delivered from prison (ch 12).<\/p>\n<p>Proclamation of the gospel to the Gentiles through Paul’s ministry is the theme of part two of Acts (chs 13–28). The story primarily concerns three major missionary tours, each of which moved the gospel into yet untouched territory and expanded earlier missionary efforts. The account of Paul’s life and work climaxes in his arrest in Jerusalem (chs 21–22), a lengthy imprisonment in Caesarea (chs 23–26), and a voyage to Rome (chs 27–28).<\/p>\n<p>Another way of getting at the structure and content of Acts is thematic. It has its starting point in Jesus’ statement, “You shall receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you; and you shall be my witnesses in Jerusalem and in all Judea and Samaria and to the ends of the earth” (1:8). Acts can be seen as the story of the fulfillment of that “Great Commission,” unfolding essentially in three stages: (1) witness to Judaism, focused in Jerusalem but also expanding into surrounding Judea and north into Galilee (chs 1–7); (2) witness to Samaria through Philip, Peter, and John (8:1–9:31); (3) witness to the gentile world, first haltingly through Peter (9:32–12:25), and then decisively through Paul (chs 13–28).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Luke (Person); Paul, The Apostle; Simon Peter; Theophilus #1; Chronology of the Bible (New Testament).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, Book of the NT book presenting the history of the early church and written as a sequel to the Gospel of Luke. In the arrangement of the NT books, Acts comes after the four Gospels and before the Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, Destination • Background and Content • Purpose Author The book of Acts does not state clearly who its writer is, but the general consensus is that Luke was its author. Early church tradition from the second century states that Acts (as w...","summary_en":"ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, Book of the NT book presenting the history of the early church and written as a sequel to the Gospel of Luke. In the arrangement of the NT books, Acts comes after the four Gospels and before the Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, Destination • Background and Content • Purpose Author The book of Acts does not state clearly who its writer is, but the general consensus is that Luke was its author. Early church tradition from the second century states that Acts (as w...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":9509,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Diana*","title_en":"Diana*","content_ro":"<h3>DIANA*<\/h3>\n<p>Roman name for the mythological Greek goddess Artemis, daughter of Jupiter and Latona and the twin sister of Apollo. She renounced all idea of marriage, supposedly because she was appalled at the birth pains her mother had suffered in bearing her, and remained the unattainable virgin goddess. Although goddess of the moon, Diana was more often portrayed as the huntress with two dogs beside her.<\/p>\n<p>The Temple of Diana at Ephesus was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. The impressive building was supported on 100 large columns. The local legend was that her statue fell there from the sky (Acts 19:35). This may have been a reference to a meteorite. Pliny described a large stone over the doorway, which, according to tradition, had been put in place by Diana. Ceremonies and services of worship in her honor were conducted by eunuch priests.<\/p>\n<p>Among the statues that have been excavated, some show Diana as a multibreasted female; others show a shrine with the goddess attended by lions. Models of the temple were sold as souvenirs by the silversmiths, who were reluctant to see any slackening of this lucrative trade when Paul began his preaching in Ephesus (Acts 19:23–20:1). The discontent and agitation of the silversmiths led to the riot of the crowd, culminating in the roar “Great is Diana of the Ephesians” (19:28, 34, <span>kjv<\/span>). Inscriptions in the British Museum refer to the goddess as “Artemis the Great.” If the silversmiths are to be believed, she was worshiped throughout the known world. The form of worship is not known for certain, but the worship of the goddess Diana may have been associated with a fertility cult.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DIANA*<\/h3>\n<p>Roman name for the mythological Greek goddess Artemis, daughter of Jupiter and Latona and the twin sister of Apollo. She renounced all idea of marriage, supposedly because she was appalled at the birth pains her mother had suffered in bearing her, and remained the unattainable virgin goddess. Although goddess of the moon, Diana was more often portrayed as the huntress with two dogs beside her.<\/p>\n<p>The Temple of Diana at Ephesus was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. The impressive building was supported on 100 large columns. The local legend was that her statue fell there from the sky (Acts 19:35). This may have been a reference to a meteorite. Pliny described a large stone over the doorway, which, according to tradition, had been put in place by Diana. Ceremonies and services of worship in her honor were conducted by eunuch priests.<\/p>\n<p>Among the statues that have been excavated, some show Diana as a multibreasted female; others show a shrine with the goddess attended by lions. Models of the temple were sold as souvenirs by the silversmiths, who were reluctant to see any slackening of this lucrative trade when Paul began his preaching in Ephesus (Acts 19:23–20:1). The discontent and agitation of the silversmiths led to the riot of the crowd, culminating in the roar “Great is Diana of the Ephesians” (19:28, 34, <span>kjv<\/span>). Inscriptions in the British Museum refer to the goddess as “Artemis the Great.” If the silversmiths are to be believed, she was worshiped throughout the known world. The form of worship is not known for certain, but the worship of the goddess Diana may have been associated with a fertility cult.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DIANA* Roman name for the mythological Greek goddess Artemis, daughter of Jupiter and Latona and the twin sister of Apollo. She renounced all idea of marriage, supposedly because she was appalled at the birth pains her mother had suffered in bearing her, and remained the unattainable virgin goddess. Although goddess of the moon, Diana was more often portrayed as the huntress with two dogs beside her. The Temple of Diana at Ephesus was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. The impress...","summary_en":"DIANA* Roman name for the mythological Greek goddess Artemis, daughter of Jupiter and Latona and the twin sister of Apollo. She renounced all idea of marriage, supposedly because she was appalled at the birth pains her mother had suffered in bearing her, and remained the unattainable virgin goddess. Although goddess of the moon, Diana was more often portrayed as the huntress with two dogs beside her. The Temple of Diana at Ephesus was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. The impress...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30358,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Phrygia","title_en":"Phrygia","content_ro":"<h3>PHRYGIA<\/h3>\n<p>Area in western Turkey on the Anatolian plateau, the boundaries of which cannot be defined precisely. The Phrygians were originally Europeans, called Phryges by the Greeks, who crossed the Hellespont from Macedonia and Thrace and settled here. This migration followed the general pattern of invasions from Europe into this section of Asia Minor. The Phrygians formed a powerful confederacy that flourished between the downfall of the Hittite Empire and the rise of the Lydian Empire, that is, between the 7th and the 13th centuries before Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Their religious capital was at “Midas City,” modern Yazilikaya, about 150 miles (241.4 kilometers) southwest of Ankara. This “city of Midas” consisted of an acropolis, defended by a wall with towers, and a lower city. Within a large cave was a spring, approached by steps cut in the rock, which supplied water for the upper and lower cities. The famous tomb or monument of King Midas has a Phrygian inscription that mentions the goddess “Mida,” identified with Cybele the mother goddess, considered to be the mythical mother of the king. French archaeologists in 1948–49 discovered remains that indicate the city was destroyed in the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>, rebuilt about a century later, and finally destroyed in the third century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Their chief goddess was Cybele. She later became the fertility goddess of all Anatolia. Orgiastic rites were performed in her honor, leading to sensuality intended to facilitate reproduction among humans, animals, and crops. When the Ionians and the Greeks settled in Miletus and Ephesus, Cybele was transformed into Artemis the Greek goddess of fertility, whose temple in Ephesus was one of the seven wonders of the world. Her image originally was a black meteorite stone (cf. Acts 19:35). She became the consort of Adonis, a vegetation god, and their fertility rites were common throughout the Middle East. This goddess was imported into Rome; a temple in her honor was built on the Capitoline Hill soon after the organization of the empire.<\/p>\n<p>Gallic tribes invaded the region some three centuries prior to Paul. This changed the demographic situation, with the result that the political, geographical, and ethnic divisions did not always coincide. What was formerly Phrygia became known as Galatia because of the new inhabitants. Yet the old names persisted.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were encouraged to settle in this area by the Syrian kings. They were an important part of society, and their synagogues were to be found in every major city. Paul passed through this area on his way from Lycaonia to Troas (Acts 16:6) after having been forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word of God in Asia. The gospel probably came to this area from the pilgrims who went to Jerusalem and heard Peter preach. There, in astonishment, they heard the early believers proclaiming the works of God in their own native language (2:8-11). Some were converted and went home to spread the Good News.<\/p>\n<p>That Christianity made early inroads and received a wide following here is indicated by the fact that in the middle of the second century Montanus, a zealous leader of the church, arose and called the church back to the primitive dynamism that characterized Pentecost. Thus arose the sect of Montanism, in which the leader was sometimes viewed as the incarnation of the Holy Spirit or the oracle of God. In better light, the movement is seen as a return to primitive Christianity and a protest against the increasing formalism among the churches. By the third century, the entire region was almost entirely Christian, according to Eusebius.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PHRYGIA<\/h3>\n<p>Area in western Turkey on the Anatolian plateau, the boundaries of which cannot be defined precisely. The Phrygians were originally Europeans, called Phryges by the Greeks, who crossed the Hellespont from Macedonia and Thrace and settled here. This migration followed the general pattern of invasions from Europe into this section of Asia Minor. The Phrygians formed a powerful confederacy that flourished between the downfall of the Hittite Empire and the rise of the Lydian Empire, that is, between the 7th and the 13th centuries before Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Their religious capital was at “Midas City,” modern Yazilikaya, about 150 miles (241.4 kilometers) southwest of Ankara. This “city of Midas” consisted of an acropolis, defended by a wall with towers, and a lower city. Within a large cave was a spring, approached by steps cut in the rock, which supplied water for the upper and lower cities. The famous tomb or monument of King Midas has a Phrygian inscription that mentions the goddess “Mida,” identified with Cybele the mother goddess, considered to be the mythical mother of the king. French archaeologists in 1948–49 discovered remains that indicate the city was destroyed in the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>, rebuilt about a century later, and finally destroyed in the third century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Their chief goddess was Cybele. She later became the fertility goddess of all Anatolia. Orgiastic rites were performed in her honor, leading to sensuality intended to facilitate reproduction among humans, animals, and crops. When the Ionians and the Greeks settled in Miletus and Ephesus, Cybele was transformed into Artemis the Greek goddess of fertility, whose temple in Ephesus was one of the seven wonders of the world. Her image originally was a black meteorite stone (cf. Acts 19:35). She became the consort of Adonis, a vegetation god, and their fertility rites were common throughout the Middle East. This goddess was imported into Rome; a temple in her honor was built on the Capitoline Hill soon after the organization of the empire.<\/p>\n<p>Gallic tribes invaded the region some three centuries prior to Paul. This changed the demographic situation, with the result that the political, geographical, and ethnic divisions did not always coincide. What was formerly Phrygia became known as Galatia because of the new inhabitants. Yet the old names persisted.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were encouraged to settle in this area by the Syrian kings. They were an important part of society, and their synagogues were to be found in every major city. Paul passed through this area on his way from Lycaonia to Troas (Acts 16:6) after having been forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word of God in Asia. The gospel probably came to this area from the pilgrims who went to Jerusalem and heard Peter preach. There, in astonishment, they heard the early believers proclaiming the works of God in their own native language (2:8-11). Some were converted and went home to spread the Good News.<\/p>\n<p>That Christianity made early inroads and received a wide following here is indicated by the fact that in the middle of the second century Montanus, a zealous leader of the church, arose and called the church back to the primitive dynamism that characterized Pentecost. Thus arose the sect of Montanism, in which the leader was sometimes viewed as the incarnation of the Holy Spirit or the oracle of God. In better light, the movement is seen as a return to primitive Christianity and a protest against the increasing formalism among the churches. By the third century, the entire region was almost entirely Christian, according to Eusebius.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PHRYGIA Area in western Turkey on the Anatolian plateau, the boundaries of which cannot be defined precisely. The Phrygians were originally Europeans, called Phryges by the Greeks, who crossed the Hellespont from Macedonia and Thrace and settled here. This migration followed the general pattern of invasions from Europe into this section of Asia Minor. The Phrygians formed a powerful confederacy that flourished between the downfall of the Hittite Empire and the rise of the Lydian Empire, that ...","summary_en":"PHRYGIA Area in western Turkey on the Anatolian plateau, the boundaries of which cannot be defined precisely. The Phrygians were originally Europeans, called Phryges by the Greeks, who crossed the Hellespont from Macedonia and Thrace and settled here. This migration followed the general pattern of invasions from Europe into this section of Asia Minor. The Phrygians formed a powerful confederacy that flourished between the downfall of the Hittite Empire and the rise of the Lydian Empire, that ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37569,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Clerk*, Town","title_en":"Clerk*, Town","content_ro":"<h3>TOWN CLERK*<\/h3>\n<p>An official in municipal administration whose duties included those of scribe or secretary. He published the decrees of the civic authority but also acted as a liaison officer between the administration of a city and the Roman provincial government. In Ephesus he was held responsible for the riotous assembly in Paul’s day (Acts 19:35) and had the power to impose a severe penalty. Fortunately, he was able to calm the assembly.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TOWN CLERK*<\/h3>\n<p>An official in municipal administration whose duties included those of scribe or secretary. He published the decrees of the civic authority but also acted as a liaison officer between the administration of a city and the Roman provincial government. In Ephesus he was held responsible for the riotous assembly in Paul’s day (Acts 19:35) and had the power to impose a severe penalty. Fortunately, he was able to calm the assembly.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TOWN CLERK* An official in municipal administration whose duties included those of scribe or secretary. He published the decrees of the civic authority but also acted as a liaison officer between the administration of a city and the Roman provincial government. In Ephesus he was held responsible for the riotous assembly in Paul’s day (Acts 19:35) and had the power to impose a severe penalty. Fortunately, he was able to calm the assembly.","summary_en":"TOWN CLERK* An official in municipal administration whose duties included those of scribe or secretary. He published the decrees of the civic authority but also acted as a liaison officer between the administration of a city and the Roman provincial government. In Ephesus he was held responsible for the riotous assembly in Paul’s day (Acts 19:35) and had the power to impose a severe penalty. Fortunately, he was able to calm the assembly.","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57061,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:35","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:35","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:35-41<\/strong> The demonstration was finally quelled only when the <em>mayor<\/em> intervened and <em>dismissed<\/em> the assembly to prevent the city from being charged by <em>the Roman government<\/em> with <em>rioting<\/em>. This story demonstrates that Christians in the Roman world were entitled to legal due process.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:35-41<\/strong> The demonstration was finally quelled only when the <em>mayor<\/em> intervened and <em>dismissed<\/em> the assembly to prevent the city from being charged by <em>the Roman government<\/em> with <em>rioting<\/em>. This story demonstrates that Christians in the Roman world were entitled to legal due process.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:35-41 The demonstration was finally quelled only when the mayor intervened and dismissed the assembly to prevent the city from being charged by the Roman government with rioting. This story demonstrates that Christians in the Roman world were entitled to legal due process.","summary_en":"19:35-41 The demonstration was finally quelled only when the mayor intervened and dismissed the assembly to prevent the city from being charged by the Roman government with rioting. This story demonstrates that Christians in the Roman world were entitled to legal due process.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57062,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:35","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:35","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:35<\/strong> The tradition that the <em>image<\/em> (statue) of <em>Artemis<\/em> had fallen <em>from heaven<\/em> might point to its having been carved from a meteor.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:35<\/strong> The tradition that the <em>image<\/em> (statue) of <em>Artemis<\/em> had fallen <em>from heaven<\/em> might point to its having been carved from a meteor.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:35 The tradition that the image (statue) of Artemis had fallen from heaven might point to its having been carved from a meteor.","summary_en":"19:35 The tradition that the image (statue) of Artemis had fallen from heaven might point to its having been carved from a meteor.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84687,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:35","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:35","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:35-41<\/strong> The demonstration was finally quelled only when the <em>mayor<\/em> intervened and <em>dismissed<\/em> the assembly to prevent the city from being charged by <em>the Roman government<\/em> with <em>rioting<\/em>. This story demonstrates that Christians in the Roman world were entitled to legal due process.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:35-41<\/strong> The demonstration was finally quelled only when the <em>mayor<\/em> intervened and <em>dismissed<\/em> the assembly to prevent the city from being charged by <em>the Roman government<\/em> with <em>rioting<\/em>. This story demonstrates that Christians in the Roman world were entitled to legal due process.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:35-41 The demonstration was finally quelled only when the mayor intervened and dismissed the assembly to prevent the city from being charged by the Roman government with rioting. This story demonstrates that Christians in the Roman world were entitled to legal due process.","summary_en":"19:35-41 The demonstration was finally quelled only when the mayor intervened and dismissed the assembly to prevent the city from being charged by the Roman government with rioting. This story demonstrates that Christians in the Roman world were entitled to legal due process.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84688,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:35","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:35","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:35<\/strong> The tradition that the <em>image<\/em> (statue) of <em>Artemis<\/em> had fallen <em>from heaven<\/em> might point to its having been carved from a meteor.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:35<\/strong> The tradition that the <em>image<\/em> (statue) of <em>Artemis<\/em> had fallen <em>from heaven<\/em> might point to its having been carved from a meteor.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:35 The tradition that the image (statue) of Artemis had fallen from heaven might point to its having been carved from a meteor.","summary_en":"19:35 The tradition that the image (statue) of Artemis had fallen from heaven might point to its having been carved from a meteor.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112313,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:35","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:35","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:35-41<\/strong> The demonstration was finally quelled only when the <em>mayor<\/em> intervened and <em>dismissed<\/em> the assembly to prevent the city from being charged by <em>the Roman government<\/em> with <em>rioting<\/em>. This story demonstrates that Christians in the Roman world were entitled to legal due process.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:35-41<\/strong> The demonstration was finally quelled only when the <em>mayor<\/em> intervened and <em>dismissed<\/em> the assembly to prevent the city from being charged by <em>the Roman government<\/em> with <em>rioting<\/em>. This story demonstrates that Christians in the Roman world were entitled to legal due process.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:35-41 The demonstration was finally quelled only when the mayor intervened and dismissed the assembly to prevent the city from being charged by the Roman government with rioting. This story demonstrates that Christians in the Roman world were entitled to legal due process.","summary_en":"19:35-41 The demonstration was finally quelled only when the mayor intervened and dismissed the assembly to prevent the city from being charged by the Roman government with rioting. This story demonstrates that Christians in the Roman world were entitled to legal due process.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112314,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:35","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:35","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:35<\/strong> The tradition that the <em>image<\/em> (statue) of <em>Artemis<\/em> had fallen <em>from heaven<\/em> might point to its having been carved from a meteor.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:35<\/strong> The tradition that the <em>image<\/em> (statue) of <em>Artemis<\/em> had fallen <em>from heaven<\/em> might point to its having been carved from a meteor.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:35 The tradition that the image (statue) of Artemis had fallen from heaven might point to its having been carved from a meteor.","summary_en":"19:35 The tradition that the image (statue) of Artemis had fallen from heaven might point to its having been carved from a meteor.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139939,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:35","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:35","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:35-41<\/strong> The demonstration was finally quelled only when the <em>mayor<\/em> intervened and <em>dismissed<\/em> the assembly to prevent the city from being charged by <em>the Roman government<\/em> with <em>rioting<\/em>. This story demonstrates that Christians in the Roman world were entitled to legal due process.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:35-41<\/strong> The demonstration was finally quelled only when the <em>mayor<\/em> intervened and <em>dismissed<\/em> the assembly to prevent the city from being charged by <em>the Roman government<\/em> with <em>rioting<\/em>. This story demonstrates that Christians in the Roman world were entitled to legal due process.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:35-41 The demonstration was finally quelled only when the mayor intervened and dismissed the assembly to prevent the city from being charged by the Roman government with rioting. This story demonstrates that Christians in the Roman world were entitled to legal due process.","summary_en":"19:35-41 The demonstration was finally quelled only when the mayor intervened and dismissed the assembly to prevent the city from being charged by the Roman government with rioting. This story demonstrates that Christians in the Roman world were entitled to legal due process.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":139940,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 19:35","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 19:35","content_ro":"<p><strong>19:35<\/strong> The tradition that the <em>image<\/em> (statue) of <em>Artemis<\/em> had fallen <em>from heaven<\/em> might point to its having been carved from a meteor.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>19:35<\/strong> The tradition that the <em>image<\/em> (statue) of <em>Artemis<\/em> had fallen <em>from heaven<\/em> might point to its having been carved from a meteor.<\/p>","summary_ro":"19:35 The tradition that the image (statue) of Artemis had fallen from heaven might point to its having been carved from a meteor.","summary_en":"19:35 The tradition that the image (statue) of Artemis had fallen from heaven might point to its having been carved from a meteor.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"37":[{"id":384,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of the Acts of the Apostles","title_en":"Book of the Acts of the Apostles","content_ro":"<h3>ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, B<span>ook of the<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>NT book presenting the history of the early church and written as a sequel to the Gospel of Luke. In the arrangement of the NT books, Acts comes after the four Gospels and before the Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background and Content<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts does not state clearly who its writer is, but the general consensus is that Luke was its author.<\/p>\n<p>Early church tradition from the second century states that Acts (as well as the third Gospel) was written by a traveling companion and fellow worker of the apostle Paul. That companion is identified in Colossians 4:14 as “Luke, the beloved physician” (<span>nasb<\/span>) and mentioned among Paul’s coworkers (Col 4:10-17; see also 2 Tm 4:11; Phlm 1:24).<\/p>\n<p>Strong support for the tradition that the author of Acts was a companion of Paul comes from the second half of the book recounting Paul’s ministry. There, several narratives are told in the first person plural:<\/p>\n<p>1. “That night Paul had a vision. He saw a man from Macedonia in northern Greece, pleading with him, ‘Come over here and help us.’ So we decided to leave for Macedonia at once, for we could only conclude that God was calling us to preach the Good News there” (16:9-10, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<li>2. “They went ahead and waited for us at Troas . . . we boarded a ship at Philippi in Macedonia and five days later arrived in Troas, where we stayed a week” (20:5-6, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>3. “When the time came, we set sail for Italy” (27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n<p>These “we” sections (16:9-18; 20:5–21:18; 27:1–28:16) sound like part of a travel narrative or diary written by an eyewitness who accompanied Paul from Troas to Philippi on his second missionary journey; from Philippi to Miletus on the third; from Miletus to Jerusalem; and from Caesarea to Rome. Since the style and vocabulary of these travel narratives resemble those of the rest of the book, it is highly probably that the diarist was also the author of the entire book.<\/p>\n<p>The sophisticated literary style and polished use of the Greek language in the book, as well as the fact that it is addressed to someone called Theophilus (possibly a high-ranking Roman official), provide strong support for the tradition that Luke was a gentile convert to Christianity. His consistent and frequent use of the Greek OT may indicate that he had been a gentile “God-fearer” before conversion to the new faith.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginDestination\">Date, Origin, Destination<\/p>\n\n<p>The question of the date and place of the origin of Acts continues to be debated. There are no clear indications in the book itself. With regard to its destination, however, Luke did not leave any doubt. In the opening verse he addresses a certain Theophilus, to whom he had already written an earlier book about the life of Jesus. There can be no doubt that he was referring to the work we know as the Gospel of Luke. In the preface to that Gospel (Lk 1:1-4), Luke clearly stated his purpose for writing and addressed his account to the “most honorable Theophilus.” It is not clear who that person was. Some interpreters think that Theophilus (which means “dear to God” or “lover of God”) stands for Christian readers in general rather than any specific individual. However, the designation “most honorable” argues against such an assumption. That ascription was a common title of honor, designating a person with official standing in the Roman sociopolitical order (cf. use of the title for Felix, Acts 23:26; 24:2; and for Festus, 26:25). It is thus likely that Luke intended his two-volume work for an official representative of Roman society.<\/p>\n<p>When was Acts written? Some scholars date it in the last quarter of the first century. Since the Gospel was written first, and since Luke based his story of Jesus on eyewitness accounts and written sources (among which was possibly the Gospel of Mark, probably written in the 60s), Acts should not be dated much before <span>AD<\/span> 85. Proponents of such a late date claim support from the theology of Acts, which they see as picturing a Christian church settled into history, adjusted to the prospect of a lengthy period before the Lord’s return. Since expectation of the Lord’s imminent return was fanned into a living flame by the Jewish revolt and the fall of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 70, time must be allowed for that flame to have died down a bit.<\/p>\n<p>Other scholars date Acts around <span>AD<\/span> 70 or shortly thereafter. The Jewish rebellion of <span>AD<\/span> 66–70, which culminated in the destruction of Jerusalem, brought the Jewish faith—legal until then—into disrepute. The Christian movement, which had been accepted as a Jewish sect, became suspect. Christians were increasingly charged with being enemies of Rome. A study of Acts shows that among a number of purposes (see below), Luke seems to have been defending the Christians against the charge of hostility toward the state. He showed how Roman officials repeatedly testified to the complete innocence of Christians and above all else of Paul (16:39; 18:14-17; 19:37; 23:29; 25:25; 26:32). Luke also made it clear that Paul was allowed to carry on his mission with full approval of Roman officials in the very heart of the imperial capital (28:16-31).<\/p>\n<p>A still earlier date, closer to Paul’s Roman imprisonment (early 60s), has been advocated by a number of scholars. There are two compelling reasons: (1) The abrupt ending of Acts, describing Paul carrying on a ministry in Rome before his trial had commenced, may indicate that Luke was writing at that point. It is possible, of course, that Luke ended his story with Paul preaching the gospel in Rome because one of his purposes had been accomplished: namely, showing how the gospel spread from Jerusalem to Rome. But it seems highly unlikely that Luke would close his history without Paul’s defense of the gospel before Caesar himself if that had already happened. (2) The most appropriate period for Luke’s history, with its defense of the Christian movement against all kinds of accusations from both Jews and Gentiles, is the period when Christianity was becoming suspect but was not yet proscribed. That was the time before the start of the persecutions under Nero in <span>AD<\/span> 64. The early date would correspond with the contention that Luke was with Paul during his Roman imprisonment and that he wrote his history in Rome while waiting for Paul’s trial to begin. It is possible that Luke’s work was partially intended to influence the verdict. Luke presented a picture of Christianity and of Paul that he hoped would enable Paul to continue his work among the Gentiles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BackgroundandContent\">Background and Content<\/p>\n<p>Luke grounds his documentary of the rapid expansion of Christianity in the history of the Roman Empire and Palestine during the three decades from <span>AD<\/span> 30 to 60. Some brief historical and geographical considerations will aid in understanding Luke’s history.<\/p>\n<p>Acts 1–12 reports the beginnings of the Christian movement within the imperial province of Syria, which included Judea and Samaria. In the first century <span>AD<\/span>, those regions were generally governed by Roman procurators or puppet kings. At the time of Jesus’ death and resurrection (c. <span>AD<\/span> 30), Pontius Pilate was procurator in Judea and Samaria (<span>AD<\/span> 26–36). Galilee was ruled by King Herod Antipas (4 <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 39). Tiberius was emperor of the Roman Empire (<span>AD<\/span> 14–37). The account of Acts 1–12 took place in the period <span>AD<\/span> 30–44.<\/p>\n<p>The conversion of Saul (Acts 9) is generally dated in <span>AD <\/span>33. After Saul’s conversion and departure to his native Tarsus, the church evidently enjoyed a period of tranquility, consolidating its gains and growing steadily (9:31–11:26). It can be assumed, from Galatians 1:18-21 and the existence of Christian communities that Paul and Silas visited on the second missionary tour (Acts 15:40-41), that Paul was not idle during that decade, but intensely involved in the mission to the Gentiles. (After Acts 13:9, the name “Saul” is dropped from the narrative.)<\/p>\n<p>In <span>AD<\/span> 41, Claudius became emperor of Rome and installed Herod Agrippa I as king of the Jews. (The procurator Pontius Pilate had been removed several years earlier for inept administration of the region.) Agrippa I was grandson of Herod the Great and his Jewish princess Mariamne. Because of his Jewish roots, he was more popular with his subjects than the former Herods. No doubt it was his desire to increase that popularity and gain the support of the Jewish religious authorities that led to a renewed outbreak of violence against the Jerusalem church. Acts 12 recounts the execution of James (the brother of the apostle John) and the imprisonment of Peter. The story of Agrippa I’s death (12:20-23) is paralleled in an account by the Jewish historian Josephus, who dates the event in <span>AD<\/span> 44.<\/p>\n<p>A second event providing a time reference for the unfolding story of the early church is the collection of famine relief in Antioch for Christians in Judea (11:27-29). Luke stated that a severe famine took place (v 28) during the reign of Emperor Claudius (<span>AD<\/span> 41–54). Josephus, writing his <em>Antiquities<\/em> at the end of the first century, spoke of a severe famine in Palestine between the years <span>AD<\/span> 44 and 48. According to Acts 12:25, Barnabas and Paul finished their mission to famine-stricken Christians in Judea after the death of Agrippa I, making it possible to date their mission about <span>AD<\/span> 45.<\/p>\n<p>At that point in the narrative of Acts, Paul is launched officially into his mission to the Gentiles (13:1-3), for which the history and geography of the larger Roman Empire form the backdrop. The official Roman policy toward the various religions in the empire was one of toleration. That policy, plus use of the Greek language throughout the empire and a phenomenal network of roads and sea routes, paved the way for Paul’s far-ranging missionary work.<\/p>\n<p>The first tour (<span>AD<\/span> 46–47) took Paul and Barnabas through the island province of Cyprus in the northeastern tip of the Mediterranean Sea and into the province of Galatia, where churches were established in several cities of southern Galatia (Antioch of Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra, Derbe). Galatia is located in Asia Minor, bordered by the Black Sea, the Aegean Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea on its northern, western, and southern sides. Those cities, important colonial outposts for the Romans, contained mixed populations, including large Jewish communities. It was in the synagogues of those communities that Paul launched his missionary efforts, almost always meeting with considerable opposition (chs 13–14).<\/p>\n<p>The deliberation of the Jerusalem Council about differences between Jewish and gentile Christians (ch 15) can be dated in the year <span>AD<\/span> 48. It was followed by Paul’s second missionary journey, which led him through the already evangelized territory of his native Cilicia, Galatia, and through Troas on the Aegean coast to Macedonia and down into Achaia, the Greek Peninsula (15:40–18:22). Churches were established in the important Macedonian cities of Philippi, Thessalonica, and Beroea.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s one and a half years in Corinth (18:11) can be dated with some certainty in <span>AD<\/span> 51–52. An ancient inscription among the ruins of Delphi, a city in central Greece, states that Gallio became proconsul of Achaia in 51. Acts 18:12-17 tells how Paul was accused by antagonistic Jews before Gallio. The implication is that Paul’s adversaries in Corinth felt that a new proconsul could be persuaded to side with their cause. Thus, Paul’s stay in Corinth can be dated around the beginning of Gallio’s proconsulship.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s account of Paul’s return to Palestine and the beginning of his third missionary tour brings up a fascinating historical question about what happened to the followers of John the Baptist (13:13–19:7). Acts 18:24-28 refers to a learned Jew, Apollos, who was actively teaching about Jesus in the synagogue at Ephesus, but who was apparently not a member of a distinctively Christian community, not having been baptized in the name of Jesus. He was acquainted only with the baptism of repentance practiced by John the Baptist. After Apollos went to Corinth to minister to the young congregation that Paul founded the previous year, Paul went to Ephesus. There he met several disciples of Jesus who, like Apollos, had experienced John’s baptism of repentance, but who had not been baptized as Christians.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s reference to Apollos and those disciples, as well as several passages in the Gospels, indicate that the movement begun by John the Baptist did not simply come to an end when Jesus began his ministry. Evidently John continued to baptize until his death (Jn 3:22-24), and many of his disciples maintained John’s work after his death. Probably both Apollos and the disciples at Ephesus were products of the continuing ministry of John’s disciples. Eventually they were introduced to “the way of the Lord” (18:25). Their lack of knowledge about a distinctive Christian baptism or about the reality of the Holy Spirit (19:2-4) shows how much diversity in both belief and practice existed in early Christianity.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s third missionary tour began with a three-year ministry in Ephesus (19:1–20:1), continued with a visit to churches established on the previous journey (20:2-12), and came to a climax with his arrest in Jerusalem (Acts 21). It took place in the mid-50s (<span>AD<\/span> 53–57). Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem and arraignment before the provincial governor, Felix, in Caesarea (23:23–24:23) must be dated about 57. After Paul had spent two years under house arrest, no doubt prolonged by Felix to gain favor with Jewish subjects, Felix was replaced by Porcius Festus (<span>AD<\/span> 59–60). Josephus noted that Felix was recalled because of an outbreak of civil strife between Jewish and gentile inhabitants of Caesarea and Felix’s unwise handling of the situation.<\/p>\n<p>The new procurator, Festus, was uncertain about what to do with his prisoner. The Jewish leadership sought to seize that opportunity, aware of the desire of new procurators to gain popularity with their subjects (25:1-9). Realizing the threat, Paul appealed his case to the highest court of the empire, presided over by Caesar himself (25:10-12).<\/p>\n<p>Festus was then left with a problem. He had to send with his prisoner a report to the emperor, clearly outlining the charges. Since he did not really comprehend the case (25:25-27), he sought the advice of Herod Agrippa II, who with his sister had come to Caesarea to pay their respects to the new imperial governor of Palestine (25:13). Agrippa II was the son of Herod Agrippa I and, at least in theory, a Jew. He ruled over parts of Palestine from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 100 and had been given the right to appoint the Jewish high priests. His familiarity with Jewish religious traditions and the Law thus put him in a better position to understand Jerusalem’s case against Paul. The outcome of Paul’s appearance before Festus and Agrippa (26:1-29) was recognition of Paul’s innocence (26:31). Yet Paul’s appeal to Rome had to be honored; the law governing such cases had to be followed (26:32).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s relative freedom during the next two-year period (28:30) seems unusual but was a rather common practice in Roman judicial proceedings, especially for Roman citizens who had appealed to the emperor. There is no good reason to believe that Paul was executed at the time when Luke’s narrative ends (c. <span>AD<\/span> 61–62). The great fire of Rome and Nero’s subsequent persecution of Christians were still a few years away (<span>AD<\/span> 64). It is likely that the case against Paul was dismissed, especially in light of the favorable verdict by Festus and King Agrippa. It is also likely that Paul was executed during the later, more general persecution of Christians. Such a sequence would correspond with the tradition cited by Eusebius, a fourth-century church historian, that Paul resumed his ministry and later suffered martyrdom under Nero.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>In the preface to the Gospel, intended to cover the second volume also, Luke told Theophilus (and the audience he represented) that he had set out to write an accurate, orderly account about the beginnings of the Christian movement in the ministry of Jesus of Nazareth (Lk 1:1-4). The opening lines in Acts indicate that the narrative beginning with Jesus of Nazareth (vol 1) is continuing and that Luke’s second volume intends to trace the story from Palestine to Rome (Acts 1:1-8).<\/p>\n<p>While recounting this story, Luke attempted to defend the Christian movement against false charges brought against it. A number of misconceptions attended the birth and growth of the Christian movement. One concerned the relationship between the new faith and Judaism. Many, both within the church and among Roman officials, understood the Christian faith as no more than a particular expression of, or sect within, Judaism. Against that restricted notion, Luke-Acts strikes a universal note. The Gospel proclaims Jesus as Savior of the world (Lk 2:29-32). In Acts, Stephen’s defense before the Jewish council (ch 7), Peter’s experience in Joppa with Cornelius (ch 10), and Paul’s speech at Athens (ch 17) all demonstrate that Christianity is not merely a Jewish sect, some narrow messianic movement, but rather a universal faith. Another problem was popular identification of the new faith with the various religious cults and mystery religions in the Roman Empire. The accounts of the early church’s conflict with Simon the magician (ch 8) and of Paul and Barnabas’s rejection of an attempt to worship them at Lystra (ch 14) undermine the popular charge of superstition. Also, Christianity is not a mystery cult in which esoteric, secret rites bring a worshiper into union with the divine. The Lord worshiped by Christians, said Luke, belongs to real history; he lived his life in Palestine in the then-recent past, openly, for all to observe (see the speeches of Peter and Paul in Acts 2; 10; 13).<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s major purpose, however, was defense of Christianity against the charge that it posed a threat to the order and stability of the Roman Empire. There were, of course, grounds for such suspicions. After all, the founder of the movement had been crucified on a charge of sedition by a Roman procurator, and the movement that claimed his name seemed to evoke tumult, disorder, and riots wherever it spread. Luke’s account met those problems head-on. In the Gospel he presented the trial of Jesus as a serious miscarriage of justice. Pilate had handed Jesus over for crucifixion, but he had found Jesus not guilty. Herod Antipas likewise found no substance in the charges against Jesus (Lk 23:13-16; Acts 13:28). A neutral or even friendly attitude of Roman officials toward leading Christians and the movement as a whole is documented throughout Acts. The Roman proconsul of Cyprus, Sergius Paulus, gladly received Paul and Barnabas and responded positively to their message (Acts 13:7-12). The chief magistrate in Philippi apologized for the illegal beating and imprisonment of Paul and Silas (16:37-39). The proconsul of Achaia, Gallio, found Paul guiltless in the eyes of Roman law (18:12-16). In Ephesus the magistrate intervened in a crowd’s attack on Paul and his companions, rejecting the charges against them (19:35-39). A tribune of the Roman military contingent in Jerusalem arrested Paul, but it turned out that he really saved the apostle from the wrath of a mob; in his letter to the procurator Felix, the tribune acknowledged that Paul was not guilty by Roman law (23:26-29). The same verdict was repeated after Paul’s arraignment before Felix, his successor Festus, and Herod Agrippa II: “This man hasn’t done anything worthy of death or imprisonment” (26:31, <span>nlt<\/span>). Luke climaxed his story by telling how Paul carried on his missionary activity in Rome, the very heart of the empire, and with the permission of the imperial guards (28:30-31). It is clear throughout Luke’s defense that the strife that attended the beginnings and progress of Christianity was not due primarily to anything within the movement, but rather to Jewish opposition and falsification.<\/p>\n<p>Within his lengthy apology for the integrity of Christianity, Luke’s specific theological perspectives can be clearly seen. The two volume work presents a grand scheme of the history of redemption, extending from the <em>time of Israel<\/em> (Lk 1–2) through the <em>time of Jesus,<\/em> and continuing through the <em>time of the church,<\/em> when the good news for Israel is extended to all nations. Paralleling that emphasis is an insistence that God is present in the redemptive story through the Holy Spirit. In the Gospel, Jesus is presented as the Man of the Spirit; the reality of the Spirit empowered him for his work (Lk 3:22; 4:1, 14, 18). In Acts, the fellowship of Jesus’ disciples is presented as the community of the Spirit (1:8; 2:1-8). What Jesus in the power of the Spirit had begun in his own ministry, the church in the power of the Spirit continues to do.<\/p>\n<p>For Luke, the empowering presence of God’s Spirit was a reality that gave the new faith its power, integrity, and perseverance. It enabled faithful witness (1:8) and created genuine community (2:44-47; 4:32-37), something for which the ancient world desperately longed. The Spirit in the new community produced courage and boldness (see Peter’s defenses in chs 2–5), empowered for service (ch 6), overcame prejudice as in the mission in Samaria (ch 8), broke down walls as in the Cornelius episode (chs 10–11), and sent believers out on missions (ch 13).<\/p>\n<p>The entire story is also punctuated by the centrality of Jesus’ resurrection. Luke, like Paul (see 1 Cor 15:12-21), must have been convinced that without the resurrection of Jesus there would be no Christian faith at all. More than that, the resurrection put God’s stamp of approval on Jesus’ life and ministry, authenticating the truth of his claims. Luke announced his interest in that theme at the outset: the ultimate criterion for an apostolic replacement for Judas was that he must have been, with the other disciples, a witness to Jesus’ resurrection. Throughout Acts, from Peter’s Pentecost sermon and defenses before the Sanhedrin to Paul’s speeches before Felix and Agrippa, the church is shown bearing witness to Jesus’ resurrection as a great reversal executed by God (2:22-24, 36; 3:14-15; 5:30-31; 10:39-42).<\/p>\n<p>Acts falls naturally into two parts, chapters 1–12, and 13–28. The first part, roughly speaking, contains the “acts of Peter.” Part two is largely concerned with the “acts of Paul.” In the first 12 chapters, Peter is the central figure who initiates the choosing of a replacement for Judas Iscariot (ch 1); addresses the multitudes at Pentecost (ch 2); interprets the significance of the healing of a lame man to a temple crowd (ch 3); delivers a defense of the Christian proclamation before the supreme Jewish council (ch 4); leads the apostles in a healing ministry and speaks for them (ch 5); stands in the forefront of conflict with a Samaritan magician, “Simon the Great” (ch 8); launches—though somewhat unwillingly—the movement of the gospel to the Gentiles through Cornelius (chs 10–11); and draws the fire of Herod’s campaign against the church but is miraculously delivered from prison (ch 12).<\/p>\n<p>Proclamation of the gospel to the Gentiles through Paul’s ministry is the theme of part two of Acts (chs 13–28). The story primarily concerns three major missionary tours, each of which moved the gospel into yet untouched territory and expanded earlier missionary efforts. The account of Paul’s life and work climaxes in his arrest in Jerusalem (chs 21–22), a lengthy imprisonment in Caesarea (chs 23–26), and a voyage to Rome (chs 27–28).<\/p>\n<p>Another way of getting at the structure and content of Acts is thematic. It has its starting point in Jesus’ statement, “You shall receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you; and you shall be my witnesses in Jerusalem and in all Judea and Samaria and to the ends of the earth” (1:8). Acts can be seen as the story of the fulfillment of that “Great Commission,” unfolding essentially in three stages: (1) witness to Judaism, focused in Jerusalem but also expanding into surrounding Judea and north into Galilee (chs 1–7); (2) witness to Samaria through Philip, Peter, and John (8:1–9:31); (3) witness to the gentile world, first haltingly through Peter (9:32–12:25), and then decisively through Paul (chs 13–28).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Luke (Person); Paul, The Apostle; Simon Peter; Theophilus #1; Chronology of the Bible (New Testament).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, B<span>ook of the<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>NT book presenting the history of the early church and written as a sequel to the Gospel of Luke. In the arrangement of the NT books, Acts comes after the four Gospels and before the Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background and Content<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts does not state clearly who its writer is, but the general consensus is that Luke was its author.<\/p>\n<p>Early church tradition from the second century states that Acts (as well as the third Gospel) was written by a traveling companion and fellow worker of the apostle Paul. That companion is identified in Colossians 4:14 as “Luke, the beloved physician” (<span>nasb<\/span>) and mentioned among Paul’s coworkers (Col 4:10-17; see also 2 Tm 4:11; Phlm 1:24).<\/p>\n<p>Strong support for the tradition that the author of Acts was a companion of Paul comes from the second half of the book recounting Paul’s ministry. There, several narratives are told in the first person plural:<\/p>\n<p>1. “That night Paul had a vision. He saw a man from Macedonia in northern Greece, pleading with him, ‘Come over here and help us.’ So we decided to leave for Macedonia at once, for we could only conclude that God was calling us to preach the Good News there” (16:9-10, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<li>2. “They went ahead and waited for us at Troas . . . we boarded a ship at Philippi in Macedonia and five days later arrived in Troas, where we stayed a week” (20:5-6, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>3. “When the time came, we set sail for Italy” (27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n<p>These “we” sections (16:9-18; 20:5–21:18; 27:1–28:16) sound like part of a travel narrative or diary written by an eyewitness who accompanied Paul from Troas to Philippi on his second missionary journey; from Philippi to Miletus on the third; from Miletus to Jerusalem; and from Caesarea to Rome. Since the style and vocabulary of these travel narratives resemble those of the rest of the book, it is highly probably that the diarist was also the author of the entire book.<\/p>\n<p>The sophisticated literary style and polished use of the Greek language in the book, as well as the fact that it is addressed to someone called Theophilus (possibly a high-ranking Roman official), provide strong support for the tradition that Luke was a gentile convert to Christianity. His consistent and frequent use of the Greek OT may indicate that he had been a gentile “God-fearer” before conversion to the new faith.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginDestination\">Date, Origin, Destination<\/p>\n\n<p>The question of the date and place of the origin of Acts continues to be debated. There are no clear indications in the book itself. With regard to its destination, however, Luke did not leave any doubt. In the opening verse he addresses a certain Theophilus, to whom he had already written an earlier book about the life of Jesus. There can be no doubt that he was referring to the work we know as the Gospel of Luke. In the preface to that Gospel (Lk 1:1-4), Luke clearly stated his purpose for writing and addressed his account to the “most honorable Theophilus.” It is not clear who that person was. Some interpreters think that Theophilus (which means “dear to God” or “lover of God”) stands for Christian readers in general rather than any specific individual. However, the designation “most honorable” argues against such an assumption. That ascription was a common title of honor, designating a person with official standing in the Roman sociopolitical order (cf. use of the title for Felix, Acts 23:26; 24:2; and for Festus, 26:25). It is thus likely that Luke intended his two-volume work for an official representative of Roman society.<\/p>\n<p>When was Acts written? Some scholars date it in the last quarter of the first century. Since the Gospel was written first, and since Luke based his story of Jesus on eyewitness accounts and written sources (among which was possibly the Gospel of Mark, probably written in the 60s), Acts should not be dated much before <span>AD<\/span> 85. Proponents of such a late date claim support from the theology of Acts, which they see as picturing a Christian church settled into history, adjusted to the prospect of a lengthy period before the Lord’s return. Since expectation of the Lord’s imminent return was fanned into a living flame by the Jewish revolt and the fall of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 70, time must be allowed for that flame to have died down a bit.<\/p>\n<p>Other scholars date Acts around <span>AD<\/span> 70 or shortly thereafter. The Jewish rebellion of <span>AD<\/span> 66–70, which culminated in the destruction of Jerusalem, brought the Jewish faith—legal until then—into disrepute. The Christian movement, which had been accepted as a Jewish sect, became suspect. Christians were increasingly charged with being enemies of Rome. A study of Acts shows that among a number of purposes (see below), Luke seems to have been defending the Christians against the charge of hostility toward the state. He showed how Roman officials repeatedly testified to the complete innocence of Christians and above all else of Paul (16:39; 18:14-17; 19:37; 23:29; 25:25; 26:32). Luke also made it clear that Paul was allowed to carry on his mission with full approval of Roman officials in the very heart of the imperial capital (28:16-31).<\/p>\n<p>A still earlier date, closer to Paul’s Roman imprisonment (early 60s), has been advocated by a number of scholars. There are two compelling reasons: (1) The abrupt ending of Acts, describing Paul carrying on a ministry in Rome before his trial had commenced, may indicate that Luke was writing at that point. It is possible, of course, that Luke ended his story with Paul preaching the gospel in Rome because one of his purposes had been accomplished: namely, showing how the gospel spread from Jerusalem to Rome. But it seems highly unlikely that Luke would close his history without Paul’s defense of the gospel before Caesar himself if that had already happened. (2) The most appropriate period for Luke’s history, with its defense of the Christian movement against all kinds of accusations from both Jews and Gentiles, is the period when Christianity was becoming suspect but was not yet proscribed. That was the time before the start of the persecutions under Nero in <span>AD<\/span> 64. The early date would correspond with the contention that Luke was with Paul during his Roman imprisonment and that he wrote his history in Rome while waiting for Paul’s trial to begin. It is possible that Luke’s work was partially intended to influence the verdict. Luke presented a picture of Christianity and of Paul that he hoped would enable Paul to continue his work among the Gentiles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BackgroundandContent\">Background and Content<\/p>\n<p>Luke grounds his documentary of the rapid expansion of Christianity in the history of the Roman Empire and Palestine during the three decades from <span>AD<\/span> 30 to 60. Some brief historical and geographical considerations will aid in understanding Luke’s history.<\/p>\n<p>Acts 1–12 reports the beginnings of the Christian movement within the imperial province of Syria, which included Judea and Samaria. In the first century <span>AD<\/span>, those regions were generally governed by Roman procurators or puppet kings. At the time of Jesus’ death and resurrection (c. <span>AD<\/span> 30), Pontius Pilate was procurator in Judea and Samaria (<span>AD<\/span> 26–36). Galilee was ruled by King Herod Antipas (4 <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 39). Tiberius was emperor of the Roman Empire (<span>AD<\/span> 14–37). The account of Acts 1–12 took place in the period <span>AD<\/span> 30–44.<\/p>\n<p>The conversion of Saul (Acts 9) is generally dated in <span>AD <\/span>33. After Saul’s conversion and departure to his native Tarsus, the church evidently enjoyed a period of tranquility, consolidating its gains and growing steadily (9:31–11:26). It can be assumed, from Galatians 1:18-21 and the existence of Christian communities that Paul and Silas visited on the second missionary tour (Acts 15:40-41), that Paul was not idle during that decade, but intensely involved in the mission to the Gentiles. (After Acts 13:9, the name “Saul” is dropped from the narrative.)<\/p>\n<p>In <span>AD<\/span> 41, Claudius became emperor of Rome and installed Herod Agrippa I as king of the Jews. (The procurator Pontius Pilate had been removed several years earlier for inept administration of the region.) Agrippa I was grandson of Herod the Great and his Jewish princess Mariamne. Because of his Jewish roots, he was more popular with his subjects than the former Herods. No doubt it was his desire to increase that popularity and gain the support of the Jewish religious authorities that led to a renewed outbreak of violence against the Jerusalem church. Acts 12 recounts the execution of James (the brother of the apostle John) and the imprisonment of Peter. The story of Agrippa I’s death (12:20-23) is paralleled in an account by the Jewish historian Josephus, who dates the event in <span>AD<\/span> 44.<\/p>\n<p>A second event providing a time reference for the unfolding story of the early church is the collection of famine relief in Antioch for Christians in Judea (11:27-29). Luke stated that a severe famine took place (v 28) during the reign of Emperor Claudius (<span>AD<\/span> 41–54). Josephus, writing his <em>Antiquities<\/em> at the end of the first century, spoke of a severe famine in Palestine between the years <span>AD<\/span> 44 and 48. According to Acts 12:25, Barnabas and Paul finished their mission to famine-stricken Christians in Judea after the death of Agrippa I, making it possible to date their mission about <span>AD<\/span> 45.<\/p>\n<p>At that point in the narrative of Acts, Paul is launched officially into his mission to the Gentiles (13:1-3), for which the history and geography of the larger Roman Empire form the backdrop. The official Roman policy toward the various religions in the empire was one of toleration. That policy, plus use of the Greek language throughout the empire and a phenomenal network of roads and sea routes, paved the way for Paul’s far-ranging missionary work.<\/p>\n<p>The first tour (<span>AD<\/span> 46–47) took Paul and Barnabas through the island province of Cyprus in the northeastern tip of the Mediterranean Sea and into the province of Galatia, where churches were established in several cities of southern Galatia (Antioch of Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra, Derbe). Galatia is located in Asia Minor, bordered by the Black Sea, the Aegean Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea on its northern, western, and southern sides. Those cities, important colonial outposts for the Romans, contained mixed populations, including large Jewish communities. It was in the synagogues of those communities that Paul launched his missionary efforts, almost always meeting with considerable opposition (chs 13–14).<\/p>\n<p>The deliberation of the Jerusalem Council about differences between Jewish and gentile Christians (ch 15) can be dated in the year <span>AD<\/span> 48. It was followed by Paul’s second missionary journey, which led him through the already evangelized territory of his native Cilicia, Galatia, and through Troas on the Aegean coast to Macedonia and down into Achaia, the Greek Peninsula (15:40–18:22). Churches were established in the important Macedonian cities of Philippi, Thessalonica, and Beroea.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s one and a half years in Corinth (18:11) can be dated with some certainty in <span>AD<\/span> 51–52. An ancient inscription among the ruins of Delphi, a city in central Greece, states that Gallio became proconsul of Achaia in 51. Acts 18:12-17 tells how Paul was accused by antagonistic Jews before Gallio. The implication is that Paul’s adversaries in Corinth felt that a new proconsul could be persuaded to side with their cause. Thus, Paul’s stay in Corinth can be dated around the beginning of Gallio’s proconsulship.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s account of Paul’s return to Palestine and the beginning of his third missionary tour brings up a fascinating historical question about what happened to the followers of John the Baptist (13:13–19:7). Acts 18:24-28 refers to a learned Jew, Apollos, who was actively teaching about Jesus in the synagogue at Ephesus, but who was apparently not a member of a distinctively Christian community, not having been baptized in the name of Jesus. He was acquainted only with the baptism of repentance practiced by John the Baptist. After Apollos went to Corinth to minister to the young congregation that Paul founded the previous year, Paul went to Ephesus. There he met several disciples of Jesus who, like Apollos, had experienced John’s baptism of repentance, but who had not been baptized as Christians.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s reference to Apollos and those disciples, as well as several passages in the Gospels, indicate that the movement begun by John the Baptist did not simply come to an end when Jesus began his ministry. Evidently John continued to baptize until his death (Jn 3:22-24), and many of his disciples maintained John’s work after his death. Probably both Apollos and the disciples at Ephesus were products of the continuing ministry of John’s disciples. Eventually they were introduced to “the way of the Lord” (18:25). Their lack of knowledge about a distinctive Christian baptism or about the reality of the Holy Spirit (19:2-4) shows how much diversity in both belief and practice existed in early Christianity.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s third missionary tour began with a three-year ministry in Ephesus (19:1–20:1), continued with a visit to churches established on the previous journey (20:2-12), and came to a climax with his arrest in Jerusalem (Acts 21). It took place in the mid-50s (<span>AD<\/span> 53–57). Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem and arraignment before the provincial governor, Felix, in Caesarea (23:23–24:23) must be dated about 57. After Paul had spent two years under house arrest, no doubt prolonged by Felix to gain favor with Jewish subjects, Felix was replaced by Porcius Festus (<span>AD<\/span> 59–60). Josephus noted that Felix was recalled because of an outbreak of civil strife between Jewish and gentile inhabitants of Caesarea and Felix’s unwise handling of the situation.<\/p>\n<p>The new procurator, Festus, was uncertain about what to do with his prisoner. The Jewish leadership sought to seize that opportunity, aware of the desire of new procurators to gain popularity with their subjects (25:1-9). Realizing the threat, Paul appealed his case to the highest court of the empire, presided over by Caesar himself (25:10-12).<\/p>\n<p>Festus was then left with a problem. He had to send with his prisoner a report to the emperor, clearly outlining the charges. Since he did not really comprehend the case (25:25-27), he sought the advice of Herod Agrippa II, who with his sister had come to Caesarea to pay their respects to the new imperial governor of Palestine (25:13). Agrippa II was the son of Herod Agrippa I and, at least in theory, a Jew. He ruled over parts of Palestine from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 100 and had been given the right to appoint the Jewish high priests. His familiarity with Jewish religious traditions and the Law thus put him in a better position to understand Jerusalem’s case against Paul. The outcome of Paul’s appearance before Festus and Agrippa (26:1-29) was recognition of Paul’s innocence (26:31). Yet Paul’s appeal to Rome had to be honored; the law governing such cases had to be followed (26:32).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s relative freedom during the next two-year period (28:30) seems unusual but was a rather common practice in Roman judicial proceedings, especially for Roman citizens who had appealed to the emperor. There is no good reason to believe that Paul was executed at the time when Luke’s narrative ends (c. <span>AD<\/span> 61–62). The great fire of Rome and Nero’s subsequent persecution of Christians were still a few years away (<span>AD<\/span> 64). It is likely that the case against Paul was dismissed, especially in light of the favorable verdict by Festus and King Agrippa. It is also likely that Paul was executed during the later, more general persecution of Christians. Such a sequence would correspond with the tradition cited by Eusebius, a fourth-century church historian, that Paul resumed his ministry and later suffered martyrdom under Nero.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>In the preface to the Gospel, intended to cover the second volume also, Luke told Theophilus (and the audience he represented) that he had set out to write an accurate, orderly account about the beginnings of the Christian movement in the ministry of Jesus of Nazareth (Lk 1:1-4). The opening lines in Acts indicate that the narrative beginning with Jesus of Nazareth (vol 1) is continuing and that Luke’s second volume intends to trace the story from Palestine to Rome (Acts 1:1-8).<\/p>\n<p>While recounting this story, Luke attempted to defend the Christian movement against false charges brought against it. A number of misconceptions attended the birth and growth of the Christian movement. One concerned the relationship between the new faith and Judaism. Many, both within the church and among Roman officials, understood the Christian faith as no more than a particular expression of, or sect within, Judaism. Against that restricted notion, Luke-Acts strikes a universal note. The Gospel proclaims Jesus as Savior of the world (Lk 2:29-32). In Acts, Stephen’s defense before the Jewish council (ch 7), Peter’s experience in Joppa with Cornelius (ch 10), and Paul’s speech at Athens (ch 17) all demonstrate that Christianity is not merely a Jewish sect, some narrow messianic movement, but rather a universal faith. Another problem was popular identification of the new faith with the various religious cults and mystery religions in the Roman Empire. The accounts of the early church’s conflict with Simon the magician (ch 8) and of Paul and Barnabas’s rejection of an attempt to worship them at Lystra (ch 14) undermine the popular charge of superstition. Also, Christianity is not a mystery cult in which esoteric, secret rites bring a worshiper into union with the divine. The Lord worshiped by Christians, said Luke, belongs to real history; he lived his life in Palestine in the then-recent past, openly, for all to observe (see the speeches of Peter and Paul in Acts 2; 10; 13).<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s major purpose, however, was defense of Christianity against the charge that it posed a threat to the order and stability of the Roman Empire. There were, of course, grounds for such suspicions. After all, the founder of the movement had been crucified on a charge of sedition by a Roman procurator, and the movement that claimed his name seemed to evoke tumult, disorder, and riots wherever it spread. Luke’s account met those problems head-on. In the Gospel he presented the trial of Jesus as a serious miscarriage of justice. Pilate had handed Jesus over for crucifixion, but he had found Jesus not guilty. Herod Antipas likewise found no substance in the charges against Jesus (Lk 23:13-16; Acts 13:28). A neutral or even friendly attitude of Roman officials toward leading Christians and the movement as a whole is documented throughout Acts. The Roman proconsul of Cyprus, Sergius Paulus, gladly received Paul and Barnabas and responded positively to their message (Acts 13:7-12). The chief magistrate in Philippi apologized for the illegal beating and imprisonment of Paul and Silas (16:37-39). The proconsul of Achaia, Gallio, found Paul guiltless in the eyes of Roman law (18:12-16). In Ephesus the magistrate intervened in a crowd’s attack on Paul and his companions, rejecting the charges against them (19:35-39). A tribune of the Roman military contingent in Jerusalem arrested Paul, but it turned out that he really saved the apostle from the wrath of a mob; in his letter to the procurator Felix, the tribune acknowledged that Paul was not guilty by Roman law (23:26-29). The same verdict was repeated after Paul’s arraignment before Felix, his successor Festus, and Herod Agrippa II: “This man hasn’t done anything worthy of death or imprisonment” (26:31, <span>nlt<\/span>). Luke climaxed his story by telling how Paul carried on his missionary activity in Rome, the very heart of the empire, and with the permission of the imperial guards (28:30-31). It is clear throughout Luke’s defense that the strife that attended the beginnings and progress of Christianity was not due primarily to anything within the movement, but rather to Jewish opposition and falsification.<\/p>\n<p>Within his lengthy apology for the integrity of Christianity, Luke’s specific theological perspectives can be clearly seen. The two volume work presents a grand scheme of the history of redemption, extending from the <em>time of Israel<\/em> (Lk 1–2) through the <em>time of Jesus,<\/em> and continuing through the <em>time of the church,<\/em> when the good news for Israel is extended to all nations. Paralleling that emphasis is an insistence that God is present in the redemptive story through the Holy Spirit. In the Gospel, Jesus is presented as the Man of the Spirit; the reality of the Spirit empowered him for his work (Lk 3:22; 4:1, 14, 18). In Acts, the fellowship of Jesus’ disciples is presented as the community of the Spirit (1:8; 2:1-8). What Jesus in the power of the Spirit had begun in his own ministry, the church in the power of the Spirit continues to do.<\/p>\n<p>For Luke, the empowering presence of God’s Spirit was a reality that gave the new faith its power, integrity, and perseverance. It enabled faithful witness (1:8) and created genuine community (2:44-47; 4:32-37), something for which the ancient world desperately longed. The Spirit in the new community produced courage and boldness (see Peter’s defenses in chs 2–5), empowered for service (ch 6), overcame prejudice as in the mission in Samaria (ch 8), broke down walls as in the Cornelius episode (chs 10–11), and sent believers out on missions (ch 13).<\/p>\n<p>The entire story is also punctuated by the centrality of Jesus’ resurrection. Luke, like Paul (see 1 Cor 15:12-21), must have been convinced that without the resurrection of Jesus there would be no Christian faith at all. More than that, the resurrection put God’s stamp of approval on Jesus’ life and ministry, authenticating the truth of his claims. Luke announced his interest in that theme at the outset: the ultimate criterion for an apostolic replacement for Judas was that he must have been, with the other disciples, a witness to Jesus’ resurrection. Throughout Acts, from Peter’s Pentecost sermon and defenses before the Sanhedrin to Paul’s speeches before Felix and Agrippa, the church is shown bearing witness to Jesus’ resurrection as a great reversal executed by God (2:22-24, 36; 3:14-15; 5:30-31; 10:39-42).<\/p>\n<p>Acts falls naturally into two parts, chapters 1–12, and 13–28. The first part, roughly speaking, contains the “acts of Peter.” Part two is largely concerned with the “acts of Paul.” In the first 12 chapters, Peter is the central figure who initiates the choosing of a replacement for Judas Iscariot (ch 1); addresses the multitudes at Pentecost (ch 2); interprets the significance of the healing of a lame man to a temple crowd (ch 3); delivers a defense of the Christian proclamation before the supreme Jewish council (ch 4); leads the apostles in a healing ministry and speaks for them (ch 5); stands in the forefront of conflict with a Samaritan magician, “Simon the Great” (ch 8); launches—though somewhat unwillingly—the movement of the gospel to the Gentiles through Cornelius (chs 10–11); and draws the fire of Herod’s campaign against the church but is miraculously delivered from prison (ch 12).<\/p>\n<p>Proclamation of the gospel to the Gentiles through Paul’s ministry is the theme of part two of Acts (chs 13–28). The story primarily concerns three major missionary tours, each of which moved the gospel into yet untouched territory and expanded earlier missionary efforts. The account of Paul’s life and work climaxes in his arrest in Jerusalem (chs 21–22), a lengthy imprisonment in Caesarea (chs 23–26), and a voyage to Rome (chs 27–28).<\/p>\n<p>Another way of getting at the structure and content of Acts is thematic. It has its starting point in Jesus’ statement, “You shall receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you; and you shall be my witnesses in Jerusalem and in all Judea and Samaria and to the ends of the earth” (1:8). Acts can be seen as the story of the fulfillment of that “Great Commission,” unfolding essentially in three stages: (1) witness to Judaism, focused in Jerusalem but also expanding into surrounding Judea and north into Galilee (chs 1–7); (2) witness to Samaria through Philip, Peter, and John (8:1–9:31); (3) witness to the gentile world, first haltingly through Peter (9:32–12:25), and then decisively through Paul (chs 13–28).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Luke (Person); Paul, The Apostle; Simon Peter; Theophilus #1; Chronology of the Bible (New Testament).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, Book of the NT book presenting the history of the early church and written as a sequel to the Gospel of Luke. In the arrangement of the NT books, Acts comes after the four Gospels and before the Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, Destination • Background and Content • Purpose Author The book of Acts does not state clearly who its writer is, but the general consensus is that Luke was its author. Early church tradition from the second century states that Acts (as w...","summary_en":"ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, Book of the NT book presenting the history of the early church and written as a sequel to the Gospel of Luke. In the arrangement of the NT books, Acts comes after the four Gospels and before the Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, Destination • Background and Content • Purpose Author The book of Acts does not state clearly who its writer is, but the general consensus is that Luke was its author. Early church tradition from the second century states that Acts (as w...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"38":[{"id":9332,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Deputy","title_en":"Deputy","content_ro":"<h3>DEPUTY<\/h3>\n<li>1. Official of superior rank whose authority is normally granted by a king (1 Kgs 22:47; Jer 51:28). <em>See<\/em> Governor.<\/li>\n<li>2. KJV translation for “proconsul,” an officer appointed over provinces by the Roman senate, in Acts 13:7-12; 18:12; and 19:38.<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Proconsul.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DEPUTY<\/h3>\n<li>1. Official of superior rank whose authority is normally granted by a king (1 Kgs 22:47; Jer 51:28). <em>See<\/em> Governor.<\/li>\n<li>2. KJV translation for “proconsul,” an officer appointed over provinces by the Roman senate, in Acts 13:7-12; 18:12; and 19:38.<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Proconsul.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DEPUTY 1. Official of superior rank whose authority is normally granted by a king (1 Kgs 22:47; Jer 51:28). See Governor. 2. KJV translation for “proconsul,” an officer appointed over provinces by the Roman senate, in Acts 13:7-12; 18:12; and 19:38. See also Proconsul.","summary_en":"DEPUTY 1. Official of superior rank whose authority is normally granted by a king (1 Kgs 22:47; Jer 51:28). See Governor. 2. KJV translation for “proconsul,” an officer appointed over provinces by the Roman senate, in Acts 13:7-12; 18:12; and 19:38. See also Proconsul.","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}
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