Faptele Apostolilor 28
1 Dupăce am scăpat de primejdie, am aflat că ostrovul se chema Malta.
2 Barbarii ne-au arătat o bunăvoinţă puţin obicinuită; ne-au primit pe toţi la un foc mare, pe care-l aprinseseră din pricină că ploua, şi se lăsase un frig mare.
3 Pavel strânsese o grămadă de mărăcini, şi-i pusese pe foc; o năpârcă a ieşit afară din pricina căldurii, şi s-a lipit de mâna lui.
4 Barbarii, când au văzut năpârca spânzurată de mâna lui, au zis unii către alţii: ,,Cu adevărat omul acesta este un ucigaş, căci ,Dreptatea` nu vrea să-l lase să trăiască, măcar că a fost scăpat din mare.``
5 Pavel a scuturat năpârca în foc, şi n-a simţit niciun rău.
6 Oamenii aceia se aşteptau să-l vadă umflându-se sau căzând deodată mort; dar, dupăce au aşteptat mult, şi au văzut că nu i se întâmplă niciun rău, şi-au schimbat părerea, şi ziceau că este un zeu.
7 În împrejurimi erau moşiile mai marelui ostrovului, numit Publius. El ne-a primit şi ne-a ospătat cu cea mai mare bunăvoinţă trei zile.
8 Tatăl lui Publius zăcea atunci în pat, bolnav de friguri şi de urdinare. Pavel s-a dus la el, s-a rugat, a pus mânile peste el, şi l-a vindecat.
9 Atunci au venit şi ceilalţi bolnavi din ostrovul acela, şi au fost vindecaţi.
10 Ni s-a dat mare cinste; şi, la plecarea noastră cu corabia, ne-au dat tot ce ne trebuia pentru drum.``
11 După o şedere de trei luni, am pornit cu o corabie din Alexandria, care iernase în ostrov şi care purta semnul Dioscurilor.
12 Am ajuns la Siracusa, şi am rămas acolo trei zile.
13 De acolo, am mers înainte pe lângă coastă, şi am venit la Regio; iar a doua zi, fiindcă sufla vântul de miazăzi, după două zile, am venit la Puzole,
14 unde am dat peste nişte fraţi, cari ne-au rugat să mai rămânem şapte zile cu ei. Şi aşa am ajuns la Roma.
15 Din Roma ne-au ieşit înainte, până în ,,Forul lui Apiu``, şi până la ,,Cele trei Cârciumi``, fraţii, cari auziseră despre noi. Când i-a văzut Pavel, a mulţămit lui Dumnezeu, şi s-a îmbărbătat.
16 Când am ajuns la Roma, sutaşul a dat pe cei întemniţaţi căpitanului străjerilor palatului, iar lui Pavel i s-a îngăduit să rămână într-un loc deosebit cu un ostaş care-l păzea.
17 După trei zile, Pavel a chemat pe mai marii Iudeilor; şi, când s-au adunat, le-a zis: ,,Fraţilor, fără să fi făcut ceva împotriva norodului sau obiceiurilor părinţilor noştri, am fost băgat la închisoare în Ierusalim, şi de acolo am fost dat în mânile Romanilor.
18 Dupăce m-au supus la cercetare, ei aveau de gând să-mi dea drumul, pentrucă nu era în mine nici o vină vrednică de moarte.
19 Dar Iudeii s-au împotrivit, şi am fost silit să cer să fiu judecat de Cezar, fără să am dealtfel niciun gând să pârăsc neamul meu.
20 De aceea, v-am chemat să vă văd, şi să vorbesc cu voi; căci din pricina nădejdii lui Israel port eu acest lanţ.``
21 Ei i-au răspuns: ,,Noi n-am primit din Iudea nici o scrisoare cu privire la tine, şi n-a venit aici nici un frate, care să fi spus sau să fi vorbit ceva rău despre tine.
22 Dar am vrea să auzim părerea ta, pentrucă ştim că partida aceasta pretutindeni stârneşte împotrivire.``
23 I-au hotărât o zi, şi au venit mai mulţi la locuinţa lui. Pavel le-a vestit Împărăţia lui Dumnezeu, le-a adus dovezi, şi a căutat să-i încredinţeze, prin Legea lui Moise şi prin Prooroci, despre lucrurile privitoare la Isus. Vorbirea ţinea de dimineaţă până seara.
24 Unii au crezut ce le spunea el, iar alţii n-au crezut.
25 Fiindcă ei au plecat acasă în neânţelegere unii cu alţii, Pavel n-a adăugat decât aceste vorbe: ,,Bine a spus Duhul Sfânt prin proorocul Isaia către părinţii voştri,
26 când a zis: ,Du-te la poporul acesta, şi zi-i: ,,Veţi auzi cu urechile voastre, şi nu veţi înţelege; cu ochii voştri veţi privi, şi nu veţi vedea.
27 Căci inima acestui norod s-a împietrit; ei aud greu cu urechile, şi-au închis ochii, ca nu cumva să vadă cu ochii, să audă cu urechile, să înţeleagă cu inima, să se întoarcă la Dumnezeu, şi să-i vindec.``
28 Să ştiţi dar că mântuirea aceasta a lui Dumnezeu a fost trimeasă Neamurilor, şi o vor asculta.``
29 Când a zis aceste vorbe, Iudeii au plecat, vorbind cu aprindere între ei.
30 Pavel a rămas doi ani întregi într-o casă, pe care o luase cu chirie. Primea pe toţi cari veneau să-l vadă,
31 propovăduia Împărăţia lui Dumnezeu, şi învăţa pe oameni, cu toată îndrăzneala şi fără nicio pedică, cele privitoare la Domnul Isus Hristos
{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":24128,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Malta","title_en":"Malta","content_ro":"<h3>MALTA<\/h3>\n<p>Island in the Mediterranean Sea, south of Sicily. The name Malta occurs only once in the Bible (Acts 28:1, <span>kjv<\/span> “Melita”), in connection with the shipwreck that occurred on Paul’s voyage to Rome (25:11-12). This voyage was undertaken during the winter, the season in which storms are most likely to be encountered on the Mediterranean. The ship proceeded cautiously, for contrary winds were blowing (27:4). With difficulty they reached the harbor of Fair Havens on Crete (vv 7-8). In spite of a warning by Paul, the decision was made to try to reach the Cretan port of Phoenix, which was more suitable for wintering (vv 9-12).<\/p>\n\n<p>Caught by a severe storm and driven helplessly by the wind for 14 days, the ship finally neared land during the night. In the morning, the ship tried for the beach but ran aground and was pounded to pieces by the surf. Everyone managed to reach the shore safely. While putting wood on a fire, Paul was bitten by a viper. The natives of the island supposed that he was a criminal whose life was being taken by the bite of a snake. When he did not fall down dead, they radically changed their opinion of him and regarded him as a god (Acts 28:6).<\/p>\n<p>The island of Malta is about 60 miles (96.5 kilometers) from Sicily and has an area of 95 square miles (246.1 square kilometers). St. Paul’s Bay marks the traditional site of the shipwreck of Acts. The island is essentially agricultural, but production is poor because of the thin calcareous soil. Terracing is practiced in order to utilize the soil to the fullest extent. The island has no rivers and is dependent on rainfall and springs for its water. The climate in general is mild, but in the summer the island is subject to the hot, dust-laden sirocco from the deserts of Libya.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MALTA<\/h3>\n<p>Island in the Mediterranean Sea, south of Sicily. The name Malta occurs only once in the Bible (Acts 28:1, <span>kjv<\/span> “Melita”), in connection with the shipwreck that occurred on Paul’s voyage to Rome (25:11-12). This voyage was undertaken during the winter, the season in which storms are most likely to be encountered on the Mediterranean. The ship proceeded cautiously, for contrary winds were blowing (27:4). With difficulty they reached the harbor of Fair Havens on Crete (vv 7-8). In spite of a warning by Paul, the decision was made to try to reach the Cretan port of Phoenix, which was more suitable for wintering (vv 9-12).<\/p>\n\n<p>Caught by a severe storm and driven helplessly by the wind for 14 days, the ship finally neared land during the night. In the morning, the ship tried for the beach but ran aground and was pounded to pieces by the surf. Everyone managed to reach the shore safely. While putting wood on a fire, Paul was bitten by a viper. The natives of the island supposed that he was a criminal whose life was being taken by the bite of a snake. When he did not fall down dead, they radically changed their opinion of him and regarded him as a god (Acts 28:6).<\/p>\n<p>The island of Malta is about 60 miles (96.5 kilometers) from Sicily and has an area of 95 square miles (246.1 square kilometers). St. Paul’s Bay marks the traditional site of the shipwreck of Acts. The island is essentially agricultural, but production is poor because of the thin calcareous soil. Terracing is practiced in order to utilize the soil to the fullest extent. The island has no rivers and is dependent on rainfall and springs for its water. The climate in general is mild, but in the summer the island is subject to the hot, dust-laden sirocco from the deserts of Libya.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MALTA Island in the Mediterranean Sea, south of Sicily. The name Malta occurs only once in the Bible (Acts 28:1, kjv “Melita”), in connection with the shipwreck that occurred on Paul’s voyage to Rome (25:11-12). This voyage was undertaken during the winter, the season in which storms are most likely to be encountered on the Mediterranean. The ship proceeded cautiously, for contrary winds were blowing (27:4). With difficulty they reached the harbor of Fair Havens on Crete (vv 7-8). In spite of...","summary_en":"MALTA Island in the Mediterranean Sea, south of Sicily. The name Malta occurs only once in the Bible (Acts 28:1, kjv “Melita”), in connection with the shipwreck that occurred on Paul’s voyage to Rome (25:11-12). This voyage was undertaken during the winter, the season in which storms are most likely to be encountered on the Mediterranean. The ship proceeded cautiously, for contrary winds were blowing (27:4). With difficulty they reached the harbor of Fair Havens on Crete (vv 7-8). In spite of...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25046,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Melita*","title_en":"Melita*","content_ro":"<h3>MELITA*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV form of Malta, an island south of Sicily, in Acts 28:1. <em>See<\/em> Malta.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MELITA*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV form of Malta, an island south of Sicily, in Acts 28:1. <em>See<\/em> Malta.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MELITA* KJV form of Malta, an island south of Sicily, in Acts 28:1. See Malta.","summary_en":"MELITA* KJV form of Malta, an island south of Sicily, in Acts 28:1. See Malta.","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36545,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Syracuse","title_en":"Syracuse","content_ro":"<h3>SYRACUSE<\/h3>\n<p>Town on the east coast of Sicily and the island’s most important city. Here Paul’s ship, on which he traveled to Rome as a prisoner, made a three-day stop following his shipwreck and three-month stay in Malta (Acts 28:12). Syracuse had a fine harbor and was a natural port of call for a ship sailing from Malta through the straits of Messina between Sicily and Italy en route to Rome.<\/p>\n\n<p>In the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, Syracuse became a Greek colony, funded by Archias of Corinth. During the fifth century, it grew to great power and influence and was second only to Carthage as the most prominent city of the western Mediterranean. It played a significant role in the struggle between Rome and Carthage in the third century and was captured by Rome in 212 <span>BC<\/span>. Caesar Augustus settled Syracuse in 21 <span>BC<\/span>, making it a Roman colony (cf. Philippi). It is not stated in Acts 28 that Paul found Christians there, but later evidence from its catacombs indicates the existence of a church.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SYRACUSE<\/h3>\n<p>Town on the east coast of Sicily and the island’s most important city. Here Paul’s ship, on which he traveled to Rome as a prisoner, made a three-day stop following his shipwreck and three-month stay in Malta (Acts 28:12). Syracuse had a fine harbor and was a natural port of call for a ship sailing from Malta through the straits of Messina between Sicily and Italy en route to Rome.<\/p>\n\n<p>In the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, Syracuse became a Greek colony, funded by Archias of Corinth. During the fifth century, it grew to great power and influence and was second only to Carthage as the most prominent city of the western Mediterranean. It played a significant role in the struggle between Rome and Carthage in the third century and was captured by Rome in 212 <span>BC<\/span>. Caesar Augustus settled Syracuse in 21 <span>BC<\/span>, making it a Roman colony (cf. Philippi). It is not stated in Acts 28 that Paul found Christians there, but later evidence from its catacombs indicates the existence of a church.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SYRACUSE Town on the east coast of Sicily and the island’s most important city. Here Paul’s ship, on which he traveled to Rome as a prisoner, made a three-day stop following his shipwreck and three-month stay in Malta (Acts 28:12). Syracuse had a fine harbor and was a natural port of call for a ship sailing from Malta through the straits of Messina between Sicily and Italy en route to Rome. In the eighth century BC, Syracuse became a Greek colony, funded by Archias of Corinth. During the fift...","summary_en":"SYRACUSE Town on the east coast of Sicily and the island’s most important city. Here Paul’s ship, on which he traveled to Rome as a prisoner, made a three-day stop following his shipwreck and three-month stay in Malta (Acts 28:12). Syracuse had a fine harbor and was a natural port of call for a ship sailing from Malta through the straits of Messina between Sicily and Italy en route to Rome. In the eighth century BC, Syracuse became a Greek colony, funded by Archias of Corinth. During the fift...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57173,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:1","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:1<\/strong> <em>Malta<\/em> was a major island under Roman control, about sixty miles (100 km) south of Sicily.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:1<\/strong> <em>Malta<\/em> was a major island under Roman control, about sixty miles (100 km) south of Sicily.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:1 Malta was a major island under Roman control, about sixty miles (100 km) south of Sicily.","summary_en":"28:1 Malta was a major island under Roman control, about sixty miles (100 km) south of Sicily.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84799,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:1","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:1<\/strong> <em>Malta<\/em> was a major island under Roman control, about sixty miles (100 km) south of Sicily.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:1<\/strong> <em>Malta<\/em> was a major island under Roman control, about sixty miles (100 km) south of Sicily.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:1 Malta was a major island under Roman control, about sixty miles (100 km) south of Sicily.","summary_en":"28:1 Malta was a major island under Roman control, about sixty miles (100 km) south of Sicily.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112425,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:1","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:1<\/strong> <em>Malta<\/em> was a major island under Roman control, about sixty miles (100 km) south of Sicily.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:1<\/strong> <em>Malta<\/em> was a major island under Roman control, about sixty miles (100 km) south of Sicily.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:1 Malta was a major island under Roman control, about sixty miles (100 km) south of Sicily.","summary_en":"28:1 Malta was a major island under Roman control, about sixty miles (100 km) south of Sicily.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140051,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:1","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:1<\/strong> <em>Malta<\/em> was a major island under Roman control, about sixty miles (100 km) south of Sicily.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:1<\/strong> <em>Malta<\/em> was a major island under Roman control, about sixty miles (100 km) south of Sicily.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:1 Malta was a major island under Roman control, about sixty miles (100 km) south of Sicily.","summary_en":"28:1 Malta was a major island under Roman control, about sixty miles (100 km) south of Sicily.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":3807,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Barbarian*","title_en":"Barbarian*","content_ro":"<h3>BARBARIAN*<\/h3>\n<p>Foreigner, especially a person from a culture regarded as primitive or uncivilized. The Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">barbaros<\/span><em>,<\/em> translated “barbarian” (<span>kjv<\/span>), originated as a repeated nonsense syllable, “<em>bar-bar<\/em><em>,<\/em>” in imitation of the strange sound of a foreign language. The Greeks, viewing themselves as the only truly cultured people in the world, tended to refer to everything non-Greek as barbarian. The Romans adopted Greek culture, considered themselves equals of the Greeks, and regarded other languages, customs, and people as barbarian.<\/p>\n<p>The NT use of the word illustrates its several shades of meaning. The relationship to language is evident in a statement about speaking in tongues through the Holy Spirit (1 Cor 14:11). The apostle Paul said that if a Christian’s spiritual language were not understood, the person speaking would be a barbarian to Paul and vice versa. Luke’s account of Paul’s shipwreck on Malta refers to barbarous people and barbarians (<span>kjv<\/span>, Acts 28:2-4). Obviously, nothing derogatory was intended, since the kindness of the natives was being described. Elsewhere, Paul used the word in the usual Greek-Roman manner, saying he was indebted both to the Greeks and to the barbarians (Rom 1:14). In a profound statement that the gospel of Jesus Christ is for everyone Paul said, “Here there cannot be Greek and Jew, circumcised and uncircumcised, barbarian, Scythian, slave, free man, but Christ is all, and in all” (Col 3:11, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BARBARIAN*<\/h3>\n<p>Foreigner, especially a person from a culture regarded as primitive or uncivilized. The Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">barbaros<\/span><em>,<\/em> translated “barbarian” (<span>kjv<\/span>), originated as a repeated nonsense syllable, “<em>bar-bar<\/em><em>,<\/em>” in imitation of the strange sound of a foreign language. The Greeks, viewing themselves as the only truly cultured people in the world, tended to refer to everything non-Greek as barbarian. The Romans adopted Greek culture, considered themselves equals of the Greeks, and regarded other languages, customs, and people as barbarian.<\/p>\n<p>The NT use of the word illustrates its several shades of meaning. The relationship to language is evident in a statement about speaking in tongues through the Holy Spirit (1 Cor 14:11). The apostle Paul said that if a Christian’s spiritual language were not understood, the person speaking would be a barbarian to Paul and vice versa. Luke’s account of Paul’s shipwreck on Malta refers to barbarous people and barbarians (<span>kjv<\/span>, Acts 28:2-4). Obviously, nothing derogatory was intended, since the kindness of the natives was being described. Elsewhere, Paul used the word in the usual Greek-Roman manner, saying he was indebted both to the Greeks and to the barbarians (Rom 1:14). In a profound statement that the gospel of Jesus Christ is for everyone Paul said, “Here there cannot be Greek and Jew, circumcised and uncircumcised, barbarian, Scythian, slave, free man, but Christ is all, and in all” (Col 3:11, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BARBARIAN* Foreigner, especially a person from a culture regarded as primitive or uncivilized. The Greek word barbaros, translated “barbarian” (kjv), originated as a repeated nonsense syllable, “bar-bar,” in imitation of the strange sound of a foreign language. The Greeks, viewing themselves as the only truly cultured people in the world, tended to refer to everything non-Greek as barbarian. The Romans adopted Greek culture, considered themselves equals of the Greeks, and regarded other langu...","summary_en":"BARBARIAN* Foreigner, especially a person from a culture regarded as primitive or uncivilized. The Greek word barbaros, translated “barbarian” (kjv), originated as a repeated nonsense syllable, “bar-bar,” in imitation of the strange sound of a foreign language. The Greeks, viewing themselves as the only truly cultured people in the world, tended to refer to everything non-Greek as barbarian. The Romans adopted Greek culture, considered themselves equals of the Greeks, and regarded other langu...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":1685,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Animals","title_en":"Animals","content_ro":"<h3>ANIMALS<\/h3>\n<p>In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals as object lessons.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical approach to classification of animals is somewhat different from the system of classification used by biologists today. The present system of classification, which traces back to Carolus Linnaeus (an 18th-century Swedish botanist), is based on structure, both internal and external. The biblical basis of classification is habitat. Thus Genesis 1 speaks of aquatic organisms (v 20); aerial organisms (v 21); animals that crawl on the ground (v 24); cattle or domesticated animals (animals that live in association with humans) (v 24); and wild animals (v 24). The same system of classification is followed in Leviticus 11 and throughout Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Because of the divergence between systems of classification, the various animals of the Bible will be listed here in alphabetical order—including reptiles, fish, and even invertebrates such as insects, spiders, worms, and sponges. Birds are discussed in a separate article.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Adder<\/p>\n<p>• Ant<\/p>\n<p>• Antelope<\/p>\n<p>• Ape<\/p>\n<p>• Asp<\/p>\n<p>• Ass<\/p>\n<p>• Badger<\/p>\n<p>• Bat<\/p>\n<p>• Bear<\/p>\n<p>• Bee<\/p>\n<p>• Behemoth<\/p>\n<p>• Camel<\/p>\n<p>• Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>• Cattle<\/p>\n<p>• Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>• Coral<\/p>\n<p>• Cricket<\/p>\n<p>• Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>• Deer<\/p>\n<p>• Dog<\/p>\n<p>• Donkey<\/p>\n<p>• Dragon<\/p>\n<p>• Fish<\/p>\n<p>• Flea<\/p>\n<p>• Fly<\/p>\n<p>• Fox<\/p>\n<p>• Frog<\/p>\n<p>• Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>• Gecko<\/p>\n<p>• Gnat<\/p>\n<p>• Goat<\/p>\n<p>• Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>• Hare<\/p>\n<p>• Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>• Horse<\/p>\n<p>• Hyena<\/p>\n<p>• Jackal<\/p>\n<p>• Leech<\/p>\n<p>• Leopard<\/p>\n<p>• Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>• Lion<\/p>\n<p>• Lizard<\/p>\n<p>• Locust<\/p>\n<p>• Mole<\/p>\n<p>• Moth<\/p>\n<p>• Mouse<\/p>\n<p>• Mule<\/p>\n<p>• Pig<\/p>\n<p>• Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>• Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>• Sheep<\/p>\n<p>• Snail<\/p>\n<p>• Snake<\/p>\n<p>• Spider<\/p>\n<p>• Sponge<\/p>\n<p>• Unicorn<\/p>\n<p>• Wasp<\/p>\n<p>• Whale<\/p>\n<p>• Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>• Wolf<\/p>\n<p>• Worm<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Adder\">Adder<\/p>\n<p>One of the 20 poisonous snakes found in Israel and surrounding countries, also referred to as cockatrice and viper. True vipers (genus <em>Cerastes, Echis colorata,<\/em> and <em>Vipera palestina<\/em>) also exist there, poisonous snakes with curved fangs that spring into position when the snake strikes. The horned viper <em>(Cerastes hasselquistii)<\/em> may attack horses. It is 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 centimeters) long and often lies in ambush in the sand with only its eyes and the hornlike protrusions on its head visible.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and John the Baptist referred to the viper several times (Mt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33). The reference in Acts 28:3 is probably to a small viper <em>(Vipera aspis)<\/em> that strikes rapidly and is very pugnacious. It is found in southern Europe and hisses each time it inhales and exhales. The poison of vipers attacks the respiratory system and disintegrates red blood cells.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ant\">Ant<\/p>\n<p>Mentioned only twice in the Bible, both times in the book of Proverbs. For many years Solomon was charged with a biological error when he referred to the ant as providing her meat in the summer and gathering her food in the harvest (Prv 6:8). Critics of the Bible were quick to point out that, so far as was then known, ants do not store up food. They assumed that Solomon had probably kicked open an ant hill and mistaken the pupal cases (pods in which immature ants grow to maturity) for grain or had observed ants carrying bits of grain, leaves, and other matter to their nests.<\/p>\n<p>At least three species of grain-storing ants are now known—two occur in Israel and the other in Mediterranean countries. The particular species referred to by Solomon (Prv 6:6-8; 30:24-25) is probably the harvester ant <em>(Messor semirufus).<\/em> Its granaries are flat chambers connected by galleries irregularly scattered over an area about six feet (1.8 meters) in diameter and about a foot (.3 meter) deep in the ground. Seeds are collected from the ground or picked from plants. The head, or radicle, which is the softest part of the kernel, is bitten off to prevent germination, and the chaff and empty capsules are discarded on kitchen middens (refuse piles) outside the nest. Individual granaries may be 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) in diameter and a half inch (1.2 centimeters) high. Some nests are known to be 40 feet (12 meters) in diameter and 6 to 7 feet (approx. 2 meters) deep with several entrances.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Antelope\">Antelope<\/p>\n<p>Several antelope-like creatures are referred to in the Scriptures. One seems to be the white oryx <em>(Oryx leucoryx),<\/em> referred to in Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild ox”; <span>rsv<\/span> “antelope”) and Isaiah 51:20 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild bull”; <span>RSV <\/span>“antelope”). The oryx was probably the antelope, commonly used for food because its long horns made it relatively easy to catch.<\/p>\n<p>Another antelope mentioned in the Bible is the addax <em>(Addax nasomaculatus),<\/em> probably the “pygarg” of Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span>). It is a native of North Africa with grayish white hinder parts, a white patch on the forehead, and twisted and ringed horns. The word “pygarg” comes from a Greek word meaning “white rump.” The addax is about the size of a donkey. Its body is closely covered with short hair. It has a short mane on the underside of its neck that makes the head look somewhat like that of a goat. The hooves are broad and flat, and the tail resembles that of a donkey. It is common in Africa and in Arabia, where Arabs hunt it with falcons and dogs.<\/p>\n<p>Antelopes are very graceful and run with their heads held high. Both sexes have long, permanent, hollow horns. With the oryx the horns go straight back; addax horns are twisted and ringed. Antelope are alert, wary, and keen sighted. They are usually found in herds of from two to a dozen. If injured or brought to bay, an antelope attacks with its head lowered so that the sharp horns point forward. Antelopes feed on grasses and shrubs, drinking from streams and water holes. When water is scarce, they eat melons and succulent bulbs. Both addax and oryx were ceremonially clean in Jewish law.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ape\">Ape<\/p>\n<p>Primate not native to Palestine. The two references to apes in the OT (1 Kgs 10:22; 2 Chr 9:21) refer to their importation by King Solomon with other treasures on board the ships of his mercantile fleet. There is some question concerning the origin of those primates. Some believe that the mention of “ivory” in the same verses suggests they came from East Africa and that they were indeed apes, that is, tailless primates. Others, believing they came from India or Ceylon, suggest that they were actually monkeys. There the baboon (genus Papeio), a large monkey, was considered sacred to the god Thoth. Males of that genus were kept in temples, and the more docile females were often kept as house pets. Such baboons frequently had some of their teeth removed or ground down to lessen the danger of their biting. A number of mummified baboons have been found in Egypt, indicating the high regard in which they were held.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Asp\">Asp<\/p>\n<p>Poisonous snake. Most biblical references to the asp (Dt 32:33) seem to be to the Egyptian cobra <em>(Naja haje),<\/em> which conceals itself in holes, walls, and rocks and has the ability to expand its neck by raising its anterior ribs so as to enlarge the front of its breast into the shape of a flat disc. Its potent poison can cause death in 30 minutes. It attains a length of about 80 inches (2 meters). The fangs are permanently erect, not movable as in the vipers (the common poisonous snakes of North America; only the coral snake in America has permanently erect fangs). Cobra poison attacks the nervous system, causing muscular paralysis. The Egyptians looked upon it as a sacred creature; they regarded it as a protector since it fed on the rodents that ate their crops. The “fiery serpents” (Nm 21:6; Dt 8:15, both <span>rsv<\/span>) may have been cobras; “fiery” probably refers to the burning fever caused by their venom. Isaiah 14:29 and 30:6 (“flying serpent”) may refer to the hood of the cobra.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ass\">Ass<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Donkey (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Badger\">Badger<\/p>\n<p>Small hoofed mammal. What the <span>kjv<\/span> calls a “coney,” modern translations name “rock badger” (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7; Ps 104:18; Prv 30:26). The rock badger spoken of in the Bible is probably the Syrian rock hyrax <em>(Hyrax syriaca),<\/em> the only species of hyrax found outside Africa. This small ungulate (having hooflike toenails) lives among rocks from the Dead Sea valley to Mt Hermon. It is strictly a herbivorous (plant-eating) animal about the size of a rabbit. It resembles a guinea pig more than a rabbit, having quite inconspicuous ears and a very small tail. It has broad nails with four toes on its forelegs and three on its hind legs, the toes being connected with skin almost like a web. Pads acting as sucking discs under its feet enable it to keep its footing on slippery rocks. With its yellow and brown fur, it is sometimes called the bear rat because of its resemblance to a tailless rat. It is also equipped with black whiskers that may be seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p>These rock badgers, or hyraxes, live together in colonies of from 6 to 50 animals, often sunning themselves on rocks. They are difficult to catch. Guards are posted, and if approaching danger is sighted, the whole group will scurry for cover, warned by the sharp whistles of the guards. Thus they are commended for taking refuge in the rocks (Ps 104:18) and are called wise for making “their houses in the rocks” (Prv 30:24, 26, <span>kjv<\/span>). The badger is not a ruminant (does not chew its cud), but the motion of its jaws may suggest that it chews its cud. That is probably why it was included with other cud-chewing animals in the Jewish food laws (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7). It was forbidden to the Jews as food because it did not have cloven hooves. Some Arabs eat and even prize its meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bat\">Bat<\/p>\n<p>Flying mammals according to modern classification. They have hair and provide milk for their young. The Bible classifies them with other aerial creatures. Bats take shelter in caves, crevices, tree cavities, buildings, and also in exposed places on trees. In colder areas they hibernate or migrate. The normal resting position for a bat is hanging head downward. Bats “swim” through the air rather than fly because they move with their legs as well as with their wings.<\/p>\n<p>The bat’s thumb is free and terminates in a single hook claw used for climbing and hanging. The hind feet have five toes, all pointing the same way. The large chest accommodates the powerful muscles needed for flying. Because they orient themselves by echo location, the sense of hearing is very well developed.<\/p>\n<p>Most bats are insect eaters, seizing insects in flight. Many insectivorous bats also eat some fruit. Other bats feed exclusively, usually in groups, on fruit and green vegetation. Fruit-eating bats generally live in the tropics where fruit is constantly ripening, although some have been found in the Holy Land. These bats tend to be larger than the insectivores, having a wingspread of up to five feet (1.5 meters).<\/p>\n<p>A third group includes flower-eating bats that feed on pollen and nectar. These small bats with long pointed heads and long tongues are found only in tropical and semitropical regions. Three species of vampire bats, which do not occur in the Holy Land, eat blood by making a small incision and lapping it up. Carnivorous (meat-eating) bats prey on birds, lizards, and frogs. Fish-eating bats catch fish at or near the water surface.<\/p>\n<p>Eight varieties of bats are known in the Holy Land. One of them, the little brown bat (genus <em>Myotis<\/em>), is worldwide in its distribution. It is insectivorous and probably has the widest distribution of any nonhuman terrestrial mammal. Brown bats are mostly cave dwellers. The females form maternity colonies that may number in the tens of thousands.<\/p>\n<p>Two species of mouse-tailed bats (genus <em>Rhinopoma<\/em>) are found in the Holy Land. Their tails are nearly as long as the head and body combined. They are colonial, roosting in caves, rock clefts, wells, pyramids, palaces, and houses. Like the brown bat, they are insectivorous. The slit-faced or hollow-faced bats (genus <em>Nycteris<\/em>) are also found in the Holy Land. They are insectivorous and roost in groups from 6 to 20.<\/p>\n<p>The bats found in the Holy Land vary in size from that of a mouse to the size of a rat; the largest species measures more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) across the wings. The bat was unclean to the Jews (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bear\">Bear<\/p>\n<p>Large, heavy, big-headed mammal with short, powerful limbs, a short tail, and small eyes and ears. Bears have a “plantigrade” walk: they walk on both the sole and heel as humans do. The Palestinian bear is a Syrian version of the brown bear <em>(Ursus arctos syriacus).<\/em> It can grow to a height of 6 feet (1.8 meters) and may weigh as much as 500 pounds (227 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>Bears have an excellent sense of smell but less developed senses of sight and hearing. They are omnivorous (eating any kind of food); they subsist largely on vegetation, fruits, insects, and fish.<\/p>\n<p>Bears are usually peaceful and inoffensive, but if they think they must defend themselves (Lam 3:10) or their young (2 Sm 17:8; Prv 17:12; Hos 13:8), they may be formidable and dangerous adversaries. David boasted of his role as a bear killer (1 Sm 17:34-37). Since a blow from a bear’s paw can be fatal, David’s courage and strength as a young shepherd in running after a bear and wrenching one of his father’s sheep from its jaws were noteworthy.<\/p>\n<p>Some biblical passages seem to imply that bears attacked for no apparent reason (e.g., Prv 28:15; Am 5:19). At other times they were God’s instruments of punishment, as in the story of Elisha and the two she-bears (2 Kgs 2:24). The bear and the lion, often mentioned together in the Bible (1 Sm 17:37), were the two largest and strongest beasts of prey in the Holy Land. Thus they symbolized both strength and terror (Am 5:19).<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times bears seem to have roamed all over Palestine. Today they are found only in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and even there they are rare.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bee\">Bee<\/p>\n<p>One of two domesticated insects <em>(Apis mellifica),<\/em> the other being the silkworm. Bees gather nectar from flowers, transferring pollen from one flower to another in the process. It is believed that they convey the location of sources of nectar to other bees through a bee “dance,” which may indicate both distance and direction. Bees are sensitive to four colors: blue-green, yellow-green, blue-violet, and ultra-violet (invisible to humans).<\/p>\n<p>The wild bees of the Holy Land are especially noted for their ferocity in attack. Only the female “worker” bees sting people and animals, the virulence of their venom increasing in warm weather. A number of biblical passages allude to the irritable, vindictive nature of bees and to the painful stings they inflict (Dt 1:44; Ps 118:12; Is 7:18).<\/p>\n<p>One reference calls attention to the fact that in semidesert regions a dead animal’s carcass, stripped to the bone by jackals or vultures and dried in the sun, can provide wild bees an excellent place to start a new colony (Jgs 14:5-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptians considered the bee sacred. In ancient Greece candles were made from beeswax. In the Holy Land, beekeeping was probably not practiced until the Hellenistic period (second century <span>BC<\/span>), although Ezekiel 27:17 suggests that it may have been practiced earlier. If domestic honey was not available to the Hebrews, wild honey certainly was, and travelers would be on the lookout for caches of honey in rocky clefts and other likely places. The Philistines and the Hittites practiced beekeeping in their cities.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible contains many references to bees and bee products. A bee swarm was a valuable asset, though the price of honey itself was low. Honey was sometimes eaten with the honeycomb (Sg 5:1). Honey also had uses other than food, e.g., in embalming.<\/p>\n<p>The land of Israel was described as a land flowing with milk and honey. Honey was a major source of sweetening in the ancient Near East—hence, its importance (cf. Jgs 14:8-9). Actually the Hebrew word for “honey” may include not only bee honey but also the sweet syrup extracted from such fruits as figs, dates, and grapes. Thus “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ex 3:8, <span>rsv<\/span>) does not necessarily stand for a land of bees but for a land rich in sweetness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Honey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Behemoth\">Behemoth<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Hippopotamus (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Camel\">Camel<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of burden. Unintelligent, ill-natured, and quarrelsome, the camel <em>(Camelus dromedarius)<\/em> is nevertheless a blessing to people living in the desert and on its borders because it is especially adapted to that habitat. It has been called the ship of the desert. Having thick elastic pads of fibrous tissue on its feet, it can walk on hot desert sands. It can go without water for long periods and can subsist on vegetation growing on the saline soils. The camel’s nostrils are pinched together and can be closed at will to prevent penetration of sand during violent sandstorms.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are used for transporting both goods and people. A person riding a camel can cover from 60 to 75 miles (96.5 to 121 kilometers) in a day. A camel can carry a load weighing 600 pounds (272 kilograms) or more. Camels were used heavily in the spice trade (Gn 37:25) and traveled regularly in camel trains between Arabia, Egypt, and Assyria. They were also ridden in time of war (Jgs 6:5). A camel can even be hitched to a plow in areas where the land is cultivated.<\/p>\n<p>The hair shed by camels during the early spring is preserved and used in weaving cloth and making tents. As much as 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of hair can be obtained from one camel. A rough cloak of camel’s hair, as worn by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4), is still worn by Bedouins today. A camel’s hair garment was also the sign of the prophetic office (Zec 13:4).<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of camel occur within the one-humped species, the slow burden-bearing camel referred to in Genesis 37:25 and the fast dromedary of 1 Samuel 30:17. The dromedary can stand seven feet (2.1 meters) tall and measure as much as nine feet (2.7 meters) from the muzzle to the tip of the tail. With its three-chambered stomach, which can hold from 15 to 30 quarts (14.2 to 28.4 liters) of liquid, it can go for as long as 5 days during the summer or 25 days in winter without drinking. The camel’s hump is a reserve store of fat, making it possible for the animal to subsist on very little food during a desert journey.<\/p>\n<p>Another species of camel, the Bactrian camel <em>(Camelus bactrianus),<\/em> is also resident in the Holy Land. It has two humps. It is heavier, bigger, and has longer hair than the one-humped camel and is slower than the swift dromedary. Isaiah 21:7 may refer to the Bactrian camel; both kinds of camel are referred to in Esther 8:10 (<span>kjv<\/span>). Camels ranked in importance with sheep, cattle, and asses in OT times. A third of the 66 biblical references to the camel lists it with other animals.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are ruminants (cud-chewing mammals) but do not have cloven hooves. Thus, they were included in the list of unclean beasts, forbidden by the Israelites as food (Lv 11:4; Dt 14:7). They are eaten by Arabs, however, who also drink their milk (cf. Gn 32:15).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham had camels in Egypt (Gn 12:16). At first Job had 3,000 camels (Jb 1:3) and after his recovery, 6,000 (Jb 42:12). Although wide use of camels does not seem to have begun until shortly before 1000 <span>BC<\/span> (Jgs 6:5), Sumerian texts from the Old Babylonian period list camels and indicate that they had been domesticated. Camel bones and figurines have been found at various eastern archaeological sites dating from well before 1200 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Caterpillar\">Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>Larval stage of insects characterized by complete metamorphosis. Such insects pass through four stages: egg, larva or caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Bees, flies, moths, and butterflies all pass through a larval or caterpillar stage.<\/p>\n<p>The word “caterpillar” occurs three times in the <span>nlt<\/span> (1 Kgs 8:37; 2 Chr 6:28; Ps 78:46). In the book of Joel that same Hebrew word is translated “locust” (1:4; 2:25, <span>nlt<\/span>). The locust and grasshopper to which the Hebrew word refers have an incomplete type of metamorphosis with only three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The nymph is a miniature adult in which the wings are not fully developed, though their outline may be present. There are several nymph stages known as instars. The reference is to one of the last instars, in which the wing structures are still folded together and enclosed in a sac but are nevertheless clearly recognizable. That form of the insect is about an inch (2.5 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cattle\">Cattle<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animals of the bovine species <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> The OT often emphasized the beauty of cattle. Egypt was rich in cattle, especially in the Nile River delta area (Goshen), where the Hebrews settled under Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars believe that milk rather than meat was the foremost consideration in the domestication of cattle and that in early civilizations meat supplies came chiefly from wild game. Cattle also supplied strong hides that supplanted wood in the manufacture of shields. Their dung was a source of fuel when wood was scarce (Ez 4:15). They were used as beasts of burden and for plowing. Development of wheeled transportation was associated more closely with cattle than with any other animal.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical term “cattle” often refers to all domesticated animals or livestock (Gn 1:24; 2:20; 7:23; 47:6, 16-17; Ex 9:3-7; Nm 3:41, 45). Occasionally, the term was used to refer to all large domestic animals (Nm 31:9; 32:26), although sometimes the word as used in the <span>kjv<\/span> refers only to sheep and goats (Gn 30:32, 39, 43; 31:8, 10; Is 7:25; 43:23).<\/p>\n<p>Probably several kinds of cattle were domesticated in the Holy Land. Small, short-legged, black or brown shorthorn cattle were found in the southern part of Judah; that type submitted easily to the yoke and was prominent in agricultural operations. Along the coast a larger variety was found, and the wild districts east of the Jordan River were populated with a breed of huge black cattle.<\/p>\n<p>Cattle breeding was widely practiced by the patriarchs (cf. Gn 32:15; Jb 21:10). Strict laws in Mesopotamia, as well as in Israel, penalized the owner of a bull that gored a man or other cattle (Ex 21:28-36). Bulls were sometimes employed figuratively as pictures of strength or violence (Dt 33:17; Pss 22:12; 68:30; Is 10:13). For breeding purposes one bull is normally adequate for about 30 cows, but many more were kept since bulls were widely used in Israel for sacrifices. They might be used as a general sacrifice (Lv 22:23; Nm 23:1) or for special sacrifices (Jgs 6:25; 1 Sm 1:24). Particular sacrifices were offered at the consecration of priests (Ex 29:1), consecration of an altar (Nm 7), purification of the Levites (Nm 8), sin offerings (Lv 16), day of the new moon (Nm 28:11-14), Passover (Nm 28:19), Feast of Weeks (Nm 28:27), Feast of Trumpets (Nm 29:1-2), Day of Atonement (Nm 29:7-9), and the Feast of Tabernacles (Nm 29:12-38). The Feast of Tabernacles required the largest number of bulls for burnt offerings of all the annual feasts, with a total of 71 being slaughtered during the course of eight days.<\/p>\n<p>Calves were sometimes referred to as “sons of the herd” in the original Hebrew (Gn 18:8; 1 Sm 6:7; 14:32). The calf, a symbol of peacefulness (Is 11:6), was also used figuratively to refer to the weak (Ps 68:30). A calf’s head decorated the back of Solomon’s throne (1 Kgs 10:19). Calves were sometimes fattened in stalls to keep them from running off weight in the field (Am 6:4; Mal 4:2; Lk 15:23) or were kept around the house; the witch of Endor kept a calf in her house that she killed and served to Saul and his men (1 Sm 28:24-25). Calves supplied veal (Gn 18:7), considered a delicacy by the wealthy; Amos referred to stall-fattened calves in a denunciation of luxurious and careless living (Am 6:4). Calves also supplied meat for all Saul’s armies at the great slaughter of the Philistines (1 Sm 14:32). The “fatted calf” served roasted or boiled was gourmet fare, suitable for the finest banquet (Gn 18:7; Mt 22:4; Lk 15:23).<\/p>\n<p>Cattle were subject to the law of firstlings (Ex 13:12). They were a mark of wealth (Gn 13:2) and were considered proper booty of war (Jos 8:2). Aaron, the first high priest, made a golden calf as a rival to the ark of the covenant (Ex 32; Dt 9:16, 21). Even though he represented the calf as an image of the invisible God, it was especially offensive because the calf was a fertility symbol related to Egyptian and Canaanite practices. Two calves were later made by Jeroboam I of Israel (930–909 <span>BC<\/span>) for his shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:28-33). Hosea’s prophetic denunciations of calf worship were directed at those shrines (Hos 8:5-6; 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>An ox is an adult castrated bull. A steer is a young ox. Oxen were used to do work (Nm 7:3; Dt 22:10; 25:4), though for moving heavy objects, cows were typically favored over bulls because of their more docile nature. Oxen were also used as pack animals (1 Chr 12:40, although they did not have the endurance of the ass, camel, or mule. They usually fed on grass (Nm 22:4; Ps 106:20), but they also ate straw (Is 11:7) and salted fodder (Is 30:24) and could be kept in a stable (Lk 13:15). Oxen could not be offered as sacrifices because they had been castrated (Lv 22:24). They could be used for food but were rarely eaten. Possession of an ox and an ass was regarded as the bare minimum for existence in the ancient Palestinian agriculture economy (Jb 24:3; cf. Ex 20:17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Agriculture; Food and Food Preparation; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chameleon\">Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>Lizard characterized by its ability to change color according to its surroundings <em>(Chameleon vulgaris).<\/em> To the Israelites the chameleon was ritually unclean (Lv 11:30). The Hebrew word for chameleon is derived from a word meaning “to pant.” A lizard’s lungs are very large, and in ancient times lizards were believed to live on air. A chameleon’s eyes move independently of each other; so at times one eye may be turned upward and the other downward. Chameleons live in trees and bushes, clinging to branches with their long tails.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coral\">Coral<\/p>\n<p>Calcareous (lime-containing) skeletons of relatively simple marine organisms <em>(Corallium rubrum).<\/em> Red coral from the Mediterranean and Red Seas is widely used for jewelry and for medicinal purposes. While the animal is alive, the coral is green in color and shrublike in appearance, looking rather like an underwater plant since the coral animals are immobil. When the coral is removed from the water, it becomes hard and red in color.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient times coral was sometimes used as money, along with precious stones, pearls, and gold. Some believe the biblical reference in Lamentations 4:7 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is to pearls rather than to coral, but it is probable that the references in Job 28:18 and Ezekiel 27:16 are to the red coral (see <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cricket\">Cricket<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the order Orthptera related to grasshoppers and locusts. According to Leviticus 11:22, the cricket was edible. The reference may be to one of the growth stages of the locust.<\/p>\n<p>The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word as “beetle.” Beetles are insects with chewing mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the fore pair being hard and sheathlike and the hind pair being membranous and folded under the fore pair. Some beetles are carnivorous, others are chiefly herbivorous. Some are aquatic, some produce a secretion that blisters the skin, some damage fabrics, some damage crops, and some feed on other insects that are harmful to humans. In ancient Egypt the beetle, or sacred scarab, was a symbol of the sun god Ra. Scarab seals and amulets were extremely popular in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Crocodile\">Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all existing reptiles <em>(Crocodilus vulgaris),<\/em> attaining a length of well over 20 feet (6 meters). Crocodiles are characterized by large lizardlike bodies supported by short legs. The head terminates in a flattened snout armed with strong conical teeth, each of which is implanted in a distinct socket. New teeth growing from beneath continually replace those in use. The toes are webbed. The back and tail are protected by quadrangular horny shields of varying sizes arranged in regular rows and in contact with one another at the edges. The eyes are covered with movable lids that can be closed when the animal enters the water.<\/p>\n<p>The crocodile spends most of its time in the water where it feeds mainly on fish but also on aquatic birds and even small animals that come down to the water’s edge to drink. It is surprisingly fast and agile on dry land, even though its legs are so short that its belly and tail drag across the earth leaving a distinct path.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, the crocodile was found in the marshes and small coastal rivers of western Palestine. A first-century Roman writer, Pliny, referred to a place in the Holy Land called Crocodeilopolis (“crocodile city”) to the south of Mt Carmel, and visitors to the Holy Land as late as the 19th century reported seeing crocodiles in that general region.<\/p>\n<p>The description of “Leviathan” in Job 41 seems to be based on the crocodile (thus the translation of the <span>nlt<\/span>). The “dragon” of Ezekiel 29:3, used figuratively of the Egyptian pharaoh, may be a reference to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Deer\">Deer<\/p>\n<p>Large ruminant (cud-chewing) animals. Only the males have antlers (branching horns). Deer antlers grow annually and are solid, in contrast to those of the antelope and the gazelle. Fully developed antlers are devoid of any covering of skin or horn and, for all practical purposes, may be regarded as a mass of dead bone carried for a certain time by the living animal.<\/p>\n<p>The end of the deer’s muzzle is naked in all species. The stomach is divided into a series of compartments, some of which are used to store partly chewed food. The food is later regurgitated, rechewed, and finally swallowed into a section of the stomach where true digestion takes place.<\/p>\n<p>Three species of deer were known in Palestine: the red deer <em>(Cervus elaphus),<\/em> the Persian fallow deer <em>(Dama mesopotamica),<\/em> and the roe deer <em>(Capreolus capreolus).<\/em> All are now extinct there. The last deer were hunted in the Holy Land in 1914. The red deer referred to in the Bible as “hart” (male), “stag” (male), or “hind” (female) stood about four feet (1.2 meters) high at the shoulder. It was gregarious (living in herds or flocks), each group remaining in a definite territory. Red deer grazed and browsed during the morning and late afternoon (Lam 1:6). The sexes remained in separate herds. The red deer was known for its leaping (Is 35:6) and sure-footedness in the mountains (Ps 18:33; Sg 2:8-9, 17; 8:14; Hb 3:19).<\/p>\n<p>The antlers of the Persian fallow deer (1 Kgs 4:23) were large, flattened, and palmated (shaped like an open palm with fingers extended), and its coat was a yellowbrown. It traveled in small groups, feeding mainly on grass in the morning and evening.<\/p>\n<p>The roe deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23) was a small, graceful animal, dark reddish brown in summer and yellowish gray in winter. Its antlers were about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and had three points. The roe deer preferred sparsely wooded valleys and the lower slopes of mountains, grazing in open grasslands. It usually associated in family groups made up of the doe and her offspring. They were shy, yet very curious. The roe deer barked like a dog when disturbed, and they were excellent swimmers.<\/p>\n<p>There is some question as to whether the roe deer is actually referred to in such passages as 1 Kings 4:23; references may be to the fallow deer, although that animal does not seem to have lived in the southern part of Palestine around the Sinai Desert because of its need for ample amounts of food and water. Fallow deer were found in northern Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The hart (the male red deer) was listed among the clean beasts that Jewish law permitted as food (Dt 12:15, 22; 14:5), but deer were not listed among the animals appropriate for sacrifice. The hind (female red deer) normally gave birth to one calf at a time, though twins were born with some degree of regularity (Jb 39:1; Ps 29:9, <span>kjv<\/span>; Jer 14:5). The gestation period was about 40 weeks. When it was about to give birth, the hind looked for a secure hiding place, preferably in the dense undergrowth of the forest where it could find natural protection for the tiny calf. During the first few days after birth, the mother never went far from her young. The fawn was able to stand on its own legs a few hours after birth. The solicitous care by the hind for her calf during the first days of its life is hinted at in a touching way in Jeremiah 14:4-5, where only a severe drought is said to drive the hind from her calf. Job 39:1-4 describes the calving of the hinds. The hind illustrated grace and charm (Gn 49:21; Prv 5:19), and its dark, gentle eyes and graceful limbs were used to describe the beauty of a woman (Prv 5:18-19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dog\">Dog<\/p>\n<p>Probably the earliest domesticated animal <em>(Canis familiaris),<\/em> used very early in hunting. The modern dog is believed to have come from the Indian wolf <em>(Canis lupus pallipes).<\/em> The dogs of biblical times probably looked like a modern German shepherd, with short pointed ears, a pointed nose, and a long tail.<\/p>\n<p>The dog was generally looked down upon in biblical times (Prv 26:11; 2 Pt 2:22). The biblical writers did not share modern sentiments about dogs being man’s best friends. The dog was pictured as a scavenger, haunting streets and dumps (Ex 22:31; 1 Kgs 22:38; Mt 15:26; Lk 16:21). Human corpses could become the spoil of dogs (2 Kgs 9:35-36). In general, dogs served the same function as vultures and other birds of prey. Most of the 41 references in the Scriptures to dogs show strong disfavor. Dogs were considered cowardly, filthy creatures.<\/p>\n<p>Dogs used in hunting occur in paintings in Egyptian tombs, and there is a reference to dogs herding sheep in Job 30:1. One good quality of dogs highly esteemed by the Israelites was watchfulness (Is 56:10). In general, however, in biblical times “dog” was a term of contempt (1 Sm 17:43; 2 Sm 16:9) and was used of overly submissive persons (2 Sm 9:8; 2 Kgs 8:13) and of evil persons (Is 56:10-11; Mt 7:6; Phil 3:2; Rv 22:15).<\/p>\n<p>Dogs, like pigs, were voracious and omnivorous (eating any kind of food). In response to a Gentile woman’s request that he heal her daughter, Jesus used the metaphor of throwing household food scraps to dogs (Mt 15:22-28; Mk 7:25-30). At the time of Jesus, the word “dog” was a standard Jewish term of contempt for Gentiles who, like dogs, were considered unclean, although the diminutive form of the word, used by Jesus, softened this considerably. Seeing her faith, Jesus granted the woman’s request, giving a non-Jew some of “the children’s bread.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Donkey\">Donkey<\/p>\n<p>Beast of burden. The donkey of the Holy Land <em>(Equus asinus)<\/em> was quite different from the European donkey of today, which is usually a small, stubborn animal. In biblical times the donkey was a beautiful, stately, friendly animal. Its color was usually reddish brown. Three wild races have been described, all from Africa. The race from northwest Africa is extinct; the one from northeast Africa, if not extinct, is close to extinction; the Somalian race, which survives, did not play an important part in domestication. The northeast African race, the Nubian donkey, was evidently domesticated in the Nile River region in early historic times. The donkey was used as a mount from the time of domestication on. It is first mentioned in the Bible among the animals that Abraham acquired in Egypt (Gn 12:16). The donkey was primarily a beast of burden, driven but not bridled. From the time of the Middle Kingdom on (c. 2040 <span>BC<\/span>), it was used for riding in Egypt, but only the Jews and Nubians rode donkeys regularly. The donkey was also used for threshing grain and for pulling the plow. In Arab countries today peasants plow with a donkey and a cow or camel hitched together. In Israel the law forbade plowing with a donkey and an ox hitched together (Dt 22:10). Until the time of Solomon (960 <span>BC<\/span>), horses were not used in Palestine. From that time on, the horse was ridden by warriors; the donkey was used by those who were traveling peaceably.<\/p>\n<p>The donkey was held in high regard by the Jews and was considered an economic asset. An individual had to have a donkey for minimum existence (Jb 24:3), and wealth was frequently counted by the number of donkeys one possessed (Gn 12:16; 24:35). The donkey was considered an acceptable gift (Gn 32:13-15). It was allowed to rest on the Sabbath (Dt 5:14). Women in biblical times often used the donkey as a riding animal (Jos 15:18; 1 Sm 25:23; 2 Kgs 4:24); often a special driver would help a woman guide the animal, running along at its side. If a married couple possessed only one donkey, the husband usually walked alongside while the wife rode (Ex 4:20).<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel returning from Babylon had ten times as many donkeys as horses and camels (Ezr 2:66-67; Neh 7:68-69). Job’s wealth was indicated by the fact that he had 500 she-donkeys before catastrophe hit him (Jb 1:3); after his recovery he had 1,000 donkeys (Jb 42:12). Joseph’s brothers used donkeys to transport the grain they purchased in Egypt (Gn 42:26; 43:24). Abigail transported food on donkeys to David and his troops during their conflict with Saul (1 Sm 25:18). David assigned one of the 12 managers of his royal estates to look after his donkeys exclusively (1 Chr 27:30).<\/p>\n<p>The onager, or Syrian wild donkey <em>(Equus hemionus hemihippus)<\/em>, is an intermediate between the true horse and the true donkey. Its ears are longer than those of a horse but shorter than those of a donkey. The front hooves are narrow; there are chestnuts (callouslike spots on the inside of the knees) on the front legs only, and the tail is short haired for a long distance from its root so that it appears to be tufted.<\/p>\n<p>The Sumerians (ancient Mesopotamians) were able to domesticate the onager, which was eventually replaced by the horse. It was used to draw chariots in Ur; a number of onagers were buried with their vehicles in a royal grave that dates from about 2500 <span>BC<\/span>. Later the wild onager was a favorite hunter’s prize for Babylonian and Assyrian kings.<\/p>\n<p>The onager was very common in the steppe lands near Israel, where it was described as a freedom-loving desert animal (Jb 24:5; 39:5-8; Ps 104:11; Is 32:14; Jer 2:24; Hos 8:9). Ishmael was described as “free and untamed as a wild donkey” (Gn 16:12, <span>nlt<\/span>)—that is, one who could not adjust to domestic life. Drought seems to have been responsible for the population decline of the onager in biblical times (Jer 14:6). The modern onager <em>(Equus hemionus onager)<\/em> is slightly larger than the Syrian wild donkey that is extinct.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dragon\">Dragon<\/p>\n<p>Any one of a number of monstrous land and sea creatures. In biblical usage, “dragon” does not refer to the huge, fire-breathing, winged reptile of European folklore. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> used the term to translate two Hebrew words that are usually rendered more precisely in modern translations. One word referred to desert animals; most scholars agree with the <span>niv<\/span> that “jackals” is its proper meaning (Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; Jer 9:11; Mal 1:3). <em>See<\/em> Jackal (below).<\/p>\n<p>The other Hebrew word translated “dragon” is harder to define. It was frequently used in reference to serpents (so translated in the <span>rsv<\/span>: Ex 7:9-12; Dt 32:33; Ps 91:13). In other <span>rsv<\/span> passages it is translated “sea monster” (Gn 1:21; Jb 7:12; Ps 148:7). The exact identity of such sea monsters is not known. Several <span>rsv<\/span> passages retain the English “dragon.” In two of them (Ps 74:13; Is 27:1), the context indicates that sea monsters are meant. In three others (Is 51:9; Ez 29:3; 32:2) “dragon” seems to refer to the crocodile, a figurative reference to the Egyptian pharaoh at the time of the exodus. Jeremiah 51:34 (translated “monster” in the <span>rsv<\/span>) may also refer to a voracious creature such as a crocodile. <em>See<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p>Babylonian myths described monsters and dragons in primordial conflict with the god Marduk; they represented the principle of evil. In its figurative usages in Scripture, “dragon” has a similar significance, especially in the prophetic books. In the book of Revelation it is a symbol of Satan, the archenemy of God and his people (Rv 12:3-17; 13:2, 4, 11; 16:13; 20:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fish\">Fish<\/p>\n<p>Aquatic animals frequently mentioned in the Bible without names or descriptions that enable us to identify the particular species. Since time immemorial, fish have constituted one of the staple foods of humanity, and they still serve as the chief source of protein in many parts of the world. The trade in fish was highly developed in biblical times. For example, one of the gates in Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3; Zep 1:10). The law in Leviticus 11:9-12 permitted the Jews to eat fish, but only those having both fins and scales. Scaleless fish such as catfish were forbidden, even though they had fins.<\/p>\n<p>Egyptian paintings depict various methods of fishing, and the Philistines fished in the Mediterranean Sea. Since the people of Israel were not a seafaring nation, it is safe to assume that most of their fish came from freshwater lakes and rivers, especially the Sea of Galilee. Some 36 species of fish have been identified in that lake, including varieties of perch, carp, barbel, “sardine,” and catfish.<\/p>\n<p>The method of fishing characteristic of NT times was the dragnet. After a boat had put out into the deep (Lk 5:4), a large net would be thrown out from it and then dragged toward shore by the rowers in the boat, possibly with the help of a crew in another boat. The catch was sorted out on shore (Mt 13:47-48). Fishing was usually carried out at night when the coolness of the water brought fish closer to the surface and when they could not see the approaching nets.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews also fished by hook and line (Mt 17:27), a few by spear (Jb 41:7), and some by the throw net (Ez 47:10). Habakkuk refers to hook-and-line fishing, netting, and seining (1:15).<\/p>\n<p>Very early in the history of the Christian church the fish became a symbol for Christ and the faith. It was scratched on the walls of Roman catacombs and may be seen today decorating walls, altars, pews, and vestments. The symbol came into use because the Greek word for “fish” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ichthus<\/span><em>)<\/em> is composed of the first letter of each word in the Greek phrase “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” <em>See<\/em> Whale (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flea\">Flea<\/p>\n<p>Tiny, irritating insect (1 Sm 24:14; 26:20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many species of fleas occur in Palestine, the most common being <em>Pulex irritans.<\/em> About a thousand species are known around the world. Fleas are wingless parasites that have sharp jaws and suck out blood from the bodies of humans and animals. The body is wedge shaped, enabling the flea to burrow into folds of skin and hide there. The eggs, laid by the female in dust heaps in the corners of rooms, hatch into small, white larvae that pupate (a nonfeeding stage) in a cocoon. Soon adult fleas appear that immediately attach themselves to the body of a host. The female requires blood for the development of her eggs.<\/p>\n<p>A flea bite is painful and causes some swelling and itching. Fleas are attracted by warmth. With favorable moisture and temperature, adult fleas can live a year or longer without food, but they are voracious feeders. The most dangerous fleas are those of the rat that transmit the organism responsible for bubonic plague. There were 41 recorded epidemics of bubonic plague before the Christian era.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fly\">Fly<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the order Diptera, which have one pair of wings. Many winged insects of other orders, however, are also called flies, such as the dragonfly or butterfly.<\/p>\n<p>As in almost all parts of the world, flies are abundant in Palestine. One of the most numerous is the common housefly <em>(Musca domestica),<\/em> found chiefly around dung heaps and garbage. The female lays her eggs, out of which emerge white maggots that feed on refuse. After a few days the maggot develops into a cocoon out of which emerges the adult housefly. In the summer the whole cycle lasts about 12 days, so that a fly can breed about 20 generations a year.<\/p>\n<p>Another fly common to Palestine is the botfly (family Oestridae). It causes much discomfort among livestock by irritating them and spreading diseases. Tabanid flies (family Tabanidae), including the horsefly (genus <em>Tabanus<\/em>) and related species, are also found in Palestine. Both the botfly and horsefly are known as gadflies because of the persistent distress they inflict. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar is spoken of as a gadfly in view of his invasion of Egypt (Jer 46:20).<\/p>\n<p>The fourth plague in Egypt just before the exodus featured “swarms of flies” (Ex 8:21-31, <span>nlt<\/span>; cf. Pss 78:45; 105:31). Those swarms may have been made up of any or all the flies mentioned above. The maggots mentioned in Job 25:6 and Isaiah 14:11 and the worms in Exodus 16:24 and Job 7:5 and 17:14 were probably fly larvae.<\/p>\n<p>A proverb quoted in Ecclesiastes 10:1 probably refers to the housefly, which would be attracted to an open, perfumed ointment bottle. Once inside it would drown and eventually decay, causing the ointment to spoil and stink. The fly is also referred to in Isaiah 7:18 where it symbolizes Egypt. Isaiah may have had in mind a horsefly <em>(Tabanus arenivagus)<\/em> that attacks both humans and animals.<\/p>\n<p>Philistine inhabitants of the city of Ekron worshiped a god named Baal-zebul, meaning “Lord of the high places.” The Hebrews mockingly spoke of Baal-zebub, meaning “Lord of the flies” (2 Kgs 1:2). The NT form is Beelzebub (e.g., Mt 10:25; 12:24, 27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fox\">Fox<\/p>\n<p>Small, doglike carnivore with a bushy tail that is about half its body length. The red fox of the Holy Land <em>(Vulpes palaetinae)<\/em> is similar to the North American red fox; it is smaller than a wolf and is normally a nocturnal solitary animal. The omnivorous fox eats almost any kind of food—fruits, plants, mice, beetles, and birds—but seldom touches carrion. It loves the sweet juice of grapes, but it also burrows underground tunnels that can destroy the vines (Sg 2:15). The fox is intelligent and known for its slyness (Lk 13:32). It has considerable endurance and can run at speeds up to 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour. The Jews rebuilding Jerusalem’s wall were taunted by the wisecrack that even a fox jumping on their wall would knock it over (Neh 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian fox <em>(Vulpes niloticus)<\/em> is found in the central and southern parts of the Holy Land. It is somewhat smaller than the common red fox. Its back is rust colored and its belly light. The Syrian fox <em>(Vulpes flavescens)<\/em> that lives in the northern part of the Holy Land is shiny gold in color.<\/p>\n<p>Some OT references such as Psalm 63:10 and Lamentations 5:18 are translated “fox” in the <span>kjv<\/span> but probably refer to jackals. Jackals, not foxes, hunt in packs and tend to act as scavengers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frog\">Frog<\/p>\n<p>Amphibian (genus <em>Rana<\/em>), living part of its life in the water and part on land.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs and toads are covered with soft, hairless skin and lack a tail in the adult stage. The hind legs are much longer and more powerfully developed than the forelegs so that the animals are able to jump large distances. It has been suggested that the frog referred to in Scripture is an edible one, <em>Rana ridibunda,<\/em> one of the aquatic frogs found in Egypt and in the stagnant waters of the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The female frog lays her eggs in the water; after about a week the eggs hatch into tadpoles. Gradually through metamorphosis the tail is lost and limbs are acquired. Frogs must maintain a moist skin since they take oxygen through the skin as well as through their lungs; thus they must always remain close to water. They feed on insects and worms.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs are found throughout the Palestinian lowlands, where their croaking is heard in the spring and on summer evenings. The Israelites seem to have associated frogs primarily with sliminess and foulness. They fell into the category of creeping or swarming creatures, which in general were ritually unclean (Lv 11:29-31). Since the frog was not specifically listed, however, rabbis did not consider it one of the animals that defiled human beings through contact.<\/p>\n<p>In Revelation 16:13 certain foul spirits are said to look like frogs. The ancient Egyptians made the frog a symbol of life and birth and an image of Heqet, the patron goddess of birth. She is depicted with a frog’s head giving life to the newborn. Thus that deity was discredited when the power of God afflicted Egypt in the second of the ten plagues on the Egyptians with the very animal that was her symbol (Ex 8:1-14; Pss 78:45; 105:30). The frog in question may have been the spotted frog of Egypt <em>(Rana punctata,<\/em> or <em>Rana ridibunda).<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gazelle\">Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>Small, dainty, graceful antelope with hollow recurved horns on both sexes. Two varieties exist in the Holy Land, the dorcas gazelle <em>(Gazella dorcas),<\/em> which is pale fawn in color and up to 22 inches (56 centimeters) tall, and the Arabian gazelle <em>(Gazella arabica),<\/em> which is a dark smoky color and up to 25 inches (63.5 centimeters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Gazelles are still quite common throughout the desert and steppe areas of the Holy Land, especially in the Negev Desert. Herds usually consist of from 5 to 10 animals, but some varieties assemble in large migratory herds in the fall to relocate to lower elevations and new feeding grounds. Gazelles are herbivorous (plant eating). They are very shy and post guards to warn the herd of approaching danger.<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times the gazelle was probably the game animal most hunted by the Jews (Prv 6:5; Is 13:14). Pharaoh Tutankhamen hunted gazelles and ostriches. The gazelle is said to have graced Solomon’s table (1 Kgs 4:23). Gazelles were not easy to catch because of their great speed (2 Sm 2:18; 1 Chr 12:8; Prv 6:5); they surpass the deer in swiftness. They were trapped in various ways—encircled with nets, driven into enclosures with pitfalls, or forced into narrow valleys and shot with arrows. The Bedouin hunt gazelle with falcons and dogs; the falcon annoys the gazelle, striking it on the head and injuring it so that the dogs can overtake it.<\/p>\n<p>The gazelle is referred to in Song of Songs 2:9, 17; 4:5; 7:3; 8:14, where it is an image of feminine beauty.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gecko\">Gecko<\/p>\n<p>Reptile of the family Gekkonidae, referred to in Leviticus 11:30. In Jewish food law it was a ritually unclean lizard. There are seven species of geckos in the Holy Land (including <em>Hemidactylus turcicus<\/em> and <em>Ptyodactylus hasselquistii,<\/em> all insectivorous—insect eating). The gecko makes a low mourning sound by vibrating its tongue rapidly against the roof of its mouth. In legend the gecko was said to cause leprosy by crawling across a person’s body.<\/p>\n<p>Another name for the gecko is the wall lizard, so named because it can walk upside down on ceilings with the aid of the suction discs on its toes—but it often plops down into the middle of the home. Since it was considered unclean, such an intrusion would have been a disgusting nuisance to Jewish households (Lv 11:31-38).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gnat\">Gnat<\/p>\n<p>Any very small fly, in common and biblical usage. According to the <span>nlt<\/span>, the third plague in Egypt before the exodus consisted of gnats (Ex 8:16-18; Ps 105:31). The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word there as “lice,” but the breeding pattern described in Exodus 8—insects rising from the dust—seems to fit gnats better than lice. Since “gnat” is a general term, the small flies of that plague may have included several small species such as mosquitos, harvester gnats, midges, or sand flies.<\/p>\n<p>The sand fly inflicts a far more painful bite than the mosquito. Further, it does not betray itself by a buzzing noise in flight and is so small that it penetrates most mosquito netting.<\/p>\n<p>Gnats were drawn to wine while it was fermenting. The Pharisees in particular would strain their wine to avoid consuming unclean insects (Mt 23:24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Goat\">Goat<\/p>\n<p>Cloven-hooved mammals (genus <em>Capra<\/em>) with large eyes and big, floppy ears that constantly twitch. Both males and females have backward arching horns. The Palestinian goat is a ruminant (cud-chewing animal) of lighter build than the sheep.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was probably the earliest ruminant to be domesticated. Its wild ancestor seems to have been the Gezoar goat <em>(Capra aegagrus).<\/em> Wild goats are believed to have been domesticated very early in Palestine. The goat of Bible times was probably the Syrian or Mamber variety <em>(Capra hircus mambrica).<\/em> Domesticated goats may have as many as four kids in a litter, whereas wild goats bear only one or two.<\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian goat was commonly black. Speckled and spotted goats were a rarity, and for that reason Jacob’s request for those goats in Genesis 30:32 appeared very modest. There may also have been red goats (cf. 1 Sm 16:12; 19:13, where goat’s hair was used to imitate David’s hair, which was “ruddy” or auburn).<\/p>\n<p>Almost every part of the goat was used by the Israelites. The whole goat was used for sacrifice. Its flesh served as meat (Lv 7:23; Dt 14:4), and it was the principal source of milk (Prv 27:27). Goats were sheared in the late spring, and the goat hair was used for weaving tent cloth and for various domestic purposes (Ex 36:14; 1 Sm 19:13, 16). The tabernacle at Mt Sinai was made of goat’s hair blankets (Ex 26:7).<\/p>\n<p>Adult male goats were generally not eaten because of their strong flavor and toughness and also because they were necessary to insure the flock’s increase. Young kids, however, were usually the chief meat for a feast and were offered to visitors as a symbol of hospitality. Goat milk is richer than the milk of cows and sheep and evidently had broader uses. A good goat gives three quarts of milk a day, from which a rich butter and buttermilk can be made. The average Hebrew family could have lived almost entirely on a single goat’s production.<\/p>\n<p>Goatskin was tanned as leather, and the whole hide was turned into a skin bottle by sewing shut leg and neck apertures (Gn 21:14; Jos 9:4). Goatskin had many uses, including the construction of Hebrew musical instruments. The nebal, a large harp, was made with goatskin for its base sound. Drums had goatskin coverings.<\/p>\n<p>Goats were herded with sheep in biblical times, but each group remained separate following its own bell-laden leader. Jesus was evidently referring to their common herding in his description of the Last Judgment (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\n<p>Because of their wool, sheep are valued more than goats. However, where pasture and water are scarce and thorny shrubs dominate over grass, sheep are difficult to keep and goats become important. They can live under conditions that suit neither cows nor sheep, producing large quantities of milk. The goat does not supply fat as the sheep does, and since its hair is coarse its wool is rather scarce. Goat-hair cloth called cilicium was used to make tents.<\/p>\n<p>Goats have voracious appetites. They also were responsible for much damage done to the land of Palestine, breaking down terraces, destroying forests, and bringing about soil erosion by eating off all cover.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was recognized as a form of wealth, subject to the law of firstlings (Nm 18:17). It had to be eight days old before it could be offered as a sacrifice. A year-old male goat was one of the animals offered at the Passover (28:22), and two goats were offered on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:7-10). The goat was also used for other specific sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>The ibex, a type of wild goat <em>(Capra ibex nubiana),<\/em> still lives in small numbers on the cliffs close to the Dead Sea. That it was known in ancient times is evident from rock carvings. It is distinguished from the true wild goat by having a more compact rump and horns that are slender and curved back. Its slender legs and sharp cloven hooves enable it to cling to narrow rock ledges, to jump between them, and to climb steep cliffs.<\/p>\n<p>Usually the ibex is found in rugged mountain country among rocky crags and meadows just below the snow line (Ps 104:18). In Job 39:1 they are referred to as “mountain goats.” They frequently gather in herds of 5 to 20. They graze and browse, being active in the afternoon and sometimes feeding through the night. The large horn of the ibex was at one period made into the shofar that was blown in the second Jerusalem temple to announce the new year and the jubilee year.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was often used in a figurative and symbolic sense by the writers of the Bible: in Song of Songs 4:1 and 6:5 for the bride’s black hair; in Matthew 25:31-46 for the wicked; and in Ezekiel 34:17 and Daniel 8:5-8 for various human leaders.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Grasshopper\">Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>Large insects of the Orthoptera order. They have chewing or biting mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the front pair of which is narrow and somewhat thickened and the hind pair membranous and used for flying. When not in use the flight wings are folded beneath the protective front wings like a fan against the body. By rubbing their wings together, male grasshoppers produce sounds that both males and females can detect. Grasshoppers pass through a partial metamorphosis; the egg hatches into a juvenile nymph that looks like an adult except for its smaller size and undeveloped wings. After several months the nymph becomes a winged adult.<\/p>\n<p>The terms “grasshopper” and “locust” are often used interchangeably. Actually the locust is a kind of grasshopper. Also confusing is the fact that other insects such as cicadas are sometimes called locusts. The difference between grasshoppers and locusts depends more on behavior than appearance. Grasshoppers are individual insects that lead solitary lives and do not migrate. The same insects when migrating in a swarm are called migratory grasshoppers or locusts. Elimination of their food supply by drought, flood, or fire may lead to migration. Climatic factors such as a warm dry winter also stimulate migrations.<\/p>\n<p>Grasshoppers and locusts have been a staple food in the Middle East and also among the Indians of the American Southwest. To the Israelites the grasshopper was considered ritually clean and could be eaten (Lv 11:22).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hare\">Hare<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the genus and species <em>Lepus europaeus judaeus, Lepus capensis,<\/em> and <em>Lepus arabicus.<\/em> It is found in open country, often near or on cultivated lands, and in woods, usually deciduous rather than evergreen. It is an herbivorous rodent and is different from the rabbit, which is not found in Palestine. Although it is not a true ruminant according to modern classification (because it does not have a four-chambered stomach), the hare does rechew its food. It has a process of partial regurgitation of material too hard for the cells in the stomach to absorb initially; thus, the hare actually chews food previously swallowed.<\/p>\n<p>Near Eastern hares have very long ears and large hind feet; their feet are well furred. They are similar to American jackrabbits, which are true hares. Hares do not dig or occupy burrows the way rabbits do. Hares are mainly nocturnal and spend their inactive hours hiding in vegetation. They eat grasses and herbaceous matter as well as twigs and young bark of woody plants. Hares breed with great rapidity—the young attaining sexual maturity at six months after birth.<\/p>\n<p>The hare was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:6; Dt 14:7), evidently because although it appeared to chew its cud, it did not have cloven hooves. Consumption of hares has also been forbidden among the Arabs, Chinese, and Lapps, but the hare was widely hunted by other people in ancient and modern times. Its great speed, prolific breeding, timidity, and caution have saved it from extermination by its many enemies.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hippopotamus\">Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of problematic interpretation. Some early interpreters thought it referred to the elephant, others to the wild ox, the mammoth, or any large animal. It was called “behemoth” by the <span>kjv<\/span> translators. Today it is generally agreed that the reference is to the hippopotamus <em>(Hippopotamus amphibius),<\/em> a large, thick-skinned, amphibious mammal, an ungulate (having hooflike toenails) with a large head, a bulky, hairless body, and short legs.<\/p>\n<p>The description in Job 40:15-24 fits closely the modern hippopotamus (see <span>nlt<\/span>), except for the depiction of the tail. At present the hippopotamus is found only in the rivers of Africa, but there is fossil evidence that it has existed in the Holy Land, perhaps in the swamps of northern Galilee and the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The hippopotamus has highly developed sense organs, placed in such a way that it can see, hear, and smell almost without being seen; its eyes, ears, and nostrils can reach above water while the rest of the animal lies submerged. It has a large mouth, large tusks, and a short, heavy throat. The strong legs are so short that the belly almost reaches the ground when the animal is on the land. The hippopotamus lives on plants and herbs growing in rivers, but if food is scarce there, it forages on land, usually at night. In spite of its heavy body it is surprisingly agile on land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Horse\">Horse<\/p>\n<p>Przewalski’s horse (<em>Equus przewalskii,<\/em> an eastern race that roamed about Mongolia until modern firearms destroyed most of them after World War I) and the tarpan (a western race of southern Russia that became extinct in the Ukraine in 1851). The domesticated horse <em>(Equus caballus)<\/em> seems to have been derived from the tarpan. The original site of domestication is believed to have been Turkestan, a region north of Afghanistan and India, now in Russia. The horse differs from the donkey in that it has shorter ears, a longer mane with a forelock, a long hairy tail, and a soft, sensitive muzzle.<\/p>\n<p>Horses were used in war not only for riding but also for pulling the heavy, springless war chariots. Two kinds of horses were needed for these different purposes, and the Hebrews distinguished between chariot horses and cavalry horses.<\/p>\n\n<p>The Lord warned the early Israelites against unnecessarily amassing military strength in the form of horses and thereby following the oppressive tactics of the powerful Egyptians (Dt 17:14-16), but the demands of war caused both David and Solomon to import horses from Egypt into their kingdoms and to breed them. Solomon greatly increased the number of horses in the Jewish kingdom and maintained large stables at various cities (1 Kgs 10:26) such as the regional defense centers of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer (1 Kgs 9:15-19). Ahab’s horses are mentioned in 1 Kings 18:5, and records of Shalmaneser III state that Ahab furnished 2,000 chariots to a coalition against Assyria.<\/p>\n<p>In early Israel, the horse was opposed as a symbol of pagan luxury and of dependence on physical power for defense (Dt 17:16; 1 Sm 8:11; Ps 20:7; Is 31:1). Horse trading, mentioned as early as Genesis 47:17, was carried on by Solomon between Egypt and the Syro-Hittite principalities (1 Kgs 10:28-29). Most biblical references to horses refer to their use in war, but horses were also used for transportation. Riding seems to have been less popular than the use of chariots. Cavalry units were not introduced until the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> by the Medes. Joseph rode in Pharaoh’s second horse-drawn chariot (Gn 41:43), and Absalom made a display by riding a horse-drawn chariot (2 Sm 15:1). Naaman traveled by horse and chariot (2 Kgs 5:9). Later, horses were so common in Jerusalem that the royal palace had a special horse gate (2 Chr 23:15), and a gate of the city itself was known as the Horse Gate (Neh 3:28; Jer 31:40). Mordecai rode a royal horse of King Xerxes as a sign of honor (Est 6:8-11). Horses are often spoken of figuratively (Ps 32:9; “mare,” Sg 1:9; “stallions,” Jer 5:8; 12:5), especially in the context of judgment (Hb 3:8; Zec 1:8; 6:1-8; Rv 6:2-8; 9:17; 19:11-16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Warfare; Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyena\">Hyena<\/p>\n<p>Stocky carnivore <em>(Hyaena hyaena)<\/em> with coarse hair, an erect mane, and long hairs along the neck and back. Hyenas live in holes among rocks and banks. They are mainly nocturnal but are ordinarily neither noisy nor aggressive. Their cry, however, is a disagreeable, unearthly sound. Hyenas usually feed on carrion, crushing bones with their powerful jaws. If the carrion supply is inadequate, they will kill sheep, goats, or other small animals. When threatened, hyenas growl and erect their mane, but they rarely fight. They are massively built with forelegs longer than the hind legs.<\/p>\n<p>Known as scavengers in Africa, hyenas eat domestic refuse in the villages. In Palestine the striped hyena is a common predator, preferring rocky territory and even rock tombs. Since hyenas were notorious for raiding the graves of the dead, all Israelites who could afford it arranged for burial in tombs protected by massive stone doors. Absalom, King David’s son who was killed by Joab in the wild, was buried under a huge pile of stones to protect his corpse from molestation by hyenas (2 Sm 18:17).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Jackal\">Jackal<\/p>\n<p>Carnivore <em>(Canis aureus)<\/em> smaller than the true wolf and with a shorter tail. It is similar to the fox but has a broader head, shorter ears, and longer legs. The fox is solitary; the jackal tends to be gregarious. Its tail can be drooping or erect, compared with the long horizontal tail of the fox. Jackals usually prowl at night, either singly, in pairs, or in packs through open savannah country. They eat small mammals, poultry, fruit, vegetables, and carrion. They spend their days in thickets and clumps of vegetation. Often they obtain scraps from kills by larger carnivores. Jackals can run at speeds of about 33 miles (53 kilometers) per hour.<\/p>\n<p>The jackal can reach a height of about 20 inches (51 centimeters), roughly the size of a German shepherd dog. Its back is pale yellow with dark, almost black, flanks. Its lips are black and its ears white on the inside. The howl of the jackal sounds like the crying of a child or the heartrending wail of the bereaved (Mi 1:8; cf. Jb 30:29). To other jackals the howl is merely an invitation calling the pack together for its nocturnal hunting.<\/p>\n<p>OT references are chiefly to jackals prowling around ruined cities and wilderness areas (Neh 2:13; Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; Jer 9:11; 14:6; 49:33; 51:37; Lam 4:3; 5:18; Mal 1:3). Many such references are translated “dragon” in the <span>kjv<\/span>, but “jackal” is more appropriate.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leech\">Leech<\/p>\n<p>Segmented worm (class Hirundinea) up to five inches (12.7 centimeters) long with a flat body equipped with suction pads at each end. The mouth, located at the bottom of the front suction pad, has three teeth that the leech uses to pierce the skin of its host. The leech feeds on blood, and its glands secrete an anticoagulant to prevent the blood from clotting. The ordinary medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is abundant in springs and ponds from the Negev Desert to Galilee. It adheres to the bodies of human beings and animals that submerge themselves in water, injects its anticoagulant, and sucks their blood.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Proverbs 30:15 is uncertain (see <span>nlt<\/span>) but may be to the parasitic and greedy nature of the horse leech (genus <em>Haemopis<\/em>). The small horse leech enters its host’s mouth and nostrils from water while the animal is drinking. A leech weighing one-half ounce (14.2 grams) has been known to gorge itself with two and a half ounces (71 grams) of concentrated blood and then to exist for 15 months with no more to eat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leopard\">Leopard<\/p>\n<p>Called <em>Panthera pardus tulliana,<\/em> it is the most widespread of all the large wildcats. In rocky areas it lives in caves, but in forested regions it lives in thick vegetation. In OT times many lived in the vicinity of Mt Hermon (Sg 4:8).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is somewhat smaller than the tiger, measuring up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length with a tail of about 30 inches (.8 meter). Its body is better proportioned than that of the tiger. The leopard takes its victim by surprise from a silent ambush, often concealing itself near villages or watering places and waiting for its prey, remaining in one spot for long spans of time. The leopard is swift on the ground (Hb 1:8), agile in trees, and very graceful in its movements. Its color is yellowish speckled with black spots (Jer 13:23). Daniel and John saw visions in which leopards were symbols of world powers (Dn 7:6; Rv 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is a wary and cunning animal, formidable and ferocious (Jer 5:6; Hos 13:7; cf. Is 11:6). The leopard is dangerous not only to domestic animals but also to humans. With its natural camouflage it can hide on the forest floor, blending into the changing light and shadows. The Israelites were terrified of the leopard because it constantly ravaged their sheep and goats. Several biblical place names suggest that they were known for the leopards in their vicinity: Nimrah, Beth-nimrah, and Nimrim, a district northeast of the Dead Sea. It has survived in the Holy Land into the present century; a few leopards still exist in remote areas near Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leviathan\">Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>Sea monster mentioned several times in the Bible (Pss 74:14; 104:26; Is 27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). It may refer to any of the larger marine animals such as large jellyfish, whales, or sharks, or to a large reptile like the crocodile. Some scholars think “Leviathan” may refer to animals now extinct, such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs (marine reptiles similar to dinosaurs). The scriptural term might also refer to certain dinosaurs that spent part of their lives half-submerged in shallow lakes and oceans. Other scholars believe that most of the references are to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lion\">Lion<\/p>\n<p>Large, tawny-colored carnivore <em>(Panthera leo)<\/em> that preys chiefly on hoofed mammals and charges by a series of leaps and bounds. Within historic times the lion ranged in Africa, Europe, and the Holy Land. In ancient times the territories of the African and Persian lions met in the Middle East. The lion of the Holy Land was the Asiatic or Persian lion <em>(Panthera leo persica).<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The males have heavy manes that stop at the shoulders but cover much of the chest. The Persian lion cannot climb and is mainly nocturnal, returning to its lair or a thicket by day (Jer 4:7; 25:38; Na 2:11-12). This lion is about 5 feet (1.5 meters) long with a tasseled tail 30 inches (.8 meter) or so long; its shoulders may reach a height of 35 inches (.9 meter). It is one of the smallest of the lion breeds.<\/p>\n<p>Lions are usually found in pairs, though sometimes in larger numbers. A small group is known as a pride. They generally prefer open country but in Palestine evidently prowled the subtropical vegetation of the Jordan River valley. Lions, which usually hunt at dusk, kill smaller animals by a blow of the paw, larger ones by a bite in the throat. A lion does not remain in the same place for more than a few days. The animal is in its prime at about seven years of age, when it weighs from 400 to 600 pounds (181.6 to 272.4 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>The lion does not characteristically attack humans, though like other great cats it may become a man-eater (1 Kgs 13:24-28; 20:36; 2 Kgs 17:25-26; Ps 57:4; Dn 6:7-27). Ordinarily, it attacks only out of great hunger or in self-defense. A very young lion that attacks humans can become dangerous if it develops a taste for human flesh. A very old lion, expelled from the pride because it can no longer keep up in the pursuit of antelope or gazelles, may choose humans as a relatively slow-moving prey.<\/p>\n<p>A lion generally roars only on a full stomach—that is, after it has consumed its prey (Ps 22:13; Ez 22:25; Am 3:4). Nevertheless, its roaring arouses fear (Am 3:8; 1 Pt 5:8). The lion is a bold (2 Sm 17:10; Prv 28:1), destructive animal (Ps 7:2; Jer 2:30; Hos 5:14; Mi 5:8), and the enemy of flocks (Am 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>Lions were common in biblical times in all parts of the Holy Land. Hebrew has at least seven words for lion and young lion. The lion is referred to about 130 times in the OT—more than any other wild animal. Lions were evidently much less common in NT times. After gradually declining, they became extinct in Palestine shortly after <span>AD<\/span> 1300. The lion was present in Mesopotamia, however, until the end of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>Lions played an important part in the political and religious symbolism of the Near East (1 Kgs 10:19-20). In Assyria and Babylonia the lion was regarded as a royal beast (Dn 7:4). Oriental monarchs maintained artificial lion pits as places of execution (Ez 19:1-9; Dn 6:7-16). Animals for these were captured in camouflaged nets or pits. To the Jews, the lion was the mightiest of beasts (Prv 30:29-31). Thus, it symbolized leadership (Gn 49:9-10; Nm 24:9) and hence eventually became a title for Christ (Rv 5:5). It was also the ensign of Judah’s tribe and was used by King Solomon in the decoration of his house and the temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lizard\">Lizard<\/p>\n<p>Reptiles of the suborder Lacertilia. Their skin is covered with scales. The lizard is a useful creature because it captures harmful insects and worms. Like other reptiles, it lays eggs with shells softer than those of a bird and with no clear division between the yolk and the white. Lizards are “cold-blooded” organisms without a temperature-maintenance mechanism; hence, they become inactive in cold weather.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards can survive in barren parched countryside. In the Near East they are encountered in great numbers in the Arabian Desert, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Judean wilderness. There may be as many as 44 different species of lizards in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The Dabb lizard (genus <em>Uromastyx<\/em>), which attains a length of about 24 inches (61 centimeters), is found in the Negev Desert. It is omnivorous, an unusual trait since most lizards are insectivorous. It has a hard, rough skin, green with brown spots; a short, rounded head; and a powerful tail encircled with a row of strong spines that it uses as a weapon of defense.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards are listed as ceremonially unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:29-31). The fact that lizards crawl on their bellies made them unclean. Contact with a lizard’s carcass defiled a law-abiding Jew (Lv 11:32-36). The <span>nlt<\/span> translates the “lizards” of Leviticus 11 as “great lizard,” “gecko,” “monitor lizard,” “sand lizard,” and “chameleon.” The monitor lizard is a large lizard that lives in the deserts of southern Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt. It is up to 55 inches (1.4 meters) long with a long snout and sharp teeth. Other translators and commentators render the original Hebrew in a wide variety of ways, including “tortoise,” “ferret,” “lizard,” “snail,” “mole,” and even “water hen.” The fact that most of the original Hebrew words occur only once in Scripture makes it very difficult to be certain about their appropriate translation.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gecko (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Locust\">Locust<\/p>\n<p>An insect of the family <em>Acridiidae.<\/em> It is referred to by at least 12 different names in Scripture. The various Hebrew words may refer to different stages of its development from larva to adult or to the type of damage that it causes. Locusts are characterized by swarming and mass migration. In modern times they have caused extensive and disastrous destruction to vegetation. Grasshoppers do not swarm or migrate en masse, differentiating them from the true locusts.<\/p>\n<p>The OT mentions several different species of locusts. Leviticus 11:22 seems to refer to the slant-faced (bald) locust and also to the katydid, or long-horned grasshopper. The reference in Deuteronomy 28:42 may be to the mole cricket. In Joel 1:4 and 2:25 and in Nahum 3:16-17, successive stages of the insect’s development are described. The cutting locust (<span>kjv<\/span> “palmerworm”) of Joel is probably the first instar (stage of development), the swarming locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “locust”) are middle stages, and the hopping locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “cankerworm”) later instars but not yet fully matured insects. In the adult stage, called destroying locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “caterpillar”), the color of the locust is reddish brown, which turns to yellow with a brownish network on the wings.<\/p>\n<p>Only three of the hundreds of varieties of locusts found in Bible lands are capable of multiplying into great swarms, and only the desert locust <em>(Schistocerca gergaria)<\/em> can be considered widespread in all the Bible lands. The desert locust is native to the Sudan (Africa). It is a little over two inches (5 centimeters) long and has a wingspread of some five inches (12.7 centimeters). It shows two phases, a solitary phase and a gregarious phase, with a possible third phase known as transiens. There are differences in the immature and adult forms of the phases in color and physiology.<\/p>\n<p>The quantity and distribution of rains are important factors in the extent of swarming. Moist soil is needed for depositing the eggs and permitting them to develop. Each female deposits from one to six egg pods, containing 28 to 146 eggs each. The larvae emerge in 15 to 43 days.<\/p>\n<p>In the gregarious phase (from the second stage of metamorphosis onward), the locust is driven by a strong wandering instinct. Masses of them form a random procession of overflowing locust bodies that ignore any obstruction. They swarm over everything (Jl 2:4-9). The only regulator of their activities is temperature; they are immobilized by high or low temperatures. Taking to wing they may move 1,200 miles (1,930.8 kilometers) from their native home. They fly in compact formations large enough to blot out the light of the sun. Their movement seems to be controlled by hormones, but the direction is influenced by the wind. The swarms consume almost every plant in their path, sparing only the carob, sycamore, castor tree, and oleander bush.<\/p>\n<p>A locust plague was one of the most severe evils to come upon the ancient world (Dt 28:38). Joel 2:1-11 describes a locust plague in graphic terms, using it as a symbol of God’s destroying judgment. Special days of prayer, fasting, and trumpet blowing were prescribed to remove locust plagues (1 Kgs 8:37-38; 2 Chr 6:28-29; Jl 2:12-17). Locusts symbolized powerful and merciless enemies that completely destroyed the earnings of human toil (Jgs 6:5; Is 33:4; Jer 46:23; 51:27; Na 3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Bedouins eat locusts raw, roasted, or boiled, preserving them by drying and threading. They are also crushed and ground, and the grist used in cooking or eaten with bread, sometimes mixed with honey and dates. Such was the diet of John the Baptist (Mk 1:6). The Greeks ground locusts in stone mortars to make flour of them.<\/p>\n<p>The ancients considered the two large hind legs, or jumping legs, as separate limbs and had a special name for them. Hence locusts were described as having four legs, a reference to the four smaller walking legs. “Going on all fours” thus referred to creeping or walking as opposed to jumping and did not mean that the unclean insects had only four legs in all. Because of its two hind jumping legs, the locust was exempted from the prohibition against unclean insects (Lv 11:20-23).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mole\">Mole<\/p>\n<p>Rodent <em>(Spalax ehrenbergi)<\/em> from six to nine inches (15 to 23 centimeters) long, which burrows in any area where the soil is suitable for digging; it should be called a mole rat. Common in the Holy Land, large numbers are found in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Isaiah 2:20 refers to the mole, as does Leviticus 11:29-30 (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The mole rat has no tail and is molelike in appearance, but neither true moles nor shrews have ever been found in the Holy Land. The mole rat’s teeth are strong and protruding like those of a squirrel. The neck is short and thick with a plump body shaped like a sausage. The short legs have broad paws with claws adapted for burrowing. The fur is soft, thick, and ashen gray. Its ears and almost sightless eyes, which are no larger than poppyseeds, are hidden in the fur. Folklore taught that touching a mole rat would result in blindness.<\/p>\n<p>In the wet winter season the mole rat builds breeding mounds resembling those of pocket gophers. It builds less complex resting mounds in the summer, although both have rather elaborate tunnel systems. The mole rat feeds on roots, bulbs, tubers, and various other subterranean plant parts, often doing extensive damage to agriculture.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Moth\">Moth<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the genus <em>Tineola<\/em> that lays its eggs on wool or furs, its larvae feeding on those materials. The destructive qualities of moths are referred to in several biblical passages (Jb 13:28; Ps 39:11; Is 50:9; Hos 5:12; Mt 6:19-20; Lk 12:33; Jas 5:2). In Isaiah 51:8 “worm” (<span>nlt<\/span>) refers specifically to the larva of the clothes moth. The moth symbolizes disintegration, decay, and weakening. It is only the larvae that do the damage. The adult is quite harmless and feeds mainly on the nectar of flowers. It is easily crushed (Jb 4:19). The clothes moth reproduces in May or June. It enters human dwellings in the evening. A week after the eggs are laid the larvae appear and immediately begin their work of destruction, eating anything within reach made of animal fibers.<\/p>\n<p>The moth’s destructive activity is done in secret without any sound and without any dramatic appearance, such as a swarm that blots out the sun. In an age when wealth was counted more in possessions than in money, and when among those possessions wool clothing was highly valued, moths could literally cause economic disaster; hence the words of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p>There are hundreds of species of moths other than the clothes moth in the Holy Land; they are harmless to leaves, flowers, fruit, trees, and seeds. As with the clothes moth, the larvae inflict the damage.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mouse\">Mouse<\/p>\n<p>Rodent of the family Muridae, especially genus <em>Mus.<\/em> The mouse was regarded as unclean because, being short legged, it was considered one of the creeping creatures (Lv 11:29). Mice known as commensals live in dwellings and tend to have longer tails and to be darker in color than wild mice, which are active chiefly at night. Mice are good climbers and even good swimmers. Wild mice eat many kinds of vegetation, including seeds, fleshy roots, leaves, and stems. At times they store food.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for “mouse” (Lv 11:29; 1 Sm 6:4-5; Is 66:17) is probably a general term for various rats and mice. The root meaning of the Hebrew word “mouse” is “destruction of corn,” a reference to the damage mice do to field crops. At least 23 varieties of mouselike rodents are known in the Holy Land. They cause food spoilage, damage household articles, and transport the host fleas that spread typhus, spotted fever, and bubonic plague. Plague bacteria may have caused the tumors or swellings among the Philistines (1 Sm 6:5). Isaiah 66:17 refers to a pre-exilic Canaanite cultic practice in which mice were eaten; the reference may actually be to the hamster. A number of rodents are eaten by Arabs of the Near East; the gerbil is considered a special delicacy. <em>See<\/em> Mole (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mule\">Mule<\/p>\n<p>Hybrid offspring of a male ass and a female horse <em>(Equus asinus mulus),<\/em> ordinarily sterile. The offspring of a female donkey and a stallion (male horse) is known as a hinny and is of little value because of its inferior size.<\/p>\n<p>Because crossbreeding was forbidden in the law (Lv 19:19), the Israelites procured mules from the Gentiles, perhaps from the Phoenicians, since Tyre (a Phoenician seaport in what is now southern Lebanon) imported horses and mules (Ez 27:14). Mules did not appear in Israel until David’s reign (2 Sm 13:29), possibly because of the rarity of horses among the Hebrews. Mules were used chiefly by members of the royal court and by other nobles. King David rode on a mule, and Solomon rode to his inaugaration on King David’s mule (1 Kgs 1:33). Absalom met his death riding on a mule (2 Sm 18:9). Mules were less common than horses, camels, and asses in the postexilic community (Ezr 2:66). In antiquity Asia Minor was especially noted for breeding fine mules.<\/p>\n<p>Mules have long enjoyed a reputation for obstinacy, but that trait is not mentioned in the Bible. The mule is prized for riding and for carrying heavy burdens, especially in warm mountainous regions. They are sure-footed and thrive best in hot, dry climates. The mule has the frugality, endurance, and steady gait of an ass along with the size, strength, swiftness, and courage of a horse. Mules are almost never sick. They live longer than horses. They can carry a load of up to 300 pounds (136 kilograms) as far as 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) a day.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pig\">Pig<\/p>\n<p>Most properly, newborn swine. “Swine” is technically the better name for the species, but it is rarely used in common speech today. The domestic pigs of the Middle East derived from the wild pig <em>(Sus scrofa).<\/em> The pig is the most prolific and abundant supplier of meat and fat for food. A thick layer of fat just under the skin is especially pronounced in domestic breeds. Pigs cannot be driven, so they are of value only to the settled farmer. The Hebrews were originally a nomadic people; therefore, they had little use for an animal closely associated with settled life. An Egyptian prince of about 1500 <span>BC<\/span>, however, is recorded as owning a herd of 1,500 swine.<\/p>\n<p>The pig is clumsily built, yet lively and able to move with agility and speed. The most conspicuous characteristic of the pig is a truncated, mobile snout terminating in a disc-shaped surface on which the nostrils are located. Most pigs have large tusks in both jaws which grow continuously in life. The tusks of the upper jaw are unique in that they curve upward instead of pointing downward as in most animals. The excrement of a pig has an almost unbearable odor, which clings not only to the pig itself but also to swineherds, who can be identified a long way off.<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were never raised in the Holy Land by Jews. The great herd into which Jesus drove the unclean spirits was encountered in the land of the Gadarenes, a non-Jewish area east of the Jordan. The Gadarene demons took refuge in a herd of pigs feeding on a bluff overlooking the Sea of Galilee (Mt 8:28-32).<\/p>\n<p>Wild pigs were found in the Holy Land as in many countries today. Psalm 80:13 refers to the destructiveness of a wild boar (the male, or hog) attacking growing crops. A party of wild boars can destroy an entire vineyard or a field of crops in a single night. They devour, trample, and ravage everything within reach.<\/p>\n<p>Boar hunts were common in ancient Mesopotamia. Wild boars do not attack unless molested, but they are dangerous when aroused. They travel in bands of from 6 to 50 and are most active in the evening and early morning hours. The body is covered with stiff bristles and usually some finer hair, but the body covering is often quite scanty. Wild pigs are mainly vegetarian, feeding on roots, nuts, grains, and plant stems. Wild boars were particularly abundant in the mountainous regions of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, in the Jordan River valley, and in wooded sections such as Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Strict Jews would not even mention swine by name but would always substitute the term “the abomination.” Israelites considered themselves polluted if they were even touched by a swine’s bristle. To the Jews, the pig symbolized filth and ugliness. Pigs will eat fecal material, vermin, rodents, carrion, and the like (2 Pt 2:22). Proverbs 11:22 refers to the incongruity of a golden ring in the nose of an animal showing such characteristics. A similar metaphor occurs in Jesus’ statement about casting pearls before swine (Mt 7:6). The prodigal son’s degeneration was shown by his being forced in his poverty to feed pigs and eat their food (Lk 15:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>Eating the flesh of pigs was forbidden to the Jews (Lv 11:7; Dt 14:8). The Canaanites in the Holy Land killed and ate pigs freely. In intertestamental times Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), a Syrian king whose territories included Israel, used the pig to “Hellenize” the Jews. He first tested their loyalty to the Jewish faith by requiring the consumption of pork, considered a delicacy by the Greeks (2 Macc 6:18). The act of desecration that drove the Jews to rebellion, however, was the sprinkling of pig blood on the temple altar in a sacrifice to Zeus (1 Macc 1:47).<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were frequently used in pagan worship (Is 65:4; 66:3, 17), which may account for their being forbidden to the Jews as food. Evidence in the Holy Land shows that pigs were sacrificed long before Hellenistic times. Pig bones were found in a grotto below the rock-cut place of sacrifice at Gezer. A similar underground chamber with vessels containing piglet bones at Tirzah dates to the middle Bronze Age (about 2000 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Alabaster fragments of a statuette of a pig ready to be sacrificed have been unearthed. Swine were sacrificed to Aphrodite (Venus) in Greece and Asia Minor. In addition, pigs were sacrificed in connection with oaths and treaties; in the <em>Iliad,<\/em> Agamemnon sacrificed a boar to Zeus and Helios. So it is not surprising that among the Jews the pig became a symbol of filthiness and paganism.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that eating pork was forbidden primarily because the pig may carry many worm parasites such as trichina, though that is also true of some “clean” animals. Another reason for forbidding their consumption may have been that pigs eat carrion. Some people are allergic to pork in hot weather—another suggested reason behind the Jewish taboo. The same taboo exists among the Muslims and existed in certain social strata in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Porcupine\">Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>Rodent, <em>Hystrix cristata,<\/em> which lives in forested areas, rocky hills, ravines, and valleys. The porcupine is still found in the Holy Land today. It has long quills that can be raised to give the appearance of a crest. It is almost entirely nocturnal. It burrows by day into a natural cavity or crevice. The Old World porcupine rarely climbed trees, although the New World porcupine frequently does. A porcupine may weigh as much as 60 pounds (27.2 kilograms). It eats fruit, bark, roots, and other vegetation, and carrion as well. Although its flesh is edible, the porcupine was not classed among the clean animals for the Israelites. The reference in Isaiah 34:11 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is probably to the porcupine, as is Isaiah 14:23 in the <span>nlt<\/span>. <em>See<\/em> Hedgehog.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Scorpion\">Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>Arthropod of the same group as spiders (arachnids). A dozen species of scorpions (order Scorpionida) are found in the Holy Land, but 90 percent of the scorpions are yellow scorpions, usually three to five inches (7.6 to 12.7 centimeters) long. The rock scorpion, also common to the Holy Land, is as thick as a man’s finger and from five to seven inches (12.7 to 17.8 centimeters) in length. Scorpions are slow, nocturnal invertebrates that rest beneath stones by day and prey on insects and other arachnids by night. At the end of its long tail the scorpion carries a poisonous sting that is fatal to most prey and extremely painful to humans (Rv 9:3, 5, 10; cf. 1 Kgs 12:11, 14). Scorpions symbolize Ezekiel’s evil countrymen (Ez 2:6) and the demonic forces of Satan (Lk 10:19). The scorpion is referred to as frequenting the Sinai Desert (Dt 8:15).<\/p>\n<p>A scorpion has from six to eight eyes. It has eight legs like a spider and two lobsterlike claws with which it catches and holds its prey. It feeds particularly on locusts and beetles. In many species the female scorpion eats the male after mating. Scorpions lay eggs that hatch very shortly after laying. Scorpions prefer warmer climates, and because of their desire for warmth, enter houses, especially at night, hiding in beds, blankets, footwear, and clothing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sheep\">Sheep<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animal, <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> referred to directly or by some term such as ewe, lamb, ram, or by some fact concerning them over 700 times in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Sheep represented the chief wealth and total livelihood of pastoral peoples, providing food to eat, milk to drink, wool for the making of cloth, and hides and bones for other uses. In addition, the sheep was a medium of exchange and a sacrificial animal. The number of sheep raised in ancient times was prodigious. Mesha, king of Moab, paid a tribute annually of 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams (2 Kgs 3:4). The Israelites took 250,000 sheep from the Hagrites (1 Chr 5:21).<\/p>\n<p>Sheep shearing was often done for festivals (2 Sm 13:23). The sheep was held down on its side and its legs were tied together; then it lay docilely while its wool was clipped (Is 53:7). Sheep reserved for burnt offerings were not shorn; nothing could be held back from a sacrifice to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Wool had to be processed before it could be used for clothing. First it was washed, sometimes while still on the sheep, then carded and perhaps weighed for the market. The spinning of wool was regarded as a woman’s work (Prv 31:19), but weaving the spun thread into cloth on a loom was primarily a man’s occupation.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible reports that Abel kept sheep (Gn 4:2). The first sheep to be domesticated was probably the argali <em>(Ovis ammon),<\/em> a variety of the urial <em>(Ovis vignei),<\/em> a mountainous species still existing in Turkestan and Mongolia. Five breeds had reached Mesopotamia by 2000 <span>BC<\/span>; all were of the urial stock.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep known in Israel was the broad-tailed sheep <em>(Ovis orientalis vignei<\/em> or <em>laticaudata),<\/em> of which the tail weighs from 10 to 15 pounds (4.5 to 6.8 kilograms) and has always been considered a delicacy. Thus the Lord asked for this choice part as a sacrifice (Ex 29:22-25).<\/p>\n<p>Only the ram of the broad-tailed sheep has horns, but in other varieties of sheep in the Holy Land the ewe also has horns. The horns, two to three inches (5 to 8 centimeters) in diameter, can be potent weapons. Rams’ horns could be used as trumpets (Jos 6:4) or as oil containers (1 Sm 16:1).<\/p>\n<p>Although the sheep is very similar to the goat, it is differentiated by a lower forehead, its angulated spiral horns marked with transverse wrinkles and curved slightly outward, its covering of wool, and its lack of a “goatee.” Most sheep are white (Ps 147:16; Is 1:18; Dn 7:9; Rv 1:14).<\/p>\n<p>The flesh of sheep was a luxury in the biblical culture. King Solomon required a daily provision of 100 sheep for his table (1 Kgs 4:23), but the common people ate lamb or mutton only on festive occasions. A young ram was usually chosen because the ewes were more important to the future prospects of the herd. The meat was boiled in large caldrons. The milk of the sheep is extremely rich; in biblical times it was usually allowed to curdle before drinking. Possibly some Israelites kept lambs in their houses as pets (2 Sm 12:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>To protect the flock at night against predatory attacks, the shepherd tried to provide a fold. In meadows near villages, folds were built and watchmen were hired to relieve the shepherds. The shepherds of the nativity story were out in the field (Lk 2:8); they had no fold but probably had set up a tent for shelter, consisting simply of goat-hair blankets spread across sapling supports. The scarcity of springs in the Holy Land made the watering of the flock a crucial problem for the shepherd (Gn 13:8-11).<\/p>\n<p>Wild mountain sheep, varieties of <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> are known in the Mediterranean area (Dt 14:5). The Deuteronomy passage (<span>kjv<\/span> “chamois”) might also refer to <em>Ovis traelaphus,<\/em> a sheep about five feet high (1.5 meters) with long, curved horns. Another possibility is the Barbary sheep that lives in small flocks in rugged mountain areas in Barbary, Egypt, and Mt Sinai. The true chamois is unknown in Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep is also used figuratively in Scripture. The ram represented great strength and fittingly symbolized Medo-Persia in Daniel’s vision (Dn 8:3). It is the nature of sheep to be gentle and submissive (Is 53:7; Jer 11:19), defenseless (Mi 5:8; Mt 10:16), and in constant need of guidance and care (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36). Such qualities are regarded as desirable in the lives of believers in Christ; hence the many figurative references to sheep in the NT and to Jesus as shepherd (Mk 6:34; Jn 10:1-30; Rom 8:35-37; Heb 13:20-21; 1 Pt 2:25). The resurrected Christ told the apostle Peter to “feed my lambs” and “tend my sheep” (Jn 21:15-17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snail\">Snail<\/p>\n<p>Invertebrate gastropods (mollusks). Land snails are very numerous in the Near East. Some freshwater forms serve as hosts for the schistosome worm, the fluke parasite causing the dread disease bilharzia (schistosomiasis).<\/p>\n<p>Purple dyes of all shades were highly valued in the ancient world. A royal purple dye was obtained from secretions of a sea snail <em>(Murex trunculus<\/em> and <em>Murex brandaris).<\/em> Evidently, that process was developed by Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Assyrians as early as 1500 <span>BC<\/span>. The “purple” fishermen had their own guild during the time of the Roman Empire. The snails were harvested during the fall and winter seasons; in the spring, when egg laying took place, little dye was available. The snails tended to remain concealed in the summer. They inhabited the waters off Crete and Phoenicia. Tyrian purple, produced in the Phoenician city of Tyre, the center of the purple-dye industry, was obtained by a double dyeing. Large deposits of murex shells from dyeing operations have been found along the Mediterranean shoreline. The Israelites had to import purple goods (Ez 27:16). Lydia was a “seller of purple” or of cloth so dyed (Acts 16:14). Purple was a sign of distinction, royalty, and wealth (cf. Ex 25:4; 28:5-6, 15; Nm 15:38; 2 Chr 2:7; Est 8:15; Prv 31:22; Sg 3:10; Ez 27:7; Dn 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 30:34-35 refers to “onycha,” which was an important ingredient of incense. Onycha is the horny, clawlike operculum (the plate that closes off the opening of its shell when a snail is retracted) of a Near Eastern member of the molluskan family Strombidae. The operculum is sometimes used for offense or locomotion as well as for defense. When burned, the operculum gives off a sharp, strong scent, and when mixed with more fragrant but less powerful substances is even more potent. The name “onycha” is derived from a Greek word <em>(onyx)<\/em> for a fingernail or a claw.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snake\">Snake<\/p>\n<p>Various species of snake, suborder Ophidia (Serpentes). In the Bible nine Hebrew words and four Greek ones refer to snakes. The most common Hebrew word is onomatopoeic—that is, it is an imitation of a snake hissing or of the sound it produces as it scrapes its scales along the ground (cf. Jer 46:22). Many types of snakes lay eggs (Is 59:5), although some retain the eggs in the body until ready to hatch.<\/p>\n<p>Snakes are among the most widespread reptiles and are found on all continents except Antarctica; they decrease in numbers and species toward the poles but increase as one approaches the equator. Thirty-three species of snakes are known in Palestine and neighboring countries, 20 of which are poisonous. Two dangerous characteristics of the snake noted by biblical writers are its inconspicuous way of moving and the ease with which it hides itself.<\/p>\n<p>Many snakes are able to swallow animals several times their own diameter because of their unusually flexible jaw mechanism. They lack not only legs but also movable eyelids. Snakes periodically shed their skins. The tongue is actually a hearing apparatus sensitive to airborne vibrations and probably to heat waves.<\/p>\n<p>The venom of poisonous species is a clear, thin secretion, transmitted to the victim’s bloodstream by means of fangs. Two types of venom are known: that of the vipers, which affects respiration and disintegrates red blood cells, and that of the cobras, which paralyzes the nervous system.<\/p>\n<p>The “asp” referred to in the Bible is probably the cobra; the “adder” is the viper. The “cockatrice” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is probably the adder. Serpents were associated with worship in Canaanite religion and symbolized evil deities among many other peoples. Steles (upright stones bearing inscriptions) have been unearthed at several sites in the Holy Land and Syria depicting a god or worshiper with a snake winding about the legs or body. Because the Israelites were burning incense in pagan worship of Moses’ bronze serpent (Nm 21:8-9), King Hezekiah destroyed it in his religious reform (2 Kgs 18:4).<\/p>\n<p>Although snakes have been an object of veneration in some religions, in the Judeo-Christian tradition snakes represent evil and, more specifically, the devil. That association began in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:1-15) and is also found in the book of Revelation (12:9; 20:2-3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adder (above); Asp (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spider\">Spider<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the order Araneida. Between 600 and 700 different species inhabit the Holy Land. Spiders are different from insects in that, like scorpions, they have four pairs of legs instead of three. Spiders are equipped with poison glands—the effectiveness varying from species to species. A few can kill only insects, but others can also kill birds and mice.<\/p>\n<p>Most spiders have a pair of spinnerets attached to silk glands on the underside of the abdomen; from them a web is extruded. In the Bible the spider’s web is referred to as a symbol of frailty and insecurity (Jb 8:14; Is 59:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sponge\">Sponge<\/p>\n<p>Simple marine animals, phylum Porifera. The term “sponge” also refers to those animals’ skeletal remains. The sponge has a porous body composed of tubules and cells.<\/p>\n<p>Sponge fishing was well known in the Mediterranean area in ancient times. It was practiced particularly along the Anatolian and Syrian coasts. Sponges were harvested by divers. The use of sponges in absorbing liquids is referred to in the Bible (Mt 27:48; Mk 15:36).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Unicorn\">Unicorn<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Wild Ox (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wasp\">Wasp<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the family Vespidae. Hornets are social wasps that build large aerial apartment houses in which 1,000 or more individuals may live. In the Bible the hornet is used as a metaphor for God’s use of military forces (Ex 23:28; Dt 7:20; Jos 24:12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Whale\">Whale<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all living creatures, including those that have become extinct. Whales are air-breathing mammals of the order Cetacea.<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of whales visit the shores of the Holy Land at times. The finback whale <em>(Balaenoptera physalus)<\/em> weighs about 200 tons (181 metric tons) and lives mainly in the Arctic region but sometimes passes through the Straits of Gibraltar to reach the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It feeds on small marine organisms that it strains through its whale bone; it does not have teeth. The finback whale’s esophagus is narrow.<\/p>\n<p>The sperm whale <em>(Physeter catodon),<\/em> about 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, has a curiously shaped head that looks like a battering ram. The teeth in the lower jaw of the male sperm whale are about seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long. It feeds on big fish, even on sharks. It has a large throat opening.<\/p>\n<p>Whales are referred to in Genesis 1:21 and Job 7:12 (<span>kjv<\/span> only). The “great fish” of Jonah 2:1 need not have been a whale but could have been a large shark, such as the whale shark <em>(Rhineodon),<\/em> which grows 70 feet (21.3 meters) long and lacks the terrible teeth of other sharks. Whatever the actual marine organism, Jonah’s deliverance was miraculous. The Greek word for “whale” is sometimes used as a general term for “sea monster” or huge fish and may be used in that sense in Matthew 12:40.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WildOx\">Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>Large, fierce, fleet, intractable animal <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> It had a long, lean rump with a straight back and a long, narrow head. The animal described in Job 39:9-12 is clearly the wild ox. The two horns (Dt 33:17), its outstanding characteristic, were straight and as long as the head (Nm 23:22; 24:8; Ps 22:21). Kings often symbolized their dominion by wearing a helmet with two wild ox horns (cf. Pss 92:10; 132:17-18). The horns were often used as drinking vessels by the Israelites; some were large enough to hold four gallons (15 liters).<\/p>\n<p>Hunting the wild ox was a favorite sport of Assyrian kings. Tiglath-pileser I hunted it in the Lebanon Mountains about 1100 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Ps 29:6). At one time the animal referred to in Job 39:9-12 was thought to be the oryx or antelope because of the similarity between the Hebrew word in Job and the Arabian name for oryx. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> called the wild ox a “unicorn” because of representations found on Babylonian mosaics and Egyptian drawings. Those representations showed it in strict profile, showing only one horn—hence, “unicorn.” Jerome’s Vulgate, a Latin Bible translation (fourth century <span>AD<\/span>) and Martin Luther’s German version translated it similarly.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wolf\">Wolf<\/p>\n<p>Large doglike mammal <em>(Canis lupus)<\/em> that travels in bands of up to 30 animals. From the nose to the rump, the wolf measures about 3 feet (.9 meter); its drooping tail is about 18 inches (.5 meter) long. It looks much like a skinny German shepherd dog. The grayish yellow pelt is coarse and short haired.<\/p>\n<p>Wolves hunt singly or in relays, usually at night (Jer 5:6). Wolves have acute hearing and sight but rely chiefly on scent and usually catch their prey in a swift, open chase. The wolf has a reputation for boldness, fierceness, and voracity (Gn 49:27; Hb 1:8). It commonly kills more than it can eat or drag away and thus is known for its greediness.<\/p>\n<p>The wolf is a restless animal, always on the move; hunger drives it from one place to another in constant search of new hunting grounds. During spring and fall, wolves usually roam singly or in pairs, whereas in summer they may travel in family groups. In winter, several such groups may join to form a large pack. Wolves are intelligent, social creatures, faithful to their own kind. They mate for life. Individually, the wolf is a rather timid animal; it would much rather avoid human beings. But collectively wolves can be among the most dangerous animals alive.<\/p>\n<p>In Egypt, Rome, and Greece the wolf was considered sacred. Wolves were well known in the Holy Land and are still found there and also in many places in Asia Minor. Shepherds continually battled with wolves that plundered their flocks (Jn 10:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible refers to wolves in a literal sense in only three places (Is 11:6; 65:25; Jn 10:12), all other references being figurative. Usually the wolf is a symbol of enemies or the wicked (e.g., Ez 22:27; Zep 3:3; Acts 20:29). Both the wolf’s courage and its cruelty were probably in the mind of the patriarch Jacob when he predicted the fate of Benjamin’s tribe (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Worm\">Worm<\/p>\n<p>Actually insect larvae in most biblical references, usually maggots, the larvae of flies (see Fly, above). For example, maggots are evidently referred to in accounts of worms feeding on spoiled manna (Ex 16:19-20), corpses (Jb 21:26; Is 14:11), or open wounds (Jb 7:5). Mark 9:48 refers to a maggot that eats dead flesh. In Acts 12:23 a fatal, worm-induced abdominal disease of King Herod is mentioned. In other cases, the reference is to the larvae of other insects (Is 51:8). In Deuteronomy 28:39 and Jonah 4:7 the vine weevil <em>(Cochylis ambiguella)<\/em> is probably referred to; it destroys vines by boring into their stems. Comparing a man to a worm is a metaphor for abasement (Jb 25:6; Ps 22:6).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ANIMALS<\/h3>\n<p>In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals as object lessons.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical approach to classification of animals is somewhat different from the system of classification used by biologists today. The present system of classification, which traces back to Carolus Linnaeus (an 18th-century Swedish botanist), is based on structure, both internal and external. The biblical basis of classification is habitat. Thus Genesis 1 speaks of aquatic organisms (v 20); aerial organisms (v 21); animals that crawl on the ground (v 24); cattle or domesticated animals (animals that live in association with humans) (v 24); and wild animals (v 24). The same system of classification is followed in Leviticus 11 and throughout Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Because of the divergence between systems of classification, the various animals of the Bible will be listed here in alphabetical order—including reptiles, fish, and even invertebrates such as insects, spiders, worms, and sponges. Birds are discussed in a separate article.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Adder<\/p>\n<p>• Ant<\/p>\n<p>• Antelope<\/p>\n<p>• Ape<\/p>\n<p>• Asp<\/p>\n<p>• Ass<\/p>\n<p>• Badger<\/p>\n<p>• Bat<\/p>\n<p>• Bear<\/p>\n<p>• Bee<\/p>\n<p>• Behemoth<\/p>\n<p>• Camel<\/p>\n<p>• Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>• Cattle<\/p>\n<p>• Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>• Coral<\/p>\n<p>• Cricket<\/p>\n<p>• Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>• Deer<\/p>\n<p>• Dog<\/p>\n<p>• Donkey<\/p>\n<p>• Dragon<\/p>\n<p>• Fish<\/p>\n<p>• Flea<\/p>\n<p>• Fly<\/p>\n<p>• Fox<\/p>\n<p>• Frog<\/p>\n<p>• Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>• Gecko<\/p>\n<p>• Gnat<\/p>\n<p>• Goat<\/p>\n<p>• Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>• Hare<\/p>\n<p>• Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>• Horse<\/p>\n<p>• Hyena<\/p>\n<p>• Jackal<\/p>\n<p>• Leech<\/p>\n<p>• Leopard<\/p>\n<p>• Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>• Lion<\/p>\n<p>• Lizard<\/p>\n<p>• Locust<\/p>\n<p>• Mole<\/p>\n<p>• Moth<\/p>\n<p>• Mouse<\/p>\n<p>• Mule<\/p>\n<p>• Pig<\/p>\n<p>• Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>• Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>• Sheep<\/p>\n<p>• Snail<\/p>\n<p>• Snake<\/p>\n<p>• Spider<\/p>\n<p>• Sponge<\/p>\n<p>• Unicorn<\/p>\n<p>• Wasp<\/p>\n<p>• Whale<\/p>\n<p>• Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>• Wolf<\/p>\n<p>• Worm<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Adder\">Adder<\/p>\n<p>One of the 20 poisonous snakes found in Israel and surrounding countries, also referred to as cockatrice and viper. True vipers (genus <em>Cerastes, Echis colorata,<\/em> and <em>Vipera palestina<\/em>) also exist there, poisonous snakes with curved fangs that spring into position when the snake strikes. The horned viper <em>(Cerastes hasselquistii)<\/em> may attack horses. It is 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 centimeters) long and often lies in ambush in the sand with only its eyes and the hornlike protrusions on its head visible.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and John the Baptist referred to the viper several times (Mt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33). The reference in Acts 28:3 is probably to a small viper <em>(Vipera aspis)<\/em> that strikes rapidly and is very pugnacious. It is found in southern Europe and hisses each time it inhales and exhales. The poison of vipers attacks the respiratory system and disintegrates red blood cells.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ant\">Ant<\/p>\n<p>Mentioned only twice in the Bible, both times in the book of Proverbs. For many years Solomon was charged with a biological error when he referred to the ant as providing her meat in the summer and gathering her food in the harvest (Prv 6:8). Critics of the Bible were quick to point out that, so far as was then known, ants do not store up food. They assumed that Solomon had probably kicked open an ant hill and mistaken the pupal cases (pods in which immature ants grow to maturity) for grain or had observed ants carrying bits of grain, leaves, and other matter to their nests.<\/p>\n<p>At least three species of grain-storing ants are now known—two occur in Israel and the other in Mediterranean countries. The particular species referred to by Solomon (Prv 6:6-8; 30:24-25) is probably the harvester ant <em>(Messor semirufus).<\/em> Its granaries are flat chambers connected by galleries irregularly scattered over an area about six feet (1.8 meters) in diameter and about a foot (.3 meter) deep in the ground. Seeds are collected from the ground or picked from plants. The head, or radicle, which is the softest part of the kernel, is bitten off to prevent germination, and the chaff and empty capsules are discarded on kitchen middens (refuse piles) outside the nest. Individual granaries may be 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) in diameter and a half inch (1.2 centimeters) high. Some nests are known to be 40 feet (12 meters) in diameter and 6 to 7 feet (approx. 2 meters) deep with several entrances.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Antelope\">Antelope<\/p>\n<p>Several antelope-like creatures are referred to in the Scriptures. One seems to be the white oryx <em>(Oryx leucoryx),<\/em> referred to in Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild ox”; <span>rsv<\/span> “antelope”) and Isaiah 51:20 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild bull”; <span>RSV <\/span>“antelope”). The oryx was probably the antelope, commonly used for food because its long horns made it relatively easy to catch.<\/p>\n<p>Another antelope mentioned in the Bible is the addax <em>(Addax nasomaculatus),<\/em> probably the “pygarg” of Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span>). It is a native of North Africa with grayish white hinder parts, a white patch on the forehead, and twisted and ringed horns. The word “pygarg” comes from a Greek word meaning “white rump.” The addax is about the size of a donkey. Its body is closely covered with short hair. It has a short mane on the underside of its neck that makes the head look somewhat like that of a goat. The hooves are broad and flat, and the tail resembles that of a donkey. It is common in Africa and in Arabia, where Arabs hunt it with falcons and dogs.<\/p>\n<p>Antelopes are very graceful and run with their heads held high. Both sexes have long, permanent, hollow horns. With the oryx the horns go straight back; addax horns are twisted and ringed. Antelope are alert, wary, and keen sighted. They are usually found in herds of from two to a dozen. If injured or brought to bay, an antelope attacks with its head lowered so that the sharp horns point forward. Antelopes feed on grasses and shrubs, drinking from streams and water holes. When water is scarce, they eat melons and succulent bulbs. Both addax and oryx were ceremonially clean in Jewish law.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ape\">Ape<\/p>\n<p>Primate not native to Palestine. The two references to apes in the OT (1 Kgs 10:22; 2 Chr 9:21) refer to their importation by King Solomon with other treasures on board the ships of his mercantile fleet. There is some question concerning the origin of those primates. Some believe that the mention of “ivory” in the same verses suggests they came from East Africa and that they were indeed apes, that is, tailless primates. Others, believing they came from India or Ceylon, suggest that they were actually monkeys. There the baboon (genus Papeio), a large monkey, was considered sacred to the god Thoth. Males of that genus were kept in temples, and the more docile females were often kept as house pets. Such baboons frequently had some of their teeth removed or ground down to lessen the danger of their biting. A number of mummified baboons have been found in Egypt, indicating the high regard in which they were held.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Asp\">Asp<\/p>\n<p>Poisonous snake. Most biblical references to the asp (Dt 32:33) seem to be to the Egyptian cobra <em>(Naja haje),<\/em> which conceals itself in holes, walls, and rocks and has the ability to expand its neck by raising its anterior ribs so as to enlarge the front of its breast into the shape of a flat disc. Its potent poison can cause death in 30 minutes. It attains a length of about 80 inches (2 meters). The fangs are permanently erect, not movable as in the vipers (the common poisonous snakes of North America; only the coral snake in America has permanently erect fangs). Cobra poison attacks the nervous system, causing muscular paralysis. The Egyptians looked upon it as a sacred creature; they regarded it as a protector since it fed on the rodents that ate their crops. The “fiery serpents” (Nm 21:6; Dt 8:15, both <span>rsv<\/span>) may have been cobras; “fiery” probably refers to the burning fever caused by their venom. Isaiah 14:29 and 30:6 (“flying serpent”) may refer to the hood of the cobra.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ass\">Ass<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Donkey (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Badger\">Badger<\/p>\n<p>Small hoofed mammal. What the <span>kjv<\/span> calls a “coney,” modern translations name “rock badger” (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7; Ps 104:18; Prv 30:26). The rock badger spoken of in the Bible is probably the Syrian rock hyrax <em>(Hyrax syriaca),<\/em> the only species of hyrax found outside Africa. This small ungulate (having hooflike toenails) lives among rocks from the Dead Sea valley to Mt Hermon. It is strictly a herbivorous (plant-eating) animal about the size of a rabbit. It resembles a guinea pig more than a rabbit, having quite inconspicuous ears and a very small tail. It has broad nails with four toes on its forelegs and three on its hind legs, the toes being connected with skin almost like a web. Pads acting as sucking discs under its feet enable it to keep its footing on slippery rocks. With its yellow and brown fur, it is sometimes called the bear rat because of its resemblance to a tailless rat. It is also equipped with black whiskers that may be seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p>These rock badgers, or hyraxes, live together in colonies of from 6 to 50 animals, often sunning themselves on rocks. They are difficult to catch. Guards are posted, and if approaching danger is sighted, the whole group will scurry for cover, warned by the sharp whistles of the guards. Thus they are commended for taking refuge in the rocks (Ps 104:18) and are called wise for making “their houses in the rocks” (Prv 30:24, 26, <span>kjv<\/span>). The badger is not a ruminant (does not chew its cud), but the motion of its jaws may suggest that it chews its cud. That is probably why it was included with other cud-chewing animals in the Jewish food laws (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7). It was forbidden to the Jews as food because it did not have cloven hooves. Some Arabs eat and even prize its meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bat\">Bat<\/p>\n<p>Flying mammals according to modern classification. They have hair and provide milk for their young. The Bible classifies them with other aerial creatures. Bats take shelter in caves, crevices, tree cavities, buildings, and also in exposed places on trees. In colder areas they hibernate or migrate. The normal resting position for a bat is hanging head downward. Bats “swim” through the air rather than fly because they move with their legs as well as with their wings.<\/p>\n<p>The bat’s thumb is free and terminates in a single hook claw used for climbing and hanging. The hind feet have five toes, all pointing the same way. The large chest accommodates the powerful muscles needed for flying. Because they orient themselves by echo location, the sense of hearing is very well developed.<\/p>\n<p>Most bats are insect eaters, seizing insects in flight. Many insectivorous bats also eat some fruit. Other bats feed exclusively, usually in groups, on fruit and green vegetation. Fruit-eating bats generally live in the tropics where fruit is constantly ripening, although some have been found in the Holy Land. These bats tend to be larger than the insectivores, having a wingspread of up to five feet (1.5 meters).<\/p>\n<p>A third group includes flower-eating bats that feed on pollen and nectar. These small bats with long pointed heads and long tongues are found only in tropical and semitropical regions. Three species of vampire bats, which do not occur in the Holy Land, eat blood by making a small incision and lapping it up. Carnivorous (meat-eating) bats prey on birds, lizards, and frogs. Fish-eating bats catch fish at or near the water surface.<\/p>\n<p>Eight varieties of bats are known in the Holy Land. One of them, the little brown bat (genus <em>Myotis<\/em>), is worldwide in its distribution. It is insectivorous and probably has the widest distribution of any nonhuman terrestrial mammal. Brown bats are mostly cave dwellers. The females form maternity colonies that may number in the tens of thousands.<\/p>\n<p>Two species of mouse-tailed bats (genus <em>Rhinopoma<\/em>) are found in the Holy Land. Their tails are nearly as long as the head and body combined. They are colonial, roosting in caves, rock clefts, wells, pyramids, palaces, and houses. Like the brown bat, they are insectivorous. The slit-faced or hollow-faced bats (genus <em>Nycteris<\/em>) are also found in the Holy Land. They are insectivorous and roost in groups from 6 to 20.<\/p>\n<p>The bats found in the Holy Land vary in size from that of a mouse to the size of a rat; the largest species measures more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) across the wings. The bat was unclean to the Jews (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bear\">Bear<\/p>\n<p>Large, heavy, big-headed mammal with short, powerful limbs, a short tail, and small eyes and ears. Bears have a “plantigrade” walk: they walk on both the sole and heel as humans do. The Palestinian bear is a Syrian version of the brown bear <em>(Ursus arctos syriacus).<\/em> It can grow to a height of 6 feet (1.8 meters) and may weigh as much as 500 pounds (227 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>Bears have an excellent sense of smell but less developed senses of sight and hearing. They are omnivorous (eating any kind of food); they subsist largely on vegetation, fruits, insects, and fish.<\/p>\n<p>Bears are usually peaceful and inoffensive, but if they think they must defend themselves (Lam 3:10) or their young (2 Sm 17:8; Prv 17:12; Hos 13:8), they may be formidable and dangerous adversaries. David boasted of his role as a bear killer (1 Sm 17:34-37). Since a blow from a bear’s paw can be fatal, David’s courage and strength as a young shepherd in running after a bear and wrenching one of his father’s sheep from its jaws were noteworthy.<\/p>\n<p>Some biblical passages seem to imply that bears attacked for no apparent reason (e.g., Prv 28:15; Am 5:19). At other times they were God’s instruments of punishment, as in the story of Elisha and the two she-bears (2 Kgs 2:24). The bear and the lion, often mentioned together in the Bible (1 Sm 17:37), were the two largest and strongest beasts of prey in the Holy Land. Thus they symbolized both strength and terror (Am 5:19).<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times bears seem to have roamed all over Palestine. Today they are found only in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and even there they are rare.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bee\">Bee<\/p>\n<p>One of two domesticated insects <em>(Apis mellifica),<\/em> the other being the silkworm. Bees gather nectar from flowers, transferring pollen from one flower to another in the process. It is believed that they convey the location of sources of nectar to other bees through a bee “dance,” which may indicate both distance and direction. Bees are sensitive to four colors: blue-green, yellow-green, blue-violet, and ultra-violet (invisible to humans).<\/p>\n<p>The wild bees of the Holy Land are especially noted for their ferocity in attack. Only the female “worker” bees sting people and animals, the virulence of their venom increasing in warm weather. A number of biblical passages allude to the irritable, vindictive nature of bees and to the painful stings they inflict (Dt 1:44; Ps 118:12; Is 7:18).<\/p>\n<p>One reference calls attention to the fact that in semidesert regions a dead animal’s carcass, stripped to the bone by jackals or vultures and dried in the sun, can provide wild bees an excellent place to start a new colony (Jgs 14:5-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptians considered the bee sacred. In ancient Greece candles were made from beeswax. In the Holy Land, beekeeping was probably not practiced until the Hellenistic period (second century <span>BC<\/span>), although Ezekiel 27:17 suggests that it may have been practiced earlier. If domestic honey was not available to the Hebrews, wild honey certainly was, and travelers would be on the lookout for caches of honey in rocky clefts and other likely places. The Philistines and the Hittites practiced beekeeping in their cities.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible contains many references to bees and bee products. A bee swarm was a valuable asset, though the price of honey itself was low. Honey was sometimes eaten with the honeycomb (Sg 5:1). Honey also had uses other than food, e.g., in embalming.<\/p>\n<p>The land of Israel was described as a land flowing with milk and honey. Honey was a major source of sweetening in the ancient Near East—hence, its importance (cf. Jgs 14:8-9). Actually the Hebrew word for “honey” may include not only bee honey but also the sweet syrup extracted from such fruits as figs, dates, and grapes. Thus “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ex 3:8, <span>rsv<\/span>) does not necessarily stand for a land of bees but for a land rich in sweetness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Honey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Behemoth\">Behemoth<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Hippopotamus (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Camel\">Camel<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of burden. Unintelligent, ill-natured, and quarrelsome, the camel <em>(Camelus dromedarius)<\/em> is nevertheless a blessing to people living in the desert and on its borders because it is especially adapted to that habitat. It has been called the ship of the desert. Having thick elastic pads of fibrous tissue on its feet, it can walk on hot desert sands. It can go without water for long periods and can subsist on vegetation growing on the saline soils. The camel’s nostrils are pinched together and can be closed at will to prevent penetration of sand during violent sandstorms.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are used for transporting both goods and people. A person riding a camel can cover from 60 to 75 miles (96.5 to 121 kilometers) in a day. A camel can carry a load weighing 600 pounds (272 kilograms) or more. Camels were used heavily in the spice trade (Gn 37:25) and traveled regularly in camel trains between Arabia, Egypt, and Assyria. They were also ridden in time of war (Jgs 6:5). A camel can even be hitched to a plow in areas where the land is cultivated.<\/p>\n<p>The hair shed by camels during the early spring is preserved and used in weaving cloth and making tents. As much as 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of hair can be obtained from one camel. A rough cloak of camel’s hair, as worn by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4), is still worn by Bedouins today. A camel’s hair garment was also the sign of the prophetic office (Zec 13:4).<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of camel occur within the one-humped species, the slow burden-bearing camel referred to in Genesis 37:25 and the fast dromedary of 1 Samuel 30:17. The dromedary can stand seven feet (2.1 meters) tall and measure as much as nine feet (2.7 meters) from the muzzle to the tip of the tail. With its three-chambered stomach, which can hold from 15 to 30 quarts (14.2 to 28.4 liters) of liquid, it can go for as long as 5 days during the summer or 25 days in winter without drinking. The camel’s hump is a reserve store of fat, making it possible for the animal to subsist on very little food during a desert journey.<\/p>\n<p>Another species of camel, the Bactrian camel <em>(Camelus bactrianus),<\/em> is also resident in the Holy Land. It has two humps. It is heavier, bigger, and has longer hair than the one-humped camel and is slower than the swift dromedary. Isaiah 21:7 may refer to the Bactrian camel; both kinds of camel are referred to in Esther 8:10 (<span>kjv<\/span>). Camels ranked in importance with sheep, cattle, and asses in OT times. A third of the 66 biblical references to the camel lists it with other animals.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are ruminants (cud-chewing mammals) but do not have cloven hooves. Thus, they were included in the list of unclean beasts, forbidden by the Israelites as food (Lv 11:4; Dt 14:7). They are eaten by Arabs, however, who also drink their milk (cf. Gn 32:15).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham had camels in Egypt (Gn 12:16). At first Job had 3,000 camels (Jb 1:3) and after his recovery, 6,000 (Jb 42:12). Although wide use of camels does not seem to have begun until shortly before 1000 <span>BC<\/span> (Jgs 6:5), Sumerian texts from the Old Babylonian period list camels and indicate that they had been domesticated. Camel bones and figurines have been found at various eastern archaeological sites dating from well before 1200 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Caterpillar\">Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>Larval stage of insects characterized by complete metamorphosis. Such insects pass through four stages: egg, larva or caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Bees, flies, moths, and butterflies all pass through a larval or caterpillar stage.<\/p>\n<p>The word “caterpillar” occurs three times in the <span>nlt<\/span> (1 Kgs 8:37; 2 Chr 6:28; Ps 78:46). In the book of Joel that same Hebrew word is translated “locust” (1:4; 2:25, <span>nlt<\/span>). The locust and grasshopper to which the Hebrew word refers have an incomplete type of metamorphosis with only three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The nymph is a miniature adult in which the wings are not fully developed, though their outline may be present. There are several nymph stages known as instars. The reference is to one of the last instars, in which the wing structures are still folded together and enclosed in a sac but are nevertheless clearly recognizable. That form of the insect is about an inch (2.5 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cattle\">Cattle<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animals of the bovine species <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> The OT often emphasized the beauty of cattle. Egypt was rich in cattle, especially in the Nile River delta area (Goshen), where the Hebrews settled under Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars believe that milk rather than meat was the foremost consideration in the domestication of cattle and that in early civilizations meat supplies came chiefly from wild game. Cattle also supplied strong hides that supplanted wood in the manufacture of shields. Their dung was a source of fuel when wood was scarce (Ez 4:15). They were used as beasts of burden and for plowing. Development of wheeled transportation was associated more closely with cattle than with any other animal.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical term “cattle” often refers to all domesticated animals or livestock (Gn 1:24; 2:20; 7:23; 47:6, 16-17; Ex 9:3-7; Nm 3:41, 45). Occasionally, the term was used to refer to all large domestic animals (Nm 31:9; 32:26), although sometimes the word as used in the <span>kjv<\/span> refers only to sheep and goats (Gn 30:32, 39, 43; 31:8, 10; Is 7:25; 43:23).<\/p>\n<p>Probably several kinds of cattle were domesticated in the Holy Land. Small, short-legged, black or brown shorthorn cattle were found in the southern part of Judah; that type submitted easily to the yoke and was prominent in agricultural operations. Along the coast a larger variety was found, and the wild districts east of the Jordan River were populated with a breed of huge black cattle.<\/p>\n<p>Cattle breeding was widely practiced by the patriarchs (cf. Gn 32:15; Jb 21:10). Strict laws in Mesopotamia, as well as in Israel, penalized the owner of a bull that gored a man or other cattle (Ex 21:28-36). Bulls were sometimes employed figuratively as pictures of strength or violence (Dt 33:17; Pss 22:12; 68:30; Is 10:13). For breeding purposes one bull is normally adequate for about 30 cows, but many more were kept since bulls were widely used in Israel for sacrifices. They might be used as a general sacrifice (Lv 22:23; Nm 23:1) or for special sacrifices (Jgs 6:25; 1 Sm 1:24). Particular sacrifices were offered at the consecration of priests (Ex 29:1), consecration of an altar (Nm 7), purification of the Levites (Nm 8), sin offerings (Lv 16), day of the new moon (Nm 28:11-14), Passover (Nm 28:19), Feast of Weeks (Nm 28:27), Feast of Trumpets (Nm 29:1-2), Day of Atonement (Nm 29:7-9), and the Feast of Tabernacles (Nm 29:12-38). The Feast of Tabernacles required the largest number of bulls for burnt offerings of all the annual feasts, with a total of 71 being slaughtered during the course of eight days.<\/p>\n<p>Calves were sometimes referred to as “sons of the herd” in the original Hebrew (Gn 18:8; 1 Sm 6:7; 14:32). The calf, a symbol of peacefulness (Is 11:6), was also used figuratively to refer to the weak (Ps 68:30). A calf’s head decorated the back of Solomon’s throne (1 Kgs 10:19). Calves were sometimes fattened in stalls to keep them from running off weight in the field (Am 6:4; Mal 4:2; Lk 15:23) or were kept around the house; the witch of Endor kept a calf in her house that she killed and served to Saul and his men (1 Sm 28:24-25). Calves supplied veal (Gn 18:7), considered a delicacy by the wealthy; Amos referred to stall-fattened calves in a denunciation of luxurious and careless living (Am 6:4). Calves also supplied meat for all Saul’s armies at the great slaughter of the Philistines (1 Sm 14:32). The “fatted calf” served roasted or boiled was gourmet fare, suitable for the finest banquet (Gn 18:7; Mt 22:4; Lk 15:23).<\/p>\n<p>Cattle were subject to the law of firstlings (Ex 13:12). They were a mark of wealth (Gn 13:2) and were considered proper booty of war (Jos 8:2). Aaron, the first high priest, made a golden calf as a rival to the ark of the covenant (Ex 32; Dt 9:16, 21). Even though he represented the calf as an image of the invisible God, it was especially offensive because the calf was a fertility symbol related to Egyptian and Canaanite practices. Two calves were later made by Jeroboam I of Israel (930–909 <span>BC<\/span>) for his shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:28-33). Hosea’s prophetic denunciations of calf worship were directed at those shrines (Hos 8:5-6; 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>An ox is an adult castrated bull. A steer is a young ox. Oxen were used to do work (Nm 7:3; Dt 22:10; 25:4), though for moving heavy objects, cows were typically favored over bulls because of their more docile nature. Oxen were also used as pack animals (1 Chr 12:40, although they did not have the endurance of the ass, camel, or mule. They usually fed on grass (Nm 22:4; Ps 106:20), but they also ate straw (Is 11:7) and salted fodder (Is 30:24) and could be kept in a stable (Lk 13:15). Oxen could not be offered as sacrifices because they had been castrated (Lv 22:24). They could be used for food but were rarely eaten. Possession of an ox and an ass was regarded as the bare minimum for existence in the ancient Palestinian agriculture economy (Jb 24:3; cf. Ex 20:17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Agriculture; Food and Food Preparation; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chameleon\">Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>Lizard characterized by its ability to change color according to its surroundings <em>(Chameleon vulgaris).<\/em> To the Israelites the chameleon was ritually unclean (Lv 11:30). The Hebrew word for chameleon is derived from a word meaning “to pant.” A lizard’s lungs are very large, and in ancient times lizards were believed to live on air. A chameleon’s eyes move independently of each other; so at times one eye may be turned upward and the other downward. Chameleons live in trees and bushes, clinging to branches with their long tails.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coral\">Coral<\/p>\n<p>Calcareous (lime-containing) skeletons of relatively simple marine organisms <em>(Corallium rubrum).<\/em> Red coral from the Mediterranean and Red Seas is widely used for jewelry and for medicinal purposes. While the animal is alive, the coral is green in color and shrublike in appearance, looking rather like an underwater plant since the coral animals are immobil. When the coral is removed from the water, it becomes hard and red in color.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient times coral was sometimes used as money, along with precious stones, pearls, and gold. Some believe the biblical reference in Lamentations 4:7 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is to pearls rather than to coral, but it is probable that the references in Job 28:18 and Ezekiel 27:16 are to the red coral (see <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cricket\">Cricket<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the order Orthptera related to grasshoppers and locusts. According to Leviticus 11:22, the cricket was edible. The reference may be to one of the growth stages of the locust.<\/p>\n<p>The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word as “beetle.” Beetles are insects with chewing mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the fore pair being hard and sheathlike and the hind pair being membranous and folded under the fore pair. Some beetles are carnivorous, others are chiefly herbivorous. Some are aquatic, some produce a secretion that blisters the skin, some damage fabrics, some damage crops, and some feed on other insects that are harmful to humans. In ancient Egypt the beetle, or sacred scarab, was a symbol of the sun god Ra. Scarab seals and amulets were extremely popular in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Crocodile\">Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all existing reptiles <em>(Crocodilus vulgaris),<\/em> attaining a length of well over 20 feet (6 meters). Crocodiles are characterized by large lizardlike bodies supported by short legs. The head terminates in a flattened snout armed with strong conical teeth, each of which is implanted in a distinct socket. New teeth growing from beneath continually replace those in use. The toes are webbed. The back and tail are protected by quadrangular horny shields of varying sizes arranged in regular rows and in contact with one another at the edges. The eyes are covered with movable lids that can be closed when the animal enters the water.<\/p>\n<p>The crocodile spends most of its time in the water where it feeds mainly on fish but also on aquatic birds and even small animals that come down to the water’s edge to drink. It is surprisingly fast and agile on dry land, even though its legs are so short that its belly and tail drag across the earth leaving a distinct path.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, the crocodile was found in the marshes and small coastal rivers of western Palestine. A first-century Roman writer, Pliny, referred to a place in the Holy Land called Crocodeilopolis (“crocodile city”) to the south of Mt Carmel, and visitors to the Holy Land as late as the 19th century reported seeing crocodiles in that general region.<\/p>\n<p>The description of “Leviathan” in Job 41 seems to be based on the crocodile (thus the translation of the <span>nlt<\/span>). The “dragon” of Ezekiel 29:3, used figuratively of the Egyptian pharaoh, may be a reference to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Deer\">Deer<\/p>\n<p>Large ruminant (cud-chewing) animals. Only the males have antlers (branching horns). Deer antlers grow annually and are solid, in contrast to those of the antelope and the gazelle. Fully developed antlers are devoid of any covering of skin or horn and, for all practical purposes, may be regarded as a mass of dead bone carried for a certain time by the living animal.<\/p>\n<p>The end of the deer’s muzzle is naked in all species. The stomach is divided into a series of compartments, some of which are used to store partly chewed food. The food is later regurgitated, rechewed, and finally swallowed into a section of the stomach where true digestion takes place.<\/p>\n<p>Three species of deer were known in Palestine: the red deer <em>(Cervus elaphus),<\/em> the Persian fallow deer <em>(Dama mesopotamica),<\/em> and the roe deer <em>(Capreolus capreolus).<\/em> All are now extinct there. The last deer were hunted in the Holy Land in 1914. The red deer referred to in the Bible as “hart” (male), “stag” (male), or “hind” (female) stood about four feet (1.2 meters) high at the shoulder. It was gregarious (living in herds or flocks), each group remaining in a definite territory. Red deer grazed and browsed during the morning and late afternoon (Lam 1:6). The sexes remained in separate herds. The red deer was known for its leaping (Is 35:6) and sure-footedness in the mountains (Ps 18:33; Sg 2:8-9, 17; 8:14; Hb 3:19).<\/p>\n<p>The antlers of the Persian fallow deer (1 Kgs 4:23) were large, flattened, and palmated (shaped like an open palm with fingers extended), and its coat was a yellowbrown. It traveled in small groups, feeding mainly on grass in the morning and evening.<\/p>\n<p>The roe deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23) was a small, graceful animal, dark reddish brown in summer and yellowish gray in winter. Its antlers were about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and had three points. The roe deer preferred sparsely wooded valleys and the lower slopes of mountains, grazing in open grasslands. It usually associated in family groups made up of the doe and her offspring. They were shy, yet very curious. The roe deer barked like a dog when disturbed, and they were excellent swimmers.<\/p>\n<p>There is some question as to whether the roe deer is actually referred to in such passages as 1 Kings 4:23; references may be to the fallow deer, although that animal does not seem to have lived in the southern part of Palestine around the Sinai Desert because of its need for ample amounts of food and water. Fallow deer were found in northern Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The hart (the male red deer) was listed among the clean beasts that Jewish law permitted as food (Dt 12:15, 22; 14:5), but deer were not listed among the animals appropriate for sacrifice. The hind (female red deer) normally gave birth to one calf at a time, though twins were born with some degree of regularity (Jb 39:1; Ps 29:9, <span>kjv<\/span>; Jer 14:5). The gestation period was about 40 weeks. When it was about to give birth, the hind looked for a secure hiding place, preferably in the dense undergrowth of the forest where it could find natural protection for the tiny calf. During the first few days after birth, the mother never went far from her young. The fawn was able to stand on its own legs a few hours after birth. The solicitous care by the hind for her calf during the first days of its life is hinted at in a touching way in Jeremiah 14:4-5, where only a severe drought is said to drive the hind from her calf. Job 39:1-4 describes the calving of the hinds. The hind illustrated grace and charm (Gn 49:21; Prv 5:19), and its dark, gentle eyes and graceful limbs were used to describe the beauty of a woman (Prv 5:18-19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dog\">Dog<\/p>\n<p>Probably the earliest domesticated animal <em>(Canis familiaris),<\/em> used very early in hunting. The modern dog is believed to have come from the Indian wolf <em>(Canis lupus pallipes).<\/em> The dogs of biblical times probably looked like a modern German shepherd, with short pointed ears, a pointed nose, and a long tail.<\/p>\n<p>The dog was generally looked down upon in biblical times (Prv 26:11; 2 Pt 2:22). The biblical writers did not share modern sentiments about dogs being man’s best friends. The dog was pictured as a scavenger, haunting streets and dumps (Ex 22:31; 1 Kgs 22:38; Mt 15:26; Lk 16:21). Human corpses could become the spoil of dogs (2 Kgs 9:35-36). In general, dogs served the same function as vultures and other birds of prey. Most of the 41 references in the Scriptures to dogs show strong disfavor. Dogs were considered cowardly, filthy creatures.<\/p>\n<p>Dogs used in hunting occur in paintings in Egyptian tombs, and there is a reference to dogs herding sheep in Job 30:1. One good quality of dogs highly esteemed by the Israelites was watchfulness (Is 56:10). In general, however, in biblical times “dog” was a term of contempt (1 Sm 17:43; 2 Sm 16:9) and was used of overly submissive persons (2 Sm 9:8; 2 Kgs 8:13) and of evil persons (Is 56:10-11; Mt 7:6; Phil 3:2; Rv 22:15).<\/p>\n<p>Dogs, like pigs, were voracious and omnivorous (eating any kind of food). In response to a Gentile woman’s request that he heal her daughter, Jesus used the metaphor of throwing household food scraps to dogs (Mt 15:22-28; Mk 7:25-30). At the time of Jesus, the word “dog” was a standard Jewish term of contempt for Gentiles who, like dogs, were considered unclean, although the diminutive form of the word, used by Jesus, softened this considerably. Seeing her faith, Jesus granted the woman’s request, giving a non-Jew some of “the children’s bread.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Donkey\">Donkey<\/p>\n<p>Beast of burden. The donkey of the Holy Land <em>(Equus asinus)<\/em> was quite different from the European donkey of today, which is usually a small, stubborn animal. In biblical times the donkey was a beautiful, stately, friendly animal. Its color was usually reddish brown. Three wild races have been described, all from Africa. The race from northwest Africa is extinct; the one from northeast Africa, if not extinct, is close to extinction; the Somalian race, which survives, did not play an important part in domestication. The northeast African race, the Nubian donkey, was evidently domesticated in the Nile River region in early historic times. The donkey was used as a mount from the time of domestication on. It is first mentioned in the Bible among the animals that Abraham acquired in Egypt (Gn 12:16). The donkey was primarily a beast of burden, driven but not bridled. From the time of the Middle Kingdom on (c. 2040 <span>BC<\/span>), it was used for riding in Egypt, but only the Jews and Nubians rode donkeys regularly. The donkey was also used for threshing grain and for pulling the plow. In Arab countries today peasants plow with a donkey and a cow or camel hitched together. In Israel the law forbade plowing with a donkey and an ox hitched together (Dt 22:10). Until the time of Solomon (960 <span>BC<\/span>), horses were not used in Palestine. From that time on, the horse was ridden by warriors; the donkey was used by those who were traveling peaceably.<\/p>\n<p>The donkey was held in high regard by the Jews and was considered an economic asset. An individual had to have a donkey for minimum existence (Jb 24:3), and wealth was frequently counted by the number of donkeys one possessed (Gn 12:16; 24:35). The donkey was considered an acceptable gift (Gn 32:13-15). It was allowed to rest on the Sabbath (Dt 5:14). Women in biblical times often used the donkey as a riding animal (Jos 15:18; 1 Sm 25:23; 2 Kgs 4:24); often a special driver would help a woman guide the animal, running along at its side. If a married couple possessed only one donkey, the husband usually walked alongside while the wife rode (Ex 4:20).<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel returning from Babylon had ten times as many donkeys as horses and camels (Ezr 2:66-67; Neh 7:68-69). Job’s wealth was indicated by the fact that he had 500 she-donkeys before catastrophe hit him (Jb 1:3); after his recovery he had 1,000 donkeys (Jb 42:12). Joseph’s brothers used donkeys to transport the grain they purchased in Egypt (Gn 42:26; 43:24). Abigail transported food on donkeys to David and his troops during their conflict with Saul (1 Sm 25:18). David assigned one of the 12 managers of his royal estates to look after his donkeys exclusively (1 Chr 27:30).<\/p>\n<p>The onager, or Syrian wild donkey <em>(Equus hemionus hemihippus)<\/em>, is an intermediate between the true horse and the true donkey. Its ears are longer than those of a horse but shorter than those of a donkey. The front hooves are narrow; there are chestnuts (callouslike spots on the inside of the knees) on the front legs only, and the tail is short haired for a long distance from its root so that it appears to be tufted.<\/p>\n<p>The Sumerians (ancient Mesopotamians) were able to domesticate the onager, which was eventually replaced by the horse. It was used to draw chariots in Ur; a number of onagers were buried with their vehicles in a royal grave that dates from about 2500 <span>BC<\/span>. Later the wild onager was a favorite hunter’s prize for Babylonian and Assyrian kings.<\/p>\n<p>The onager was very common in the steppe lands near Israel, where it was described as a freedom-loving desert animal (Jb 24:5; 39:5-8; Ps 104:11; Is 32:14; Jer 2:24; Hos 8:9). Ishmael was described as “free and untamed as a wild donkey” (Gn 16:12, <span>nlt<\/span>)—that is, one who could not adjust to domestic life. Drought seems to have been responsible for the population decline of the onager in biblical times (Jer 14:6). The modern onager <em>(Equus hemionus onager)<\/em> is slightly larger than the Syrian wild donkey that is extinct.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dragon\">Dragon<\/p>\n<p>Any one of a number of monstrous land and sea creatures. In biblical usage, “dragon” does not refer to the huge, fire-breathing, winged reptile of European folklore. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> used the term to translate two Hebrew words that are usually rendered more precisely in modern translations. One word referred to desert animals; most scholars agree with the <span>niv<\/span> that “jackals” is its proper meaning (Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; Jer 9:11; Mal 1:3). <em>See<\/em> Jackal (below).<\/p>\n<p>The other Hebrew word translated “dragon” is harder to define. It was frequently used in reference to serpents (so translated in the <span>rsv<\/span>: Ex 7:9-12; Dt 32:33; Ps 91:13). In other <span>rsv<\/span> passages it is translated “sea monster” (Gn 1:21; Jb 7:12; Ps 148:7). The exact identity of such sea monsters is not known. Several <span>rsv<\/span> passages retain the English “dragon.” In two of them (Ps 74:13; Is 27:1), the context indicates that sea monsters are meant. In three others (Is 51:9; Ez 29:3; 32:2) “dragon” seems to refer to the crocodile, a figurative reference to the Egyptian pharaoh at the time of the exodus. Jeremiah 51:34 (translated “monster” in the <span>rsv<\/span>) may also refer to a voracious creature such as a crocodile. <em>See<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p>Babylonian myths described monsters and dragons in primordial conflict with the god Marduk; they represented the principle of evil. In its figurative usages in Scripture, “dragon” has a similar significance, especially in the prophetic books. In the book of Revelation it is a symbol of Satan, the archenemy of God and his people (Rv 12:3-17; 13:2, 4, 11; 16:13; 20:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fish\">Fish<\/p>\n<p>Aquatic animals frequently mentioned in the Bible without names or descriptions that enable us to identify the particular species. Since time immemorial, fish have constituted one of the staple foods of humanity, and they still serve as the chief source of protein in many parts of the world. The trade in fish was highly developed in biblical times. For example, one of the gates in Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3; Zep 1:10). The law in Leviticus 11:9-12 permitted the Jews to eat fish, but only those having both fins and scales. Scaleless fish such as catfish were forbidden, even though they had fins.<\/p>\n<p>Egyptian paintings depict various methods of fishing, and the Philistines fished in the Mediterranean Sea. Since the people of Israel were not a seafaring nation, it is safe to assume that most of their fish came from freshwater lakes and rivers, especially the Sea of Galilee. Some 36 species of fish have been identified in that lake, including varieties of perch, carp, barbel, “sardine,” and catfish.<\/p>\n<p>The method of fishing characteristic of NT times was the dragnet. After a boat had put out into the deep (Lk 5:4), a large net would be thrown out from it and then dragged toward shore by the rowers in the boat, possibly with the help of a crew in another boat. The catch was sorted out on shore (Mt 13:47-48). Fishing was usually carried out at night when the coolness of the water brought fish closer to the surface and when they could not see the approaching nets.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews also fished by hook and line (Mt 17:27), a few by spear (Jb 41:7), and some by the throw net (Ez 47:10). Habakkuk refers to hook-and-line fishing, netting, and seining (1:15).<\/p>\n<p>Very early in the history of the Christian church the fish became a symbol for Christ and the faith. It was scratched on the walls of Roman catacombs and may be seen today decorating walls, altars, pews, and vestments. The symbol came into use because the Greek word for “fish” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ichthus<\/span><em>)<\/em> is composed of the first letter of each word in the Greek phrase “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” <em>See<\/em> Whale (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flea\">Flea<\/p>\n<p>Tiny, irritating insect (1 Sm 24:14; 26:20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many species of fleas occur in Palestine, the most common being <em>Pulex irritans.<\/em> About a thousand species are known around the world. Fleas are wingless parasites that have sharp jaws and suck out blood from the bodies of humans and animals. The body is wedge shaped, enabling the flea to burrow into folds of skin and hide there. The eggs, laid by the female in dust heaps in the corners of rooms, hatch into small, white larvae that pupate (a nonfeeding stage) in a cocoon. Soon adult fleas appear that immediately attach themselves to the body of a host. The female requires blood for the development of her eggs.<\/p>\n<p>A flea bite is painful and causes some swelling and itching. Fleas are attracted by warmth. With favorable moisture and temperature, adult fleas can live a year or longer without food, but they are voracious feeders. The most dangerous fleas are those of the rat that transmit the organism responsible for bubonic plague. There were 41 recorded epidemics of bubonic plague before the Christian era.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fly\">Fly<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the order Diptera, which have one pair of wings. Many winged insects of other orders, however, are also called flies, such as the dragonfly or butterfly.<\/p>\n<p>As in almost all parts of the world, flies are abundant in Palestine. One of the most numerous is the common housefly <em>(Musca domestica),<\/em> found chiefly around dung heaps and garbage. The female lays her eggs, out of which emerge white maggots that feed on refuse. After a few days the maggot develops into a cocoon out of which emerges the adult housefly. In the summer the whole cycle lasts about 12 days, so that a fly can breed about 20 generations a year.<\/p>\n<p>Another fly common to Palestine is the botfly (family Oestridae). It causes much discomfort among livestock by irritating them and spreading diseases. Tabanid flies (family Tabanidae), including the horsefly (genus <em>Tabanus<\/em>) and related species, are also found in Palestine. Both the botfly and horsefly are known as gadflies because of the persistent distress they inflict. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar is spoken of as a gadfly in view of his invasion of Egypt (Jer 46:20).<\/p>\n<p>The fourth plague in Egypt just before the exodus featured “swarms of flies” (Ex 8:21-31, <span>nlt<\/span>; cf. Pss 78:45; 105:31). Those swarms may have been made up of any or all the flies mentioned above. The maggots mentioned in Job 25:6 and Isaiah 14:11 and the worms in Exodus 16:24 and Job 7:5 and 17:14 were probably fly larvae.<\/p>\n<p>A proverb quoted in Ecclesiastes 10:1 probably refers to the housefly, which would be attracted to an open, perfumed ointment bottle. Once inside it would drown and eventually decay, causing the ointment to spoil and stink. The fly is also referred to in Isaiah 7:18 where it symbolizes Egypt. Isaiah may have had in mind a horsefly <em>(Tabanus arenivagus)<\/em> that attacks both humans and animals.<\/p>\n<p>Philistine inhabitants of the city of Ekron worshiped a god named Baal-zebul, meaning “Lord of the high places.” The Hebrews mockingly spoke of Baal-zebub, meaning “Lord of the flies” (2 Kgs 1:2). The NT form is Beelzebub (e.g., Mt 10:25; 12:24, 27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fox\">Fox<\/p>\n<p>Small, doglike carnivore with a bushy tail that is about half its body length. The red fox of the Holy Land <em>(Vulpes palaetinae)<\/em> is similar to the North American red fox; it is smaller than a wolf and is normally a nocturnal solitary animal. The omnivorous fox eats almost any kind of food—fruits, plants, mice, beetles, and birds—but seldom touches carrion. It loves the sweet juice of grapes, but it also burrows underground tunnels that can destroy the vines (Sg 2:15). The fox is intelligent and known for its slyness (Lk 13:32). It has considerable endurance and can run at speeds up to 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour. The Jews rebuilding Jerusalem’s wall were taunted by the wisecrack that even a fox jumping on their wall would knock it over (Neh 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian fox <em>(Vulpes niloticus)<\/em> is found in the central and southern parts of the Holy Land. It is somewhat smaller than the common red fox. Its back is rust colored and its belly light. The Syrian fox <em>(Vulpes flavescens)<\/em> that lives in the northern part of the Holy Land is shiny gold in color.<\/p>\n<p>Some OT references such as Psalm 63:10 and Lamentations 5:18 are translated “fox” in the <span>kjv<\/span> but probably refer to jackals. Jackals, not foxes, hunt in packs and tend to act as scavengers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frog\">Frog<\/p>\n<p>Amphibian (genus <em>Rana<\/em>), living part of its life in the water and part on land.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs and toads are covered with soft, hairless skin and lack a tail in the adult stage. The hind legs are much longer and more powerfully developed than the forelegs so that the animals are able to jump large distances. It has been suggested that the frog referred to in Scripture is an edible one, <em>Rana ridibunda,<\/em> one of the aquatic frogs found in Egypt and in the stagnant waters of the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The female frog lays her eggs in the water; after about a week the eggs hatch into tadpoles. Gradually through metamorphosis the tail is lost and limbs are acquired. Frogs must maintain a moist skin since they take oxygen through the skin as well as through their lungs; thus they must always remain close to water. They feed on insects and worms.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs are found throughout the Palestinian lowlands, where their croaking is heard in the spring and on summer evenings. The Israelites seem to have associated frogs primarily with sliminess and foulness. They fell into the category of creeping or swarming creatures, which in general were ritually unclean (Lv 11:29-31). Since the frog was not specifically listed, however, rabbis did not consider it one of the animals that defiled human beings through contact.<\/p>\n<p>In Revelation 16:13 certain foul spirits are said to look like frogs. The ancient Egyptians made the frog a symbol of life and birth and an image of Heqet, the patron goddess of birth. She is depicted with a frog’s head giving life to the newborn. Thus that deity was discredited when the power of God afflicted Egypt in the second of the ten plagues on the Egyptians with the very animal that was her symbol (Ex 8:1-14; Pss 78:45; 105:30). The frog in question may have been the spotted frog of Egypt <em>(Rana punctata,<\/em> or <em>Rana ridibunda).<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gazelle\">Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>Small, dainty, graceful antelope with hollow recurved horns on both sexes. Two varieties exist in the Holy Land, the dorcas gazelle <em>(Gazella dorcas),<\/em> which is pale fawn in color and up to 22 inches (56 centimeters) tall, and the Arabian gazelle <em>(Gazella arabica),<\/em> which is a dark smoky color and up to 25 inches (63.5 centimeters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Gazelles are still quite common throughout the desert and steppe areas of the Holy Land, especially in the Negev Desert. Herds usually consist of from 5 to 10 animals, but some varieties assemble in large migratory herds in the fall to relocate to lower elevations and new feeding grounds. Gazelles are herbivorous (plant eating). They are very shy and post guards to warn the herd of approaching danger.<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times the gazelle was probably the game animal most hunted by the Jews (Prv 6:5; Is 13:14). Pharaoh Tutankhamen hunted gazelles and ostriches. The gazelle is said to have graced Solomon’s table (1 Kgs 4:23). Gazelles were not easy to catch because of their great speed (2 Sm 2:18; 1 Chr 12:8; Prv 6:5); they surpass the deer in swiftness. They were trapped in various ways—encircled with nets, driven into enclosures with pitfalls, or forced into narrow valleys and shot with arrows. The Bedouin hunt gazelle with falcons and dogs; the falcon annoys the gazelle, striking it on the head and injuring it so that the dogs can overtake it.<\/p>\n<p>The gazelle is referred to in Song of Songs 2:9, 17; 4:5; 7:3; 8:14, where it is an image of feminine beauty.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gecko\">Gecko<\/p>\n<p>Reptile of the family Gekkonidae, referred to in Leviticus 11:30. In Jewish food law it was a ritually unclean lizard. There are seven species of geckos in the Holy Land (including <em>Hemidactylus turcicus<\/em> and <em>Ptyodactylus hasselquistii,<\/em> all insectivorous—insect eating). The gecko makes a low mourning sound by vibrating its tongue rapidly against the roof of its mouth. In legend the gecko was said to cause leprosy by crawling across a person’s body.<\/p>\n<p>Another name for the gecko is the wall lizard, so named because it can walk upside down on ceilings with the aid of the suction discs on its toes—but it often plops down into the middle of the home. Since it was considered unclean, such an intrusion would have been a disgusting nuisance to Jewish households (Lv 11:31-38).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gnat\">Gnat<\/p>\n<p>Any very small fly, in common and biblical usage. According to the <span>nlt<\/span>, the third plague in Egypt before the exodus consisted of gnats (Ex 8:16-18; Ps 105:31). The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word there as “lice,” but the breeding pattern described in Exodus 8—insects rising from the dust—seems to fit gnats better than lice. Since “gnat” is a general term, the small flies of that plague may have included several small species such as mosquitos, harvester gnats, midges, or sand flies.<\/p>\n<p>The sand fly inflicts a far more painful bite than the mosquito. Further, it does not betray itself by a buzzing noise in flight and is so small that it penetrates most mosquito netting.<\/p>\n<p>Gnats were drawn to wine while it was fermenting. The Pharisees in particular would strain their wine to avoid consuming unclean insects (Mt 23:24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Goat\">Goat<\/p>\n<p>Cloven-hooved mammals (genus <em>Capra<\/em>) with large eyes and big, floppy ears that constantly twitch. Both males and females have backward arching horns. The Palestinian goat is a ruminant (cud-chewing animal) of lighter build than the sheep.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was probably the earliest ruminant to be domesticated. Its wild ancestor seems to have been the Gezoar goat <em>(Capra aegagrus).<\/em> Wild goats are believed to have been domesticated very early in Palestine. The goat of Bible times was probably the Syrian or Mamber variety <em>(Capra hircus mambrica).<\/em> Domesticated goats may have as many as four kids in a litter, whereas wild goats bear only one or two.<\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian goat was commonly black. Speckled and spotted goats were a rarity, and for that reason Jacob’s request for those goats in Genesis 30:32 appeared very modest. There may also have been red goats (cf. 1 Sm 16:12; 19:13, where goat’s hair was used to imitate David’s hair, which was “ruddy” or auburn).<\/p>\n<p>Almost every part of the goat was used by the Israelites. The whole goat was used for sacrifice. Its flesh served as meat (Lv 7:23; Dt 14:4), and it was the principal source of milk (Prv 27:27). Goats were sheared in the late spring, and the goat hair was used for weaving tent cloth and for various domestic purposes (Ex 36:14; 1 Sm 19:13, 16). The tabernacle at Mt Sinai was made of goat’s hair blankets (Ex 26:7).<\/p>\n<p>Adult male goats were generally not eaten because of their strong flavor and toughness and also because they were necessary to insure the flock’s increase. Young kids, however, were usually the chief meat for a feast and were offered to visitors as a symbol of hospitality. Goat milk is richer than the milk of cows and sheep and evidently had broader uses. A good goat gives three quarts of milk a day, from which a rich butter and buttermilk can be made. The average Hebrew family could have lived almost entirely on a single goat’s production.<\/p>\n<p>Goatskin was tanned as leather, and the whole hide was turned into a skin bottle by sewing shut leg and neck apertures (Gn 21:14; Jos 9:4). Goatskin had many uses, including the construction of Hebrew musical instruments. The nebal, a large harp, was made with goatskin for its base sound. Drums had goatskin coverings.<\/p>\n<p>Goats were herded with sheep in biblical times, but each group remained separate following its own bell-laden leader. Jesus was evidently referring to their common herding in his description of the Last Judgment (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\n<p>Because of their wool, sheep are valued more than goats. However, where pasture and water are scarce and thorny shrubs dominate over grass, sheep are difficult to keep and goats become important. They can live under conditions that suit neither cows nor sheep, producing large quantities of milk. The goat does not supply fat as the sheep does, and since its hair is coarse its wool is rather scarce. Goat-hair cloth called cilicium was used to make tents.<\/p>\n<p>Goats have voracious appetites. They also were responsible for much damage done to the land of Palestine, breaking down terraces, destroying forests, and bringing about soil erosion by eating off all cover.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was recognized as a form of wealth, subject to the law of firstlings (Nm 18:17). It had to be eight days old before it could be offered as a sacrifice. A year-old male goat was one of the animals offered at the Passover (28:22), and two goats were offered on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:7-10). The goat was also used for other specific sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>The ibex, a type of wild goat <em>(Capra ibex nubiana),<\/em> still lives in small numbers on the cliffs close to the Dead Sea. That it was known in ancient times is evident from rock carvings. It is distinguished from the true wild goat by having a more compact rump and horns that are slender and curved back. Its slender legs and sharp cloven hooves enable it to cling to narrow rock ledges, to jump between them, and to climb steep cliffs.<\/p>\n<p>Usually the ibex is found in rugged mountain country among rocky crags and meadows just below the snow line (Ps 104:18). In Job 39:1 they are referred to as “mountain goats.” They frequently gather in herds of 5 to 20. They graze and browse, being active in the afternoon and sometimes feeding through the night. The large horn of the ibex was at one period made into the shofar that was blown in the second Jerusalem temple to announce the new year and the jubilee year.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was often used in a figurative and symbolic sense by the writers of the Bible: in Song of Songs 4:1 and 6:5 for the bride’s black hair; in Matthew 25:31-46 for the wicked; and in Ezekiel 34:17 and Daniel 8:5-8 for various human leaders.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Grasshopper\">Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>Large insects of the Orthoptera order. They have chewing or biting mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the front pair of which is narrow and somewhat thickened and the hind pair membranous and used for flying. When not in use the flight wings are folded beneath the protective front wings like a fan against the body. By rubbing their wings together, male grasshoppers produce sounds that both males and females can detect. Grasshoppers pass through a partial metamorphosis; the egg hatches into a juvenile nymph that looks like an adult except for its smaller size and undeveloped wings. After several months the nymph becomes a winged adult.<\/p>\n<p>The terms “grasshopper” and “locust” are often used interchangeably. Actually the locust is a kind of grasshopper. Also confusing is the fact that other insects such as cicadas are sometimes called locusts. The difference between grasshoppers and locusts depends more on behavior than appearance. Grasshoppers are individual insects that lead solitary lives and do not migrate. The same insects when migrating in a swarm are called migratory grasshoppers or locusts. Elimination of their food supply by drought, flood, or fire may lead to migration. Climatic factors such as a warm dry winter also stimulate migrations.<\/p>\n<p>Grasshoppers and locusts have been a staple food in the Middle East and also among the Indians of the American Southwest. To the Israelites the grasshopper was considered ritually clean and could be eaten (Lv 11:22).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hare\">Hare<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the genus and species <em>Lepus europaeus judaeus, Lepus capensis,<\/em> and <em>Lepus arabicus.<\/em> It is found in open country, often near or on cultivated lands, and in woods, usually deciduous rather than evergreen. It is an herbivorous rodent and is different from the rabbit, which is not found in Palestine. Although it is not a true ruminant according to modern classification (because it does not have a four-chambered stomach), the hare does rechew its food. It has a process of partial regurgitation of material too hard for the cells in the stomach to absorb initially; thus, the hare actually chews food previously swallowed.<\/p>\n<p>Near Eastern hares have very long ears and large hind feet; their feet are well furred. They are similar to American jackrabbits, which are true hares. Hares do not dig or occupy burrows the way rabbits do. Hares are mainly nocturnal and spend their inactive hours hiding in vegetation. They eat grasses and herbaceous matter as well as twigs and young bark of woody plants. Hares breed with great rapidity—the young attaining sexual maturity at six months after birth.<\/p>\n<p>The hare was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:6; Dt 14:7), evidently because although it appeared to chew its cud, it did not have cloven hooves. Consumption of hares has also been forbidden among the Arabs, Chinese, and Lapps, but the hare was widely hunted by other people in ancient and modern times. Its great speed, prolific breeding, timidity, and caution have saved it from extermination by its many enemies.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hippopotamus\">Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of problematic interpretation. Some early interpreters thought it referred to the elephant, others to the wild ox, the mammoth, or any large animal. It was called “behemoth” by the <span>kjv<\/span> translators. Today it is generally agreed that the reference is to the hippopotamus <em>(Hippopotamus amphibius),<\/em> a large, thick-skinned, amphibious mammal, an ungulate (having hooflike toenails) with a large head, a bulky, hairless body, and short legs.<\/p>\n<p>The description in Job 40:15-24 fits closely the modern hippopotamus (see <span>nlt<\/span>), except for the depiction of the tail. At present the hippopotamus is found only in the rivers of Africa, but there is fossil evidence that it has existed in the Holy Land, perhaps in the swamps of northern Galilee and the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The hippopotamus has highly developed sense organs, placed in such a way that it can see, hear, and smell almost without being seen; its eyes, ears, and nostrils can reach above water while the rest of the animal lies submerged. It has a large mouth, large tusks, and a short, heavy throat. The strong legs are so short that the belly almost reaches the ground when the animal is on the land. The hippopotamus lives on plants and herbs growing in rivers, but if food is scarce there, it forages on land, usually at night. In spite of its heavy body it is surprisingly agile on land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Horse\">Horse<\/p>\n<p>Przewalski’s horse (<em>Equus przewalskii,<\/em> an eastern race that roamed about Mongolia until modern firearms destroyed most of them after World War I) and the tarpan (a western race of southern Russia that became extinct in the Ukraine in 1851). The domesticated horse <em>(Equus caballus)<\/em> seems to have been derived from the tarpan. The original site of domestication is believed to have been Turkestan, a region north of Afghanistan and India, now in Russia. The horse differs from the donkey in that it has shorter ears, a longer mane with a forelock, a long hairy tail, and a soft, sensitive muzzle.<\/p>\n<p>Horses were used in war not only for riding but also for pulling the heavy, springless war chariots. Two kinds of horses were needed for these different purposes, and the Hebrews distinguished between chariot horses and cavalry horses.<\/p>\n\n<p>The Lord warned the early Israelites against unnecessarily amassing military strength in the form of horses and thereby following the oppressive tactics of the powerful Egyptians (Dt 17:14-16), but the demands of war caused both David and Solomon to import horses from Egypt into their kingdoms and to breed them. Solomon greatly increased the number of horses in the Jewish kingdom and maintained large stables at various cities (1 Kgs 10:26) such as the regional defense centers of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer (1 Kgs 9:15-19). Ahab’s horses are mentioned in 1 Kings 18:5, and records of Shalmaneser III state that Ahab furnished 2,000 chariots to a coalition against Assyria.<\/p>\n<p>In early Israel, the horse was opposed as a symbol of pagan luxury and of dependence on physical power for defense (Dt 17:16; 1 Sm 8:11; Ps 20:7; Is 31:1). Horse trading, mentioned as early as Genesis 47:17, was carried on by Solomon between Egypt and the Syro-Hittite principalities (1 Kgs 10:28-29). Most biblical references to horses refer to their use in war, but horses were also used for transportation. Riding seems to have been less popular than the use of chariots. Cavalry units were not introduced until the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> by the Medes. Joseph rode in Pharaoh’s second horse-drawn chariot (Gn 41:43), and Absalom made a display by riding a horse-drawn chariot (2 Sm 15:1). Naaman traveled by horse and chariot (2 Kgs 5:9). Later, horses were so common in Jerusalem that the royal palace had a special horse gate (2 Chr 23:15), and a gate of the city itself was known as the Horse Gate (Neh 3:28; Jer 31:40). Mordecai rode a royal horse of King Xerxes as a sign of honor (Est 6:8-11). Horses are often spoken of figuratively (Ps 32:9; “mare,” Sg 1:9; “stallions,” Jer 5:8; 12:5), especially in the context of judgment (Hb 3:8; Zec 1:8; 6:1-8; Rv 6:2-8; 9:17; 19:11-16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Warfare; Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyena\">Hyena<\/p>\n<p>Stocky carnivore <em>(Hyaena hyaena)<\/em> with coarse hair, an erect mane, and long hairs along the neck and back. Hyenas live in holes among rocks and banks. They are mainly nocturnal but are ordinarily neither noisy nor aggressive. Their cry, however, is a disagreeable, unearthly sound. Hyenas usually feed on carrion, crushing bones with their powerful jaws. If the carrion supply is inadequate, they will kill sheep, goats, or other small animals. When threatened, hyenas growl and erect their mane, but they rarely fight. They are massively built with forelegs longer than the hind legs.<\/p>\n<p>Known as scavengers in Africa, hyenas eat domestic refuse in the villages. In Palestine the striped hyena is a common predator, preferring rocky territory and even rock tombs. Since hyenas were notorious for raiding the graves of the dead, all Israelites who could afford it arranged for burial in tombs protected by massive stone doors. Absalom, King David’s son who was killed by Joab in the wild, was buried under a huge pile of stones to protect his corpse from molestation by hyenas (2 Sm 18:17).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Jackal\">Jackal<\/p>\n<p>Carnivore <em>(Canis aureus)<\/em> smaller than the true wolf and with a shorter tail. It is similar to the fox but has a broader head, shorter ears, and longer legs. The fox is solitary; the jackal tends to be gregarious. Its tail can be drooping or erect, compared with the long horizontal tail of the fox. Jackals usually prowl at night, either singly, in pairs, or in packs through open savannah country. They eat small mammals, poultry, fruit, vegetables, and carrion. They spend their days in thickets and clumps of vegetation. Often they obtain scraps from kills by larger carnivores. Jackals can run at speeds of about 33 miles (53 kilometers) per hour.<\/p>\n<p>The jackal can reach a height of about 20 inches (51 centimeters), roughly the size of a German shepherd dog. Its back is pale yellow with dark, almost black, flanks. Its lips are black and its ears white on the inside. The howl of the jackal sounds like the crying of a child or the heartrending wail of the bereaved (Mi 1:8; cf. Jb 30:29). To other jackals the howl is merely an invitation calling the pack together for its nocturnal hunting.<\/p>\n<p>OT references are chiefly to jackals prowling around ruined cities and wilderness areas (Neh 2:13; Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; Jer 9:11; 14:6; 49:33; 51:37; Lam 4:3; 5:18; Mal 1:3). Many such references are translated “dragon” in the <span>kjv<\/span>, but “jackal” is more appropriate.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leech\">Leech<\/p>\n<p>Segmented worm (class Hirundinea) up to five inches (12.7 centimeters) long with a flat body equipped with suction pads at each end. The mouth, located at the bottom of the front suction pad, has three teeth that the leech uses to pierce the skin of its host. The leech feeds on blood, and its glands secrete an anticoagulant to prevent the blood from clotting. The ordinary medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is abundant in springs and ponds from the Negev Desert to Galilee. It adheres to the bodies of human beings and animals that submerge themselves in water, injects its anticoagulant, and sucks their blood.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Proverbs 30:15 is uncertain (see <span>nlt<\/span>) but may be to the parasitic and greedy nature of the horse leech (genus <em>Haemopis<\/em>). The small horse leech enters its host’s mouth and nostrils from water while the animal is drinking. A leech weighing one-half ounce (14.2 grams) has been known to gorge itself with two and a half ounces (71 grams) of concentrated blood and then to exist for 15 months with no more to eat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leopard\">Leopard<\/p>\n<p>Called <em>Panthera pardus tulliana,<\/em> it is the most widespread of all the large wildcats. In rocky areas it lives in caves, but in forested regions it lives in thick vegetation. In OT times many lived in the vicinity of Mt Hermon (Sg 4:8).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is somewhat smaller than the tiger, measuring up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length with a tail of about 30 inches (.8 meter). Its body is better proportioned than that of the tiger. The leopard takes its victim by surprise from a silent ambush, often concealing itself near villages or watering places and waiting for its prey, remaining in one spot for long spans of time. The leopard is swift on the ground (Hb 1:8), agile in trees, and very graceful in its movements. Its color is yellowish speckled with black spots (Jer 13:23). Daniel and John saw visions in which leopards were symbols of world powers (Dn 7:6; Rv 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is a wary and cunning animal, formidable and ferocious (Jer 5:6; Hos 13:7; cf. Is 11:6). The leopard is dangerous not only to domestic animals but also to humans. With its natural camouflage it can hide on the forest floor, blending into the changing light and shadows. The Israelites were terrified of the leopard because it constantly ravaged their sheep and goats. Several biblical place names suggest that they were known for the leopards in their vicinity: Nimrah, Beth-nimrah, and Nimrim, a district northeast of the Dead Sea. It has survived in the Holy Land into the present century; a few leopards still exist in remote areas near Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leviathan\">Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>Sea monster mentioned several times in the Bible (Pss 74:14; 104:26; Is 27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). It may refer to any of the larger marine animals such as large jellyfish, whales, or sharks, or to a large reptile like the crocodile. Some scholars think “Leviathan” may refer to animals now extinct, such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs (marine reptiles similar to dinosaurs). The scriptural term might also refer to certain dinosaurs that spent part of their lives half-submerged in shallow lakes and oceans. Other scholars believe that most of the references are to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lion\">Lion<\/p>\n<p>Large, tawny-colored carnivore <em>(Panthera leo)<\/em> that preys chiefly on hoofed mammals and charges by a series of leaps and bounds. Within historic times the lion ranged in Africa, Europe, and the Holy Land. In ancient times the territories of the African and Persian lions met in the Middle East. The lion of the Holy Land was the Asiatic or Persian lion <em>(Panthera leo persica).<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The males have heavy manes that stop at the shoulders but cover much of the chest. The Persian lion cannot climb and is mainly nocturnal, returning to its lair or a thicket by day (Jer 4:7; 25:38; Na 2:11-12). This lion is about 5 feet (1.5 meters) long with a tasseled tail 30 inches (.8 meter) or so long; its shoulders may reach a height of 35 inches (.9 meter). It is one of the smallest of the lion breeds.<\/p>\n<p>Lions are usually found in pairs, though sometimes in larger numbers. A small group is known as a pride. They generally prefer open country but in Palestine evidently prowled the subtropical vegetation of the Jordan River valley. Lions, which usually hunt at dusk, kill smaller animals by a blow of the paw, larger ones by a bite in the throat. A lion does not remain in the same place for more than a few days. The animal is in its prime at about seven years of age, when it weighs from 400 to 600 pounds (181.6 to 272.4 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>The lion does not characteristically attack humans, though like other great cats it may become a man-eater (1 Kgs 13:24-28; 20:36; 2 Kgs 17:25-26; Ps 57:4; Dn 6:7-27). Ordinarily, it attacks only out of great hunger or in self-defense. A very young lion that attacks humans can become dangerous if it develops a taste for human flesh. A very old lion, expelled from the pride because it can no longer keep up in the pursuit of antelope or gazelles, may choose humans as a relatively slow-moving prey.<\/p>\n<p>A lion generally roars only on a full stomach—that is, after it has consumed its prey (Ps 22:13; Ez 22:25; Am 3:4). Nevertheless, its roaring arouses fear (Am 3:8; 1 Pt 5:8). The lion is a bold (2 Sm 17:10; Prv 28:1), destructive animal (Ps 7:2; Jer 2:30; Hos 5:14; Mi 5:8), and the enemy of flocks (Am 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>Lions were common in biblical times in all parts of the Holy Land. Hebrew has at least seven words for lion and young lion. The lion is referred to about 130 times in the OT—more than any other wild animal. Lions were evidently much less common in NT times. After gradually declining, they became extinct in Palestine shortly after <span>AD<\/span> 1300. The lion was present in Mesopotamia, however, until the end of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>Lions played an important part in the political and religious symbolism of the Near East (1 Kgs 10:19-20). In Assyria and Babylonia the lion was regarded as a royal beast (Dn 7:4). Oriental monarchs maintained artificial lion pits as places of execution (Ez 19:1-9; Dn 6:7-16). Animals for these were captured in camouflaged nets or pits. To the Jews, the lion was the mightiest of beasts (Prv 30:29-31). Thus, it symbolized leadership (Gn 49:9-10; Nm 24:9) and hence eventually became a title for Christ (Rv 5:5). It was also the ensign of Judah’s tribe and was used by King Solomon in the decoration of his house and the temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lizard\">Lizard<\/p>\n<p>Reptiles of the suborder Lacertilia. Their skin is covered with scales. The lizard is a useful creature because it captures harmful insects and worms. Like other reptiles, it lays eggs with shells softer than those of a bird and with no clear division between the yolk and the white. Lizards are “cold-blooded” organisms without a temperature-maintenance mechanism; hence, they become inactive in cold weather.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards can survive in barren parched countryside. In the Near East they are encountered in great numbers in the Arabian Desert, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Judean wilderness. There may be as many as 44 different species of lizards in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The Dabb lizard (genus <em>Uromastyx<\/em>), which attains a length of about 24 inches (61 centimeters), is found in the Negev Desert. It is omnivorous, an unusual trait since most lizards are insectivorous. It has a hard, rough skin, green with brown spots; a short, rounded head; and a powerful tail encircled with a row of strong spines that it uses as a weapon of defense.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards are listed as ceremonially unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:29-31). The fact that lizards crawl on their bellies made them unclean. Contact with a lizard’s carcass defiled a law-abiding Jew (Lv 11:32-36). The <span>nlt<\/span> translates the “lizards” of Leviticus 11 as “great lizard,” “gecko,” “monitor lizard,” “sand lizard,” and “chameleon.” The monitor lizard is a large lizard that lives in the deserts of southern Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt. It is up to 55 inches (1.4 meters) long with a long snout and sharp teeth. Other translators and commentators render the original Hebrew in a wide variety of ways, including “tortoise,” “ferret,” “lizard,” “snail,” “mole,” and even “water hen.” The fact that most of the original Hebrew words occur only once in Scripture makes it very difficult to be certain about their appropriate translation.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gecko (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Locust\">Locust<\/p>\n<p>An insect of the family <em>Acridiidae.<\/em> It is referred to by at least 12 different names in Scripture. The various Hebrew words may refer to different stages of its development from larva to adult or to the type of damage that it causes. Locusts are characterized by swarming and mass migration. In modern times they have caused extensive and disastrous destruction to vegetation. Grasshoppers do not swarm or migrate en masse, differentiating them from the true locusts.<\/p>\n<p>The OT mentions several different species of locusts. Leviticus 11:22 seems to refer to the slant-faced (bald) locust and also to the katydid, or long-horned grasshopper. The reference in Deuteronomy 28:42 may be to the mole cricket. In Joel 1:4 and 2:25 and in Nahum 3:16-17, successive stages of the insect’s development are described. The cutting locust (<span>kjv<\/span> “palmerworm”) of Joel is probably the first instar (stage of development), the swarming locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “locust”) are middle stages, and the hopping locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “cankerworm”) later instars but not yet fully matured insects. In the adult stage, called destroying locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “caterpillar”), the color of the locust is reddish brown, which turns to yellow with a brownish network on the wings.<\/p>\n<p>Only three of the hundreds of varieties of locusts found in Bible lands are capable of multiplying into great swarms, and only the desert locust <em>(Schistocerca gergaria)<\/em> can be considered widespread in all the Bible lands. The desert locust is native to the Sudan (Africa). It is a little over two inches (5 centimeters) long and has a wingspread of some five inches (12.7 centimeters). It shows two phases, a solitary phase and a gregarious phase, with a possible third phase known as transiens. There are differences in the immature and adult forms of the phases in color and physiology.<\/p>\n<p>The quantity and distribution of rains are important factors in the extent of swarming. Moist soil is needed for depositing the eggs and permitting them to develop. Each female deposits from one to six egg pods, containing 28 to 146 eggs each. The larvae emerge in 15 to 43 days.<\/p>\n<p>In the gregarious phase (from the second stage of metamorphosis onward), the locust is driven by a strong wandering instinct. Masses of them form a random procession of overflowing locust bodies that ignore any obstruction. They swarm over everything (Jl 2:4-9). The only regulator of their activities is temperature; they are immobilized by high or low temperatures. Taking to wing they may move 1,200 miles (1,930.8 kilometers) from their native home. They fly in compact formations large enough to blot out the light of the sun. Their movement seems to be controlled by hormones, but the direction is influenced by the wind. The swarms consume almost every plant in their path, sparing only the carob, sycamore, castor tree, and oleander bush.<\/p>\n<p>A locust plague was one of the most severe evils to come upon the ancient world (Dt 28:38). Joel 2:1-11 describes a locust plague in graphic terms, using it as a symbol of God’s destroying judgment. Special days of prayer, fasting, and trumpet blowing were prescribed to remove locust plagues (1 Kgs 8:37-38; 2 Chr 6:28-29; Jl 2:12-17). Locusts symbolized powerful and merciless enemies that completely destroyed the earnings of human toil (Jgs 6:5; Is 33:4; Jer 46:23; 51:27; Na 3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Bedouins eat locusts raw, roasted, or boiled, preserving them by drying and threading. They are also crushed and ground, and the grist used in cooking or eaten with bread, sometimes mixed with honey and dates. Such was the diet of John the Baptist (Mk 1:6). The Greeks ground locusts in stone mortars to make flour of them.<\/p>\n<p>The ancients considered the two large hind legs, or jumping legs, as separate limbs and had a special name for them. Hence locusts were described as having four legs, a reference to the four smaller walking legs. “Going on all fours” thus referred to creeping or walking as opposed to jumping and did not mean that the unclean insects had only four legs in all. Because of its two hind jumping legs, the locust was exempted from the prohibition against unclean insects (Lv 11:20-23).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mole\">Mole<\/p>\n<p>Rodent <em>(Spalax ehrenbergi)<\/em> from six to nine inches (15 to 23 centimeters) long, which burrows in any area where the soil is suitable for digging; it should be called a mole rat. Common in the Holy Land, large numbers are found in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Isaiah 2:20 refers to the mole, as does Leviticus 11:29-30 (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The mole rat has no tail and is molelike in appearance, but neither true moles nor shrews have ever been found in the Holy Land. The mole rat’s teeth are strong and protruding like those of a squirrel. The neck is short and thick with a plump body shaped like a sausage. The short legs have broad paws with claws adapted for burrowing. The fur is soft, thick, and ashen gray. Its ears and almost sightless eyes, which are no larger than poppyseeds, are hidden in the fur. Folklore taught that touching a mole rat would result in blindness.<\/p>\n<p>In the wet winter season the mole rat builds breeding mounds resembling those of pocket gophers. It builds less complex resting mounds in the summer, although both have rather elaborate tunnel systems. The mole rat feeds on roots, bulbs, tubers, and various other subterranean plant parts, often doing extensive damage to agriculture.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Moth\">Moth<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the genus <em>Tineola<\/em> that lays its eggs on wool or furs, its larvae feeding on those materials. The destructive qualities of moths are referred to in several biblical passages (Jb 13:28; Ps 39:11; Is 50:9; Hos 5:12; Mt 6:19-20; Lk 12:33; Jas 5:2). In Isaiah 51:8 “worm” (<span>nlt<\/span>) refers specifically to the larva of the clothes moth. The moth symbolizes disintegration, decay, and weakening. It is only the larvae that do the damage. The adult is quite harmless and feeds mainly on the nectar of flowers. It is easily crushed (Jb 4:19). The clothes moth reproduces in May or June. It enters human dwellings in the evening. A week after the eggs are laid the larvae appear and immediately begin their work of destruction, eating anything within reach made of animal fibers.<\/p>\n<p>The moth’s destructive activity is done in secret without any sound and without any dramatic appearance, such as a swarm that blots out the sun. In an age when wealth was counted more in possessions than in money, and when among those possessions wool clothing was highly valued, moths could literally cause economic disaster; hence the words of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p>There are hundreds of species of moths other than the clothes moth in the Holy Land; they are harmless to leaves, flowers, fruit, trees, and seeds. As with the clothes moth, the larvae inflict the damage.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mouse\">Mouse<\/p>\n<p>Rodent of the family Muridae, especially genus <em>Mus.<\/em> The mouse was regarded as unclean because, being short legged, it was considered one of the creeping creatures (Lv 11:29). Mice known as commensals live in dwellings and tend to have longer tails and to be darker in color than wild mice, which are active chiefly at night. Mice are good climbers and even good swimmers. Wild mice eat many kinds of vegetation, including seeds, fleshy roots, leaves, and stems. At times they store food.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for “mouse” (Lv 11:29; 1 Sm 6:4-5; Is 66:17) is probably a general term for various rats and mice. The root meaning of the Hebrew word “mouse” is “destruction of corn,” a reference to the damage mice do to field crops. At least 23 varieties of mouselike rodents are known in the Holy Land. They cause food spoilage, damage household articles, and transport the host fleas that spread typhus, spotted fever, and bubonic plague. Plague bacteria may have caused the tumors or swellings among the Philistines (1 Sm 6:5). Isaiah 66:17 refers to a pre-exilic Canaanite cultic practice in which mice were eaten; the reference may actually be to the hamster. A number of rodents are eaten by Arabs of the Near East; the gerbil is considered a special delicacy. <em>See<\/em> Mole (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mule\">Mule<\/p>\n<p>Hybrid offspring of a male ass and a female horse <em>(Equus asinus mulus),<\/em> ordinarily sterile. The offspring of a female donkey and a stallion (male horse) is known as a hinny and is of little value because of its inferior size.<\/p>\n<p>Because crossbreeding was forbidden in the law (Lv 19:19), the Israelites procured mules from the Gentiles, perhaps from the Phoenicians, since Tyre (a Phoenician seaport in what is now southern Lebanon) imported horses and mules (Ez 27:14). Mules did not appear in Israel until David’s reign (2 Sm 13:29), possibly because of the rarity of horses among the Hebrews. Mules were used chiefly by members of the royal court and by other nobles. King David rode on a mule, and Solomon rode to his inaugaration on King David’s mule (1 Kgs 1:33). Absalom met his death riding on a mule (2 Sm 18:9). Mules were less common than horses, camels, and asses in the postexilic community (Ezr 2:66). In antiquity Asia Minor was especially noted for breeding fine mules.<\/p>\n<p>Mules have long enjoyed a reputation for obstinacy, but that trait is not mentioned in the Bible. The mule is prized for riding and for carrying heavy burdens, especially in warm mountainous regions. They are sure-footed and thrive best in hot, dry climates. The mule has the frugality, endurance, and steady gait of an ass along with the size, strength, swiftness, and courage of a horse. Mules are almost never sick. They live longer than horses. They can carry a load of up to 300 pounds (136 kilograms) as far as 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) a day.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pig\">Pig<\/p>\n<p>Most properly, newborn swine. “Swine” is technically the better name for the species, but it is rarely used in common speech today. The domestic pigs of the Middle East derived from the wild pig <em>(Sus scrofa).<\/em> The pig is the most prolific and abundant supplier of meat and fat for food. A thick layer of fat just under the skin is especially pronounced in domestic breeds. Pigs cannot be driven, so they are of value only to the settled farmer. The Hebrews were originally a nomadic people; therefore, they had little use for an animal closely associated with settled life. An Egyptian prince of about 1500 <span>BC<\/span>, however, is recorded as owning a herd of 1,500 swine.<\/p>\n<p>The pig is clumsily built, yet lively and able to move with agility and speed. The most conspicuous characteristic of the pig is a truncated, mobile snout terminating in a disc-shaped surface on which the nostrils are located. Most pigs have large tusks in both jaws which grow continuously in life. The tusks of the upper jaw are unique in that they curve upward instead of pointing downward as in most animals. The excrement of a pig has an almost unbearable odor, which clings not only to the pig itself but also to swineherds, who can be identified a long way off.<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were never raised in the Holy Land by Jews. The great herd into which Jesus drove the unclean spirits was encountered in the land of the Gadarenes, a non-Jewish area east of the Jordan. The Gadarene demons took refuge in a herd of pigs feeding on a bluff overlooking the Sea of Galilee (Mt 8:28-32).<\/p>\n<p>Wild pigs were found in the Holy Land as in many countries today. Psalm 80:13 refers to the destructiveness of a wild boar (the male, or hog) attacking growing crops. A party of wild boars can destroy an entire vineyard or a field of crops in a single night. They devour, trample, and ravage everything within reach.<\/p>\n<p>Boar hunts were common in ancient Mesopotamia. Wild boars do not attack unless molested, but they are dangerous when aroused. They travel in bands of from 6 to 50 and are most active in the evening and early morning hours. The body is covered with stiff bristles and usually some finer hair, but the body covering is often quite scanty. Wild pigs are mainly vegetarian, feeding on roots, nuts, grains, and plant stems. Wild boars were particularly abundant in the mountainous regions of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, in the Jordan River valley, and in wooded sections such as Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Strict Jews would not even mention swine by name but would always substitute the term “the abomination.” Israelites considered themselves polluted if they were even touched by a swine’s bristle. To the Jews, the pig symbolized filth and ugliness. Pigs will eat fecal material, vermin, rodents, carrion, and the like (2 Pt 2:22). Proverbs 11:22 refers to the incongruity of a golden ring in the nose of an animal showing such characteristics. A similar metaphor occurs in Jesus’ statement about casting pearls before swine (Mt 7:6). The prodigal son’s degeneration was shown by his being forced in his poverty to feed pigs and eat their food (Lk 15:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>Eating the flesh of pigs was forbidden to the Jews (Lv 11:7; Dt 14:8). The Canaanites in the Holy Land killed and ate pigs freely. In intertestamental times Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), a Syrian king whose territories included Israel, used the pig to “Hellenize” the Jews. He first tested their loyalty to the Jewish faith by requiring the consumption of pork, considered a delicacy by the Greeks (2 Macc 6:18). The act of desecration that drove the Jews to rebellion, however, was the sprinkling of pig blood on the temple altar in a sacrifice to Zeus (1 Macc 1:47).<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were frequently used in pagan worship (Is 65:4; 66:3, 17), which may account for their being forbidden to the Jews as food. Evidence in the Holy Land shows that pigs were sacrificed long before Hellenistic times. Pig bones were found in a grotto below the rock-cut place of sacrifice at Gezer. A similar underground chamber with vessels containing piglet bones at Tirzah dates to the middle Bronze Age (about 2000 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Alabaster fragments of a statuette of a pig ready to be sacrificed have been unearthed. Swine were sacrificed to Aphrodite (Venus) in Greece and Asia Minor. In addition, pigs were sacrificed in connection with oaths and treaties; in the <em>Iliad,<\/em> Agamemnon sacrificed a boar to Zeus and Helios. So it is not surprising that among the Jews the pig became a symbol of filthiness and paganism.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that eating pork was forbidden primarily because the pig may carry many worm parasites such as trichina, though that is also true of some “clean” animals. Another reason for forbidding their consumption may have been that pigs eat carrion. Some people are allergic to pork in hot weather—another suggested reason behind the Jewish taboo. The same taboo exists among the Muslims and existed in certain social strata in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Porcupine\">Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>Rodent, <em>Hystrix cristata,<\/em> which lives in forested areas, rocky hills, ravines, and valleys. The porcupine is still found in the Holy Land today. It has long quills that can be raised to give the appearance of a crest. It is almost entirely nocturnal. It burrows by day into a natural cavity or crevice. The Old World porcupine rarely climbed trees, although the New World porcupine frequently does. A porcupine may weigh as much as 60 pounds (27.2 kilograms). It eats fruit, bark, roots, and other vegetation, and carrion as well. Although its flesh is edible, the porcupine was not classed among the clean animals for the Israelites. The reference in Isaiah 34:11 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is probably to the porcupine, as is Isaiah 14:23 in the <span>nlt<\/span>. <em>See<\/em> Hedgehog.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Scorpion\">Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>Arthropod of the same group as spiders (arachnids). A dozen species of scorpions (order Scorpionida) are found in the Holy Land, but 90 percent of the scorpions are yellow scorpions, usually three to five inches (7.6 to 12.7 centimeters) long. The rock scorpion, also common to the Holy Land, is as thick as a man’s finger and from five to seven inches (12.7 to 17.8 centimeters) in length. Scorpions are slow, nocturnal invertebrates that rest beneath stones by day and prey on insects and other arachnids by night. At the end of its long tail the scorpion carries a poisonous sting that is fatal to most prey and extremely painful to humans (Rv 9:3, 5, 10; cf. 1 Kgs 12:11, 14). Scorpions symbolize Ezekiel’s evil countrymen (Ez 2:6) and the demonic forces of Satan (Lk 10:19). The scorpion is referred to as frequenting the Sinai Desert (Dt 8:15).<\/p>\n<p>A scorpion has from six to eight eyes. It has eight legs like a spider and two lobsterlike claws with which it catches and holds its prey. It feeds particularly on locusts and beetles. In many species the female scorpion eats the male after mating. Scorpions lay eggs that hatch very shortly after laying. Scorpions prefer warmer climates, and because of their desire for warmth, enter houses, especially at night, hiding in beds, blankets, footwear, and clothing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sheep\">Sheep<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animal, <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> referred to directly or by some term such as ewe, lamb, ram, or by some fact concerning them over 700 times in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Sheep represented the chief wealth and total livelihood of pastoral peoples, providing food to eat, milk to drink, wool for the making of cloth, and hides and bones for other uses. In addition, the sheep was a medium of exchange and a sacrificial animal. The number of sheep raised in ancient times was prodigious. Mesha, king of Moab, paid a tribute annually of 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams (2 Kgs 3:4). The Israelites took 250,000 sheep from the Hagrites (1 Chr 5:21).<\/p>\n<p>Sheep shearing was often done for festivals (2 Sm 13:23). The sheep was held down on its side and its legs were tied together; then it lay docilely while its wool was clipped (Is 53:7). Sheep reserved for burnt offerings were not shorn; nothing could be held back from a sacrifice to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Wool had to be processed before it could be used for clothing. First it was washed, sometimes while still on the sheep, then carded and perhaps weighed for the market. The spinning of wool was regarded as a woman’s work (Prv 31:19), but weaving the spun thread into cloth on a loom was primarily a man’s occupation.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible reports that Abel kept sheep (Gn 4:2). The first sheep to be domesticated was probably the argali <em>(Ovis ammon),<\/em> a variety of the urial <em>(Ovis vignei),<\/em> a mountainous species still existing in Turkestan and Mongolia. Five breeds had reached Mesopotamia by 2000 <span>BC<\/span>; all were of the urial stock.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep known in Israel was the broad-tailed sheep <em>(Ovis orientalis vignei<\/em> or <em>laticaudata),<\/em> of which the tail weighs from 10 to 15 pounds (4.5 to 6.8 kilograms) and has always been considered a delicacy. Thus the Lord asked for this choice part as a sacrifice (Ex 29:22-25).<\/p>\n<p>Only the ram of the broad-tailed sheep has horns, but in other varieties of sheep in the Holy Land the ewe also has horns. The horns, two to three inches (5 to 8 centimeters) in diameter, can be potent weapons. Rams’ horns could be used as trumpets (Jos 6:4) or as oil containers (1 Sm 16:1).<\/p>\n<p>Although the sheep is very similar to the goat, it is differentiated by a lower forehead, its angulated spiral horns marked with transverse wrinkles and curved slightly outward, its covering of wool, and its lack of a “goatee.” Most sheep are white (Ps 147:16; Is 1:18; Dn 7:9; Rv 1:14).<\/p>\n<p>The flesh of sheep was a luxury in the biblical culture. King Solomon required a daily provision of 100 sheep for his table (1 Kgs 4:23), but the common people ate lamb or mutton only on festive occasions. A young ram was usually chosen because the ewes were more important to the future prospects of the herd. The meat was boiled in large caldrons. The milk of the sheep is extremely rich; in biblical times it was usually allowed to curdle before drinking. Possibly some Israelites kept lambs in their houses as pets (2 Sm 12:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>To protect the flock at night against predatory attacks, the shepherd tried to provide a fold. In meadows near villages, folds were built and watchmen were hired to relieve the shepherds. The shepherds of the nativity story were out in the field (Lk 2:8); they had no fold but probably had set up a tent for shelter, consisting simply of goat-hair blankets spread across sapling supports. The scarcity of springs in the Holy Land made the watering of the flock a crucial problem for the shepherd (Gn 13:8-11).<\/p>\n<p>Wild mountain sheep, varieties of <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> are known in the Mediterranean area (Dt 14:5). The Deuteronomy passage (<span>kjv<\/span> “chamois”) might also refer to <em>Ovis traelaphus,<\/em> a sheep about five feet high (1.5 meters) with long, curved horns. Another possibility is the Barbary sheep that lives in small flocks in rugged mountain areas in Barbary, Egypt, and Mt Sinai. The true chamois is unknown in Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep is also used figuratively in Scripture. The ram represented great strength and fittingly symbolized Medo-Persia in Daniel’s vision (Dn 8:3). It is the nature of sheep to be gentle and submissive (Is 53:7; Jer 11:19), defenseless (Mi 5:8; Mt 10:16), and in constant need of guidance and care (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36). Such qualities are regarded as desirable in the lives of believers in Christ; hence the many figurative references to sheep in the NT and to Jesus as shepherd (Mk 6:34; Jn 10:1-30; Rom 8:35-37; Heb 13:20-21; 1 Pt 2:25). The resurrected Christ told the apostle Peter to “feed my lambs” and “tend my sheep” (Jn 21:15-17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snail\">Snail<\/p>\n<p>Invertebrate gastropods (mollusks). Land snails are very numerous in the Near East. Some freshwater forms serve as hosts for the schistosome worm, the fluke parasite causing the dread disease bilharzia (schistosomiasis).<\/p>\n<p>Purple dyes of all shades were highly valued in the ancient world. A royal purple dye was obtained from secretions of a sea snail <em>(Murex trunculus<\/em> and <em>Murex brandaris).<\/em> Evidently, that process was developed by Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Assyrians as early as 1500 <span>BC<\/span>. The “purple” fishermen had their own guild during the time of the Roman Empire. The snails were harvested during the fall and winter seasons; in the spring, when egg laying took place, little dye was available. The snails tended to remain concealed in the summer. They inhabited the waters off Crete and Phoenicia. Tyrian purple, produced in the Phoenician city of Tyre, the center of the purple-dye industry, was obtained by a double dyeing. Large deposits of murex shells from dyeing operations have been found along the Mediterranean shoreline. The Israelites had to import purple goods (Ez 27:16). Lydia was a “seller of purple” or of cloth so dyed (Acts 16:14). Purple was a sign of distinction, royalty, and wealth (cf. Ex 25:4; 28:5-6, 15; Nm 15:38; 2 Chr 2:7; Est 8:15; Prv 31:22; Sg 3:10; Ez 27:7; Dn 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 30:34-35 refers to “onycha,” which was an important ingredient of incense. Onycha is the horny, clawlike operculum (the plate that closes off the opening of its shell when a snail is retracted) of a Near Eastern member of the molluskan family Strombidae. The operculum is sometimes used for offense or locomotion as well as for defense. When burned, the operculum gives off a sharp, strong scent, and when mixed with more fragrant but less powerful substances is even more potent. The name “onycha” is derived from a Greek word <em>(onyx)<\/em> for a fingernail or a claw.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snake\">Snake<\/p>\n<p>Various species of snake, suborder Ophidia (Serpentes). In the Bible nine Hebrew words and four Greek ones refer to snakes. The most common Hebrew word is onomatopoeic—that is, it is an imitation of a snake hissing or of the sound it produces as it scrapes its scales along the ground (cf. Jer 46:22). Many types of snakes lay eggs (Is 59:5), although some retain the eggs in the body until ready to hatch.<\/p>\n<p>Snakes are among the most widespread reptiles and are found on all continents except Antarctica; they decrease in numbers and species toward the poles but increase as one approaches the equator. Thirty-three species of snakes are known in Palestine and neighboring countries, 20 of which are poisonous. Two dangerous characteristics of the snake noted by biblical writers are its inconspicuous way of moving and the ease with which it hides itself.<\/p>\n<p>Many snakes are able to swallow animals several times their own diameter because of their unusually flexible jaw mechanism. They lack not only legs but also movable eyelids. Snakes periodically shed their skins. The tongue is actually a hearing apparatus sensitive to airborne vibrations and probably to heat waves.<\/p>\n<p>The venom of poisonous species is a clear, thin secretion, transmitted to the victim’s bloodstream by means of fangs. Two types of venom are known: that of the vipers, which affects respiration and disintegrates red blood cells, and that of the cobras, which paralyzes the nervous system.<\/p>\n<p>The “asp” referred to in the Bible is probably the cobra; the “adder” is the viper. The “cockatrice” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is probably the adder. Serpents were associated with worship in Canaanite religion and symbolized evil deities among many other peoples. Steles (upright stones bearing inscriptions) have been unearthed at several sites in the Holy Land and Syria depicting a god or worshiper with a snake winding about the legs or body. Because the Israelites were burning incense in pagan worship of Moses’ bronze serpent (Nm 21:8-9), King Hezekiah destroyed it in his religious reform (2 Kgs 18:4).<\/p>\n<p>Although snakes have been an object of veneration in some religions, in the Judeo-Christian tradition snakes represent evil and, more specifically, the devil. That association began in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:1-15) and is also found in the book of Revelation (12:9; 20:2-3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adder (above); Asp (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spider\">Spider<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the order Araneida. Between 600 and 700 different species inhabit the Holy Land. Spiders are different from insects in that, like scorpions, they have four pairs of legs instead of three. Spiders are equipped with poison glands—the effectiveness varying from species to species. A few can kill only insects, but others can also kill birds and mice.<\/p>\n<p>Most spiders have a pair of spinnerets attached to silk glands on the underside of the abdomen; from them a web is extruded. In the Bible the spider’s web is referred to as a symbol of frailty and insecurity (Jb 8:14; Is 59:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sponge\">Sponge<\/p>\n<p>Simple marine animals, phylum Porifera. The term “sponge” also refers to those animals’ skeletal remains. The sponge has a porous body composed of tubules and cells.<\/p>\n<p>Sponge fishing was well known in the Mediterranean area in ancient times. It was practiced particularly along the Anatolian and Syrian coasts. Sponges were harvested by divers. The use of sponges in absorbing liquids is referred to in the Bible (Mt 27:48; Mk 15:36).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Unicorn\">Unicorn<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Wild Ox (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wasp\">Wasp<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the family Vespidae. Hornets are social wasps that build large aerial apartment houses in which 1,000 or more individuals may live. In the Bible the hornet is used as a metaphor for God’s use of military forces (Ex 23:28; Dt 7:20; Jos 24:12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Whale\">Whale<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all living creatures, including those that have become extinct. Whales are air-breathing mammals of the order Cetacea.<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of whales visit the shores of the Holy Land at times. The finback whale <em>(Balaenoptera physalus)<\/em> weighs about 200 tons (181 metric tons) and lives mainly in the Arctic region but sometimes passes through the Straits of Gibraltar to reach the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It feeds on small marine organisms that it strains through its whale bone; it does not have teeth. The finback whale’s esophagus is narrow.<\/p>\n<p>The sperm whale <em>(Physeter catodon),<\/em> about 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, has a curiously shaped head that looks like a battering ram. The teeth in the lower jaw of the male sperm whale are about seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long. It feeds on big fish, even on sharks. It has a large throat opening.<\/p>\n<p>Whales are referred to in Genesis 1:21 and Job 7:12 (<span>kjv<\/span> only). The “great fish” of Jonah 2:1 need not have been a whale but could have been a large shark, such as the whale shark <em>(Rhineodon),<\/em> which grows 70 feet (21.3 meters) long and lacks the terrible teeth of other sharks. Whatever the actual marine organism, Jonah’s deliverance was miraculous. The Greek word for “whale” is sometimes used as a general term for “sea monster” or huge fish and may be used in that sense in Matthew 12:40.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WildOx\">Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>Large, fierce, fleet, intractable animal <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> It had a long, lean rump with a straight back and a long, narrow head. The animal described in Job 39:9-12 is clearly the wild ox. The two horns (Dt 33:17), its outstanding characteristic, were straight and as long as the head (Nm 23:22; 24:8; Ps 22:21). Kings often symbolized their dominion by wearing a helmet with two wild ox horns (cf. Pss 92:10; 132:17-18). The horns were often used as drinking vessels by the Israelites; some were large enough to hold four gallons (15 liters).<\/p>\n<p>Hunting the wild ox was a favorite sport of Assyrian kings. Tiglath-pileser I hunted it in the Lebanon Mountains about 1100 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Ps 29:6). At one time the animal referred to in Job 39:9-12 was thought to be the oryx or antelope because of the similarity between the Hebrew word in Job and the Arabian name for oryx. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> called the wild ox a “unicorn” because of representations found on Babylonian mosaics and Egyptian drawings. Those representations showed it in strict profile, showing only one horn—hence, “unicorn.” Jerome’s Vulgate, a Latin Bible translation (fourth century <span>AD<\/span>) and Martin Luther’s German version translated it similarly.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wolf\">Wolf<\/p>\n<p>Large doglike mammal <em>(Canis lupus)<\/em> that travels in bands of up to 30 animals. From the nose to the rump, the wolf measures about 3 feet (.9 meter); its drooping tail is about 18 inches (.5 meter) long. It looks much like a skinny German shepherd dog. The grayish yellow pelt is coarse and short haired.<\/p>\n<p>Wolves hunt singly or in relays, usually at night (Jer 5:6). Wolves have acute hearing and sight but rely chiefly on scent and usually catch their prey in a swift, open chase. The wolf has a reputation for boldness, fierceness, and voracity (Gn 49:27; Hb 1:8). It commonly kills more than it can eat or drag away and thus is known for its greediness.<\/p>\n<p>The wolf is a restless animal, always on the move; hunger drives it from one place to another in constant search of new hunting grounds. During spring and fall, wolves usually roam singly or in pairs, whereas in summer they may travel in family groups. In winter, several such groups may join to form a large pack. Wolves are intelligent, social creatures, faithful to their own kind. They mate for life. Individually, the wolf is a rather timid animal; it would much rather avoid human beings. But collectively wolves can be among the most dangerous animals alive.<\/p>\n<p>In Egypt, Rome, and Greece the wolf was considered sacred. Wolves were well known in the Holy Land and are still found there and also in many places in Asia Minor. Shepherds continually battled with wolves that plundered their flocks (Jn 10:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible refers to wolves in a literal sense in only three places (Is 11:6; 65:25; Jn 10:12), all other references being figurative. Usually the wolf is a symbol of enemies or the wicked (e.g., Ez 22:27; Zep 3:3; Acts 20:29). Both the wolf’s courage and its cruelty were probably in the mind of the patriarch Jacob when he predicted the fate of Benjamin’s tribe (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Worm\">Worm<\/p>\n<p>Actually insect larvae in most biblical references, usually maggots, the larvae of flies (see Fly, above). For example, maggots are evidently referred to in accounts of worms feeding on spoiled manna (Ex 16:19-20), corpses (Jb 21:26; Is 14:11), or open wounds (Jb 7:5). Mark 9:48 refers to a maggot that eats dead flesh. In Acts 12:23 a fatal, worm-induced abdominal disease of King Herod is mentioned. In other cases, the reference is to the larvae of other insects (Is 51:8). In Deuteronomy 28:39 and Jonah 4:7 the vine weevil <em>(Cochylis ambiguella)<\/em> is probably referred to; it destroys vines by boring into their stems. Comparing a man to a worm is a metaphor for abasement (Jb 25:6; Ps 22:6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ANIMALS In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals ...","summary_en":"ANIMALS In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals ...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34381,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Serpent","title_en":"Serpent","content_ro":"<h3>SERPENT<\/h3>\n<p>A snake or sea monster. Various words are used in the Bible for serpents or snakes. In general, the serpent belongs to a class of reptiles often characterized by their ability to wound by striking or biting and then poisoning with venom. There are particular kinds of snakes mentioned in the Bible, such as the adder (Is 11:8) and the viper (Acts 28:3). “Serpent” also denotes the monstrous sea serpent mentioned in Job 26:13, Isaiah 27:1, and Amos 9:3.<\/p>\n<p>In Genesis 3:1 the temptation that came to Adam and Eve is described as coming through the serpent, that “shrewdest of all the creatures the <span>Lord<\/span> God had made” (<span>nlt<\/span>). And in consequence of this, he was told, “You will grovel in the dust as long as you live, crawling along on your belly” (Gn 3:14, <span>nlt<\/span>). Reference is made in 2 Corinthians 11:3 to the fact that the serpent deceived Eve by his cunning, and Revelation 12:9 speaks of the “ancient serpent, who is called the Devil and Satan, the deceiver of the whole world” (<span>rsv<\/span>; see also Rv 12:14-15 and 20:2).<\/p>\n<p>Most of the biblical references to serpents or snakes allude (in figurative application) to the ability of the snake to bite and to poison with venom (e.g., Gn 49:17; Eccl 10:8, 11; Is 14:29; Am 5:19; Rv 9:19). In Psalm 58:4-5 the wicked are likened to snakes. In Psalm 140:3, people’s tongues are also spoken of as being as sharp as a serpent’s, and their lips as poisonous as vipers. In Proverbs 23:32 it is said that strong drink “bites like a poisonous serpent; it stings like a viper” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Then in Jeremiah 8:17 the enemies of Israel are spoken of as coming, in God’s judgment against his people, as “poisonous snakes you cannot charm. No matter what you do, they will bite you, and you will die” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Positively, the serpent is seen to have great wisdom as the “craftiest” of creatures. And so we have the words of Jesus to his disciples, “Be wise as serpents and innocent as doves” (Mt 10:16). But the primary image is negative. The serpent is a symbol of deceit. Thus, Jesus addressed the scribes and Pharisees as “Snakes! Sons of vipers!” (23:33). John the Baptist also addressed the Pharisees and Sadducees with the words “You sons of snakes!” (3:7). <em>See<\/em> Animals.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SERPENT<\/h3>\n<p>A snake or sea monster. Various words are used in the Bible for serpents or snakes. In general, the serpent belongs to a class of reptiles often characterized by their ability to wound by striking or biting and then poisoning with venom. There are particular kinds of snakes mentioned in the Bible, such as the adder (Is 11:8) and the viper (Acts 28:3). “Serpent” also denotes the monstrous sea serpent mentioned in Job 26:13, Isaiah 27:1, and Amos 9:3.<\/p>\n<p>In Genesis 3:1 the temptation that came to Adam and Eve is described as coming through the serpent, that “shrewdest of all the creatures the <span>Lord<\/span> God had made” (<span>nlt<\/span>). And in consequence of this, he was told, “You will grovel in the dust as long as you live, crawling along on your belly” (Gn 3:14, <span>nlt<\/span>). Reference is made in 2 Corinthians 11:3 to the fact that the serpent deceived Eve by his cunning, and Revelation 12:9 speaks of the “ancient serpent, who is called the Devil and Satan, the deceiver of the whole world” (<span>rsv<\/span>; see also Rv 12:14-15 and 20:2).<\/p>\n<p>Most of the biblical references to serpents or snakes allude (in figurative application) to the ability of the snake to bite and to poison with venom (e.g., Gn 49:17; Eccl 10:8, 11; Is 14:29; Am 5:19; Rv 9:19). In Psalm 58:4-5 the wicked are likened to snakes. In Psalm 140:3, people’s tongues are also spoken of as being as sharp as a serpent’s, and their lips as poisonous as vipers. In Proverbs 23:32 it is said that strong drink “bites like a poisonous serpent; it stings like a viper” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Then in Jeremiah 8:17 the enemies of Israel are spoken of as coming, in God’s judgment against his people, as “poisonous snakes you cannot charm. No matter what you do, they will bite you, and you will die” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Positively, the serpent is seen to have great wisdom as the “craftiest” of creatures. And so we have the words of Jesus to his disciples, “Be wise as serpents and innocent as doves” (Mt 10:16). But the primary image is negative. The serpent is a symbol of deceit. Thus, Jesus addressed the scribes and Pharisees as “Snakes! Sons of vipers!” (23:33). John the Baptist also addressed the Pharisees and Sadducees with the words “You sons of snakes!” (3:7). <em>See<\/em> Animals.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SERPENT A snake or sea monster. Various words are used in the Bible for serpents or snakes. In general, the serpent belongs to a class of reptiles often characterized by their ability to wound by striking or biting and then poisoning with venom. There are particular kinds of snakes mentioned in the Bible, such as the adder (Is 11:8) and the viper (Acts 28:3). “Serpent” also denotes the monstrous sea serpent mentioned in Job 26:13, Isaiah 27:1, and Amos 9:3. In Genesis 3:1 the temptation that ...","summary_en":"SERPENT A snake or sea monster. Various words are used in the Bible for serpents or snakes. In general, the serpent belongs to a class of reptiles often characterized by their ability to wound by striking or biting and then poisoning with venom. There are particular kinds of snakes mentioned in the Bible, such as the adder (Is 11:8) and the viper (Acts 28:3). “Serpent” also denotes the monstrous sea serpent mentioned in Job 26:13, Isaiah 27:1, and Amos 9:3. In Genesis 3:1 the temptation that ...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57174,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:3","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:3-6<\/strong> The locals of Malta understood <em>justice<\/em> as a personified power or deity carrying out judgment on a criminal. When nothing bad happened to Paul, the natives understood him as having power over snakes and concluded that he himself was a god (cp. 14:11-12). In fact, Paul’s survival demonstrated God’s protection (cp. Mark 16:17-18).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:3-6<\/strong> The locals of Malta understood <em>justice<\/em> as a personified power or deity carrying out judgment on a criminal. When nothing bad happened to Paul, the natives understood him as having power over snakes and concluded that he himself was a god (cp. 14:11-12). In fact, Paul’s survival demonstrated God’s protection (cp. Mark 16:17-18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:3-6 The locals of Malta understood justice as a personified power or deity carrying out judgment on a criminal. When nothing bad happened to Paul, the natives understood him as having power over snakes and concluded that he himself was a god (cp. 14:11-12). In fact, Paul’s survival demonstrated God’s protection (cp. Mark 16:17-18).","summary_en":"28:3-6 The locals of Malta understood justice as a personified power or deity carrying out judgment on a criminal. When nothing bad happened to Paul, the natives understood him as having power over snakes and concluded that he himself was a god (cp. 14:11-12). In fact, Paul’s survival demonstrated God’s protection (cp. Mark 16:17-18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84800,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:3","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:3-6<\/strong> The locals of Malta understood <em>justice<\/em> as a personified power or deity carrying out judgment on a criminal. When nothing bad happened to Paul, the natives understood him as having power over snakes and concluded that he himself was a god (cp. 14:11-12). In fact, Paul’s survival demonstrated God’s protection (cp. Mark 16:17-18).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:3-6<\/strong> The locals of Malta understood <em>justice<\/em> as a personified power or deity carrying out judgment on a criminal. When nothing bad happened to Paul, the natives understood him as having power over snakes and concluded that he himself was a god (cp. 14:11-12). In fact, Paul’s survival demonstrated God’s protection (cp. Mark 16:17-18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:3-6 The locals of Malta understood justice as a personified power or deity carrying out judgment on a criminal. When nothing bad happened to Paul, the natives understood him as having power over snakes and concluded that he himself was a god (cp. 14:11-12). In fact, Paul’s survival demonstrated God’s protection (cp. Mark 16:17-18).","summary_en":"28:3-6 The locals of Malta understood justice as a personified power or deity carrying out judgment on a criminal. When nothing bad happened to Paul, the natives understood him as having power over snakes and concluded that he himself was a god (cp. 14:11-12). In fact, Paul’s survival demonstrated God’s protection (cp. Mark 16:17-18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112426,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:3","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:3-6<\/strong> The locals of Malta understood <em>justice<\/em> as a personified power or deity carrying out judgment on a criminal. When nothing bad happened to Paul, the natives understood him as having power over snakes and concluded that he himself was a god (cp. 14:11-12). In fact, Paul’s survival demonstrated God’s protection (cp. Mark 16:17-18).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:3-6<\/strong> The locals of Malta understood <em>justice<\/em> as a personified power or deity carrying out judgment on a criminal. When nothing bad happened to Paul, the natives understood him as having power over snakes and concluded that he himself was a god (cp. 14:11-12). In fact, Paul’s survival demonstrated God’s protection (cp. Mark 16:17-18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:3-6 The locals of Malta understood justice as a personified power or deity carrying out judgment on a criminal. When nothing bad happened to Paul, the natives understood him as having power over snakes and concluded that he himself was a god (cp. 14:11-12). In fact, Paul’s survival demonstrated God’s protection (cp. Mark 16:17-18).","summary_en":"28:3-6 The locals of Malta understood justice as a personified power or deity carrying out judgment on a criminal. When nothing bad happened to Paul, the natives understood him as having power over snakes and concluded that he himself was a god (cp. 14:11-12). In fact, Paul’s survival demonstrated God’s protection (cp. Mark 16:17-18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140052,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:3","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:3-6<\/strong> The locals of Malta understood <em>justice<\/em> as a personified power or deity carrying out judgment on a criminal. When nothing bad happened to Paul, the natives understood him as having power over snakes and concluded that he himself was a god (cp. 14:11-12). In fact, Paul’s survival demonstrated God’s protection (cp. Mark 16:17-18).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:3-6<\/strong> The locals of Malta understood <em>justice<\/em> as a personified power or deity carrying out judgment on a criminal. When nothing bad happened to Paul, the natives understood him as having power over snakes and concluded that he himself was a god (cp. 14:11-12). In fact, Paul’s survival demonstrated God’s protection (cp. Mark 16:17-18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:3-6 The locals of Malta understood justice as a personified power or deity carrying out judgment on a criminal. When nothing bad happened to Paul, the natives understood him as having power over snakes and concluded that he himself was a god (cp. 14:11-12). In fact, Paul’s survival demonstrated God’s protection (cp. Mark 16:17-18).","summary_en":"28:3-6 The locals of Malta understood justice as a personified power or deity carrying out judgment on a criminal. When nothing bad happened to Paul, the natives understood him as having power over snakes and concluded that he himself was a god (cp. 14:11-12). In fact, Paul’s survival demonstrated God’s protection (cp. Mark 16:17-18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":24133,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Malta","title_en":"Malta","content_ro":"<h3>MALTA<\/h3>\n<p>Island in the Mediterranean Sea, south of Sicily. The name Malta occurs only once in the Bible (Acts 28:1, <span>kjv<\/span> “Melita”), in connection with the shipwreck that occurred on Paul’s voyage to Rome (25:11-12). This voyage was undertaken during the winter, the season in which storms are most likely to be encountered on the Mediterranean. The ship proceeded cautiously, for contrary winds were blowing (27:4). With difficulty they reached the harbor of Fair Havens on Crete (vv 7-8). In spite of a warning by Paul, the decision was made to try to reach the Cretan port of Phoenix, which was more suitable for wintering (vv 9-12).<\/p>\n\n<p>Caught by a severe storm and driven helplessly by the wind for 14 days, the ship finally neared land during the night. In the morning, the ship tried for the beach but ran aground and was pounded to pieces by the surf. Everyone managed to reach the shore safely. While putting wood on a fire, Paul was bitten by a viper. The natives of the island supposed that he was a criminal whose life was being taken by the bite of a snake. When he did not fall down dead, they radically changed their opinion of him and regarded him as a god (Acts 28:6).<\/p>\n<p>The island of Malta is about 60 miles (96.5 kilometers) from Sicily and has an area of 95 square miles (246.1 square kilometers). St. Paul’s Bay marks the traditional site of the shipwreck of Acts. The island is essentially agricultural, but production is poor because of the thin calcareous soil. Terracing is practiced in order to utilize the soil to the fullest extent. The island has no rivers and is dependent on rainfall and springs for its water. The climate in general is mild, but in the summer the island is subject to the hot, dust-laden sirocco from the deserts of Libya.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MALTA<\/h3>\n<p>Island in the Mediterranean Sea, south of Sicily. The name Malta occurs only once in the Bible (Acts 28:1, <span>kjv<\/span> “Melita”), in connection with the shipwreck that occurred on Paul’s voyage to Rome (25:11-12). This voyage was undertaken during the winter, the season in which storms are most likely to be encountered on the Mediterranean. The ship proceeded cautiously, for contrary winds were blowing (27:4). With difficulty they reached the harbor of Fair Havens on Crete (vv 7-8). In spite of a warning by Paul, the decision was made to try to reach the Cretan port of Phoenix, which was more suitable for wintering (vv 9-12).<\/p>\n\n<p>Caught by a severe storm and driven helplessly by the wind for 14 days, the ship finally neared land during the night. In the morning, the ship tried for the beach but ran aground and was pounded to pieces by the surf. Everyone managed to reach the shore safely. While putting wood on a fire, Paul was bitten by a viper. The natives of the island supposed that he was a criminal whose life was being taken by the bite of a snake. When he did not fall down dead, they radically changed their opinion of him and regarded him as a god (Acts 28:6).<\/p>\n<p>The island of Malta is about 60 miles (96.5 kilometers) from Sicily and has an area of 95 square miles (246.1 square kilometers). St. Paul’s Bay marks the traditional site of the shipwreck of Acts. The island is essentially agricultural, but production is poor because of the thin calcareous soil. Terracing is practiced in order to utilize the soil to the fullest extent. The island has no rivers and is dependent on rainfall and springs for its water. The climate in general is mild, but in the summer the island is subject to the hot, dust-laden sirocco from the deserts of Libya.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MALTA Island in the Mediterranean Sea, south of Sicily. The name Malta occurs only once in the Bible (Acts 28:1, kjv “Melita”), in connection with the shipwreck that occurred on Paul’s voyage to Rome (25:11-12). This voyage was undertaken during the winter, the season in which storms are most likely to be encountered on the Mediterranean. The ship proceeded cautiously, for contrary winds were blowing (27:4). With difficulty they reached the harbor of Fair Havens on Crete (vv 7-8). In spite of...","summary_en":"MALTA Island in the Mediterranean Sea, south of Sicily. The name Malta occurs only once in the Bible (Acts 28:1, kjv “Melita”), in connection with the shipwreck that occurred on Paul’s voyage to Rome (25:11-12). This voyage was undertaken during the winter, the season in which storms are most likely to be encountered on the Mediterranean. The ship proceeded cautiously, for contrary winds were blowing (27:4). With difficulty they reached the harbor of Fair Havens on Crete (vv 7-8). In spite of...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":32169,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Publius","title_en":"Publius","content_ro":"<h3>PUBLIUS<\/h3>\n<p>Name of a resident of the island of Malta, mentioned in Acts 28:7-8. He hosted Paul and others briefly after a shipwreck had stranded them on the island as they journeyed to Rome. Publius bore a title that indicated he was an important official on Malta at the time. His ailing father was healed by Paul during the visit.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PUBLIUS<\/h3>\n<p>Name of a resident of the island of Malta, mentioned in Acts 28:7-8. He hosted Paul and others briefly after a shipwreck had stranded them on the island as they journeyed to Rome. Publius bore a title that indicated he was an important official on Malta at the time. His ailing father was healed by Paul during the visit.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PUBLIUS Name of a resident of the island of Malta, mentioned in Acts 28:7-8. He hosted Paul and others briefly after a shipwreck had stranded them on the island as they journeyed to Rome. Publius bore a title that indicated he was an important official on Malta at the time. His ailing father was healed by Paul during the visit.","summary_en":"PUBLIUS Name of a resident of the island of Malta, mentioned in Acts 28:7-8. He hosted Paul and others briefly after a shipwreck had stranded them on the island as they journeyed to Rome. Publius bore a title that indicated he was an important official on Malta at the time. His ailing father was healed by Paul during the visit.","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":5283,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"of Blood*, Flow","title_en":"of Blood*, Flow","content_ro":"<h3>BLOOD*, F<span>low of<\/span><\/h3>\n<li>1. Vaginal discharge such as that during menstruation. Leviticus 15 contains social and sanitary laws that God gave to Moses concerning genital discharges. A woman with vaginal bleeding was considered ceremonially unclean during bleeding and for seven days afterward. She could not go to the tabernacle or temple for worship while unclean or mingle with crowds in the street or market. Anyone touching her or her clothes, bed, chair, and the like was also ceremonially unclean (Lv 15:19-28). Sexual intercourse was not allowed while the woman was ceremonially unclean. Seven days after her bleeding stopped, a woman would present to the priest two turtledoves or young pigeons as offerings to atone for the time of her uncleanness (Lv 15:29-30).<\/li>\n<p>Jesus’ miraculous healing of a woman who had been hemorrhaging (slowly or intermittently) for 12 years was recorded in three of the four Gospels (Mt 9:20-22; Mk 5:25-34; Lk 8:43-48). If her bleeding was vaginal, the years of ceremonial uncleanness and separation must have been particularly distressing for her. Besides being anxious and uncomfortable, she would also have been unable to bear children. Further, she had “suffered a great deal from many doctors” and “had spent everything she had to pay for them, but she had gotten no better” (Mk 5:26). In despair she ignored the rules about uncleanness and made her way through a crowd to touch Jesus. When she touched him, the bleeding stopped immediately and permanently.<\/p>\n<li>2. Bloody stools. The “bloody flux” (<span>kjv<\/span>) from which Publius’s father suffered was some form of dysentery (Acts 28:8).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Medicine and Medical Practice; Hemorrhage.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BLOOD*, F<span>low of<\/span><\/h3>\n<li>1. Vaginal discharge such as that during menstruation. Leviticus 15 contains social and sanitary laws that God gave to Moses concerning genital discharges. A woman with vaginal bleeding was considered ceremonially unclean during bleeding and for seven days afterward. She could not go to the tabernacle or temple for worship while unclean or mingle with crowds in the street or market. Anyone touching her or her clothes, bed, chair, and the like was also ceremonially unclean (Lv 15:19-28). Sexual intercourse was not allowed while the woman was ceremonially unclean. Seven days after her bleeding stopped, a woman would present to the priest two turtledoves or young pigeons as offerings to atone for the time of her uncleanness (Lv 15:29-30).<\/li>\n<p>Jesus’ miraculous healing of a woman who had been hemorrhaging (slowly or intermittently) for 12 years was recorded in three of the four Gospels (Mt 9:20-22; Mk 5:25-34; Lk 8:43-48). If her bleeding was vaginal, the years of ceremonial uncleanness and separation must have been particularly distressing for her. Besides being anxious and uncomfortable, she would also have been unable to bear children. Further, she had “suffered a great deal from many doctors” and “had spent everything she had to pay for them, but she had gotten no better” (Mk 5:26). In despair she ignored the rules about uncleanness and made her way through a crowd to touch Jesus. When she touched him, the bleeding stopped immediately and permanently.<\/p>\n<li>2. Bloody stools. The “bloody flux” (<span>kjv<\/span>) from which Publius’s father suffered was some form of dysentery (Acts 28:8).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Medicine and Medical Practice; Hemorrhage.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BLOOD*, Flow of 1. Vaginal discharge such as that during menstruation. Leviticus 15 contains social and sanitary laws that God gave to Moses concerning genital discharges. A woman with vaginal bleeding was considered ceremonially unclean during bleeding and for seven days afterward. She could not go to the tabernacle or temple for worship while unclean or mingle with crowds in the street or market. Anyone touching her or her clothes, bed, chair, and the like was also ceremonially unclean (Lv ...","summary_en":"BLOOD*, Flow of 1. Vaginal discharge such as that during menstruation. Leviticus 15 contains social and sanitary laws that God gave to Moses concerning genital discharges. A woman with vaginal bleeding was considered ceremonially unclean during bleeding and for seven days afterward. She could not go to the tabernacle or temple for worship while unclean or mingle with crowds in the street or market. Anyone touching her or her clothes, bed, chair, and the like was also ceremonially unclean (Lv ...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":9902,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Dysentery","title_en":"Dysentery","content_ro":"<h3>DYSENTERY<\/h3>\n<p>Diarrhea caused by parasitic bacteria, protozoa (amoeba), or worms in contaminated food or drink. Dysentery is accompanied by intestinal spasms and ulceration, with the appearance of blood and pus in the excrement. On the island of Malta the apostle Paul miraculously cured a person of dysentery (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">dysenteria<\/span><em>,<\/em> Acts 28:8). As the verse indicates, high fever accompanies acute dysentery, epidemics of which still plague Malta. A disease described in the OT was probably amoebic dysentery, in which intestinal tissue can be sloughed off day by day (2 Chr 21:14-19). A sporadic form of dysentery occurs when the body is able to tolerate the disruptive organism for the most part.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Medicine and Medical Practice.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DYSENTERY<\/h3>\n<p>Diarrhea caused by parasitic bacteria, protozoa (amoeba), or worms in contaminated food or drink. Dysentery is accompanied by intestinal spasms and ulceration, with the appearance of blood and pus in the excrement. On the island of Malta the apostle Paul miraculously cured a person of dysentery (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">dysenteria<\/span><em>,<\/em> Acts 28:8). As the verse indicates, high fever accompanies acute dysentery, epidemics of which still plague Malta. A disease described in the OT was probably amoebic dysentery, in which intestinal tissue can be sloughed off day by day (2 Chr 21:14-19). A sporadic form of dysentery occurs when the body is able to tolerate the disruptive organism for the most part.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Medicine and Medical Practice.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DYSENTERY Diarrhea caused by parasitic bacteria, protozoa (amoeba), or worms in contaminated food or drink. Dysentery is accompanied by intestinal spasms and ulceration, with the appearance of blood and pus in the excrement. On the island of Malta the apostle Paul miraculously cured a person of dysentery (Greek dysenteria, Acts 28:8). As the verse indicates, high fever accompanies acute dysentery, epidemics of which still plague Malta. A disease described in the OT was probably amoebic dysent...","summary_en":"DYSENTERY Diarrhea caused by parasitic bacteria, protozoa (amoeba), or worms in contaminated food or drink. Dysentery is accompanied by intestinal spasms and ulceration, with the appearance of blood and pus in the excrement. On the island of Malta the apostle Paul miraculously cured a person of dysentery (Greek dysenteria, Acts 28:8). As the verse indicates, high fever accompanies acute dysentery, epidemics of which still plague Malta. A disease described in the OT was probably amoebic dysent...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15282,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hand","title_en":"Hand","content_ro":"<h3>HAND<\/h3>\n<p>The terminal part of the forelimb that has the ability to grasp. “Hand” is used hundreds of times in the Bible to describe a physical part of one’s body. It is also used frequently in metaphors or figurative language.<\/p>\n<p>Figuratively, the hand meant power (Dt 2:15; Ps 31:5; Mk 14:62). Indeed, in Joshua 8:20 “hand to flee” is translated “power to flee” (see Ps 76:5). Conversely, limp hands symbolized irresoluteness and weakness (Is 35:3). Clasping the hands signified friendship (2 Kgs 10:15). To seat someone on one’s right hand denoted favor (Pss 16:11; 77:10; 110:1). Clean hands symbolized innocence (Ps 26:6), while striking hands sealed a bargain (Prv 6:1, <span>kjv<\/span>). Lifting the hand symbolized violence (1 Kgs 11:26, <span>rsv<\/span>). The hands were used in supplicatory prayer (Ex 17:11; Lv 9:22; Is 1:15; 1 Tm 2:8) and in making vows (Gn 14:22, <span>kjv<\/span>; 24:2).<\/p>\n<p>Other idiomatic uses of the hands expressed jeopardizing one’s life (Jgs 12:3), gladness (2 Kgs 11:12), generosity (Dt 15:11), grief (2 Sm 13:19), humility (Prv 30:32), and undertaking a duty (Lk 9:62). Manual labor is an expression of man’s dignity and duty (Eph 4:28; 1 Thes 4:11), the marks of which Paul was not ashamed to display (Acts 20:34; 1 Cor 4:12). Ritual hand washing was obligatory for the priests before fulfilling their office (Ex 30:19-21; 40:30-32). The scribes and Pharisees so misapplied this that Jesus ignored ceremonial hand washing (Mt 15:1-20; Lk 11:38). Pilate’s hand washing (Mt 27:24) disclaimed responsibility for, or professed innocence concerning, a wrong that, however, could not be done without his consent.<\/p>\n<p>When Israel went out of Egypt “with an high hand” (Ex 14:8, <span>kjv<\/span>), the reference is to the hand or help of the Lord. The hand of the Lord represented God’s resistless power (Dt 2:15), judgment (Acts 13:11; Heb 10:31), divine inspiration (Ez 8:1; 37:1), and providential care (Ezr 7:6; Jn 10:28-29).<\/p>\n<p>The laying on of hands had a profound significance and occurs frequently in the Bible. Before making a blood sacrifice, the person making the offering, not the priest, laid hands on the victim. The act signified the transference of guilt to, or self-identification with, the victim (Lv 1:4). Laying on of hands signified appointment to an office, as when Moses commissioned Joshua (Nm 27:12-23), the apostles made seven disciples their associates or deputies in the ministry (Acts 6:5-6), and Paul and Barnabas were appointed missionaries and representatives of the church in Antioch (13:3). By laying on of hands, a person was made an associate with the holder of an office and was admitted to the status of that office (1 Tm 4:14; 2 Tm 1:6). The act was accompanied by prayer and was, in itself, a form of prayer. As Augustine remarks: “What else is the laying on of hands but a prayer over one?”<\/p>\n<p>The laying on of hands accompanied healing in the ministry of the Lord (Mk 6:5; Lk 4:40; 13:11-13) and of the disciples (Mk 16:18; Acts 9:12, 17; 28:8). This expressed the self-identification and sympathy of the healer with and for the sufferer, as well as reinforced the patient’s faith and God’s imparting health to him in answer to prayer.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Right Hand.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HAND<\/h3>\n<p>The terminal part of the forelimb that has the ability to grasp. “Hand” is used hundreds of times in the Bible to describe a physical part of one’s body. It is also used frequently in metaphors or figurative language.<\/p>\n<p>Figuratively, the hand meant power (Dt 2:15; Ps 31:5; Mk 14:62). Indeed, in Joshua 8:20 “hand to flee” is translated “power to flee” (see Ps 76:5). Conversely, limp hands symbolized irresoluteness and weakness (Is 35:3). Clasping the hands signified friendship (2 Kgs 10:15). To seat someone on one’s right hand denoted favor (Pss 16:11; 77:10; 110:1). Clean hands symbolized innocence (Ps 26:6), while striking hands sealed a bargain (Prv 6:1, <span>kjv<\/span>). Lifting the hand symbolized violence (1 Kgs 11:26, <span>rsv<\/span>). The hands were used in supplicatory prayer (Ex 17:11; Lv 9:22; Is 1:15; 1 Tm 2:8) and in making vows (Gn 14:22, <span>kjv<\/span>; 24:2).<\/p>\n<p>Other idiomatic uses of the hands expressed jeopardizing one’s life (Jgs 12:3), gladness (2 Kgs 11:12), generosity (Dt 15:11), grief (2 Sm 13:19), humility (Prv 30:32), and undertaking a duty (Lk 9:62). Manual labor is an expression of man’s dignity and duty (Eph 4:28; 1 Thes 4:11), the marks of which Paul was not ashamed to display (Acts 20:34; 1 Cor 4:12). Ritual hand washing was obligatory for the priests before fulfilling their office (Ex 30:19-21; 40:30-32). The scribes and Pharisees so misapplied this that Jesus ignored ceremonial hand washing (Mt 15:1-20; Lk 11:38). Pilate’s hand washing (Mt 27:24) disclaimed responsibility for, or professed innocence concerning, a wrong that, however, could not be done without his consent.<\/p>\n<p>When Israel went out of Egypt “with an high hand” (Ex 14:8, <span>kjv<\/span>), the reference is to the hand or help of the Lord. The hand of the Lord represented God’s resistless power (Dt 2:15), judgment (Acts 13:11; Heb 10:31), divine inspiration (Ez 8:1; 37:1), and providential care (Ezr 7:6; Jn 10:28-29).<\/p>\n<p>The laying on of hands had a profound significance and occurs frequently in the Bible. Before making a blood sacrifice, the person making the offering, not the priest, laid hands on the victim. The act signified the transference of guilt to, or self-identification with, the victim (Lv 1:4). Laying on of hands signified appointment to an office, as when Moses commissioned Joshua (Nm 27:12-23), the apostles made seven disciples their associates or deputies in the ministry (Acts 6:5-6), and Paul and Barnabas were appointed missionaries and representatives of the church in Antioch (13:3). By laying on of hands, a person was made an associate with the holder of an office and was admitted to the status of that office (1 Tm 4:14; 2 Tm 1:6). The act was accompanied by prayer and was, in itself, a form of prayer. As Augustine remarks: “What else is the laying on of hands but a prayer over one?”<\/p>\n<p>The laying on of hands accompanied healing in the ministry of the Lord (Mk 6:5; Lk 4:40; 13:11-13) and of the disciples (Mk 16:18; Acts 9:12, 17; 28:8). This expressed the self-identification and sympathy of the healer with and for the sufferer, as well as reinforced the patient’s faith and God’s imparting health to him in answer to prayer.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Right Hand.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HAND The terminal part of the forelimb that has the ability to grasp. “Hand” is used hundreds of times in the Bible to describe a physical part of one’s body. It is also used frequently in metaphors or figurative language. Figuratively, the hand meant power (Dt 2:15; Ps 31:5; Mk 14:62). Indeed, in Joshua 8:20 “hand to flee” is translated “power to flee” (see Ps 76:5). Conversely, limp hands symbolized irresoluteness and weakness (Is 35:3). Clasping the hands signified friendship (2 Kgs 10:15)...","summary_en":"HAND The terminal part of the forelimb that has the ability to grasp. “Hand” is used hundreds of times in the Bible to describe a physical part of one’s body. It is also used frequently in metaphors or figurative language. Figuratively, the hand meant power (Dt 2:15; Ps 31:5; Mk 14:62). Indeed, in Joshua 8:20 “hand to flee” is translated “power to flee” (see Ps 76:5). Conversely, limp hands symbolized irresoluteness and weakness (Is 35:3). Clasping the hands signified friendship (2 Kgs 10:15)...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15659,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Healing Heal","title_en":"Healing Heal","content_ro":"<h3>HEAL, HEALING<\/h3>\n<p>To make well. The OT provides the proper background for a Christian understanding of the concept of healing. In the OT the basic point is made that God is the healer of his people. In Exodus 15:22-26, after God has delivered his people from Egypt, led them through the sea, and sweetened the water at Marah, he speaks of himself as their “healer.” This refers primarily to physical sustenance, but it points to the more encompassing concept of God sustaining his people in an eternal relationship with himself. In a similar manner, Deuteronomy 32:39 speaks of God as the one who heals. The context in Deuteronomy implies that this healing power derives from the fact that God is God. This concept of God as the healer is echoed throughout the OT by the psalmists (Pss 6:2; 41:4; 103:3) and prophets (Is 19:22; Jer 17:14; Hos 7:1; Zec 11:16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JesustheHealerAccountsintheGospels\">Jesus the Healer: Accounts in the Gospels<\/p>\n<p>The NT significantly emphasizes Jesus as the healer. Mark portrays him as a teacher and healer in his opening account of Jesus’ ministry in Capernaum with the healing of the demoniac, Peter’s mother-in-law, the sick brought to him in the evening, and the leper (Mk 1:21-45). Indeed, healing sickness and casting out demons characterize Jesus’ ministry. Mark presents in rapid succession Jesus’ healing of the paralytic (2:1-12), the man with the withered hand (3:1-6), the multitudes by the sea (vv 7-12), the Gerasene demoniac (5:1-20), the woman with a hemorrhage, and Jairus’s daughter (vv 21-43). Jesus then commissioned the Twelve to proclaim repentance, to cast out demons, and to heal the sick (6:7-13). He himself continued with healings at Gennesaret (vv 53-56), casting out the unclean spirit from the daughter of the Syrophoenician woman (7:24-30), healing the deaf and mute man (vv 31-37), the blind man of Bethsaida (8:22-26), the boy possessed with an evil spirit (9:14-20), and blind Bartimaeus (10:46-52).<\/p>\n<p>Certainly healing is an important aspect of Jesus’ ministry. The healings expressed not only his compassion for those suffering but also constituted a revelation of his person. This is brought out by the climactic statement of Jesus in healing the paralytic: “that you may know that the Son of man has authority on earth to forgive sins” (Mk 2:10, <span>rsv<\/span>). It also seems that Mark intended his readers to understand that the healing of the deaf and mute man (7:31-37) and the blind man of Bethsaida (8:22-26) symbolize the awakening of spiritual understanding in the disciples of who Jesus is. It is also significant that Mark has placed the healing of Bartimaeus (10:46-52) immediately after Jesus’ third announcement of his own coming death (vv 32-34) and the disciples’ third failure to understand that his being the Messiah entailed the necessity of suffering (vv 35-45).<\/p>\n<p>Matthew also portrays Jesus as teaching, preaching, and healing (Mt 4:23-25), and parallels the accounts in Mark, except for the healing of the demoniac in the synagogue (Mk 1:23-28) and the blind man of Bethsaida (8:22-26). However, according to his special purpose and structure, Matthew has placed many of Jesus’ healings together in a “mighty works” section (Mt 8–9), complementing the “great words” (“sermon”) section (chs 5–7). Matthew views Jesus’ healings as directly fulfilling the OT, as he states in 8:17. The unique way in which the healings of 8:16 are spoken of as fulfilling Isaiah 53:4 seems to indicate that Jesus’ power over sickness derives in some way from his death for sin, which was to be accomplished at the end of his ministry.<\/p>\n<p>It is also interesting that Matthew, in relating Jesus’ healing of the multitudes by the sea (Mt 12:15-21; cf. Mk 3:7-12), cites Isaiah 42:1-4. This OT passage speaks of God’s servant anointed with the Spirit to proclaim justice to the nations. As used by Matthew, the quotation explains why Jesus commanded those healed not to make him known. Jesus did not want too much publicity about himself to thwart God’s plan for him as the Suffering Servant who was to bring salvation to the nations. This action demonstrates that Jesus’ healings are revelations of his person. Again another quotation from Isaiah (6:9-10) in Matthew 13:14-15 brings out the fact that healing is understood primarily in the spiritual sense of hearing Jesus’ proclamation of the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p>Luke, like Matthew and Mark, portrays Jesus preaching and healing. After the account of the birth of John and Jesus and the ministry of John the Baptist, Luke presents Jesus preaching in Nazareth (Lk 4:16-30). Here, in the synagogue of his hometown, Jesus himself, using a quotation from Isaiah 61:1-2, affirms that the Spirit has anointed him to proclaim good news and to announce release for the captives and a recovery of sight for the blind (Lk 4:18). The healing aspect of Jesus’ ministry occupies an important place in the rest of the book of Luke. Indeed, Luke has all the healing incidents noted by Mark, except for those in Mark 6:45–8:26. However, Luke’s opening scene in Nazareth seems to underscore that Jesus’ healing is to be understood, not as merely expressing Jesus’ compassion for the needy, but primarily as a sign of the arrival of the kingdom of God as promised in the Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>This emphasis may be seen in the distinctively Lukan account of the commissioning of the 72 disciples (Lk 10:1-12), where Jesus instructs them to heal the sick in any city they enter and announce to the people there that the kingdom of God has come near to them (vv 8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The first three Gospels take up the OT understanding of God as the healer of his people and see this as fulfilled in Jesus. This fulfillment signifies the presence of God’s reign in the ministry of Jesus and points to him as the one through whom God is at work in the midst of his people.<\/p>\n<p>John’s Gospel has only four healing incidents: the official’s son (Jn 4:46-54), the man ill for 38 years (5:1-18), the man born blind (ch 9), and the climactic raising of Lazarus (11:1-44). The special purpose and structure of this Gospel indicate that these incidents are carefully related to the accompanying discourses and are clearly intended as signs revealing the person of Jesus. The heightened emphasis on healings as revelatory signs in this Gospel confirms the similar intention in the first three Gospels.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HealingsDonebytheApostles\">Healings Done by the Apostles<\/p>\n<p>The Acts of the Apostles tells of the continuation of Jesus’ ministry through the Spirit at work in his disciples. The primary focus in Acts is on proclamation, as 1:8 indicates. However, the healing of the lame beggar in Jerusalem indicates that the disciples were able to exercise the power of healing in the name of Jesus (3:1-16; 4:8-16). The healing is clearly intended to point to and glorify the person of Jesus and lead to faith in him (3:12-26). The balanced, twofold ministry of the disciples may be seen in the prayer of 4:29-30: “O Lord, hear their threats, and give your servants great boldness in their preaching. Send your healing power; may miraculous signs and wonders be done through the name of your holy servant Jesus” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The ministry of Philip in Samaria was devoted to proclaiming Christ (Acts 8:5) and healing the sick and those with unclean spirits (v 7). Peter heals Aeneas and raises Tabitha (9:34, 40), and in each case the effects are that many believe in the Lord (vv 35, 42). Paul is also described as preaching the gospel (17:2-3), healing (14:8-11; 28:8), casting out spirits (16:18), and raising a dead man (20:9-10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HealingsintheChurchAge\">Healings in the Church Age<\/p>\n<p>The letters of the NT say little about healing. First Corinthians speaks of the gifts of healing (1 Cor 12:9, 28). The implication is that such gifts are intended to be part of the ministry of the church, but the context indicates that not all are given such gifts (v 30) and that it is God who sovereignly distributes gifts for the good of the body. James indicates that a believer who is ill should request the church to pray for his healing (Jas 5:14-16; cf. Heb 12:13). The clear implication is that God is willing and able to minister to his people for healing today.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HEAL, HEALING<\/h3>\n<p>To make well. The OT provides the proper background for a Christian understanding of the concept of healing. In the OT the basic point is made that God is the healer of his people. In Exodus 15:22-26, after God has delivered his people from Egypt, led them through the sea, and sweetened the water at Marah, he speaks of himself as their “healer.” This refers primarily to physical sustenance, but it points to the more encompassing concept of God sustaining his people in an eternal relationship with himself. In a similar manner, Deuteronomy 32:39 speaks of God as the one who heals. The context in Deuteronomy implies that this healing power derives from the fact that God is God. This concept of God as the healer is echoed throughout the OT by the psalmists (Pss 6:2; 41:4; 103:3) and prophets (Is 19:22; Jer 17:14; Hos 7:1; Zec 11:16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JesustheHealerAccountsintheGospels\">Jesus the Healer: Accounts in the Gospels<\/p>\n<p>The NT significantly emphasizes Jesus as the healer. Mark portrays him as a teacher and healer in his opening account of Jesus’ ministry in Capernaum with the healing of the demoniac, Peter’s mother-in-law, the sick brought to him in the evening, and the leper (Mk 1:21-45). Indeed, healing sickness and casting out demons characterize Jesus’ ministry. Mark presents in rapid succession Jesus’ healing of the paralytic (2:1-12), the man with the withered hand (3:1-6), the multitudes by the sea (vv 7-12), the Gerasene demoniac (5:1-20), the woman with a hemorrhage, and Jairus’s daughter (vv 21-43). Jesus then commissioned the Twelve to proclaim repentance, to cast out demons, and to heal the sick (6:7-13). He himself continued with healings at Gennesaret (vv 53-56), casting out the unclean spirit from the daughter of the Syrophoenician woman (7:24-30), healing the deaf and mute man (vv 31-37), the blind man of Bethsaida (8:22-26), the boy possessed with an evil spirit (9:14-20), and blind Bartimaeus (10:46-52).<\/p>\n<p>Certainly healing is an important aspect of Jesus’ ministry. The healings expressed not only his compassion for those suffering but also constituted a revelation of his person. This is brought out by the climactic statement of Jesus in healing the paralytic: “that you may know that the Son of man has authority on earth to forgive sins” (Mk 2:10, <span>rsv<\/span>). It also seems that Mark intended his readers to understand that the healing of the deaf and mute man (7:31-37) and the blind man of Bethsaida (8:22-26) symbolize the awakening of spiritual understanding in the disciples of who Jesus is. It is also significant that Mark has placed the healing of Bartimaeus (10:46-52) immediately after Jesus’ third announcement of his own coming death (vv 32-34) and the disciples’ third failure to understand that his being the Messiah entailed the necessity of suffering (vv 35-45).<\/p>\n<p>Matthew also portrays Jesus as teaching, preaching, and healing (Mt 4:23-25), and parallels the accounts in Mark, except for the healing of the demoniac in the synagogue (Mk 1:23-28) and the blind man of Bethsaida (8:22-26). However, according to his special purpose and structure, Matthew has placed many of Jesus’ healings together in a “mighty works” section (Mt 8–9), complementing the “great words” (“sermon”) section (chs 5–7). Matthew views Jesus’ healings as directly fulfilling the OT, as he states in 8:17. The unique way in which the healings of 8:16 are spoken of as fulfilling Isaiah 53:4 seems to indicate that Jesus’ power over sickness derives in some way from his death for sin, which was to be accomplished at the end of his ministry.<\/p>\n<p>It is also interesting that Matthew, in relating Jesus’ healing of the multitudes by the sea (Mt 12:15-21; cf. Mk 3:7-12), cites Isaiah 42:1-4. This OT passage speaks of God’s servant anointed with the Spirit to proclaim justice to the nations. As used by Matthew, the quotation explains why Jesus commanded those healed not to make him known. Jesus did not want too much publicity about himself to thwart God’s plan for him as the Suffering Servant who was to bring salvation to the nations. This action demonstrates that Jesus’ healings are revelations of his person. Again another quotation from Isaiah (6:9-10) in Matthew 13:14-15 brings out the fact that healing is understood primarily in the spiritual sense of hearing Jesus’ proclamation of the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p>Luke, like Matthew and Mark, portrays Jesus preaching and healing. After the account of the birth of John and Jesus and the ministry of John the Baptist, Luke presents Jesus preaching in Nazareth (Lk 4:16-30). Here, in the synagogue of his hometown, Jesus himself, using a quotation from Isaiah 61:1-2, affirms that the Spirit has anointed him to proclaim good news and to announce release for the captives and a recovery of sight for the blind (Lk 4:18). The healing aspect of Jesus’ ministry occupies an important place in the rest of the book of Luke. Indeed, Luke has all the healing incidents noted by Mark, except for those in Mark 6:45–8:26. However, Luke’s opening scene in Nazareth seems to underscore that Jesus’ healing is to be understood, not as merely expressing Jesus’ compassion for the needy, but primarily as a sign of the arrival of the kingdom of God as promised in the Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>This emphasis may be seen in the distinctively Lukan account of the commissioning of the 72 disciples (Lk 10:1-12), where Jesus instructs them to heal the sick in any city they enter and announce to the people there that the kingdom of God has come near to them (vv 8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The first three Gospels take up the OT understanding of God as the healer of his people and see this as fulfilled in Jesus. This fulfillment signifies the presence of God’s reign in the ministry of Jesus and points to him as the one through whom God is at work in the midst of his people.<\/p>\n<p>John’s Gospel has only four healing incidents: the official’s son (Jn 4:46-54), the man ill for 38 years (5:1-18), the man born blind (ch 9), and the climactic raising of Lazarus (11:1-44). The special purpose and structure of this Gospel indicate that these incidents are carefully related to the accompanying discourses and are clearly intended as signs revealing the person of Jesus. The heightened emphasis on healings as revelatory signs in this Gospel confirms the similar intention in the first three Gospels.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HealingsDonebytheApostles\">Healings Done by the Apostles<\/p>\n<p>The Acts of the Apostles tells of the continuation of Jesus’ ministry through the Spirit at work in his disciples. The primary focus in Acts is on proclamation, as 1:8 indicates. However, the healing of the lame beggar in Jerusalem indicates that the disciples were able to exercise the power of healing in the name of Jesus (3:1-16; 4:8-16). The healing is clearly intended to point to and glorify the person of Jesus and lead to faith in him (3:12-26). The balanced, twofold ministry of the disciples may be seen in the prayer of 4:29-30: “O Lord, hear their threats, and give your servants great boldness in their preaching. Send your healing power; may miraculous signs and wonders be done through the name of your holy servant Jesus” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The ministry of Philip in Samaria was devoted to proclaiming Christ (Acts 8:5) and healing the sick and those with unclean spirits (v 7). Peter heals Aeneas and raises Tabitha (9:34, 40), and in each case the effects are that many believe in the Lord (vv 35, 42). Paul is also described as preaching the gospel (17:2-3), healing (14:8-11; 28:8), casting out spirits (16:18), and raising a dead man (20:9-10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HealingsintheChurchAge\">Healings in the Church Age<\/p>\n<p>The letters of the NT say little about healing. First Corinthians speaks of the gifts of healing (1 Cor 12:9, 28). The implication is that such gifts are intended to be part of the ministry of the church, but the context indicates that not all are given such gifts (v 30) and that it is God who sovereignly distributes gifts for the good of the body. James indicates that a believer who is ill should request the church to pray for his healing (Jas 5:14-16; cf. Heb 12:13). The clear implication is that God is willing and able to minister to his people for healing today.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HEAL, HEALING To make well. The OT provides the proper background for a Christian understanding of the concept of healing. In the OT the basic point is made that God is the healer of his people. In Exodus 15:22-26, after God has delivered his people from Egypt, led them through the sea, and sweetened the water at Marah, he speaks of himself as their “healer.” This refers primarily to physical sustenance, but it points to the more encompassing concept of God sustaining his people in an eternal...","summary_en":"HEAL, HEALING To make well. The OT provides the proper background for a Christian understanding of the concept of healing. In the OT the basic point is made that God is the healer of his people. In Exodus 15:22-26, after God has delivered his people from Egypt, led them through the sea, and sweetened the water at Marah, he speaks of himself as their “healer.” This refers primarily to physical sustenance, but it points to the more encompassing concept of God sustaining his people in an eternal...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57175,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:8","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:8-9<\/strong> Cp. Luke 4:38-40.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:8-9<\/strong> Cp. Luke 4:38-40.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:8-9 Cp. Luke 4:38-40.","summary_en":"28:8-9 Cp. Luke 4:38-40.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84801,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:8","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:8-9<\/strong> Cp. Luke 4:38-40.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:8-9<\/strong> Cp. Luke 4:38-40.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:8-9 Cp. Luke 4:38-40.","summary_en":"28:8-9 Cp. Luke 4:38-40.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112427,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:8","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:8-9<\/strong> Cp. Luke 4:38-40.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:8-9<\/strong> Cp. Luke 4:38-40.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:8-9 Cp. Luke 4:38-40.","summary_en":"28:8-9 Cp. Luke 4:38-40.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140053,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:8","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:8-9<\/strong> Cp. Luke 4:38-40.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:8-9<\/strong> Cp. Luke 4:38-40.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:8-9 Cp. Luke 4:38-40.","summary_en":"28:8-9 Cp. Luke 4:38-40.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"10":[{"id":57176,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:10","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:10<\/strong> Showing their gratefulness, the <em>people supplied<\/em> the ship’s company with what they needed.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:10<\/strong> Showing their gratefulness, the <em>people supplied<\/em> the ship’s company with what they needed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:10 Showing their gratefulness, the people supplied the ship’s company with what they needed.","summary_en":"28:10 Showing their gratefulness, the people supplied the ship’s company with what they needed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84802,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:10","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:10<\/strong> Showing their gratefulness, the <em>people supplied<\/em> the ship’s company with what they needed.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:10<\/strong> Showing their gratefulness, the <em>people supplied<\/em> the ship’s company with what they needed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:10 Showing their gratefulness, the people supplied the ship’s company with what they needed.","summary_en":"28:10 Showing their gratefulness, the people supplied the ship’s company with what they needed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112428,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:10","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:10<\/strong> Showing their gratefulness, the <em>people supplied<\/em> the ship’s company with what they needed.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:10<\/strong> Showing their gratefulness, the <em>people supplied<\/em> the ship’s company with what they needed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:10 Showing their gratefulness, the people supplied the ship’s company with what they needed.","summary_en":"28:10 Showing their gratefulness, the people supplied the ship’s company with what they needed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140054,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:10","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:10<\/strong> Showing their gratefulness, the <em>people supplied<\/em> the ship’s company with what they needed.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:10<\/strong> Showing their gratefulness, the <em>people supplied<\/em> the ship’s company with what they needed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:10 Showing their gratefulness, the people supplied the ship’s company with what they needed.","summary_en":"28:10 Showing their gratefulness, the people supplied the ship’s company with what they needed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":1059,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Alexandria","title_en":"Alexandria","content_ro":"<h3>ALEXANDRIA<\/h3>\n<p>Egyptian city established by Alexander the Great in 331 <span>BC<\/span>. Alexandria was the capital city of Egypt through the Hellenistic and Roman periods and, next to Rome, was the most important city in the ancient world. It was built at the western edge of the Nile River delta on a peninsula between the mainland of Egypt and the Mediterranean Sea. Its harbor was protected by the island of Pharos, site of a huge lighthouse (the Pharos of Alexandria), one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Pharos formed the top of a “T,” the stem of which was a long mole running out from the peninsula; on both sides of the “T” lay the ancient harbor.<\/p>\n<p>Alexander built the city to provide a military base, harbor facilities, and trading center with which to control Egypt and the East. The city was laid out in a grid, with two tree-lined streets, about 200 feet (61 meters) wide, that intersected in the middle. It was divided into three districts: Jews in the northeast, Egyptians in the west, and Greeks to the south.<\/p>\n<p>Alexandria was famous in antiquity for its architecture: the lighthouse; the Museum, greatest library and learning center of the Hellenistic age; the mausoleum of Alexander, built by Ptolemy, one of his successors; the Serapeum, a temple to Pan (in the shape of a pine cone, according to the geographer Strabo); and the commercial buildings. Archaeological evidence of these structures of the ancient city is remarkably scarce. An earthquake damaged the lighthouse in <span>AD<\/span> 796, and it was completely destroyed some 500 years later. Only one scroll holder and a statue have been found from the Museum.<\/p>\n<p>Alexandria played a key role in the history of the Greco-Roman world. When Alexander the Great died in 323 <span>BC<\/span>, Egypt fell to Ptolemy, one of his four generals. Ptolemy established a dynasty that continued until Cleopatra. Because of Alexander’s destruction of Tyre, Alexandria became the Hellenistic center of commerce with the East and with central Egypt. Julius Caesar’s romance with Cleopatra led to the end of the Ptolemaic dynasty.<\/p>\n<p>The Museum, not a museum in the modern sense, was actually a university and library. Founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus, it made Alexandria the intellectual center of the Greek world, with emphasis on grammatical studies, literary criticism, and textual preservation. Before its partial destruction by Egyptians and Julius Caesar’s forces in 47 <span>BC<\/span>, it reportedly housed 700,000 volumes, including carefully edited texts of the Greek classics. In the late Hellenistic and Roman periods, the Museum turned in the direction of the new sciences, exemplified by the building of a great lighthouse that could be seen by ingenious use of mirrors 20 miles (32 kilometers) at sea.<\/p>\n<p>From its inception Alexandria had a large Jewish population. Under the patronage of the Ptolemies, Jewish scholars produced the Greek translation of the OT known as the Septuagint. Ethnic tension in the city grew as the Jewish populace increased and prospered. In <span>AD<\/span> 42 the tension erupted into riots by the Greeks and the expulsion of Jews from the gentile sections into which they had spread. Jewish commercial success, particularly in the wheat trade, led to intensified anti-Semitism.<\/p>\n<p>There is little reference to Alexandria in Scripture. Stephen, who became the first Christian martyr, debated with “Jews from Alexandria” in Jerusalem concerning Jesus as the Messiah (Acts 6:9). Apollos, described as “an eloquent man, well versed in the scriptures,” was a native of Alexandria (Acts 18:24). The apostle Paul made his sea journey to Rome aboard two Alexandrian ships (Acts 27:6; 28:11).<\/p>\n<p>The earliest emphasis in biblical studies at Alexandria was Gnostic, under Basilides and continuing under his son Isidore. Later, an allegorizing school developed, with regular support by wealthy patrons and an organized curriculum. Clement and Origen are the names most often associated with this school. The teaching emphasized three levels of meaning in the Scriptures: historical, ethical, and spiritual.<\/p>\n<p>Arianism, a powerful heresy, was later formulated in Alexandria by Arius, presbyter of Alexandria. This school of thought denied the eternality of Christ, arguing that since he was begotten he therefore had a beginning. The chief opponent of Arianism, Athanasius, was also from Alexandria. It was primarily through his efforts that the heretical teaching was dissipated in the fourth century and the Symbol of Nicaea confirmed at the Council of Constantinople in <span>AD<\/span> 381.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Alexander #1; Hellenism; Philo Judaeus; Hellenists.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ALEXANDRIA<\/h3>\n<p>Egyptian city established by Alexander the Great in 331 <span>BC<\/span>. Alexandria was the capital city of Egypt through the Hellenistic and Roman periods and, next to Rome, was the most important city in the ancient world. It was built at the western edge of the Nile River delta on a peninsula between the mainland of Egypt and the Mediterranean Sea. Its harbor was protected by the island of Pharos, site of a huge lighthouse (the Pharos of Alexandria), one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Pharos formed the top of a “T,” the stem of which was a long mole running out from the peninsula; on both sides of the “T” lay the ancient harbor.<\/p>\n<p>Alexander built the city to provide a military base, harbor facilities, and trading center with which to control Egypt and the East. The city was laid out in a grid, with two tree-lined streets, about 200 feet (61 meters) wide, that intersected in the middle. It was divided into three districts: Jews in the northeast, Egyptians in the west, and Greeks to the south.<\/p>\n<p>Alexandria was famous in antiquity for its architecture: the lighthouse; the Museum, greatest library and learning center of the Hellenistic age; the mausoleum of Alexander, built by Ptolemy, one of his successors; the Serapeum, a temple to Pan (in the shape of a pine cone, according to the geographer Strabo); and the commercial buildings. Archaeological evidence of these structures of the ancient city is remarkably scarce. An earthquake damaged the lighthouse in <span>AD<\/span> 796, and it was completely destroyed some 500 years later. Only one scroll holder and a statue have been found from the Museum.<\/p>\n<p>Alexandria played a key role in the history of the Greco-Roman world. When Alexander the Great died in 323 <span>BC<\/span>, Egypt fell to Ptolemy, one of his four generals. Ptolemy established a dynasty that continued until Cleopatra. Because of Alexander’s destruction of Tyre, Alexandria became the Hellenistic center of commerce with the East and with central Egypt. Julius Caesar’s romance with Cleopatra led to the end of the Ptolemaic dynasty.<\/p>\n<p>The Museum, not a museum in the modern sense, was actually a university and library. Founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus, it made Alexandria the intellectual center of the Greek world, with emphasis on grammatical studies, literary criticism, and textual preservation. Before its partial destruction by Egyptians and Julius Caesar’s forces in 47 <span>BC<\/span>, it reportedly housed 700,000 volumes, including carefully edited texts of the Greek classics. In the late Hellenistic and Roman periods, the Museum turned in the direction of the new sciences, exemplified by the building of a great lighthouse that could be seen by ingenious use of mirrors 20 miles (32 kilometers) at sea.<\/p>\n<p>From its inception Alexandria had a large Jewish population. Under the patronage of the Ptolemies, Jewish scholars produced the Greek translation of the OT known as the Septuagint. Ethnic tension in the city grew as the Jewish populace increased and prospered. In <span>AD<\/span> 42 the tension erupted into riots by the Greeks and the expulsion of Jews from the gentile sections into which they had spread. Jewish commercial success, particularly in the wheat trade, led to intensified anti-Semitism.<\/p>\n<p>There is little reference to Alexandria in Scripture. Stephen, who became the first Christian martyr, debated with “Jews from Alexandria” in Jerusalem concerning Jesus as the Messiah (Acts 6:9). Apollos, described as “an eloquent man, well versed in the scriptures,” was a native of Alexandria (Acts 18:24). The apostle Paul made his sea journey to Rome aboard two Alexandrian ships (Acts 27:6; 28:11).<\/p>\n<p>The earliest emphasis in biblical studies at Alexandria was Gnostic, under Basilides and continuing under his son Isidore. Later, an allegorizing school developed, with regular support by wealthy patrons and an organized curriculum. Clement and Origen are the names most often associated with this school. The teaching emphasized three levels of meaning in the Scriptures: historical, ethical, and spiritual.<\/p>\n<p>Arianism, a powerful heresy, was later formulated in Alexandria by Arius, presbyter of Alexandria. This school of thought denied the eternality of Christ, arguing that since he was begotten he therefore had a beginning. The chief opponent of Arianism, Athanasius, was also from Alexandria. It was primarily through his efforts that the heretical teaching was dissipated in the fourth century and the Symbol of Nicaea confirmed at the Council of Constantinople in <span>AD<\/span> 381.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Alexander #1; Hellenism; Philo Judaeus; Hellenists.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ALEXANDRIA Egyptian city established by Alexander the Great in 331 BC. Alexandria was the capital city of Egypt through the Hellenistic and Roman periods and, next to Rome, was the most important city in the ancient world. It was built at the western edge of the Nile River delta on a peninsula between the mainland of Egypt and the Mediterranean Sea. Its harbor was protected by the island of Pharos, site of a huge lighthouse (the Pharos of Alexandria), one of the seven wonders of the ancient w...","summary_en":"ALEXANDRIA Egyptian city established by Alexander the Great in 331 BC. Alexandria was the capital city of Egypt through the Hellenistic and Roman periods and, next to Rome, was the most important city in the ancient world. It was built at the western edge of the Nile River delta on a peninsula between the mainland of Egypt and the Mediterranean Sea. Its harbor was protected by the island of Pharos, site of a huge lighthouse (the Pharos of Alexandria), one of the seven wonders of the ancient w...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":6131,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"and Pollux*, Castor","title_en":"and Pollux*, Castor","content_ro":"<h3>CASTOR AND POLLUX*<\/h3>\n<p>Twin sons of Zeus according to Greek and Roman mythology. The apostle Paul sailed from Malta to Puteoli on a ship whose sign or figurehead was the “Twin Brothers” (Acts 28:11). <em>See<\/em> Dioscuri.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CASTOR AND POLLUX*<\/h3>\n<p>Twin sons of Zeus according to Greek and Roman mythology. The apostle Paul sailed from Malta to Puteoli on a ship whose sign or figurehead was the “Twin Brothers” (Acts 28:11). <em>See<\/em> Dioscuri.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CASTOR AND POLLUX* Twin sons of Zeus according to Greek and Roman mythology. The apostle Paul sailed from Malta to Puteoli on a ship whose sign or figurehead was the “Twin Brothers” (Acts 28:11). See Dioscuri.","summary_en":"CASTOR AND POLLUX* Twin sons of Zeus according to Greek and Roman mythology. The apostle Paul sailed from Malta to Puteoli on a ship whose sign or figurehead was the “Twin Brothers” (Acts 28:11). See Dioscuri.","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":6537,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"of the Bible* (New Testament), Chronology","title_en":"of the Bible* (New Testament), Chronology","content_ro":"<h3>CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (New Testament)<\/h3>\n<p>Branch of biblical studies that attempts to discover the sequence of NT events and the amount of time that elapsed between them. Chronology is essential to historians, whose task it is to determine the causes and effects of past events. Generally, for a historian’s purpose, assigning absolute dates is less important than knowing the sequence of events that may have influenced each other. Very few NT happenings, in fact, can be given exact dates.<\/p>\n\n<p>A remarkable testimony to the influence of Christianity is the fact that the entire Western world now divides history into <span>BC<\/span> (before Christ) and <span>AD<\/span> (<em>anno Domini,<\/em> “in the year of the Lord”). Before that method of dating became widespread in the Middle Ages, events were dated by their relation to other important events such as the founding of Rome or the beginning of a king’s reign. When a monk named Dionysius Exiguus (sixth century) invented our present method of dating, with the birth of Christ dividing history, he made a mistake in his computations. The odd result is the historical anomaly that Jesus himself was born no later than four years “before Christ.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ChronologyofJesusLife\">Chronology of Jesus’ Life<\/p>\n<h5>Birth<\/h5>\n<p>According to Matthew 2:1 Jesus was born “in the days of Herod the king.” A first-century <span>AD<\/span> historian, Josephus, recorded that Herod died in the spring of the year we identify as 4 <span>BC<\/span>. Hence, Jesus was born sometime before that, but how much before is uncertain. Luke 2:1-2 records that Jesus’ birth occurred when “Caesar Augustus,” the Roman emperor, decreed that a census, or enrollment, should be taken throughout the nation. “This was the first census taken when Quirinius was governor of Syria” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Those statements raise two questions: When was such a census taken, and when was Quirinius governor of Syria? Neither question has received a completely satisfying answer.<\/p>\n<p>Census documents discovered in Egypt, together with earlier references, suggest that such enrollments were held every 14 years. That would put a census roughly in 8 or 9 <span>BC<\/span>. In view of the time needed to carry out the census (which required a person to travel to his birthplace), the birth of Jesus may have been somewhat later than the actual year of the decree (perhaps 7 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Josephus recorded that Quirinius became governor of Syria in <span>AD<\/span> 6, rather late as a date for Jesus’ birth. But some scholars have argued from ancient inscriptions that Quirinius also served in Syria as a special legate of the emperor Augustus before 6 <span>BC<\/span>. That could be the period referred to in Luke 2:2. Why did Luke choose to cite Quirinius instead of the regular governor of Syria at that time? Perhaps by so doing he could provide a more exact date for the birth of Jesus, since Quirinius was in authority for a shorter time than the regular governor of Syria.<\/p>\n<p>A reasonable conclusion is that Jesus was born about 7 or 6 <span>BC<\/span>. That fits with Matthew 2:16, which seems to say that Jesus was born at least two years before Herod’s death in 4 <span>BC<\/span>. No clear evidence exists concerning the day and month of his birth. Celebration of December 25 as Christmas originated in the fourth century, probably as a Christian alternative to the pagan winter solstice festival (Saturnalia).<\/p>\n<h5>The Beginning of Public Ministry<\/h5>\n<p>Luke 3:23 says that Jesus, “when he began his ministry, was about thirty years of age”; since the age given is only approximate, he may have been two or three years older or younger (cf. the pseudepigraphal Testament of Levi 2:2; 12:5). If exactly 30 is added to the suggested date of birth, one gets <span>AD<\/span> 24. That date cannot be right, because Jesus’ ministry began after John the Baptist appears; Luke 3:1-3 dates John’s public appearance precisely in “the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberias Caesar” while Pilate was procurator (governor) over Judea. Pilate governed from <span>AD<\/span> 26 to 36, and the 15th year of Tiberius was most likely <span>AD<\/span> 27. Therefore Jesus did not begin his public ministry before <span>AD<\/span> 27. If only a short time elapsed between the beginning of John’s ministry and the beginning of Jesus’ ministry, then Jesus probably began in <span>AD<\/span> 27 or 28 when he was approximately 33 years old.<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus’ Death<\/h5>\n<p>All four Gospel records seem to imply that Jesus ate the Last Supper with his disciples on Thursday evening, was crucified on Friday, and rose from the dead early Sunday morning (Mt 28:1; Mk 16:1; Lk 24:1). The claim that Jesus rose on the third day (1 Cor 15:4) comes from the Jewish custom of counting a part of the day as a whole day. According to Matthew (26:19), Mark (14:12), and Luke (22:15), the Last Supper was the Passover meal, a yearly celebration of Israel’s escape from Egypt (Ex 12–15). But according to John 13:1 and 19:14, the Passover meal had not yet been eaten on Friday; hence the Last Supper in John was not the Passover meal.<\/p>\n<p>No completely satisfying solution to the apparent discrepancy has been put forward. Some scholars suggest plausibly that the use of two different calendars was responsible. According to that theory, Jesus was following a calendar that placed the Passover meal on Thursday night. Temple officials, on the other hand, followed an alternate calendar that placed the killing of sacrificial victims on the next day. John may have used the second system to emphasize the fact that Christ was offered as the Passover sacrifice (cf. Jn 19:36; 1 Cor 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>To find out how long Jesus’ public ministry lasted and thus the year in which he died, one can turn to time references in John’s Gospel. John referred to at least three Passovers (2:13; 6:4; 13:1) and possibly four (5:1). Since the Passover was a yearly feast, the ministry of Jesus would have lasted at least two and possibly three years. In Matthew, Mark, and Luke the Friday of Jesus’ death occurred on the 15th of the Jewish month Nisan (which overlaps March and April). According to John, Jesus died on 14 Nisan. The question is: In which years from 26 to 36 (when Pilate was procurator in Judea) did 14 or 15 Nisan fall on a Friday? The answer is <span>AD<\/span> 27, 29, 30, and 33. Of those, the year 27 is too early and 33 is probably too late. Thus Jesus was probably crucified in 29 or 30, his public ministry lasted two or three years, and he was 35 or 36 years old when he died.<\/p>\n<h4>Events from <span>AD<\/span> 30 to 50<\/h4>\n<p>Acts is the only NT book that records how much time elapsed between Jesus’ death and his ascension: “To them he presented himself alive after his passion by many proofs, appearing to them during forty days, and speaking of the kingdom of God” (Acts 1:3, <span>rsv<\/span>). The next key event after the ascension of Jesus into heaven was Pentecost (Acts 2:1). Pentecost, the Greek word for “fiftieth,” referred to a celebration of the Feast of Weeks\/Harvest (cf. Ex 34:22; Dt 16:9-12) 50 days after the Passover. Since Jesus was crucified during the Passover season, the Pentecost of Acts 2:1, during which the disciples were filled with the Holy Spirit, took place in <span>AD<\/span> 29 or 30, some 50 days after the Crucifixion and about 10 days after the Ascension.<\/p>\n<p>After that, events of the early chapters of Acts are hard to date because no precise statements are made about the amount of time between various events. Therefore, the usual method for dating events of the apostolic age is first to find at least one event that can be dated with relative certainty from sources outside the NT; one then dates events before and after that event by figuring out how much time elapsed between them. Sometimes Acts records how much time passed between two events; usually it does not, so dating can only be approximate.<\/p>\n<p>One pivotal starting point is the great famine prophesied by Agabus, which befell Palestine during the reign of the Roman emperor Claudius (Acts 11:28-29). Josephus, who was alive at the time, gives enough information to locate the famine sometime between the years 46 and 48. We also know from the Mishnah, a collection of Jewish laws, that the autumn of 47 to the autumn of 48 was a sabbatical year, when the Jews let the land rest and harvested nothing (cf. Lv 25:2-7). That could have aggravated and prolonged a famine, but one cannot be sure how early the famine started; some scholars propose 46 and some 47.<\/p>\n<p>At first, it seems peculiar that Luke, the author of Acts, should have recorded that famine (Acts 11:28) before recording the death of Herod Agrippa (12:20-23). From facts reported by Josephus, the death of Herod (a grandson of Herod the Great) can be dated in <span>AD<\/span> 44, probably in the spring. That means that Herod must have died several years before the famine Luke recorded earlier. Some scholars think that Luke simply got his chronological facts wrong. Others see Acts 12:1-24 as a kind of flashback to bring the history of the church in Jerusalem up to date. Such a practice was common among ancient historians, who often followed one source up to a suitable stopping point before moving on to another source. To charge Luke with inaccurate dating, it is argued, is to misunderstand the techniques of historical writing he was using.<\/p>\n<p>Since Herod Agrippa died in <span>AD<\/span> 44 (Acts 12:23), the apostle James, whom Herod put to death with the sword (v 2), must have died soon before 44, perhaps during the Passover season of 43 (v 3). The apostle Peter’s imprisonment and his miraculous escape (vv 3-17) also belong to that period.<\/p>\n<p>When the Christians of Antioch decided to send relief to the Christians in Jerusalem in the midst of the great famine (Acts 11:29), Barnabas and Paul were appointed to transport the money to Jerusalem. That was Paul’s second visit to Jerusalem after his conversion. The first visit is recorded in Acts 9:26-30. The third comes in Acts 15 when Paul and Barnabas were sent to discuss with the apostles and elders whether gentile converts to Christianity had to be circumcised. How one dates the first and third visits to Jerusalem, as well as Paul’s conversion, depends on how those Jerusalem visits are related to those reported in Paul’s letter to the Galatians.<\/p>\n<p>The basic problem, which still divides NT scholars, is this: In Galatians 1:15–2:10 Paul recounted that his conversion was followed by two visits to Jerusalem, one three years after his conversion (1:18) and one 14 years after that (2:1-10). All scholars agree that the first visit three years after his conversion is the same as the first visit recorded in Acts 9:26-30. Answers differ, however, to the question of whether Galatians 2:1-10 refers to the second (famine) visit to Jerusalem in Acts 11:30 (in which case the third visit of Acts 15 is the one omitted from Galatians) or whether Galatians 2:1-10 refers to the visit in Acts 15 (in which case the famine visit was the one omitted from Galatians).<\/p>\n\n<p>Those who favor the first reconstruction offer six arguments: (1) The reason Paul gave such a rigorous account of his comings and goings in Galatians 1:15-24 was to show that he did not get his gospel from men, nor was he taught it (1:12). In other words, his visits to the Jerusalem apostles were not for the purpose of receiving his gospel. If that is so, for Paul to omit the second Jerusalem visit would jeopardize his integrity and his authority with the Galatians. The first reconstruction avoids that difficulty; omission of a third Jerusalem visit from Galatians 2:1-10 could mean that it had not yet happened when Galatians was written. (2) Galatians 2:1-10 pictures a private meeting between Paul and Barnabas on one hand and the “pillar” apostles on the other. But the meeting in Acts 15 was public and before the whole church. Hence Galatians 2:1-10 more likely refers to a private meeting during the visit of Acts 11:30, which Galatians does not record. (3) Paul’s eagerness to give to the poor mentioned in Galatians 2:10 connects naturally with the second Jerusalem visit, when he was in fact delivering relief to the poor (Acts 11:30). (4) If Galatians 2 recorded the same trip as Acts 15, one would expect some mention of the decision reached by the Jerusalem Council, especially since that decision related directly to the problem of circumcision that Paul was handling in his Letter to the Galatians. (5) Further, it seems unlikely that the Jerusalem Council preceded the event of Galatians 2:11-21, when Peter was rebuked by Paul for withdrawing from fellowship with gentile believers; that incident could hardly have happened so soon after the issue of gentile status in the church had been settled in Jerusalem. (6) According to Galatians 1:6, the letter was written “quickly” after Paul had established the Galatian churches. That makes sense if Galatians was written soon after the first missionary journey, hence just before the Jerusalem Council of Acts 15; that would make Galatians Paul’s first letter.<\/p>\n<p>Scholars who favor the second reconstruction offer four arguments: (1) The main purpose of Paul’s visit in Galatians 2:1-10 appears to be the same as that in Acts 15:1-20; both dealt with the issue of whether circumcision should be required of gentile converts (Gal 2:3-5; Acts 15:1, 5). That similarity is obvious, but there is no such explicit similarity between Galatians 2 and Acts 11:30. (2) On the basis of form and content Galatians is similar to Romans and to 1 and 2 Corinthians; it would thus seem to come from the same period—considerably later than the Jerusalem Council. If so, it is likely that Paul would have included a reference to the Jerusalem Council (namely Gal 2:1-10) in his recollections, since its outcome supported his own stance on circumcision set forth in the letter. (3) Acts 11:30 pictures Barnabas as the leader of the Barnabas\/Paul team, since his name is given first place (as in Acts 12:25; 13:1-2, 7; cf. 11:25-26). But in the description Paul gives of the visit in Galatians 2, he sees himself as the leader of the team. Since Acts does picture Paul as the leader from the time of the first missionary journey (Acts 13:9, 13, 43, 46, 50), including the third Jerusalem visit (15:2), it is more likely that Galatians 2 records the trip of Acts 15. (4) Finally, in Galatians 2:7-8 Paul was recognized as an apostle to the Gentiles with a standing equal to that of Peter. But if Galatians 2 recorded the events of Acts 11:30 and the first missionary journey had not yet occurred, the “pillar” apostles could hardly have recognized Paul’s authority as apostle to the Gentiles. It is more likely that Galatians 2 followed the first missionary journey, just as Acts 15 followed the first missionary journey in Acts, and that both refer to the same event.<\/p>\n<p>The significance of those arguments for chronology is that, according to the first view, Paul’s conversion came 17 years before the famine visit of Acts 11:30 (cf. Gal 1:18; 2:1). According to the second view, Paul’s conversion took place 17 years before the Jerusalem Council in Acts 15. The difference amounts to only one year, however.<\/p>\n<p>It is helpful to consider one more date that can be fixed with high probability—namely, Paul’s arrival in Corinth on his second missionary journey (Acts 18:1). On the second missionary journey (15:40–18:22), Paul and Silas set out on land through Syria, Cilicia, Phrygia, and Galatia, visiting churches founded on the first missionary journey. They came to Troas, then passed over to Philippi and continued down the coast through Thessalonica and Berea. Paul went on to Athens before arriving at Corinth. From Acts 18:12 we know that Gallio was a proconsul in Corinth while Paul was there. An inscription discovered at nearby Delphi indicates that in all likelihood Gallio’s term of office was from mid-51 to mid-52. The incident recorded in Acts 18:12-17 probably occurred at the beginning of Gallio’s term, since the Jews hoped to get a ruling against Paul from their new proconsul. Not long after that, Paul left Corinth, probably in the summer or autumn of 52. According to Acts 18:11 Paul had spent 18 months in Corinth; that means that he probably arrived in the early months of 50 or the end of 49. That arrival date is confirmed by Acts 18:2, which says that Aquila and Priscilla had only recently been exiled from Rome when Paul came to Corinth. A fifth-century historian, Orosius, dated the edict of Claudius expelling the Jews from Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 49. Therefore, Paul and Aquila and Priscilla probably arrived close together late in 49 or early in 50. Early in his 18-month stay Paul wrote his First and Second Letters to the Thessalonians.<\/p>\n<p>The two fixed dates, then, are 46 or 47 for the famine visit (Acts 11:30) and late 49 or early 50 for Paul’s arrival in Corinth (Acts 18:1). Taking into account the time gaps mentioned in Galatians 1:18 and 2:1, as well as the supposition that the first missionary journey lasted about a year, the two reconstructions are presented in the following table. Keep in mind that they are approximations and that they reflect the ancient custom of counting a part of a year as a whole year.<\/p>\n\n<h4>Events from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 70<\/h4>\n<p>Acts 24:27 describes an event that helps us date events in the rest of the book, namely, Porcius Festus’s replacement of Felix as the governor of Judea. A careful analysis of the evidence given by Eusebius, a fourth-century historian, leads to the probable conclusion that Felix was replaced in the summer of 59.<\/p>\n<p>Working backward from that date, Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem (Acts 21:33) must have occurred in 57, some two years before the coming of Festus. More precisely, Paul’s arrest probably occurred in the late spring or summer of 57; Paul’s goal (20:16) was to arrive in Jerusalem by Pentecost of that year, and Pentecost occurred at the end of May. He was not long in the city before he was arrested.<\/p>\n<p>The Passover festival, 50 days before Pentecost, was celebrated by Paul with the church in Philippi (Acts 20:6). That would have been April 7–14, <span>AD<\/span> 57. Only after the feast did he continue his hurried journey to Caesarea and Jerusalem (20:6–21:16). Before his Passover visit to Philippi, Paul had spent three months in Greece (20:3). Allowing some time for him to travel through Macedonia and visit the Thessalonians and Bereans, those three months were probably the winter months of 56–57 (Acts 20:3; cf. 1 Cor 16:6). No doubt they were spent in the main church of Greece, Corinth, and were used in part for the writing of the Letter to the Romans.<\/p>\n<p>Between Paul’s departure from Corinth on the second missionary journey (Acts 18:18) in the autumn of 51 and his arrival in Corinth on the third missionary journey (20:2) in the late winter of 56 are five years of activities that cannot be given exact dates. Paul said that he worked during three of those years in Ephesus (20:31; cf. 19:1–20:1). With enough time allowed for the travels before and after, that stay at Ephesus probably lasted from 52 or 53 to the summer of 55 or 56 (cf. 1 Cor 16:8). During his long stay in Ephesus, Paul wrote his First Letter to the Corinthians. Then, on his way to Corinth in 56, he wrote 2 Corinthians from Macedonia.<\/p>\n<p>Festus arrived as governor in the summer of 59, after Paul had been in prison in Caesarea for two years. Within a matter of days, Paul was tried before Festus (Acts 25:1-12). Not wanting to be remanded to the Jewish authorities, Paul appealed to Caesar (v 12), which meant that he would go to Rome. The account in Acts gives no hint of a delay, so the voyage most likely began in the summer or fall of 59 (27:2).<\/p>\n<p>Luke reported that when Paul the prisoner got to Fair Havens on the island of Crete, the weather had become dangerous for sea travel “because the fast had already gone by” (Acts 27:8-9). One ancient writer said that sailing became dangerous between mid-September and mid-November, and after that, impossible until spring. The fast referred to was no doubt the one in preparation for the Day of Atonement, which in the year 59 fell on October 5. It is not surprising that, 14 days after leaving Fair Havens, the ship in which Paul was traveling was wrecked on the coast of Malta, south of Sicily (vv 27-44). Three months later Paul set sail for Rome again in a ship that had spent the winter at Malta (28:11). Soon he was welcomed into Rome by Christians who came out to meet him (v 15). Thus Paul arrived in Rome in the early part of <span>AD<\/span> 60. The book of Acts closes with the remark that “For two whole years Paul stayed there in his own rented house” (v 30, <span>niv<\/span>). The NT does not report the outcome of his trial. During that period, according to the traditional view, he wrote Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon.<\/p>\n<p>Eusebius wrote, “Tradition has it that after defending himself the Apostle was again sent on the ministry of preaching, and coming a second time to the same city suffered martyrdom under Nero.” Nero, who was the Roman emperor from 54 to 68, put to death a multitude of Christians in Rome soon after a disastrous fire in July of 64, according to the Roman historian Tacitus. A number of early Christian writings (e.g., Clement) seem to indicate that Peter and Paul were both killed in Rome during that savage persecution. If so, and if Eusebius was right, then Paul may have spent the two years from 62 to 64 freely ministering back in the eastern provinces. Many conservative scholars date Paul’s First Letter to Timothy and his Letter to Titus from that period. Written from Rome shortly before Paul’s martyrdom in 64, 2 Timothy was probably his last letter (2 Tm 2:9; 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem, within three years after Paul had been carried off to Rome, James the brother of Jesus was stoned to death by the Jewish authorities. According to Josephus, that occurred in 62. Not long afterward, according to Eusebius, the church in Jerusalem received a prophecy warning them to leave that doomed city and settle in Pella, one of the cities of the Decapolis (“ten cities”) east of the Jordan. Thus when war broke out between the Jews and the Romans in 66, the Christians for the most part escaped its fury. That war ended in 70 with the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (cf. Mk 13:2; Lk 21:24).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Apostle, Apostleship; Age; “Date” under each NT book; First Jewish Revolt; Genealogy of Jesus Christ; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (New Testament)<\/h3>\n<p>Branch of biblical studies that attempts to discover the sequence of NT events and the amount of time that elapsed between them. Chronology is essential to historians, whose task it is to determine the causes and effects of past events. Generally, for a historian’s purpose, assigning absolute dates is less important than knowing the sequence of events that may have influenced each other. Very few NT happenings, in fact, can be given exact dates.<\/p>\n\n<p>A remarkable testimony to the influence of Christianity is the fact that the entire Western world now divides history into <span>BC<\/span> (before Christ) and <span>AD<\/span> (<em>anno Domini,<\/em> “in the year of the Lord”). Before that method of dating became widespread in the Middle Ages, events were dated by their relation to other important events such as the founding of Rome or the beginning of a king’s reign. When a monk named Dionysius Exiguus (sixth century) invented our present method of dating, with the birth of Christ dividing history, he made a mistake in his computations. The odd result is the historical anomaly that Jesus himself was born no later than four years “before Christ.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ChronologyofJesusLife\">Chronology of Jesus’ Life<\/p>\n<h5>Birth<\/h5>\n<p>According to Matthew 2:1 Jesus was born “in the days of Herod the king.” A first-century <span>AD<\/span> historian, Josephus, recorded that Herod died in the spring of the year we identify as 4 <span>BC<\/span>. Hence, Jesus was born sometime before that, but how much before is uncertain. Luke 2:1-2 records that Jesus’ birth occurred when “Caesar Augustus,” the Roman emperor, decreed that a census, or enrollment, should be taken throughout the nation. “This was the first census taken when Quirinius was governor of Syria” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Those statements raise two questions: When was such a census taken, and when was Quirinius governor of Syria? Neither question has received a completely satisfying answer.<\/p>\n<p>Census documents discovered in Egypt, together with earlier references, suggest that such enrollments were held every 14 years. That would put a census roughly in 8 or 9 <span>BC<\/span>. In view of the time needed to carry out the census (which required a person to travel to his birthplace), the birth of Jesus may have been somewhat later than the actual year of the decree (perhaps 7 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Josephus recorded that Quirinius became governor of Syria in <span>AD<\/span> 6, rather late as a date for Jesus’ birth. But some scholars have argued from ancient inscriptions that Quirinius also served in Syria as a special legate of the emperor Augustus before 6 <span>BC<\/span>. That could be the period referred to in Luke 2:2. Why did Luke choose to cite Quirinius instead of the regular governor of Syria at that time? Perhaps by so doing he could provide a more exact date for the birth of Jesus, since Quirinius was in authority for a shorter time than the regular governor of Syria.<\/p>\n<p>A reasonable conclusion is that Jesus was born about 7 or 6 <span>BC<\/span>. That fits with Matthew 2:16, which seems to say that Jesus was born at least two years before Herod’s death in 4 <span>BC<\/span>. No clear evidence exists concerning the day and month of his birth. Celebration of December 25 as Christmas originated in the fourth century, probably as a Christian alternative to the pagan winter solstice festival (Saturnalia).<\/p>\n<h5>The Beginning of Public Ministry<\/h5>\n<p>Luke 3:23 says that Jesus, “when he began his ministry, was about thirty years of age”; since the age given is only approximate, he may have been two or three years older or younger (cf. the pseudepigraphal Testament of Levi 2:2; 12:5). If exactly 30 is added to the suggested date of birth, one gets <span>AD<\/span> 24. That date cannot be right, because Jesus’ ministry began after John the Baptist appears; Luke 3:1-3 dates John’s public appearance precisely in “the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberias Caesar” while Pilate was procurator (governor) over Judea. Pilate governed from <span>AD<\/span> 26 to 36, and the 15th year of Tiberius was most likely <span>AD<\/span> 27. Therefore Jesus did not begin his public ministry before <span>AD<\/span> 27. If only a short time elapsed between the beginning of John’s ministry and the beginning of Jesus’ ministry, then Jesus probably began in <span>AD<\/span> 27 or 28 when he was approximately 33 years old.<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus’ Death<\/h5>\n<p>All four Gospel records seem to imply that Jesus ate the Last Supper with his disciples on Thursday evening, was crucified on Friday, and rose from the dead early Sunday morning (Mt 28:1; Mk 16:1; Lk 24:1). The claim that Jesus rose on the third day (1 Cor 15:4) comes from the Jewish custom of counting a part of the day as a whole day. According to Matthew (26:19), Mark (14:12), and Luke (22:15), the Last Supper was the Passover meal, a yearly celebration of Israel’s escape from Egypt (Ex 12–15). But according to John 13:1 and 19:14, the Passover meal had not yet been eaten on Friday; hence the Last Supper in John was not the Passover meal.<\/p>\n<p>No completely satisfying solution to the apparent discrepancy has been put forward. Some scholars suggest plausibly that the use of two different calendars was responsible. According to that theory, Jesus was following a calendar that placed the Passover meal on Thursday night. Temple officials, on the other hand, followed an alternate calendar that placed the killing of sacrificial victims on the next day. John may have used the second system to emphasize the fact that Christ was offered as the Passover sacrifice (cf. Jn 19:36; 1 Cor 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>To find out how long Jesus’ public ministry lasted and thus the year in which he died, one can turn to time references in John’s Gospel. John referred to at least three Passovers (2:13; 6:4; 13:1) and possibly four (5:1). Since the Passover was a yearly feast, the ministry of Jesus would have lasted at least two and possibly three years. In Matthew, Mark, and Luke the Friday of Jesus’ death occurred on the 15th of the Jewish month Nisan (which overlaps March and April). According to John, Jesus died on 14 Nisan. The question is: In which years from 26 to 36 (when Pilate was procurator in Judea) did 14 or 15 Nisan fall on a Friday? The answer is <span>AD<\/span> 27, 29, 30, and 33. Of those, the year 27 is too early and 33 is probably too late. Thus Jesus was probably crucified in 29 or 30, his public ministry lasted two or three years, and he was 35 or 36 years old when he died.<\/p>\n<h4>Events from <span>AD<\/span> 30 to 50<\/h4>\n<p>Acts is the only NT book that records how much time elapsed between Jesus’ death and his ascension: “To them he presented himself alive after his passion by many proofs, appearing to them during forty days, and speaking of the kingdom of God” (Acts 1:3, <span>rsv<\/span>). The next key event after the ascension of Jesus into heaven was Pentecost (Acts 2:1). Pentecost, the Greek word for “fiftieth,” referred to a celebration of the Feast of Weeks\/Harvest (cf. Ex 34:22; Dt 16:9-12) 50 days after the Passover. Since Jesus was crucified during the Passover season, the Pentecost of Acts 2:1, during which the disciples were filled with the Holy Spirit, took place in <span>AD<\/span> 29 or 30, some 50 days after the Crucifixion and about 10 days after the Ascension.<\/p>\n<p>After that, events of the early chapters of Acts are hard to date because no precise statements are made about the amount of time between various events. Therefore, the usual method for dating events of the apostolic age is first to find at least one event that can be dated with relative certainty from sources outside the NT; one then dates events before and after that event by figuring out how much time elapsed between them. Sometimes Acts records how much time passed between two events; usually it does not, so dating can only be approximate.<\/p>\n<p>One pivotal starting point is the great famine prophesied by Agabus, which befell Palestine during the reign of the Roman emperor Claudius (Acts 11:28-29). Josephus, who was alive at the time, gives enough information to locate the famine sometime between the years 46 and 48. We also know from the Mishnah, a collection of Jewish laws, that the autumn of 47 to the autumn of 48 was a sabbatical year, when the Jews let the land rest and harvested nothing (cf. Lv 25:2-7). That could have aggravated and prolonged a famine, but one cannot be sure how early the famine started; some scholars propose 46 and some 47.<\/p>\n<p>At first, it seems peculiar that Luke, the author of Acts, should have recorded that famine (Acts 11:28) before recording the death of Herod Agrippa (12:20-23). From facts reported by Josephus, the death of Herod (a grandson of Herod the Great) can be dated in <span>AD<\/span> 44, probably in the spring. That means that Herod must have died several years before the famine Luke recorded earlier. Some scholars think that Luke simply got his chronological facts wrong. Others see Acts 12:1-24 as a kind of flashback to bring the history of the church in Jerusalem up to date. Such a practice was common among ancient historians, who often followed one source up to a suitable stopping point before moving on to another source. To charge Luke with inaccurate dating, it is argued, is to misunderstand the techniques of historical writing he was using.<\/p>\n<p>Since Herod Agrippa died in <span>AD<\/span> 44 (Acts 12:23), the apostle James, whom Herod put to death with the sword (v 2), must have died soon before 44, perhaps during the Passover season of 43 (v 3). The apostle Peter’s imprisonment and his miraculous escape (vv 3-17) also belong to that period.<\/p>\n<p>When the Christians of Antioch decided to send relief to the Christians in Jerusalem in the midst of the great famine (Acts 11:29), Barnabas and Paul were appointed to transport the money to Jerusalem. That was Paul’s second visit to Jerusalem after his conversion. The first visit is recorded in Acts 9:26-30. The third comes in Acts 15 when Paul and Barnabas were sent to discuss with the apostles and elders whether gentile converts to Christianity had to be circumcised. How one dates the first and third visits to Jerusalem, as well as Paul’s conversion, depends on how those Jerusalem visits are related to those reported in Paul’s letter to the Galatians.<\/p>\n<p>The basic problem, which still divides NT scholars, is this: In Galatians 1:15–2:10 Paul recounted that his conversion was followed by two visits to Jerusalem, one three years after his conversion (1:18) and one 14 years after that (2:1-10). All scholars agree that the first visit three years after his conversion is the same as the first visit recorded in Acts 9:26-30. Answers differ, however, to the question of whether Galatians 2:1-10 refers to the second (famine) visit to Jerusalem in Acts 11:30 (in which case the third visit of Acts 15 is the one omitted from Galatians) or whether Galatians 2:1-10 refers to the visit in Acts 15 (in which case the famine visit was the one omitted from Galatians).<\/p>\n\n<p>Those who favor the first reconstruction offer six arguments: (1) The reason Paul gave such a rigorous account of his comings and goings in Galatians 1:15-24 was to show that he did not get his gospel from men, nor was he taught it (1:12). In other words, his visits to the Jerusalem apostles were not for the purpose of receiving his gospel. If that is so, for Paul to omit the second Jerusalem visit would jeopardize his integrity and his authority with the Galatians. The first reconstruction avoids that difficulty; omission of a third Jerusalem visit from Galatians 2:1-10 could mean that it had not yet happened when Galatians was written. (2) Galatians 2:1-10 pictures a private meeting between Paul and Barnabas on one hand and the “pillar” apostles on the other. But the meeting in Acts 15 was public and before the whole church. Hence Galatians 2:1-10 more likely refers to a private meeting during the visit of Acts 11:30, which Galatians does not record. (3) Paul’s eagerness to give to the poor mentioned in Galatians 2:10 connects naturally with the second Jerusalem visit, when he was in fact delivering relief to the poor (Acts 11:30). (4) If Galatians 2 recorded the same trip as Acts 15, one would expect some mention of the decision reached by the Jerusalem Council, especially since that decision related directly to the problem of circumcision that Paul was handling in his Letter to the Galatians. (5) Further, it seems unlikely that the Jerusalem Council preceded the event of Galatians 2:11-21, when Peter was rebuked by Paul for withdrawing from fellowship with gentile believers; that incident could hardly have happened so soon after the issue of gentile status in the church had been settled in Jerusalem. (6) According to Galatians 1:6, the letter was written “quickly” after Paul had established the Galatian churches. That makes sense if Galatians was written soon after the first missionary journey, hence just before the Jerusalem Council of Acts 15; that would make Galatians Paul’s first letter.<\/p>\n<p>Scholars who favor the second reconstruction offer four arguments: (1) The main purpose of Paul’s visit in Galatians 2:1-10 appears to be the same as that in Acts 15:1-20; both dealt with the issue of whether circumcision should be required of gentile converts (Gal 2:3-5; Acts 15:1, 5). That similarity is obvious, but there is no such explicit similarity between Galatians 2 and Acts 11:30. (2) On the basis of form and content Galatians is similar to Romans and to 1 and 2 Corinthians; it would thus seem to come from the same period—considerably later than the Jerusalem Council. If so, it is likely that Paul would have included a reference to the Jerusalem Council (namely Gal 2:1-10) in his recollections, since its outcome supported his own stance on circumcision set forth in the letter. (3) Acts 11:30 pictures Barnabas as the leader of the Barnabas\/Paul team, since his name is given first place (as in Acts 12:25; 13:1-2, 7; cf. 11:25-26). But in the description Paul gives of the visit in Galatians 2, he sees himself as the leader of the team. Since Acts does picture Paul as the leader from the time of the first missionary journey (Acts 13:9, 13, 43, 46, 50), including the third Jerusalem visit (15:2), it is more likely that Galatians 2 records the trip of Acts 15. (4) Finally, in Galatians 2:7-8 Paul was recognized as an apostle to the Gentiles with a standing equal to that of Peter. But if Galatians 2 recorded the events of Acts 11:30 and the first missionary journey had not yet occurred, the “pillar” apostles could hardly have recognized Paul’s authority as apostle to the Gentiles. It is more likely that Galatians 2 followed the first missionary journey, just as Acts 15 followed the first missionary journey in Acts, and that both refer to the same event.<\/p>\n<p>The significance of those arguments for chronology is that, according to the first view, Paul’s conversion came 17 years before the famine visit of Acts 11:30 (cf. Gal 1:18; 2:1). According to the second view, Paul’s conversion took place 17 years before the Jerusalem Council in Acts 15. The difference amounts to only one year, however.<\/p>\n<p>It is helpful to consider one more date that can be fixed with high probability—namely, Paul’s arrival in Corinth on his second missionary journey (Acts 18:1). On the second missionary journey (15:40–18:22), Paul and Silas set out on land through Syria, Cilicia, Phrygia, and Galatia, visiting churches founded on the first missionary journey. They came to Troas, then passed over to Philippi and continued down the coast through Thessalonica and Berea. Paul went on to Athens before arriving at Corinth. From Acts 18:12 we know that Gallio was a proconsul in Corinth while Paul was there. An inscription discovered at nearby Delphi indicates that in all likelihood Gallio’s term of office was from mid-51 to mid-52. The incident recorded in Acts 18:12-17 probably occurred at the beginning of Gallio’s term, since the Jews hoped to get a ruling against Paul from their new proconsul. Not long after that, Paul left Corinth, probably in the summer or autumn of 52. According to Acts 18:11 Paul had spent 18 months in Corinth; that means that he probably arrived in the early months of 50 or the end of 49. That arrival date is confirmed by Acts 18:2, which says that Aquila and Priscilla had only recently been exiled from Rome when Paul came to Corinth. A fifth-century historian, Orosius, dated the edict of Claudius expelling the Jews from Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 49. Therefore, Paul and Aquila and Priscilla probably arrived close together late in 49 or early in 50. Early in his 18-month stay Paul wrote his First and Second Letters to the Thessalonians.<\/p>\n<p>The two fixed dates, then, are 46 or 47 for the famine visit (Acts 11:30) and late 49 or early 50 for Paul’s arrival in Corinth (Acts 18:1). Taking into account the time gaps mentioned in Galatians 1:18 and 2:1, as well as the supposition that the first missionary journey lasted about a year, the two reconstructions are presented in the following table. Keep in mind that they are approximations and that they reflect the ancient custom of counting a part of a year as a whole year.<\/p>\n\n<h4>Events from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 70<\/h4>\n<p>Acts 24:27 describes an event that helps us date events in the rest of the book, namely, Porcius Festus’s replacement of Felix as the governor of Judea. A careful analysis of the evidence given by Eusebius, a fourth-century historian, leads to the probable conclusion that Felix was replaced in the summer of 59.<\/p>\n<p>Working backward from that date, Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem (Acts 21:33) must have occurred in 57, some two years before the coming of Festus. More precisely, Paul’s arrest probably occurred in the late spring or summer of 57; Paul’s goal (20:16) was to arrive in Jerusalem by Pentecost of that year, and Pentecost occurred at the end of May. He was not long in the city before he was arrested.<\/p>\n<p>The Passover festival, 50 days before Pentecost, was celebrated by Paul with the church in Philippi (Acts 20:6). That would have been April 7–14, <span>AD<\/span> 57. Only after the feast did he continue his hurried journey to Caesarea and Jerusalem (20:6–21:16). Before his Passover visit to Philippi, Paul had spent three months in Greece (20:3). Allowing some time for him to travel through Macedonia and visit the Thessalonians and Bereans, those three months were probably the winter months of 56–57 (Acts 20:3; cf. 1 Cor 16:6). No doubt they were spent in the main church of Greece, Corinth, and were used in part for the writing of the Letter to the Romans.<\/p>\n<p>Between Paul’s departure from Corinth on the second missionary journey (Acts 18:18) in the autumn of 51 and his arrival in Corinth on the third missionary journey (20:2) in the late winter of 56 are five years of activities that cannot be given exact dates. Paul said that he worked during three of those years in Ephesus (20:31; cf. 19:1–20:1). With enough time allowed for the travels before and after, that stay at Ephesus probably lasted from 52 or 53 to the summer of 55 or 56 (cf. 1 Cor 16:8). During his long stay in Ephesus, Paul wrote his First Letter to the Corinthians. Then, on his way to Corinth in 56, he wrote 2 Corinthians from Macedonia.<\/p>\n<p>Festus arrived as governor in the summer of 59, after Paul had been in prison in Caesarea for two years. Within a matter of days, Paul was tried before Festus (Acts 25:1-12). Not wanting to be remanded to the Jewish authorities, Paul appealed to Caesar (v 12), which meant that he would go to Rome. The account in Acts gives no hint of a delay, so the voyage most likely began in the summer or fall of 59 (27:2).<\/p>\n<p>Luke reported that when Paul the prisoner got to Fair Havens on the island of Crete, the weather had become dangerous for sea travel “because the fast had already gone by” (Acts 27:8-9). One ancient writer said that sailing became dangerous between mid-September and mid-November, and after that, impossible until spring. The fast referred to was no doubt the one in preparation for the Day of Atonement, which in the year 59 fell on October 5. It is not surprising that, 14 days after leaving Fair Havens, the ship in which Paul was traveling was wrecked on the coast of Malta, south of Sicily (vv 27-44). Three months later Paul set sail for Rome again in a ship that had spent the winter at Malta (28:11). Soon he was welcomed into Rome by Christians who came out to meet him (v 15). Thus Paul arrived in Rome in the early part of <span>AD<\/span> 60. The book of Acts closes with the remark that “For two whole years Paul stayed there in his own rented house” (v 30, <span>niv<\/span>). The NT does not report the outcome of his trial. During that period, according to the traditional view, he wrote Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon.<\/p>\n<p>Eusebius wrote, “Tradition has it that after defending himself the Apostle was again sent on the ministry of preaching, and coming a second time to the same city suffered martyrdom under Nero.” Nero, who was the Roman emperor from 54 to 68, put to death a multitude of Christians in Rome soon after a disastrous fire in July of 64, according to the Roman historian Tacitus. A number of early Christian writings (e.g., Clement) seem to indicate that Peter and Paul were both killed in Rome during that savage persecution. If so, and if Eusebius was right, then Paul may have spent the two years from 62 to 64 freely ministering back in the eastern provinces. Many conservative scholars date Paul’s First Letter to Timothy and his Letter to Titus from that period. Written from Rome shortly before Paul’s martyrdom in 64, 2 Timothy was probably his last letter (2 Tm 2:9; 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem, within three years after Paul had been carried off to Rome, James the brother of Jesus was stoned to death by the Jewish authorities. According to Josephus, that occurred in 62. Not long afterward, according to Eusebius, the church in Jerusalem received a prophecy warning them to leave that doomed city and settle in Pella, one of the cities of the Decapolis (“ten cities”) east of the Jordan. Thus when war broke out between the Jews and the Romans in 66, the Christians for the most part escaped its fury. That war ended in 70 with the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (cf. Mk 13:2; Lk 21:24).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Apostle, Apostleship; Age; “Date” under each NT book; First Jewish Revolt; Genealogy of Jesus Christ; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (New Testament) Branch of biblical studies that attempts to discover the sequence of NT events and the amount of time that elapsed between them. Chronology is essential to historians, whose task it is to determine the causes and effects of past events. Generally, for a historian’s purpose, assigning absolute dates is less important than knowing the sequence of events that may have influenced each other. Very few NT happenings, in fact, can be given exact dates. A rema...","summary_en":"CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (New Testament) Branch of biblical studies that attempts to discover the sequence of NT events and the amount of time that elapsed between them. Chronology is essential to historians, whose task it is to determine the causes and effects of past events. Generally, for a historian’s purpose, assigning absolute dates is less important than knowing the sequence of events that may have influenced each other. Very few NT happenings, in fact, can be given exact dates. A rema...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":9637,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Dioscuri*","title_en":"Dioscuri*","content_ro":"<h3>DIOSCURI*<\/h3>\n<p>Twin sons of Zeus known as Castor and Pollux. In Greek mythology they were the patron deities of navigation and represented in the constellation Gemini. The Dioscuri (the “Twin Brothers”) were the figurehead of the Alexandrian ship on which Paul sailed to Rome (Acts 28:11).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DIOSCURI*<\/h3>\n<p>Twin sons of Zeus known as Castor and Pollux. In Greek mythology they were the patron deities of navigation and represented in the constellation Gemini. The Dioscuri (the “Twin Brothers”) were the figurehead of the Alexandrian ship on which Paul sailed to Rome (Acts 28:11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"DIOSCURI* Twin sons of Zeus known as Castor and Pollux. In Greek mythology they were the patron deities of navigation and represented in the constellation Gemini. The Dioscuri (the “Twin Brothers”) were the figurehead of the Alexandrian ship on which Paul sailed to Rome (Acts 28:11).","summary_en":"DIOSCURI* Twin sons of Zeus known as Castor and Pollux. In Greek mythology they were the patron deities of navigation and represented in the constellation Gemini. The Dioscuri (the “Twin Brothers”) were the figurehead of the Alexandrian ship on which Paul sailed to Rome (Acts 28:11).","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30853,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Pollux*","title_en":"Pollux*","content_ro":"<h3>POLLUX*<\/h3>\n<p>Son of Zeus and Castor’s twin brother in Greek mythology. The twin brothers (Acts 28:11) are also called the Dioscuri. <em>See<\/em> Dioscuri.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>POLLUX*<\/h3>\n<p>Son of Zeus and Castor’s twin brother in Greek mythology. The twin brothers (Acts 28:11) are also called the Dioscuri. <em>See<\/em> Dioscuri.<\/p>","summary_ro":"POLLUX* Son of Zeus and Castor’s twin brother in Greek mythology. The twin brothers (Acts 28:11) are also called the Dioscuri. See Dioscuri.","summary_en":"POLLUX* Son of Zeus and Castor’s twin brother in Greek mythology. The twin brothers (Acts 28:11) are also called the Dioscuri. See Dioscuri.","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37766,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Brothers*, Twin","title_en":"Brothers*, Twin","content_ro":"<h3>TWIN BROTHERS*<\/h3>\n<p>Twin sons of Zeus. Paul sailed to Rome on a ship whose figurehead was the Twin Brothers (Acts 28:11). <em>See<\/em> Dioscuri.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TWIN BROTHERS*<\/h3>\n<p>Twin sons of Zeus. Paul sailed to Rome on a ship whose figurehead was the Twin Brothers (Acts 28:11). <em>See<\/em> Dioscuri.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TWIN BROTHERS* Twin sons of Zeus. Paul sailed to Rome on a ship whose figurehead was the Twin Brothers (Acts 28:11). See Dioscuri.","summary_en":"TWIN BROTHERS* Twin sons of Zeus. Paul sailed to Rome on a ship whose figurehead was the Twin Brothers (Acts 28:11). See Dioscuri.","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57177,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:11","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:11-16<\/strong> Luke, himself present on this journey (see study note on 27:1–28:16), recorded Paul’s itinerary from Malta to <em>Rome<\/em> with great geographical detail.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:11-16<\/strong> Luke, himself present on this journey (see study note on 27:1–28:16), recorded Paul’s itinerary from Malta to <em>Rome<\/em> with great geographical detail.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:11-16 Luke, himself present on this journey (see study note on 27:1–28:16), recorded Paul’s itinerary from Malta to Rome with great geographical detail.","summary_en":"28:11-16 Luke, himself present on this journey (see study note on 27:1–28:16), recorded Paul’s itinerary from Malta to Rome with great geographical detail.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57178,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:11","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:11<\/strong> Another Egyptian <em>ship<\/em> from Alexandria took Paul and his companions on board after an interval of <em>three months<\/em> and the worst of the winter had passed.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:11<\/strong> Another Egyptian <em>ship<\/em> from Alexandria took Paul and his companions on board after an interval of <em>three months<\/em> and the worst of the winter had passed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:11 Another Egyptian ship from Alexandria took Paul and his companions on board after an interval of three months and the worst of the winter had passed.","summary_en":"28:11 Another Egyptian ship from Alexandria took Paul and his companions on board after an interval of three months and the worst of the winter had passed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84803,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:11","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:11-16<\/strong> Luke, himself present on this journey (see study note on 27:1–28:16), recorded Paul’s itinerary from Malta to <em>Rome<\/em> with great geographical detail.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:11-16<\/strong> Luke, himself present on this journey (see study note on 27:1–28:16), recorded Paul’s itinerary from Malta to <em>Rome<\/em> with great geographical detail.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:11-16 Luke, himself present on this journey (see study note on 27:1–28:16), recorded Paul’s itinerary from Malta to Rome with great geographical detail.","summary_en":"28:11-16 Luke, himself present on this journey (see study note on 27:1–28:16), recorded Paul’s itinerary from Malta to Rome with great geographical detail.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84804,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:11","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:11<\/strong> Another Egyptian <em>ship<\/em> from Alexandria took Paul and his companions on board after an interval of <em>three months<\/em> and the worst of the winter had passed.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:11<\/strong> Another Egyptian <em>ship<\/em> from Alexandria took Paul and his companions on board after an interval of <em>three months<\/em> and the worst of the winter had passed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:11 Another Egyptian ship from Alexandria took Paul and his companions on board after an interval of three months and the worst of the winter had passed.","summary_en":"28:11 Another Egyptian ship from Alexandria took Paul and his companions on board after an interval of three months and the worst of the winter had passed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112429,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:11","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:11-16<\/strong> Luke, himself present on this journey (see study note on 27:1–28:16), recorded Paul’s itinerary from Malta to <em>Rome<\/em> with great geographical detail.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:11-16<\/strong> Luke, himself present on this journey (see study note on 27:1–28:16), recorded Paul’s itinerary from Malta to <em>Rome<\/em> with great geographical detail.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:11-16 Luke, himself present on this journey (see study note on 27:1–28:16), recorded Paul’s itinerary from Malta to Rome with great geographical detail.","summary_en":"28:11-16 Luke, himself present on this journey (see study note on 27:1–28:16), recorded Paul’s itinerary from Malta to Rome with great geographical detail.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112430,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:11","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:11<\/strong> Another Egyptian <em>ship<\/em> from Alexandria took Paul and his companions on board after an interval of <em>three months<\/em> and the worst of the winter had passed.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:11<\/strong> Another Egyptian <em>ship<\/em> from Alexandria took Paul and his companions on board after an interval of <em>three months<\/em> and the worst of the winter had passed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:11 Another Egyptian ship from Alexandria took Paul and his companions on board after an interval of three months and the worst of the winter had passed.","summary_en":"28:11 Another Egyptian ship from Alexandria took Paul and his companions on board after an interval of three months and the worst of the winter had passed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140055,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:11","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:11-16<\/strong> Luke, himself present on this journey (see study note on 27:1–28:16), recorded Paul’s itinerary from Malta to <em>Rome<\/em> with great geographical detail.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:11-16<\/strong> Luke, himself present on this journey (see study note on 27:1–28:16), recorded Paul’s itinerary from Malta to <em>Rome<\/em> with great geographical detail.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:11-16 Luke, himself present on this journey (see study note on 27:1–28:16), recorded Paul’s itinerary from Malta to Rome with great geographical detail.","summary_en":"28:11-16 Luke, himself present on this journey (see study note on 27:1–28:16), recorded Paul’s itinerary from Malta to Rome with great geographical detail.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140056,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:11","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:11<\/strong> Another Egyptian <em>ship<\/em> from Alexandria took Paul and his companions on board after an interval of <em>three months<\/em> and the worst of the winter had passed.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:11<\/strong> Another Egyptian <em>ship<\/em> from Alexandria took Paul and his companions on board after an interval of <em>three months<\/em> and the worst of the winter had passed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:11 Another Egyptian ship from Alexandria took Paul and his companions on board after an interval of three months and the worst of the winter had passed.","summary_en":"28:11 Another Egyptian ship from Alexandria took Paul and his companions on board after an interval of three months and the worst of the winter had passed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":36544,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Syracuse","title_en":"Syracuse","content_ro":"<h3>SYRACUSE<\/h3>\n<p>Town on the east coast of Sicily and the island’s most important city. Here Paul’s ship, on which he traveled to Rome as a prisoner, made a three-day stop following his shipwreck and three-month stay in Malta (Acts 28:12). Syracuse had a fine harbor and was a natural port of call for a ship sailing from Malta through the straits of Messina between Sicily and Italy en route to Rome.<\/p>\n\n<p>In the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, Syracuse became a Greek colony, funded by Archias of Corinth. During the fifth century, it grew to great power and influence and was second only to Carthage as the most prominent city of the western Mediterranean. It played a significant role in the struggle between Rome and Carthage in the third century and was captured by Rome in 212 <span>BC<\/span>. Caesar Augustus settled Syracuse in 21 <span>BC<\/span>, making it a Roman colony (cf. Philippi). It is not stated in Acts 28 that Paul found Christians there, but later evidence from its catacombs indicates the existence of a church.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SYRACUSE<\/h3>\n<p>Town on the east coast of Sicily and the island’s most important city. Here Paul’s ship, on which he traveled to Rome as a prisoner, made a three-day stop following his shipwreck and three-month stay in Malta (Acts 28:12). Syracuse had a fine harbor and was a natural port of call for a ship sailing from Malta through the straits of Messina between Sicily and Italy en route to Rome.<\/p>\n\n<p>In the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, Syracuse became a Greek colony, funded by Archias of Corinth. During the fifth century, it grew to great power and influence and was second only to Carthage as the most prominent city of the western Mediterranean. It played a significant role in the struggle between Rome and Carthage in the third century and was captured by Rome in 212 <span>BC<\/span>. Caesar Augustus settled Syracuse in 21 <span>BC<\/span>, making it a Roman colony (cf. Philippi). It is not stated in Acts 28 that Paul found Christians there, but later evidence from its catacombs indicates the existence of a church.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SYRACUSE Town on the east coast of Sicily and the island’s most important city. Here Paul’s ship, on which he traveled to Rome as a prisoner, made a three-day stop following his shipwreck and three-month stay in Malta (Acts 28:12). Syracuse had a fine harbor and was a natural port of call for a ship sailing from Malta through the straits of Messina between Sicily and Italy en route to Rome. In the eighth century BC, Syracuse became a Greek colony, funded by Archias of Corinth. During the fift...","summary_en":"SYRACUSE Town on the east coast of Sicily and the island’s most important city. Here Paul’s ship, on which he traveled to Rome as a prisoner, made a three-day stop following his shipwreck and three-month stay in Malta (Acts 28:12). Syracuse had a fine harbor and was a natural port of call for a ship sailing from Malta through the straits of Messina between Sicily and Italy en route to Rome. In the eighth century BC, Syracuse became a Greek colony, funded by Archias of Corinth. During the fift...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57179,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:12","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:12<\/strong> <em>Syracuse<\/em> was the capital of the eastern half of Sicily.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:12<\/strong> <em>Syracuse<\/em> was the capital of the eastern half of Sicily.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:12 Syracuse was the capital of the eastern half of Sicily.","summary_en":"28:12 Syracuse was the capital of the eastern half of Sicily.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84805,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:12","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:12<\/strong> <em>Syracuse<\/em> was the capital of the eastern half of Sicily.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:12<\/strong> <em>Syracuse<\/em> was the capital of the eastern half of Sicily.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:12 Syracuse was the capital of the eastern half of Sicily.","summary_en":"28:12 Syracuse was the capital of the eastern half of Sicily.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112431,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:12","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:12<\/strong> <em>Syracuse<\/em> was the capital of the eastern half of Sicily.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:12<\/strong> <em>Syracuse<\/em> was the capital of the eastern half of Sicily.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:12 Syracuse was the capital of the eastern half of Sicily.","summary_en":"28:12 Syracuse was the capital of the eastern half of Sicily.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140057,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:12","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:12<\/strong> <em>Syracuse<\/em> was the capital of the eastern half of Sicily.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:12<\/strong> <em>Syracuse<\/em> was the capital of the eastern half of Sicily.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:12 Syracuse was the capital of the eastern half of Sicily.","summary_en":"28:12 Syracuse was the capital of the eastern half of Sicily.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":2427,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Appian Way","title_en":"Appian Way","content_ro":"<h3>APPIAN WAY<\/h3>\n<p>Main highway from Rome southward to the heel of the Italian peninsula. Originally the Appian Way terminated at Capua, but later it was extended to Brundisium, about 350 miles (560 kilometers) from Rome. It received its name from Appius Claudius Caecus, the Roman censor who began its construction in 312 <span>BC<\/span>. The Appian Way is referred to by the ancient writers Livy, Strabo, Horace, and others in a variety of contexts. Portions of the road still exist today south of Rome, with the original Roman paving intact in many places. Ruins of some structures built along the original road are also in evidence.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul traveled on the Appian Way on his journey to Rome after disembarking from a ship at Puteoli (Acts 28:13-15). Christians from Rome came out to meet him in the vicinity of Three Taverns and the Appii Forum (“marketplace of Appius”). These were two of eight major stations known to have existed along the Appian Way. The Appii Forum was located 43 miles (70 kilometers) from Rome in the middle of the Pontine Marshes. Horace, writing in 65–68 <span>BC<\/span>, complained of the noise and stench that assaulted those who stayed there. Three Taverns was located 10 miles (16 kilometers) closer to Rome.<\/p>\n<p>As Paul traveled on, he would have passed Bovillae, a village located about 11 miles (18 kilometers) from Rome. This village was the ancestral home and cult center of the family of Caesar Augustus. Much of the Appian Way from Bovillae to Rome was lined with tombs. Roman law forbade burials within the city of Rome, so it became common practice to bury the dead beside the major roads leading into the city.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>APPIAN WAY<\/h3>\n<p>Main highway from Rome southward to the heel of the Italian peninsula. Originally the Appian Way terminated at Capua, but later it was extended to Brundisium, about 350 miles (560 kilometers) from Rome. It received its name from Appius Claudius Caecus, the Roman censor who began its construction in 312 <span>BC<\/span>. The Appian Way is referred to by the ancient writers Livy, Strabo, Horace, and others in a variety of contexts. Portions of the road still exist today south of Rome, with the original Roman paving intact in many places. Ruins of some structures built along the original road are also in evidence.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul traveled on the Appian Way on his journey to Rome after disembarking from a ship at Puteoli (Acts 28:13-15). Christians from Rome came out to meet him in the vicinity of Three Taverns and the Appii Forum (“marketplace of Appius”). These were two of eight major stations known to have existed along the Appian Way. The Appii Forum was located 43 miles (70 kilometers) from Rome in the middle of the Pontine Marshes. Horace, writing in 65–68 <span>BC<\/span>, complained of the noise and stench that assaulted those who stayed there. Three Taverns was located 10 miles (16 kilometers) closer to Rome.<\/p>\n<p>As Paul traveled on, he would have passed Bovillae, a village located about 11 miles (18 kilometers) from Rome. This village was the ancestral home and cult center of the family of Caesar Augustus. Much of the Appian Way from Bovillae to Rome was lined with tombs. Roman law forbade burials within the city of Rome, so it became common practice to bury the dead beside the major roads leading into the city.<\/p>","summary_ro":"APPIAN WAY Main highway from Rome southward to the heel of the Italian peninsula. Originally the Appian Way terminated at Capua, but later it was extended to Brundisium, about 350 miles (560 kilometers) from Rome. It received its name from Appius Claudius Caecus, the Roman censor who began its construction in 312 BC. The Appian Way is referred to by the ancient writers Livy, Strabo, Horace, and others in a variety of contexts. Portions of the road still exist today south of Rome, with the ori...","summary_en":"APPIAN WAY Main highway from Rome southward to the heel of the Italian peninsula. Originally the Appian Way terminated at Capua, but later it was extended to Brundisium, about 350 miles (560 kilometers) from Rome. It received its name from Appius Claudius Caecus, the Roman censor who began its construction in 312 BC. The Appian Way is referred to by the ancient writers Livy, Strabo, Horace, and others in a variety of contexts. Portions of the road still exist today south of Rome, with the ori...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29294,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Paul, the Apostle","title_en":"Paul, the Apostle","content_ro":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","summary_en":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32217,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Puteoli","title_en":"Puteoli","content_ro":"<h3>PUTEOLI<\/h3>\n<p>Italian seaport town on the Bay of Naples. It was a normal stopping place for seafaring travelers and cargo going to Rome. Paul, following his landing at Rhegium, resided with Christians in Puteoli for seven days before he was taken to Rome (Acts 28:13). The modern city is called Pozzuoli.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PUTEOLI<\/h3>\n<p>Italian seaport town on the Bay of Naples. It was a normal stopping place for seafaring travelers and cargo going to Rome. Paul, following his landing at Rhegium, resided with Christians in Puteoli for seven days before he was taken to Rome (Acts 28:13). The modern city is called Pozzuoli.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PUTEOLI Italian seaport town on the Bay of Naples. It was a normal stopping place for seafaring travelers and cargo going to Rome. Paul, following his landing at Rhegium, resided with Christians in Puteoli for seven days before he was taken to Rome (Acts 28:13). The modern city is called Pozzuoli.","summary_en":"PUTEOLI Italian seaport town on the Bay of Naples. It was a normal stopping place for seafaring travelers and cargo going to Rome. Paul, following his landing at Rhegium, resided with Christians in Puteoli for seven days before he was taken to Rome (Acts 28:13). The modern city is called Pozzuoli.","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":33053,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Rhegium","title_en":"Rhegium","content_ro":"<h3>RHEGIUM<\/h3>\n<p>Important Italian harbor visited by Paul in his journey to Rome (Acts 28:13). From Malta, Paul’s ship traveled north to the Sicilian capital of Syracuse. Then, in the absence of a south wind, they may have tacked into the Strait of Messina, finding good harbor at Rhegium. Another south wind carried them from Rhegium to Puteoli in the Bay of Naples—the ship’s destination, since Puteoli was southern Italy’s chief port, receiving the great Alexandrian grain vessels.<\/p>\n<p>The Strait of Messina was well known to every Roman navigator. Passage here was necessary in order to gain access to Italy’s west coast, but its obstacles were numerous. Obstructions, shallows, and the narrow width forced ships to stay at Rhegium until an adequate south wind arose.<\/p>\n\n<p>The name Rhegium (modern Reggio or Reggio di Calabria) may have come from a Greek verb meaning “to tear” or “rend.” Sicily, it seemed, had been “torn from the mainland” and Rhegium was the nearest Italian port.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>RHEGIUM<\/h3>\n<p>Important Italian harbor visited by Paul in his journey to Rome (Acts 28:13). From Malta, Paul’s ship traveled north to the Sicilian capital of Syracuse. Then, in the absence of a south wind, they may have tacked into the Strait of Messina, finding good harbor at Rhegium. Another south wind carried them from Rhegium to Puteoli in the Bay of Naples—the ship’s destination, since Puteoli was southern Italy’s chief port, receiving the great Alexandrian grain vessels.<\/p>\n<p>The Strait of Messina was well known to every Roman navigator. Passage here was necessary in order to gain access to Italy’s west coast, but its obstacles were numerous. Obstructions, shallows, and the narrow width forced ships to stay at Rhegium until an adequate south wind arose.<\/p>\n\n<p>The name Rhegium (modern Reggio or Reggio di Calabria) may have come from a Greek verb meaning “to tear” or “rend.” Sicily, it seemed, had been “torn from the mainland” and Rhegium was the nearest Italian port.<\/p>","summary_ro":"RHEGIUM Important Italian harbor visited by Paul in his journey to Rome (Acts 28:13). From Malta, Paul’s ship traveled north to the Sicilian capital of Syracuse. Then, in the absence of a south wind, they may have tacked into the Strait of Messina, finding good harbor at Rhegium. Another south wind carried them from Rhegium to Puteoli in the Bay of Naples—the ship’s destination, since Puteoli was southern Italy’s chief port, receiving the great Alexandrian grain vessels. The Strait of Messina...","summary_en":"RHEGIUM Important Italian harbor visited by Paul in his journey to Rome (Acts 28:13). From Malta, Paul’s ship traveled north to the Sicilian capital of Syracuse. Then, in the absence of a south wind, they may have tacked into the Strait of Messina, finding good harbor at Rhegium. Another south wind carried them from Rhegium to Puteoli in the Bay of Naples—the ship’s destination, since Puteoli was southern Italy’s chief port, receiving the great Alexandrian grain vessels. The Strait of Messina...","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57180,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:13","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:13-14<\/strong> They sailed across the Straits of Messina to <em>Rhegium<\/em> on the southern tip of Italy. This port was a stopping place for ships traveling from the west coast of Italy to the eastern Mediterranean. • <em>Puteoli<\/em> (modern Pozzuoli) was a major port of entry for large grain ships bringing supplies from the east to Rome. Paul spent <em>a week<\/em> here with some local <em>believers<\/em> before moving on <em>to Rome<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:13-14<\/strong> They sailed across the Straits of Messina to <em>Rhegium<\/em> on the southern tip of Italy. This port was a stopping place for ships traveling from the west coast of Italy to the eastern Mediterranean. • <em>Puteoli<\/em> (modern Pozzuoli) was a major port of entry for large grain ships bringing supplies from the east to Rome. Paul spent <em>a week<\/em> here with some local <em>believers<\/em> before moving on <em>to Rome<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:13-14 They sailed across the Straits of Messina to Rhegium on the southern tip of Italy. This port was a stopping place for ships traveling from the west coast of Italy to the eastern Mediterranean. • Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli) was a major port of entry for large grain ships bringing supplies from the east to Rome. Paul spent a week here with some local believers before moving on to Rome.","summary_en":"28:13-14 They sailed across the Straits of Messina to Rhegium on the southern tip of Italy. This port was a stopping place for ships traveling from the west coast of Italy to the eastern Mediterranean. • Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli) was a major port of entry for large grain ships bringing supplies from the east to Rome. Paul spent a week here with some local believers before moving on to Rome.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84806,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:13","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:13-14<\/strong> They sailed across the Straits of Messina to <em>Rhegium<\/em> on the southern tip of Italy. This port was a stopping place for ships traveling from the west coast of Italy to the eastern Mediterranean. • <em>Puteoli<\/em> (modern Pozzuoli) was a major port of entry for large grain ships bringing supplies from the east to Rome. Paul spent <em>a week<\/em> here with some local <em>believers<\/em> before moving on <em>to Rome<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:13-14<\/strong> They sailed across the Straits of Messina to <em>Rhegium<\/em> on the southern tip of Italy. This port was a stopping place for ships traveling from the west coast of Italy to the eastern Mediterranean. • <em>Puteoli<\/em> (modern Pozzuoli) was a major port of entry for large grain ships bringing supplies from the east to Rome. Paul spent <em>a week<\/em> here with some local <em>believers<\/em> before moving on <em>to Rome<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:13-14 They sailed across the Straits of Messina to Rhegium on the southern tip of Italy. This port was a stopping place for ships traveling from the west coast of Italy to the eastern Mediterranean. • Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli) was a major port of entry for large grain ships bringing supplies from the east to Rome. Paul spent a week here with some local believers before moving on to Rome.","summary_en":"28:13-14 They sailed across the Straits of Messina to Rhegium on the southern tip of Italy. This port was a stopping place for ships traveling from the west coast of Italy to the eastern Mediterranean. • Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli) was a major port of entry for large grain ships bringing supplies from the east to Rome. Paul spent a week here with some local believers before moving on to Rome.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112432,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:13","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:13-14<\/strong> They sailed across the Straits of Messina to <em>Rhegium<\/em> on the southern tip of Italy. This port was a stopping place for ships traveling from the west coast of Italy to the eastern Mediterranean. • <em>Puteoli<\/em> (modern Pozzuoli) was a major port of entry for large grain ships bringing supplies from the east to Rome. Paul spent <em>a week<\/em> here with some local <em>believers<\/em> before moving on <em>to Rome<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:13-14<\/strong> They sailed across the Straits of Messina to <em>Rhegium<\/em> on the southern tip of Italy. This port was a stopping place for ships traveling from the west coast of Italy to the eastern Mediterranean. • <em>Puteoli<\/em> (modern Pozzuoli) was a major port of entry for large grain ships bringing supplies from the east to Rome. Paul spent <em>a week<\/em> here with some local <em>believers<\/em> before moving on <em>to Rome<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:13-14 They sailed across the Straits of Messina to Rhegium on the southern tip of Italy. This port was a stopping place for ships traveling from the west coast of Italy to the eastern Mediterranean. • Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli) was a major port of entry for large grain ships bringing supplies from the east to Rome. Paul spent a week here with some local believers before moving on to Rome.","summary_en":"28:13-14 They sailed across the Straits of Messina to Rhegium on the southern tip of Italy. This port was a stopping place for ships traveling from the west coast of Italy to the eastern Mediterranean. • Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli) was a major port of entry for large grain ships bringing supplies from the east to Rome. Paul spent a week here with some local believers before moving on to Rome.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140058,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:13","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:13-14<\/strong> They sailed across the Straits of Messina to <em>Rhegium<\/em> on the southern tip of Italy. This port was a stopping place for ships traveling from the west coast of Italy to the eastern Mediterranean. • <em>Puteoli<\/em> (modern Pozzuoli) was a major port of entry for large grain ships bringing supplies from the east to Rome. Paul spent <em>a week<\/em> here with some local <em>believers<\/em> before moving on <em>to Rome<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:13-14<\/strong> They sailed across the Straits of Messina to <em>Rhegium<\/em> on the southern tip of Italy. This port was a stopping place for ships traveling from the west coast of Italy to the eastern Mediterranean. • <em>Puteoli<\/em> (modern Pozzuoli) was a major port of entry for large grain ships bringing supplies from the east to Rome. Paul spent <em>a week<\/em> here with some local <em>believers<\/em> before moving on <em>to Rome<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:13-14 They sailed across the Straits of Messina to Rhegium on the southern tip of Italy. This port was a stopping place for ships traveling from the west coast of Italy to the eastern Mediterranean. • Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli) was a major port of entry for large grain ships bringing supplies from the east to Rome. Paul spent a week here with some local believers before moving on to Rome.","summary_en":"28:13-14 They sailed across the Straits of Messina to Rhegium on the southern tip of Italy. This port was a stopping place for ships traveling from the west coast of Italy to the eastern Mediterranean. • Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli) was a major port of entry for large grain ships bringing supplies from the east to Rome. Paul spent a week here with some local believers before moving on to Rome.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":42703,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rome","title_en":"Rome","content_ro":"<h3>Rome<\/h3>\n<p>In the first century <span>AD<\/span> Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\n<p>The Founding and Early Growth of Rome<\/p>\n<p>Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 <span>BC<\/span> on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate.<\/p>\n<p>Around 600 <span>BC<\/span> the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous works, including the forum, which became the social, commercial, and political center for the city, and a temple for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Rome was now linked by roads to the Etruscans in the north, to the Greek trading cities in the south, to the sea to the west, and to the inland highlands to the east.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman Republic<\/p>\n<p>When Rome’s kings became autocratic, the Latin population rebelled. In 509 <span>BC<\/span>, Rome established a “republic,” an oligarchy of the powerful families who controlled the Senate. The small city-state steadily gained control of the region, expanding their influence across the Mediterranean. In 273 <span>BC<\/span> they made a treaty with the Ptolemies of Egypt. They expanded into North Africa, defeating the rival city-state Carthage in the course of the three Punic Wars (264–146 <span>BC<\/span>), and pressed on into Spain. Rome’s many conquests brought enormous wealth.<\/p>\n<p>With geographical expansion came social changes in Italy. Between 200 and 100 <span>BC<\/span>, rich landowners bought out small independent farmers, who subsequently drifted into Rome, landless and unemployed. Huge, overcrowded slums appeared alongside the vast wealth and magnificent buildings. The foundations of the republic were cracking under the strain of popular discontent.<\/p>\n<p>The Beginning of the Empire: Julius and Octavian<\/p>\n<p>During this time of social and political upheaval, Julius Caesar pursued an ambitious and tumultuous career which sought to centralize power in his own person. Senators who favored the old republic assassinated him in 44 <span>BC<\/span>, but their action ultimately backfired: Julius’s grandnephew and heir, Octavian, became a senator, consul, and the commander-in-chief in 43 <span>BC<\/span> with the support of the Senate. The Senate also deified Julius in 42 <span>BC<\/span>. After Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 <span>BC<\/span> and took control of Egypt, the Senate gave him the titles Augustus (“illustrious”) and Princeps (“first citizen”) in 27 <span>BC<\/span>, and Octavian began to call himself “son of a god” because of Julius’s divine status. The form of a republic survived, but the reality of a divine emperor had arrived.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the Birth of the Church<\/p>\n<p>“When the right time came, God sent his Son” (Gal 4:4). The change into an empire brought peace and stability, a <em>pax Romana<\/em> (“Roman peace”) that lasted well into the 100s <span>AD<\/span>. Many observers have noted that Roman rule during the first century <span>AD<\/span> provided the ideal setting for the spread of Christianity. The borders were secure and the roads were good, making travel relatively trouble-free. Roman laws and customs protected the rights of its citizens (see, e.g., Acts 16:35-40; 22:24-29). Judaism was protected, and the Romans viewed Christianity as a sect within Judaism (see, e.g., Acts 25:13-19). As a result, the Romans largely rejected complaints against Christians on religious grounds (see, e.g., Acts 19:23-41). Christians were free to proclaim the Good News about Jesus, and many people of all nationalities became followers of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The Changing Status of Christianity<\/p>\n<p>This favorable situation began to change in the time of Nero. Nero blamed Christians for the fire that destroyed a good part of Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 64, and he proceeded with the first large-scale persecution of Christians. The overt persecution ceased in <span>AD<\/span> 66, but Christianity was no longer viewed as a sect of Judaism and lost its protected status. It later became imperial policy to require people to burn incense to the emperor—those who refused were usually either Jews (who were protected) or Christians (who were not). As a result, from the time of Domitian (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) to Galerius (<span>AD<\/span> 305–311), Christianity was officially illegal, punishable by death, and persecuted to varying extents depending on the zeal of those in power. Thus for over two hundred years Rome drank “the blood of God’s holy people who were witnesses for Jesus” (Rev 17:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:1-7, 15; 2 Tim 1:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rome<\/h3>\n<p>In the first century <span>AD<\/span> Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\n<p>The Founding and Early Growth of Rome<\/p>\n<p>Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 <span>BC<\/span> on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate.<\/p>\n<p>Around 600 <span>BC<\/span> the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous works, including the forum, which became the social, commercial, and political center for the city, and a temple for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Rome was now linked by roads to the Etruscans in the north, to the Greek trading cities in the south, to the sea to the west, and to the inland highlands to the east.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman Republic<\/p>\n<p>When Rome’s kings became autocratic, the Latin population rebelled. In 509 <span>BC<\/span>, Rome established a “republic,” an oligarchy of the powerful families who controlled the Senate. The small city-state steadily gained control of the region, expanding their influence across the Mediterranean. In 273 <span>BC<\/span> they made a treaty with the Ptolemies of Egypt. They expanded into North Africa, defeating the rival city-state Carthage in the course of the three Punic Wars (264–146 <span>BC<\/span>), and pressed on into Spain. Rome’s many conquests brought enormous wealth.<\/p>\n<p>With geographical expansion came social changes in Italy. Between 200 and 100 <span>BC<\/span>, rich landowners bought out small independent farmers, who subsequently drifted into Rome, landless and unemployed. Huge, overcrowded slums appeared alongside the vast wealth and magnificent buildings. The foundations of the republic were cracking under the strain of popular discontent.<\/p>\n<p>The Beginning of the Empire: Julius and Octavian<\/p>\n<p>During this time of social and political upheaval, Julius Caesar pursued an ambitious and tumultuous career which sought to centralize power in his own person. Senators who favored the old republic assassinated him in 44 <span>BC<\/span>, but their action ultimately backfired: Julius’s grandnephew and heir, Octavian, became a senator, consul, and the commander-in-chief in 43 <span>BC<\/span> with the support of the Senate. The Senate also deified Julius in 42 <span>BC<\/span>. After Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 <span>BC<\/span> and took control of Egypt, the Senate gave him the titles Augustus (“illustrious”) and Princeps (“first citizen”) in 27 <span>BC<\/span>, and Octavian began to call himself “son of a god” because of Julius’s divine status. The form of a republic survived, but the reality of a divine emperor had arrived.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the Birth of the Church<\/p>\n<p>“When the right time came, God sent his Son” (Gal 4:4). The change into an empire brought peace and stability, a <em>pax Romana<\/em> (“Roman peace”) that lasted well into the 100s <span>AD<\/span>. Many observers have noted that Roman rule during the first century <span>AD<\/span> provided the ideal setting for the spread of Christianity. The borders were secure and the roads were good, making travel relatively trouble-free. Roman laws and customs protected the rights of its citizens (see, e.g., Acts 16:35-40; 22:24-29). Judaism was protected, and the Romans viewed Christianity as a sect within Judaism (see, e.g., Acts 25:13-19). As a result, the Romans largely rejected complaints against Christians on religious grounds (see, e.g., Acts 19:23-41). Christians were free to proclaim the Good News about Jesus, and many people of all nationalities became followers of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The Changing Status of Christianity<\/p>\n<p>This favorable situation began to change in the time of Nero. Nero blamed Christians for the fire that destroyed a good part of Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 64, and he proceeded with the first large-scale persecution of Christians. The overt persecution ceased in <span>AD<\/span> 66, but Christianity was no longer viewed as a sect of Judaism and lost its protected status. It later became imperial policy to require people to burn incense to the emperor—those who refused were usually either Jews (who were protected) or Christians (who were not). As a result, from the time of Domitian (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) to Galerius (<span>AD<\/span> 305–311), Christianity was officially illegal, punishable by death, and persecuted to varying extents depending on the zeal of those in power. Thus for over two hundred years Rome drank “the blood of God’s holy people who were witnesses for Jesus” (Rev 17:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:1-7, 15; 2 Tim 1:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rome In the first century AD Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world. The Founding and Early Growth of Rome Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 BC on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate. Around 600 BC the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous ...","summary_en":"Rome In the first century AD Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world. The Founding and Early Growth of Rome Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 BC on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate. Around 600 BC the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70329,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rome","title_en":"Rome","content_ro":"<h3>Rome<\/h3>\n<p>In the first century <span>AD<\/span> Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\n<p>The Founding and Early Growth of Rome<\/p>\n<p>Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 <span>BC<\/span> on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate.<\/p>\n<p>Around 600 <span>BC<\/span> the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous works, including the forum, which became the social, commercial, and political center for the city, and a temple for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Rome was now linked by roads to the Etruscans in the north, to the Greek trading cities in the south, to the sea to the west, and to the inland highlands to the east.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman Republic<\/p>\n<p>When Rome’s kings became autocratic, the Latin population rebelled. In 509 <span>BC<\/span>, Rome established a “republic,” an oligarchy of the powerful families who controlled the Senate. The small city-state steadily gained control of the region, expanding their influence across the Mediterranean. In 273 <span>BC<\/span> they made a treaty with the Ptolemies of Egypt. They expanded into North Africa, defeating the rival city-state Carthage in the course of the three Punic Wars (264–146 <span>BC<\/span>), and pressed on into Spain. Rome’s many conquests brought enormous wealth.<\/p>\n<p>With geographical expansion came social changes in Italy. Between 200 and 100 <span>BC<\/span>, rich landowners bought out small independent farmers, who subsequently drifted into Rome, landless and unemployed. Huge, overcrowded slums appeared alongside the vast wealth and magnificent buildings. The foundations of the republic were cracking under the strain of popular discontent.<\/p>\n<p>The Beginning of the Empire: Julius and Octavian<\/p>\n<p>During this time of social and political upheaval, Julius Caesar pursued an ambitious and tumultuous career which sought to centralize power in his own person. Senators who favored the old republic assassinated him in 44 <span>BC<\/span>, but their action ultimately backfired: Julius’s grandnephew and heir, Octavian, became a senator, consul, and the commander-in-chief in 43 <span>BC<\/span> with the support of the Senate. The Senate also deified Julius in 42 <span>BC<\/span>. After Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 <span>BC<\/span> and took control of Egypt, the Senate gave him the titles Augustus (“illustrious”) and Princeps (“first citizen”) in 27 <span>BC<\/span>, and Octavian began to call himself “son of a god” because of Julius’s divine status. The form of a republic survived, but the reality of a divine emperor had arrived.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the Birth of the Church<\/p>\n<p>“When the right time came, God sent his Son” (Gal 4:4). The change into an empire brought peace and stability, a <em>pax Romana<\/em> (“Roman peace”) that lasted well into the 100s <span>AD<\/span>. Many observers have noted that Roman rule during the first century <span>AD<\/span> provided the ideal setting for the spread of Christianity. The borders were secure and the roads were good, making travel relatively trouble-free. Roman laws and customs protected the rights of its citizens (see, e.g., Acts 16:35-40; 22:24-29). Judaism was protected, and the Romans viewed Christianity as a sect within Judaism (see, e.g., Acts 25:13-19). As a result, the Romans largely rejected complaints against Christians on religious grounds (see, e.g., Acts 19:23-41). Christians were free to proclaim the Good News about Jesus, and many people of all nationalities became followers of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The Changing Status of Christianity<\/p>\n<p>This favorable situation began to change in the time of Nero. Nero blamed Christians for the fire that destroyed a good part of Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 64, and he proceeded with the first large-scale persecution of Christians. The overt persecution ceased in <span>AD<\/span> 66, but Christianity was no longer viewed as a sect of Judaism and lost its protected status. It later became imperial policy to require people to burn incense to the emperor—those who refused were usually either Jews (who were protected) or Christians (who were not). As a result, from the time of Domitian (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) to Galerius (<span>AD<\/span> 305–311), Christianity was officially illegal, punishable by death, and persecuted to varying extents depending on the zeal of those in power. Thus for over two hundred years Rome drank “the blood of God’s holy people who were witnesses for Jesus” (Rev 17:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:1-7, 15; 2 Tim 1:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rome<\/h3>\n<p>In the first century <span>AD<\/span> Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\n<p>The Founding and Early Growth of Rome<\/p>\n<p>Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 <span>BC<\/span> on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate.<\/p>\n<p>Around 600 <span>BC<\/span> the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous works, including the forum, which became the social, commercial, and political center for the city, and a temple for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Rome was now linked by roads to the Etruscans in the north, to the Greek trading cities in the south, to the sea to the west, and to the inland highlands to the east.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman Republic<\/p>\n<p>When Rome’s kings became autocratic, the Latin population rebelled. In 509 <span>BC<\/span>, Rome established a “republic,” an oligarchy of the powerful families who controlled the Senate. The small city-state steadily gained control of the region, expanding their influence across the Mediterranean. In 273 <span>BC<\/span> they made a treaty with the Ptolemies of Egypt. They expanded into North Africa, defeating the rival city-state Carthage in the course of the three Punic Wars (264–146 <span>BC<\/span>), and pressed on into Spain. Rome’s many conquests brought enormous wealth.<\/p>\n<p>With geographical expansion came social changes in Italy. Between 200 and 100 <span>BC<\/span>, rich landowners bought out small independent farmers, who subsequently drifted into Rome, landless and unemployed. Huge, overcrowded slums appeared alongside the vast wealth and magnificent buildings. The foundations of the republic were cracking under the strain of popular discontent.<\/p>\n<p>The Beginning of the Empire: Julius and Octavian<\/p>\n<p>During this time of social and political upheaval, Julius Caesar pursued an ambitious and tumultuous career which sought to centralize power in his own person. Senators who favored the old republic assassinated him in 44 <span>BC<\/span>, but their action ultimately backfired: Julius’s grandnephew and heir, Octavian, became a senator, consul, and the commander-in-chief in 43 <span>BC<\/span> with the support of the Senate. The Senate also deified Julius in 42 <span>BC<\/span>. After Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 <span>BC<\/span> and took control of Egypt, the Senate gave him the titles Augustus (“illustrious”) and Princeps (“first citizen”) in 27 <span>BC<\/span>, and Octavian began to call himself “son of a god” because of Julius’s divine status. The form of a republic survived, but the reality of a divine emperor had arrived.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the Birth of the Church<\/p>\n<p>“When the right time came, God sent his Son” (Gal 4:4). The change into an empire brought peace and stability, a <em>pax Romana<\/em> (“Roman peace”) that lasted well into the 100s <span>AD<\/span>. Many observers have noted that Roman rule during the first century <span>AD<\/span> provided the ideal setting for the spread of Christianity. The borders were secure and the roads were good, making travel relatively trouble-free. Roman laws and customs protected the rights of its citizens (see, e.g., Acts 16:35-40; 22:24-29). Judaism was protected, and the Romans viewed Christianity as a sect within Judaism (see, e.g., Acts 25:13-19). As a result, the Romans largely rejected complaints against Christians on religious grounds (see, e.g., Acts 19:23-41). Christians were free to proclaim the Good News about Jesus, and many people of all nationalities became followers of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The Changing Status of Christianity<\/p>\n<p>This favorable situation began to change in the time of Nero. Nero blamed Christians for the fire that destroyed a good part of Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 64, and he proceeded with the first large-scale persecution of Christians. The overt persecution ceased in <span>AD<\/span> 66, but Christianity was no longer viewed as a sect of Judaism and lost its protected status. It later became imperial policy to require people to burn incense to the emperor—those who refused were usually either Jews (who were protected) or Christians (who were not). As a result, from the time of Domitian (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) to Galerius (<span>AD<\/span> 305–311), Christianity was officially illegal, punishable by death, and persecuted to varying extents depending on the zeal of those in power. Thus for over two hundred years Rome drank “the blood of God’s holy people who were witnesses for Jesus” (Rev 17:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:1-7, 15; 2 Tim 1:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rome In the first century AD Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world. The Founding and Early Growth of Rome Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 BC on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate. Around 600 BC the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous ...","summary_en":"Rome In the first century AD Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world. The Founding and Early Growth of Rome Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 BC on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate. Around 600 BC the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97955,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rome","title_en":"Rome","content_ro":"<h3>Rome<\/h3>\n<p>In the first century <span>AD<\/span> Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\n<p>The Founding and Early Growth of Rome<\/p>\n<p>Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 <span>BC<\/span> on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate.<\/p>\n<p>Around 600 <span>BC<\/span> the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous works, including the forum, which became the social, commercial, and political center for the city, and a temple for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Rome was now linked by roads to the Etruscans in the north, to the Greek trading cities in the south, to the sea to the west, and to the inland highlands to the east.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman Republic<\/p>\n<p>When Rome’s kings became autocratic, the Latin population rebelled. In 509 <span>BC<\/span>, Rome established a “republic,” an oligarchy of the powerful families who controlled the Senate. The small city-state steadily gained control of the region, expanding their influence across the Mediterranean. In 273 <span>BC<\/span> they made a treaty with the Ptolemies of Egypt. They expanded into North Africa, defeating the rival city-state Carthage in the course of the three Punic Wars (264–146 <span>BC<\/span>), and pressed on into Spain. Rome’s many conquests brought enormous wealth.<\/p>\n<p>With geographical expansion came social changes in Italy. Between 200 and 100 <span>BC<\/span>, rich landowners bought out small independent farmers, who subsequently drifted into Rome, landless and unemployed. Huge, overcrowded slums appeared alongside the vast wealth and magnificent buildings. The foundations of the republic were cracking under the strain of popular discontent.<\/p>\n<p>The Beginning of the Empire: Julius and Octavian<\/p>\n<p>During this time of social and political upheaval, Julius Caesar pursued an ambitious and tumultuous career which sought to centralize power in his own person. Senators who favored the old republic assassinated him in 44 <span>BC<\/span>, but their action ultimately backfired: Julius’s grandnephew and heir, Octavian, became a senator, consul, and the commander-in-chief in 43 <span>BC<\/span> with the support of the Senate. The Senate also deified Julius in 42 <span>BC<\/span>. After Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 <span>BC<\/span> and took control of Egypt, the Senate gave him the titles Augustus (“illustrious”) and Princeps (“first citizen”) in 27 <span>BC<\/span>, and Octavian began to call himself “son of a god” because of Julius’s divine status. The form of a republic survived, but the reality of a divine emperor had arrived.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the Birth of the Church<\/p>\n<p>“When the right time came, God sent his Son” (Gal 4:4). The change into an empire brought peace and stability, a <em>pax Romana<\/em> (“Roman peace”) that lasted well into the 100s <span>AD<\/span>. Many observers have noted that Roman rule during the first century <span>AD<\/span> provided the ideal setting for the spread of Christianity. The borders were secure and the roads were good, making travel relatively trouble-free. Roman laws and customs protected the rights of its citizens (see, e.g., Acts 16:35-40; 22:24-29). Judaism was protected, and the Romans viewed Christianity as a sect within Judaism (see, e.g., Acts 25:13-19). As a result, the Romans largely rejected complaints against Christians on religious grounds (see, e.g., Acts 19:23-41). Christians were free to proclaim the Good News about Jesus, and many people of all nationalities became followers of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The Changing Status of Christianity<\/p>\n<p>This favorable situation began to change in the time of Nero. Nero blamed Christians for the fire that destroyed a good part of Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 64, and he proceeded with the first large-scale persecution of Christians. The overt persecution ceased in <span>AD<\/span> 66, but Christianity was no longer viewed as a sect of Judaism and lost its protected status. It later became imperial policy to require people to burn incense to the emperor—those who refused were usually either Jews (who were protected) or Christians (who were not). As a result, from the time of Domitian (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) to Galerius (<span>AD<\/span> 305–311), Christianity was officially illegal, punishable by death, and persecuted to varying extents depending on the zeal of those in power. Thus for over two hundred years Rome drank “the blood of God’s holy people who were witnesses for Jesus” (Rev 17:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:1-7, 15; 2 Tim 1:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rome<\/h3>\n<p>In the first century <span>AD<\/span> Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\n<p>The Founding and Early Growth of Rome<\/p>\n<p>Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 <span>BC<\/span> on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate.<\/p>\n<p>Around 600 <span>BC<\/span> the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous works, including the forum, which became the social, commercial, and political center for the city, and a temple for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Rome was now linked by roads to the Etruscans in the north, to the Greek trading cities in the south, to the sea to the west, and to the inland highlands to the east.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman Republic<\/p>\n<p>When Rome’s kings became autocratic, the Latin population rebelled. In 509 <span>BC<\/span>, Rome established a “republic,” an oligarchy of the powerful families who controlled the Senate. The small city-state steadily gained control of the region, expanding their influence across the Mediterranean. In 273 <span>BC<\/span> they made a treaty with the Ptolemies of Egypt. They expanded into North Africa, defeating the rival city-state Carthage in the course of the three Punic Wars (264–146 <span>BC<\/span>), and pressed on into Spain. Rome’s many conquests brought enormous wealth.<\/p>\n<p>With geographical expansion came social changes in Italy. Between 200 and 100 <span>BC<\/span>, rich landowners bought out small independent farmers, who subsequently drifted into Rome, landless and unemployed. Huge, overcrowded slums appeared alongside the vast wealth and magnificent buildings. The foundations of the republic were cracking under the strain of popular discontent.<\/p>\n<p>The Beginning of the Empire: Julius and Octavian<\/p>\n<p>During this time of social and political upheaval, Julius Caesar pursued an ambitious and tumultuous career which sought to centralize power in his own person. Senators who favored the old republic assassinated him in 44 <span>BC<\/span>, but their action ultimately backfired: Julius’s grandnephew and heir, Octavian, became a senator, consul, and the commander-in-chief in 43 <span>BC<\/span> with the support of the Senate. The Senate also deified Julius in 42 <span>BC<\/span>. After Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 <span>BC<\/span> and took control of Egypt, the Senate gave him the titles Augustus (“illustrious”) and Princeps (“first citizen”) in 27 <span>BC<\/span>, and Octavian began to call himself “son of a god” because of Julius’s divine status. The form of a republic survived, but the reality of a divine emperor had arrived.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the Birth of the Church<\/p>\n<p>“When the right time came, God sent his Son” (Gal 4:4). The change into an empire brought peace and stability, a <em>pax Romana<\/em> (“Roman peace”) that lasted well into the 100s <span>AD<\/span>. Many observers have noted that Roman rule during the first century <span>AD<\/span> provided the ideal setting for the spread of Christianity. The borders were secure and the roads were good, making travel relatively trouble-free. Roman laws and customs protected the rights of its citizens (see, e.g., Acts 16:35-40; 22:24-29). Judaism was protected, and the Romans viewed Christianity as a sect within Judaism (see, e.g., Acts 25:13-19). As a result, the Romans largely rejected complaints against Christians on religious grounds (see, e.g., Acts 19:23-41). Christians were free to proclaim the Good News about Jesus, and many people of all nationalities became followers of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The Changing Status of Christianity<\/p>\n<p>This favorable situation began to change in the time of Nero. Nero blamed Christians for the fire that destroyed a good part of Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 64, and he proceeded with the first large-scale persecution of Christians. The overt persecution ceased in <span>AD<\/span> 66, but Christianity was no longer viewed as a sect of Judaism and lost its protected status. It later became imperial policy to require people to burn incense to the emperor—those who refused were usually either Jews (who were protected) or Christians (who were not). As a result, from the time of Domitian (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) to Galerius (<span>AD<\/span> 305–311), Christianity was officially illegal, punishable by death, and persecuted to varying extents depending on the zeal of those in power. Thus for over two hundred years Rome drank “the blood of God’s holy people who were witnesses for Jesus” (Rev 17:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:1-7, 15; 2 Tim 1:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rome In the first century AD Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world. The Founding and Early Growth of Rome Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 BC on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate. Around 600 BC the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous ...","summary_en":"Rome In the first century AD Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world. The Founding and Early Growth of Rome Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 BC on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate. Around 600 BC the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":125581,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rome","title_en":"Rome","content_ro":"<h3>Rome<\/h3>\n<p>In the first century <span>AD<\/span> Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\n<p>The Founding and Early Growth of Rome<\/p>\n<p>Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 <span>BC<\/span> on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate.<\/p>\n<p>Around 600 <span>BC<\/span> the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous works, including the forum, which became the social, commercial, and political center for the city, and a temple for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Rome was now linked by roads to the Etruscans in the north, to the Greek trading cities in the south, to the sea to the west, and to the inland highlands to the east.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman Republic<\/p>\n<p>When Rome’s kings became autocratic, the Latin population rebelled. In 509 <span>BC<\/span>, Rome established a “republic,” an oligarchy of the powerful families who controlled the Senate. The small city-state steadily gained control of the region, expanding their influence across the Mediterranean. In 273 <span>BC<\/span> they made a treaty with the Ptolemies of Egypt. They expanded into North Africa, defeating the rival city-state Carthage in the course of the three Punic Wars (264–146 <span>BC<\/span>), and pressed on into Spain. Rome’s many conquests brought enormous wealth.<\/p>\n<p>With geographical expansion came social changes in Italy. Between 200 and 100 <span>BC<\/span>, rich landowners bought out small independent farmers, who subsequently drifted into Rome, landless and unemployed. Huge, overcrowded slums appeared alongside the vast wealth and magnificent buildings. The foundations of the republic were cracking under the strain of popular discontent.<\/p>\n<p>The Beginning of the Empire: Julius and Octavian<\/p>\n<p>During this time of social and political upheaval, Julius Caesar pursued an ambitious and tumultuous career which sought to centralize power in his own person. Senators who favored the old republic assassinated him in 44 <span>BC<\/span>, but their action ultimately backfired: Julius’s grandnephew and heir, Octavian, became a senator, consul, and the commander-in-chief in 43 <span>BC<\/span> with the support of the Senate. The Senate also deified Julius in 42 <span>BC<\/span>. After Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 <span>BC<\/span> and took control of Egypt, the Senate gave him the titles Augustus (“illustrious”) and Princeps (“first citizen”) in 27 <span>BC<\/span>, and Octavian began to call himself “son of a god” because of Julius’s divine status. The form of a republic survived, but the reality of a divine emperor had arrived.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the Birth of the Church<\/p>\n<p>“When the right time came, God sent his Son” (Gal 4:4). The change into an empire brought peace and stability, a <em>pax Romana<\/em> (“Roman peace”) that lasted well into the 100s <span>AD<\/span>. Many observers have noted that Roman rule during the first century <span>AD<\/span> provided the ideal setting for the spread of Christianity. The borders were secure and the roads were good, making travel relatively trouble-free. Roman laws and customs protected the rights of its citizens (see, e.g., Acts 16:35-40; 22:24-29). Judaism was protected, and the Romans viewed Christianity as a sect within Judaism (see, e.g., Acts 25:13-19). As a result, the Romans largely rejected complaints against Christians on religious grounds (see, e.g., Acts 19:23-41). Christians were free to proclaim the Good News about Jesus, and many people of all nationalities became followers of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The Changing Status of Christianity<\/p>\n<p>This favorable situation began to change in the time of Nero. Nero blamed Christians for the fire that destroyed a good part of Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 64, and he proceeded with the first large-scale persecution of Christians. The overt persecution ceased in <span>AD<\/span> 66, but Christianity was no longer viewed as a sect of Judaism and lost its protected status. It later became imperial policy to require people to burn incense to the emperor—those who refused were usually either Jews (who were protected) or Christians (who were not). As a result, from the time of Domitian (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) to Galerius (<span>AD<\/span> 305–311), Christianity was officially illegal, punishable by death, and persecuted to varying extents depending on the zeal of those in power. Thus for over two hundred years Rome drank “the blood of God’s holy people who were witnesses for Jesus” (Rev 17:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:1-7, 15; 2 Tim 1:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rome<\/h3>\n<p>In the first century <span>AD<\/span> Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\n<p>The Founding and Early Growth of Rome<\/p>\n<p>Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 <span>BC<\/span> on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate.<\/p>\n<p>Around 600 <span>BC<\/span> the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous works, including the forum, which became the social, commercial, and political center for the city, and a temple for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Rome was now linked by roads to the Etruscans in the north, to the Greek trading cities in the south, to the sea to the west, and to the inland highlands to the east.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman Republic<\/p>\n<p>When Rome’s kings became autocratic, the Latin population rebelled. In 509 <span>BC<\/span>, Rome established a “republic,” an oligarchy of the powerful families who controlled the Senate. The small city-state steadily gained control of the region, expanding their influence across the Mediterranean. In 273 <span>BC<\/span> they made a treaty with the Ptolemies of Egypt. They expanded into North Africa, defeating the rival city-state Carthage in the course of the three Punic Wars (264–146 <span>BC<\/span>), and pressed on into Spain. Rome’s many conquests brought enormous wealth.<\/p>\n<p>With geographical expansion came social changes in Italy. Between 200 and 100 <span>BC<\/span>, rich landowners bought out small independent farmers, who subsequently drifted into Rome, landless and unemployed. Huge, overcrowded slums appeared alongside the vast wealth and magnificent buildings. The foundations of the republic were cracking under the strain of popular discontent.<\/p>\n<p>The Beginning of the Empire: Julius and Octavian<\/p>\n<p>During this time of social and political upheaval, Julius Caesar pursued an ambitious and tumultuous career which sought to centralize power in his own person. Senators who favored the old republic assassinated him in 44 <span>BC<\/span>, but their action ultimately backfired: Julius’s grandnephew and heir, Octavian, became a senator, consul, and the commander-in-chief in 43 <span>BC<\/span> with the support of the Senate. The Senate also deified Julius in 42 <span>BC<\/span>. After Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 <span>BC<\/span> and took control of Egypt, the Senate gave him the titles Augustus (“illustrious”) and Princeps (“first citizen”) in 27 <span>BC<\/span>, and Octavian began to call himself “son of a god” because of Julius’s divine status. The form of a republic survived, but the reality of a divine emperor had arrived.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the Birth of the Church<\/p>\n<p>“When the right time came, God sent his Son” (Gal 4:4). The change into an empire brought peace and stability, a <em>pax Romana<\/em> (“Roman peace”) that lasted well into the 100s <span>AD<\/span>. Many observers have noted that Roman rule during the first century <span>AD<\/span> provided the ideal setting for the spread of Christianity. The borders were secure and the roads were good, making travel relatively trouble-free. Roman laws and customs protected the rights of its citizens (see, e.g., Acts 16:35-40; 22:24-29). Judaism was protected, and the Romans viewed Christianity as a sect within Judaism (see, e.g., Acts 25:13-19). As a result, the Romans largely rejected complaints against Christians on religious grounds (see, e.g., Acts 19:23-41). Christians were free to proclaim the Good News about Jesus, and many people of all nationalities became followers of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The Changing Status of Christianity<\/p>\n<p>This favorable situation began to change in the time of Nero. Nero blamed Christians for the fire that destroyed a good part of Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 64, and he proceeded with the first large-scale persecution of Christians. The overt persecution ceased in <span>AD<\/span> 66, but Christianity was no longer viewed as a sect of Judaism and lost its protected status. It later became imperial policy to require people to burn incense to the emperor—those who refused were usually either Jews (who were protected) or Christians (who were not). As a result, from the time of Domitian (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) to Galerius (<span>AD<\/span> 305–311), Christianity was officially illegal, punishable by death, and persecuted to varying extents depending on the zeal of those in power. Thus for over two hundred years Rome drank “the blood of God’s holy people who were witnesses for Jesus” (Rev 17:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:1-7, 15; 2 Tim 1:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rome In the first century AD Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world. The Founding and Early Growth of Rome Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 BC on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate. Around 600 BC the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous ...","summary_en":"Rome In the first century AD Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world. The Founding and Early Growth of Rome Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 BC on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate. Around 600 BC the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":33292,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"City of Rome","title_en":"City of Rome","content_ro":"<h3>ROME, City of<\/h3>\n<p>City in Italy founded, according to tradition, in 753 <span>BC<\/span> on seven hills about 15 miles (24.1 kilometers) from the mouth of the Tiber River. It was of no biblical interest until NT times. There are nine explicit references to the city in the NT (Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:7, 15; 2 Tm 1:17), but Paul’s sojourn there and his letter to the Roman Christians, written probably from Corinth around <span>AD<\/span> 57 and 58, make the imperial city of considerable interest to Bible readers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"History\">History<\/p>\n<p>In the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>, Indo-European migrants moved into Europe and settled in the Italian peninsula. One group settled around the mouth of the Tiber River. A vigorous and more cultured group, the Etruscans from Asia Minor, occupied central Italy. At the time of Rome’s emergence in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, the population of the Italian peninsula was mixed. The Latin-speaking enclave, which settled toward the mouth of the Tiber, were agriculturalists. The scattered groups formed leagues and communities to defend themselves against raiders. They built stockades on the hills to protect families and flocks while fighting off the raiders. From such beginnings Rome emerged as a dominant center with its focal point in the area of the seven hills (the Palatine, the Capitoline, the Aventine, the Caelian, the Esquiline, the Viminal, and the Quirinal). Traditionally these hills were considered to be seven in number; in fact, there are more than seven, although some are simply flat-topped spurs. The Tiber River winds in a large S-curve between the hills. At one point it divided to form an island where it was shallow enough to ford. The town that grew up there was linked by roads, north to the Etruscans, south to the Greek trading cities, west to the coast, and inland to the tribal areas on the highlands. Knowledge of early Rome is based largely on archaeological evidence from the remains of the simple forts and numerous burial sites in the area.<\/p>\n<p>Rome developed politically in a remarkable fashion over the next 1,000 years. The loose association of the original chieftains, who comprised the earliest “senate,” gave place to domination by Etruscan kings who seem to have trained the people in discipline and obedience. They constructed numerous works, draining the forum area and making it a social, commercial, industrial, and political center. They built a temple for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva on the Capitoline Hill as a common shrine for all the people. When the kings became autocratic, the Latin population rebelled and expelled the kings.<\/p>\n<p>The republic was established in 510 <span>BC<\/span>. This establishment marked the beginning of Rome’s remarkable expansion to the dimensions of a world empire. The population, which was now spread out over the hills and valleys, despite their tribal differences, united and solved political problems without bloodshed. Strictly speaking, the term “republican” should not be understood in any modern sense as indicating a kind of democracy. Rather, the ancient families (patricians) dominated the senate and constituted an oligarchy. This arrangement was useful for Rome at that time. The small city-state soon broke out of its confined area, overcame the Etruscans, and dominated the Greek cities to the south. The Romans then looked farther afield. In 273 <span>BC<\/span> they made a treaty with the Ptolemies of Egypt. Before long, they expanded into North Africa, overcame the Carthaginians, pressed on into Spain, and developed ambitions to occupy the Middle East as well. Rome’s many conquests brought enormous wealth.<\/p>\n<p>With geographical expansion came social changes in Italy. During the second century <span>BC<\/span>, rich landowners bought out the small independent farmers, who subsequently drifted into Rome, landless and unemployed. Huge, overcrowded tenement houses appeared, which constituted creeping slums. Alongside this squalor there was evidence of vast wealth from Rome’s conquests in distant lands. In the capital, many fine buildings appeared. Pompey, who subdued and organized the East, did much to adorn the great capital.<\/p>\n<p>The next stage in Rome’s political development came when the senate, the governing body of the republic, proved unable to control its more radical and violent members. As their political ambitions increased, aspiring leaders sought to gain popular support by granting privileges to the people without the concurrence of the senate. Civil strife broke out and plagued the last century of the republic. Military victories beyond Rome gave power to the generals. In the civil wars that followed, constitutional questions were decided by the power of the sword. Marius, Sulla, Pompey, Crassus, Julius Caesar, Antony, and Octavian were the real political forces in the land.<\/p>\n\n<p>By 27 <span>BC<\/span>, Octavian emerged supreme and was given the title Augustus. Theoretically, a dual government existed between the senate and Augustus (the emperor), but a weak senate allowed the emperor to become the virtual ruler. As a result, Roman peace (<em>pax Romana<\/em>) reigned at home and abroad until well into the second century <span>AD<\/span>. The emperors of the first century <span>AD<\/span> cover the period of the life of Jesus and of the emerging church, and several are mentioned in the NT: Augustus (Lk 2:1), Tiberius (Lk 3:1), Claudius (Acts 11:28; 18:2), and Nero, who is referred to without being explicitly named (Acts 25:10-12; 27:24; 2 Tm 4:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>The city of Rome was the capital of the empire and the home of the emperor, senators, administrators, military personnel, and priests. Augustus, the first of the emperors whose leadership and diplomatic endeavors gave peace to Rome after two civil wars and a century of strife, gave attention to the restoration and adornment of the city. He boasted that he found Rome built of brick and left it built of marble. His efforts at restoring Rome’s ancient religions led to the building of many temples. On the Palatine hill, Augustus united several houses already there into a palace for his own residence. A new and sumptuous temple of Apollo, surrounded by colonnades in which the emperor housed a large library, was erected near the palace. The palace itself overlooked an imposing group of new marble buildings in the valley below: a basilica business hall, a senate house, a temple of “the divine Julius,” a marble speaker’s platform, two impressive new forums, the forum of Caesar, and the forum of Augustus. Later emperors added to this splendor. Beyond the central forum area, the palaces of Tiberius and Caligula, various baths, arches, and theaters, the Circus Maximus, and the Circus Nero were built. The whole was enclosed by a wall built outside the old rampart of Servius. Several aqueducts brought water into the city, and significant roads from north, south, east, and west converged on the central city area.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"RomesMilitaryPresenceinPalestine\">Rome’s Military Presence in Palestine<\/p>\n<p>With the military intervention of Pompey in the internal affairs of Judea in 63 <span>BC<\/span>, Rome established its presence in Palestine. The census ordered by Augustus Caesar, affecting the eastern provinces as well as the rest of the Roman world (Lk 2:1-2), was a vivid reminder. Roman military presence is amply reflected on the pages of the Gospels and Acts (e.g., Mk 15:16; Lk 3:14; 7:1-8; Acts 5:37).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT period, service in the legions was open to all Roman citizens. A professional volunteer army had replaced a conscripted militia. The permanent standing army was made up of legions recruited from the ranks of citizens. The legions were commanded by experienced officers of the rank of consul. Auxiliary forces were raised outside Italy, the inducement for enlistment being Roman citizenship for a soldier and his descendants after 25 years of service.<\/p>\n<p>In the provinces supreme military command lay with the provincial governor or prefect. In Judea at the time of Jesus’ public ministry, Pontius Pilate was designated “prefect of Judea” in a Latin inscription found in Caesarea in 1961. At the official center for administration of Judea, Caesarea Maritima, one or more legions at the disposal of the governor would be garrisoned. On special occasions, particularly at the great Jewish festivals, when riots and disorders could be anticipated, the provincial governor would take up residence in Jerusalem some 60 miles (96.5 kilometers) to the south, accompanied by a substantial contingent of troops (cf. Lk 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>Augustus established a standing army large enough to defend and pacify the empire. In 15 <span>BC<\/span> there were 28 legions, each composed of some 5,000 foot soldiers plus a mounted bodyguard of 128 men. After three legions were destroyed in uprisings by fierce Germanic tribes in <span>AD<\/span> 9, the number remained at 25 for some time. That suggests a standing army of about 125,000 legionaries in the first century.<\/p>\n<p>Augustus was also responsible for establishing a permanent auxiliary army, almost the same size as the legionary army. The auxiliary forces, recruited from provincials who had not yet received Roman citizenship, included both cavalry and infantry. The cavalry was organized in squadrons, the infantry in cohorts of 1,000 under command of a military tribune (Acts 21:31-33). When the apostle Paul was in Jerusalem, the tribune was Claudius Lysias, a man of Greek birth whose purchased Roman citizenship made possible his elevation to commander of an auxiliary cohort (22:28; 23:26). To send Paul from Jerusalem to Caesarea, Claudius could delegate a military escort of 200 soldiers commanded by two centurions, plus 70 mounted guards (23:23), without dangerously weakening the strength of the fortress garrison.<\/p>\n<p>A cohort was made up of either ten or five “centuries,” units consisting of 100 men under the command of a centurion whose duties resembled those of a modern army captain. Cornelius (Acts 10:1) was a Roman centurion assigned to one of the auxiliary cohorts in Judea. There is inscriptional evidence for the presence of his unit, “the Second Italian Cohort of Roman Citizens,” in Syria about <span>AD<\/span> 69. Paul was sent to Rome in the custody of another centurion, Julius, who belonged to the Augustan or imperial cohort (27:1). The term Augustan was a title of honor sometimes bestowed on auxiliary troops. Julius was evidently a legionary centurion assigned to the corps of officer-couriers who maintained a communication service between the emperor and his provincial armies. He had a detachment of soldiers under his command on the voyage to Rome (v 3) and on arrival handed his prisoners over to the commander of the courier corps (28:16). Probably all of the Roman centurions mentioned in the Gospels or Acts (Mt 8:5; Mk 15:39; Lk 7:2) were officers assigned to an auxiliary cohort.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ChristiansinRome\">Christians in Rome<\/p>\n<p>It was to this magnificent city that Paul came under escort in March <span>AD<\/span> 59. He found that the Christian church had already been established there. Indeed, he had already communicated with the Christians in his letter to the Romans early in 57. There was a considerable Jewish colony in Rome in the first century <span>AD<\/span>, descended from the large number of Jewish slaves brought to the city by Pompey after the capture of Jerusalem in 63 <span>BC<\/span>. The emperor Claudius expelled Jews from Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 49, possibly when Jesus was proclaimed as Messiah in the synagogue. Who the preachers were is not known, but they were probably Christian travelers and traders. Paul’s Letter to the Romans was his exposition to the Gentile churches that had come into existence independently of him. His first known contact with the people of Rome was when he met Aquila and Priscilla at Corinth (Acts 18:2). This couple was expelled from Rome in the time of Claudius. Later, Paul hoped to visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:24). In his salutation he mentioned a considerable circle of Christians in Rome (ch 16). The references to households in several places (vv 5, 10, 11, 14, 15) suggest that these were house churches of the Roman Christian church. During his captivity, Paul was a prisoner of Roman authorities, but he was able to meet the local leaders of the Jews, explain his experiences to them, and expound the gospel to them in person (Acts 28:16-31).<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Revelation, Rome is given a sinister significance. By the end of the first century <span>AD<\/span>, Rome had already drunk the “blood of the martyrs of Jesus” (Rv 17:6), a reference to early martyrs.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Caesars, The; Romans, Letter to the.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ROME, City of<\/h3>\n<p>City in Italy founded, according to tradition, in 753 <span>BC<\/span> on seven hills about 15 miles (24.1 kilometers) from the mouth of the Tiber River. It was of no biblical interest until NT times. There are nine explicit references to the city in the NT (Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:7, 15; 2 Tm 1:17), but Paul’s sojourn there and his letter to the Roman Christians, written probably from Corinth around <span>AD<\/span> 57 and 58, make the imperial city of considerable interest to Bible readers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"History\">History<\/p>\n<p>In the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>, Indo-European migrants moved into Europe and settled in the Italian peninsula. One group settled around the mouth of the Tiber River. A vigorous and more cultured group, the Etruscans from Asia Minor, occupied central Italy. At the time of Rome’s emergence in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, the population of the Italian peninsula was mixed. The Latin-speaking enclave, which settled toward the mouth of the Tiber, were agriculturalists. The scattered groups formed leagues and communities to defend themselves against raiders. They built stockades on the hills to protect families and flocks while fighting off the raiders. From such beginnings Rome emerged as a dominant center with its focal point in the area of the seven hills (the Palatine, the Capitoline, the Aventine, the Caelian, the Esquiline, the Viminal, and the Quirinal). Traditionally these hills were considered to be seven in number; in fact, there are more than seven, although some are simply flat-topped spurs. The Tiber River winds in a large S-curve between the hills. At one point it divided to form an island where it was shallow enough to ford. The town that grew up there was linked by roads, north to the Etruscans, south to the Greek trading cities, west to the coast, and inland to the tribal areas on the highlands. Knowledge of early Rome is based largely on archaeological evidence from the remains of the simple forts and numerous burial sites in the area.<\/p>\n<p>Rome developed politically in a remarkable fashion over the next 1,000 years. The loose association of the original chieftains, who comprised the earliest “senate,” gave place to domination by Etruscan kings who seem to have trained the people in discipline and obedience. They constructed numerous works, draining the forum area and making it a social, commercial, industrial, and political center. They built a temple for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva on the Capitoline Hill as a common shrine for all the people. When the kings became autocratic, the Latin population rebelled and expelled the kings.<\/p>\n<p>The republic was established in 510 <span>BC<\/span>. This establishment marked the beginning of Rome’s remarkable expansion to the dimensions of a world empire. The population, which was now spread out over the hills and valleys, despite their tribal differences, united and solved political problems without bloodshed. Strictly speaking, the term “republican” should not be understood in any modern sense as indicating a kind of democracy. Rather, the ancient families (patricians) dominated the senate and constituted an oligarchy. This arrangement was useful for Rome at that time. The small city-state soon broke out of its confined area, overcame the Etruscans, and dominated the Greek cities to the south. The Romans then looked farther afield. In 273 <span>BC<\/span> they made a treaty with the Ptolemies of Egypt. Before long, they expanded into North Africa, overcame the Carthaginians, pressed on into Spain, and developed ambitions to occupy the Middle East as well. Rome’s many conquests brought enormous wealth.<\/p>\n<p>With geographical expansion came social changes in Italy. During the second century <span>BC<\/span>, rich landowners bought out the small independent farmers, who subsequently drifted into Rome, landless and unemployed. Huge, overcrowded tenement houses appeared, which constituted creeping slums. Alongside this squalor there was evidence of vast wealth from Rome’s conquests in distant lands. In the capital, many fine buildings appeared. Pompey, who subdued and organized the East, did much to adorn the great capital.<\/p>\n<p>The next stage in Rome’s political development came when the senate, the governing body of the republic, proved unable to control its more radical and violent members. As their political ambitions increased, aspiring leaders sought to gain popular support by granting privileges to the people without the concurrence of the senate. Civil strife broke out and plagued the last century of the republic. Military victories beyond Rome gave power to the generals. In the civil wars that followed, constitutional questions were decided by the power of the sword. Marius, Sulla, Pompey, Crassus, Julius Caesar, Antony, and Octavian were the real political forces in the land.<\/p>\n\n<p>By 27 <span>BC<\/span>, Octavian emerged supreme and was given the title Augustus. Theoretically, a dual government existed between the senate and Augustus (the emperor), but a weak senate allowed the emperor to become the virtual ruler. As a result, Roman peace (<em>pax Romana<\/em>) reigned at home and abroad until well into the second century <span>AD<\/span>. The emperors of the first century <span>AD<\/span> cover the period of the life of Jesus and of the emerging church, and several are mentioned in the NT: Augustus (Lk 2:1), Tiberius (Lk 3:1), Claudius (Acts 11:28; 18:2), and Nero, who is referred to without being explicitly named (Acts 25:10-12; 27:24; 2 Tm 4:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>The city of Rome was the capital of the empire and the home of the emperor, senators, administrators, military personnel, and priests. Augustus, the first of the emperors whose leadership and diplomatic endeavors gave peace to Rome after two civil wars and a century of strife, gave attention to the restoration and adornment of the city. He boasted that he found Rome built of brick and left it built of marble. His efforts at restoring Rome’s ancient religions led to the building of many temples. On the Palatine hill, Augustus united several houses already there into a palace for his own residence. A new and sumptuous temple of Apollo, surrounded by colonnades in which the emperor housed a large library, was erected near the palace. The palace itself overlooked an imposing group of new marble buildings in the valley below: a basilica business hall, a senate house, a temple of “the divine Julius,” a marble speaker’s platform, two impressive new forums, the forum of Caesar, and the forum of Augustus. Later emperors added to this splendor. Beyond the central forum area, the palaces of Tiberius and Caligula, various baths, arches, and theaters, the Circus Maximus, and the Circus Nero were built. The whole was enclosed by a wall built outside the old rampart of Servius. Several aqueducts brought water into the city, and significant roads from north, south, east, and west converged on the central city area.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"RomesMilitaryPresenceinPalestine\">Rome’s Military Presence in Palestine<\/p>\n<p>With the military intervention of Pompey in the internal affairs of Judea in 63 <span>BC<\/span>, Rome established its presence in Palestine. The census ordered by Augustus Caesar, affecting the eastern provinces as well as the rest of the Roman world (Lk 2:1-2), was a vivid reminder. Roman military presence is amply reflected on the pages of the Gospels and Acts (e.g., Mk 15:16; Lk 3:14; 7:1-8; Acts 5:37).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT period, service in the legions was open to all Roman citizens. A professional volunteer army had replaced a conscripted militia. The permanent standing army was made up of legions recruited from the ranks of citizens. The legions were commanded by experienced officers of the rank of consul. Auxiliary forces were raised outside Italy, the inducement for enlistment being Roman citizenship for a soldier and his descendants after 25 years of service.<\/p>\n<p>In the provinces supreme military command lay with the provincial governor or prefect. In Judea at the time of Jesus’ public ministry, Pontius Pilate was designated “prefect of Judea” in a Latin inscription found in Caesarea in 1961. At the official center for administration of Judea, Caesarea Maritima, one or more legions at the disposal of the governor would be garrisoned. On special occasions, particularly at the great Jewish festivals, when riots and disorders could be anticipated, the provincial governor would take up residence in Jerusalem some 60 miles (96.5 kilometers) to the south, accompanied by a substantial contingent of troops (cf. Lk 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>Augustus established a standing army large enough to defend and pacify the empire. In 15 <span>BC<\/span> there were 28 legions, each composed of some 5,000 foot soldiers plus a mounted bodyguard of 128 men. After three legions were destroyed in uprisings by fierce Germanic tribes in <span>AD<\/span> 9, the number remained at 25 for some time. That suggests a standing army of about 125,000 legionaries in the first century.<\/p>\n<p>Augustus was also responsible for establishing a permanent auxiliary army, almost the same size as the legionary army. The auxiliary forces, recruited from provincials who had not yet received Roman citizenship, included both cavalry and infantry. The cavalry was organized in squadrons, the infantry in cohorts of 1,000 under command of a military tribune (Acts 21:31-33). When the apostle Paul was in Jerusalem, the tribune was Claudius Lysias, a man of Greek birth whose purchased Roman citizenship made possible his elevation to commander of an auxiliary cohort (22:28; 23:26). To send Paul from Jerusalem to Caesarea, Claudius could delegate a military escort of 200 soldiers commanded by two centurions, plus 70 mounted guards (23:23), without dangerously weakening the strength of the fortress garrison.<\/p>\n<p>A cohort was made up of either ten or five “centuries,” units consisting of 100 men under the command of a centurion whose duties resembled those of a modern army captain. Cornelius (Acts 10:1) was a Roman centurion assigned to one of the auxiliary cohorts in Judea. There is inscriptional evidence for the presence of his unit, “the Second Italian Cohort of Roman Citizens,” in Syria about <span>AD<\/span> 69. Paul was sent to Rome in the custody of another centurion, Julius, who belonged to the Augustan or imperial cohort (27:1). The term Augustan was a title of honor sometimes bestowed on auxiliary troops. Julius was evidently a legionary centurion assigned to the corps of officer-couriers who maintained a communication service between the emperor and his provincial armies. He had a detachment of soldiers under his command on the voyage to Rome (v 3) and on arrival handed his prisoners over to the commander of the courier corps (28:16). Probably all of the Roman centurions mentioned in the Gospels or Acts (Mt 8:5; Mk 15:39; Lk 7:2) were officers assigned to an auxiliary cohort.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ChristiansinRome\">Christians in Rome<\/p>\n<p>It was to this magnificent city that Paul came under escort in March <span>AD<\/span> 59. He found that the Christian church had already been established there. Indeed, he had already communicated with the Christians in his letter to the Romans early in 57. There was a considerable Jewish colony in Rome in the first century <span>AD<\/span>, descended from the large number of Jewish slaves brought to the city by Pompey after the capture of Jerusalem in 63 <span>BC<\/span>. The emperor Claudius expelled Jews from Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 49, possibly when Jesus was proclaimed as Messiah in the synagogue. Who the preachers were is not known, but they were probably Christian travelers and traders. Paul’s Letter to the Romans was his exposition to the Gentile churches that had come into existence independently of him. His first known contact with the people of Rome was when he met Aquila and Priscilla at Corinth (Acts 18:2). This couple was expelled from Rome in the time of Claudius. Later, Paul hoped to visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:24). In his salutation he mentioned a considerable circle of Christians in Rome (ch 16). The references to households in several places (vv 5, 10, 11, 14, 15) suggest that these were house churches of the Roman Christian church. During his captivity, Paul was a prisoner of Roman authorities, but he was able to meet the local leaders of the Jews, explain his experiences to them, and expound the gospel to them in person (Acts 28:16-31).<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Revelation, Rome is given a sinister significance. By the end of the first century <span>AD<\/span>, Rome had already drunk the “blood of the martyrs of Jesus” (Rv 17:6), a reference to early martyrs.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Caesars, The; Romans, Letter to the.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ROME, City of City in Italy founded, according to tradition, in 753 BC on seven hills about 15 miles (24.1 kilometers) from the mouth of the Tiber River. It was of no biblical interest until NT times. There are nine explicit references to the city in the NT (Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:7, 15; 2 Tm 1:17), but Paul’s sojourn there and his letter to the Roman Christians, written probably from Corinth around AD 57 and 58, make the imperial city of considerable interest to Bibl...","summary_en":"ROME, City of City in Italy founded, according to tradition, in 753 BC on seven hills about 15 miles (24.1 kilometers) from the mouth of the Tiber River. It was of no biblical interest until NT times. There are nine explicit references to the city in the NT (Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:7, 15; 2 Tm 1:17), but Paul’s sojourn there and his letter to the Roman Christians, written probably from Corinth around AD 57 and 58, make the imperial city of considerable interest to Bibl...","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"15":[{"id":42719,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"The Roman Church","title_en":"The Roman Church","content_ro":"<h3>The Roman Church<\/h3>\n<p>The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Peter founded the Roman church or that he was present in Rome by the time Paul wrote to the Roman Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 57; otherwise, Paul would certainly have greeted him. Consequently, Paul wrote this letter to help ensure that the Roman church had apostolic involvement in their faith. He never wrote to the churches of Judea, founded by the other apostles, but only to churches that either he had founded (e.g., Corinth, Galatia) or to those that had no direct apostolic involvement (e.g., Colosse, Rome).<\/p>\n<p>In time, the Jewish Christians in Rome would have been pushed out of the synagogues by the non-Christian Jews, as happened elsewhere. By the time Paul wrote to the Roman church, they were meeting as separate house churches in private homes (Rom 16:5, 10-11, 15). There were no centralized edifices, and it is uncertain whether the whole body of believers in Rome met together.<\/p>\n<p>When Claudius expelled the Jews from Rome (around <span>AD<\/span> 49), the Jewish Christians were also forced to leave, among whom were Priscilla and Aquila (Acts 18:2). In the absence of the Jews, the Roman church would have become Gentile in character. When the Jews returned (probably shortly after the death of Claudius in <span>AD<\/span> 54), there were no doubt questions—if not conflicts—among the Jewish and Gentile Christians. Paul may have written Romans to settle such controversies among this mixed group of Jews and Gentiles worshiping Christ in the same city.<\/p>\n<p>As is evident from Romans 16, Paul already had many friends in the Roman church. In the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 60, roughly two years after writing Romans, Paul had the opportunity to go to Rome—a desire he had repeatedly expressed (Acts 19:21; Rom 1:13-15). He spent two years there under house arrest awaiting his first trial before Nero, “boldly proclaiming the Kingdom of God and teaching about the Lord Jesus Christ” (Acts 28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 28:15-31; Rom 1:13-15; 16:1-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Roman Church<\/h3>\n<p>The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Peter founded the Roman church or that he was present in Rome by the time Paul wrote to the Roman Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 57; otherwise, Paul would certainly have greeted him. Consequently, Paul wrote this letter to help ensure that the Roman church had apostolic involvement in their faith. He never wrote to the churches of Judea, founded by the other apostles, but only to churches that either he had founded (e.g., Corinth, Galatia) or to those that had no direct apostolic involvement (e.g., Colosse, Rome).<\/p>\n<p>In time, the Jewish Christians in Rome would have been pushed out of the synagogues by the non-Christian Jews, as happened elsewhere. By the time Paul wrote to the Roman church, they were meeting as separate house churches in private homes (Rom 16:5, 10-11, 15). There were no centralized edifices, and it is uncertain whether the whole body of believers in Rome met together.<\/p>\n<p>When Claudius expelled the Jews from Rome (around <span>AD<\/span> 49), the Jewish Christians were also forced to leave, among whom were Priscilla and Aquila (Acts 18:2). In the absence of the Jews, the Roman church would have become Gentile in character. When the Jews returned (probably shortly after the death of Claudius in <span>AD<\/span> 54), there were no doubt questions—if not conflicts—among the Jewish and Gentile Christians. Paul may have written Romans to settle such controversies among this mixed group of Jews and Gentiles worshiping Christ in the same city.<\/p>\n<p>As is evident from Romans 16, Paul already had many friends in the Roman church. In the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 60, roughly two years after writing Romans, Paul had the opportunity to go to Rome—a desire he had repeatedly expressed (Acts 19:21; Rom 1:13-15). He spent two years there under house arrest awaiting his first trial before Nero, “boldly proclaiming the Kingdom of God and teaching about the Lord Jesus Christ” (Acts 28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 28:15-31; Rom 1:13-15; 16:1-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Roman Church The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Pete...","summary_en":"The Roman Church The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Pete...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70345,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"The Roman Church","title_en":"The Roman Church","content_ro":"<h3>The Roman Church<\/h3>\n<p>The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Peter founded the Roman church or that he was present in Rome by the time Paul wrote to the Roman Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 57; otherwise, Paul would certainly have greeted him. Consequently, Paul wrote this letter to help ensure that the Roman church had apostolic involvement in their faith. He never wrote to the churches of Judea, founded by the other apostles, but only to churches that either he had founded (e.g., Corinth, Galatia) or to those that had no direct apostolic involvement (e.g., Colosse, Rome).<\/p>\n<p>In time, the Jewish Christians in Rome would have been pushed out of the synagogues by the non-Christian Jews, as happened elsewhere. By the time Paul wrote to the Roman church, they were meeting as separate house churches in private homes (Rom 16:5, 10-11, 15). There were no centralized edifices, and it is uncertain whether the whole body of believers in Rome met together.<\/p>\n<p>When Claudius expelled the Jews from Rome (around <span>AD<\/span> 49), the Jewish Christians were also forced to leave, among whom were Priscilla and Aquila (Acts 18:2). In the absence of the Jews, the Roman church would have become Gentile in character. When the Jews returned (probably shortly after the death of Claudius in <span>AD<\/span> 54), there were no doubt questions—if not conflicts—among the Jewish and Gentile Christians. Paul may have written Romans to settle such controversies among this mixed group of Jews and Gentiles worshiping Christ in the same city.<\/p>\n<p>As is evident from Romans 16, Paul already had many friends in the Roman church. In the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 60, roughly two years after writing Romans, Paul had the opportunity to go to Rome—a desire he had repeatedly expressed (Acts 19:21; Rom 1:13-15). He spent two years there under house arrest awaiting his first trial before Nero, “boldly proclaiming the Kingdom of God and teaching about the Lord Jesus Christ” (Acts 28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 28:15-31; Rom 1:13-15; 16:1-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Roman Church<\/h3>\n<p>The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Peter founded the Roman church or that he was present in Rome by the time Paul wrote to the Roman Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 57; otherwise, Paul would certainly have greeted him. Consequently, Paul wrote this letter to help ensure that the Roman church had apostolic involvement in their faith. He never wrote to the churches of Judea, founded by the other apostles, but only to churches that either he had founded (e.g., Corinth, Galatia) or to those that had no direct apostolic involvement (e.g., Colosse, Rome).<\/p>\n<p>In time, the Jewish Christians in Rome would have been pushed out of the synagogues by the non-Christian Jews, as happened elsewhere. By the time Paul wrote to the Roman church, they were meeting as separate house churches in private homes (Rom 16:5, 10-11, 15). There were no centralized edifices, and it is uncertain whether the whole body of believers in Rome met together.<\/p>\n<p>When Claudius expelled the Jews from Rome (around <span>AD<\/span> 49), the Jewish Christians were also forced to leave, among whom were Priscilla and Aquila (Acts 18:2). In the absence of the Jews, the Roman church would have become Gentile in character. When the Jews returned (probably shortly after the death of Claudius in <span>AD<\/span> 54), there were no doubt questions—if not conflicts—among the Jewish and Gentile Christians. Paul may have written Romans to settle such controversies among this mixed group of Jews and Gentiles worshiping Christ in the same city.<\/p>\n<p>As is evident from Romans 16, Paul already had many friends in the Roman church. In the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 60, roughly two years after writing Romans, Paul had the opportunity to go to Rome—a desire he had repeatedly expressed (Acts 19:21; Rom 1:13-15). He spent two years there under house arrest awaiting his first trial before Nero, “boldly proclaiming the Kingdom of God and teaching about the Lord Jesus Christ” (Acts 28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 28:15-31; Rom 1:13-15; 16:1-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Roman Church The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Pete...","summary_en":"The Roman Church The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Pete...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97971,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"The Roman Church","title_en":"The Roman Church","content_ro":"<h3>The Roman Church<\/h3>\n<p>The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Peter founded the Roman church or that he was present in Rome by the time Paul wrote to the Roman Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 57; otherwise, Paul would certainly have greeted him. Consequently, Paul wrote this letter to help ensure that the Roman church had apostolic involvement in their faith. He never wrote to the churches of Judea, founded by the other apostles, but only to churches that either he had founded (e.g., Corinth, Galatia) or to those that had no direct apostolic involvement (e.g., Colosse, Rome).<\/p>\n<p>In time, the Jewish Christians in Rome would have been pushed out of the synagogues by the non-Christian Jews, as happened elsewhere. By the time Paul wrote to the Roman church, they were meeting as separate house churches in private homes (Rom 16:5, 10-11, 15). There were no centralized edifices, and it is uncertain whether the whole body of believers in Rome met together.<\/p>\n<p>When Claudius expelled the Jews from Rome (around <span>AD<\/span> 49), the Jewish Christians were also forced to leave, among whom were Priscilla and Aquila (Acts 18:2). In the absence of the Jews, the Roman church would have become Gentile in character. When the Jews returned (probably shortly after the death of Claudius in <span>AD<\/span> 54), there were no doubt questions—if not conflicts—among the Jewish and Gentile Christians. Paul may have written Romans to settle such controversies among this mixed group of Jews and Gentiles worshiping Christ in the same city.<\/p>\n<p>As is evident from Romans 16, Paul already had many friends in the Roman church. In the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 60, roughly two years after writing Romans, Paul had the opportunity to go to Rome—a desire he had repeatedly expressed (Acts 19:21; Rom 1:13-15). He spent two years there under house arrest awaiting his first trial before Nero, “boldly proclaiming the Kingdom of God and teaching about the Lord Jesus Christ” (Acts 28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 28:15-31; Rom 1:13-15; 16:1-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Roman Church<\/h3>\n<p>The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Peter founded the Roman church or that he was present in Rome by the time Paul wrote to the Roman Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 57; otherwise, Paul would certainly have greeted him. Consequently, Paul wrote this letter to help ensure that the Roman church had apostolic involvement in their faith. He never wrote to the churches of Judea, founded by the other apostles, but only to churches that either he had founded (e.g., Corinth, Galatia) or to those that had no direct apostolic involvement (e.g., Colosse, Rome).<\/p>\n<p>In time, the Jewish Christians in Rome would have been pushed out of the synagogues by the non-Christian Jews, as happened elsewhere. By the time Paul wrote to the Roman church, they were meeting as separate house churches in private homes (Rom 16:5, 10-11, 15). There were no centralized edifices, and it is uncertain whether the whole body of believers in Rome met together.<\/p>\n<p>When Claudius expelled the Jews from Rome (around <span>AD<\/span> 49), the Jewish Christians were also forced to leave, among whom were Priscilla and Aquila (Acts 18:2). In the absence of the Jews, the Roman church would have become Gentile in character. When the Jews returned (probably shortly after the death of Claudius in <span>AD<\/span> 54), there were no doubt questions—if not conflicts—among the Jewish and Gentile Christians. Paul may have written Romans to settle such controversies among this mixed group of Jews and Gentiles worshiping Christ in the same city.<\/p>\n<p>As is evident from Romans 16, Paul already had many friends in the Roman church. In the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 60, roughly two years after writing Romans, Paul had the opportunity to go to Rome—a desire he had repeatedly expressed (Acts 19:21; Rom 1:13-15). He spent two years there under house arrest awaiting his first trial before Nero, “boldly proclaiming the Kingdom of God and teaching about the Lord Jesus Christ” (Acts 28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 28:15-31; Rom 1:13-15; 16:1-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Roman Church The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Pete...","summary_en":"The Roman Church The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Pete...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":125597,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"The Roman Church","title_en":"The Roman Church","content_ro":"<h3>The Roman Church<\/h3>\n<p>The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Peter founded the Roman church or that he was present in Rome by the time Paul wrote to the Roman Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 57; otherwise, Paul would certainly have greeted him. Consequently, Paul wrote this letter to help ensure that the Roman church had apostolic involvement in their faith. He never wrote to the churches of Judea, founded by the other apostles, but only to churches that either he had founded (e.g., Corinth, Galatia) or to those that had no direct apostolic involvement (e.g., Colosse, Rome).<\/p>\n<p>In time, the Jewish Christians in Rome would have been pushed out of the synagogues by the non-Christian Jews, as happened elsewhere. By the time Paul wrote to the Roman church, they were meeting as separate house churches in private homes (Rom 16:5, 10-11, 15). There were no centralized edifices, and it is uncertain whether the whole body of believers in Rome met together.<\/p>\n<p>When Claudius expelled the Jews from Rome (around <span>AD<\/span> 49), the Jewish Christians were also forced to leave, among whom were Priscilla and Aquila (Acts 18:2). In the absence of the Jews, the Roman church would have become Gentile in character. When the Jews returned (probably shortly after the death of Claudius in <span>AD<\/span> 54), there were no doubt questions—if not conflicts—among the Jewish and Gentile Christians. Paul may have written Romans to settle such controversies among this mixed group of Jews and Gentiles worshiping Christ in the same city.<\/p>\n<p>As is evident from Romans 16, Paul already had many friends in the Roman church. In the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 60, roughly two years after writing Romans, Paul had the opportunity to go to Rome—a desire he had repeatedly expressed (Acts 19:21; Rom 1:13-15). He spent two years there under house arrest awaiting his first trial before Nero, “boldly proclaiming the Kingdom of God and teaching about the Lord Jesus Christ” (Acts 28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 28:15-31; Rom 1:13-15; 16:1-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Roman Church<\/h3>\n<p>The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Peter founded the Roman church or that he was present in Rome by the time Paul wrote to the Roman Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 57; otherwise, Paul would certainly have greeted him. Consequently, Paul wrote this letter to help ensure that the Roman church had apostolic involvement in their faith. He never wrote to the churches of Judea, founded by the other apostles, but only to churches that either he had founded (e.g., Corinth, Galatia) or to those that had no direct apostolic involvement (e.g., Colosse, Rome).<\/p>\n<p>In time, the Jewish Christians in Rome would have been pushed out of the synagogues by the non-Christian Jews, as happened elsewhere. By the time Paul wrote to the Roman church, they were meeting as separate house churches in private homes (Rom 16:5, 10-11, 15). There were no centralized edifices, and it is uncertain whether the whole body of believers in Rome met together.<\/p>\n<p>When Claudius expelled the Jews from Rome (around <span>AD<\/span> 49), the Jewish Christians were also forced to leave, among whom were Priscilla and Aquila (Acts 18:2). In the absence of the Jews, the Roman church would have become Gentile in character. When the Jews returned (probably shortly after the death of Claudius in <span>AD<\/span> 54), there were no doubt questions—if not conflicts—among the Jewish and Gentile Christians. Paul may have written Romans to settle such controversies among this mixed group of Jews and Gentiles worshiping Christ in the same city.<\/p>\n<p>As is evident from Romans 16, Paul already had many friends in the Roman church. In the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 60, roughly two years after writing Romans, Paul had the opportunity to go to Rome—a desire he had repeatedly expressed (Acts 19:21; Rom 1:13-15). He spent two years there under house arrest awaiting his first trial before Nero, “boldly proclaiming the Kingdom of God and teaching about the Lord Jesus Christ” (Acts 28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 28:15-31; Rom 1:13-15; 16:1-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Roman Church The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Pete...","summary_en":"The Roman Church The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Pete...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":2428,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"of Appius*, Forum","title_en":"of Appius*, Forum","content_ro":"<h3>APPIUS*, F<span>orum of<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Marketplace mentioned in Acts 28:15 as the place where Christians met the apostle Paul when he came to appear before the caesar. It was apparently named for Appius Claudius, builder of the Appian Way (major artery of western Italy). Around the forum was a region of swamp and marsh, notorious in the ancient world for bad water, mosquitoes, expensive taverns for travelers, nighttime noisy traffic of cargoes and passengers on mule-drawn barges along a canal cut through the area. The Appian Way passes through the Appius Forum about 40 miles (64 kilometers) south of Rome.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Appian Way; Forum.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>APPIUS*, F<span>orum of<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Marketplace mentioned in Acts 28:15 as the place where Christians met the apostle Paul when he came to appear before the caesar. It was apparently named for Appius Claudius, builder of the Appian Way (major artery of western Italy). Around the forum was a region of swamp and marsh, notorious in the ancient world for bad water, mosquitoes, expensive taverns for travelers, nighttime noisy traffic of cargoes and passengers on mule-drawn barges along a canal cut through the area. The Appian Way passes through the Appius Forum about 40 miles (64 kilometers) south of Rome.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Appian Way; Forum.<\/p>","summary_ro":"APPIUS*, Forum of Marketplace mentioned in Acts 28:15 as the place where Christians met the apostle Paul when he came to appear before the caesar. It was apparently named for Appius Claudius, builder of the Appian Way (major artery of western Italy). Around the forum was a region of swamp and marsh, notorious in the ancient world for bad water, mosquitoes, expensive taverns for travelers, nighttime noisy traffic of cargoes and passengers on mule-drawn barges along a canal cut through the area...","summary_en":"APPIUS*, Forum of Marketplace mentioned in Acts 28:15 as the place where Christians met the apostle Paul when he came to appear before the caesar. It was apparently named for Appius Claudius, builder of the Appian Way (major artery of western Italy). Around the forum was a region of swamp and marsh, notorious in the ancient world for bad water, mosquitoes, expensive taverns for travelers, nighttime noisy traffic of cargoes and passengers on mule-drawn barges along a canal cut through the area...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":6538,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"of the Bible* (New Testament), Chronology","title_en":"of the Bible* (New Testament), Chronology","content_ro":"<h3>CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (New Testament)<\/h3>\n<p>Branch of biblical studies that attempts to discover the sequence of NT events and the amount of time that elapsed between them. Chronology is essential to historians, whose task it is to determine the causes and effects of past events. Generally, for a historian’s purpose, assigning absolute dates is less important than knowing the sequence of events that may have influenced each other. Very few NT happenings, in fact, can be given exact dates.<\/p>\n\n<p>A remarkable testimony to the influence of Christianity is the fact that the entire Western world now divides history into <span>BC<\/span> (before Christ) and <span>AD<\/span> (<em>anno Domini,<\/em> “in the year of the Lord”). Before that method of dating became widespread in the Middle Ages, events were dated by their relation to other important events such as the founding of Rome or the beginning of a king’s reign. When a monk named Dionysius Exiguus (sixth century) invented our present method of dating, with the birth of Christ dividing history, he made a mistake in his computations. The odd result is the historical anomaly that Jesus himself was born no later than four years “before Christ.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ChronologyofJesusLife\">Chronology of Jesus’ Life<\/p>\n<h5>Birth<\/h5>\n<p>According to Matthew 2:1 Jesus was born “in the days of Herod the king.” A first-century <span>AD<\/span> historian, Josephus, recorded that Herod died in the spring of the year we identify as 4 <span>BC<\/span>. Hence, Jesus was born sometime before that, but how much before is uncertain. Luke 2:1-2 records that Jesus’ birth occurred when “Caesar Augustus,” the Roman emperor, decreed that a census, or enrollment, should be taken throughout the nation. “This was the first census taken when Quirinius was governor of Syria” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Those statements raise two questions: When was such a census taken, and when was Quirinius governor of Syria? Neither question has received a completely satisfying answer.<\/p>\n<p>Census documents discovered in Egypt, together with earlier references, suggest that such enrollments were held every 14 years. That would put a census roughly in 8 or 9 <span>BC<\/span>. In view of the time needed to carry out the census (which required a person to travel to his birthplace), the birth of Jesus may have been somewhat later than the actual year of the decree (perhaps 7 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Josephus recorded that Quirinius became governor of Syria in <span>AD<\/span> 6, rather late as a date for Jesus’ birth. But some scholars have argued from ancient inscriptions that Quirinius also served in Syria as a special legate of the emperor Augustus before 6 <span>BC<\/span>. That could be the period referred to in Luke 2:2. Why did Luke choose to cite Quirinius instead of the regular governor of Syria at that time? Perhaps by so doing he could provide a more exact date for the birth of Jesus, since Quirinius was in authority for a shorter time than the regular governor of Syria.<\/p>\n<p>A reasonable conclusion is that Jesus was born about 7 or 6 <span>BC<\/span>. That fits with Matthew 2:16, which seems to say that Jesus was born at least two years before Herod’s death in 4 <span>BC<\/span>. No clear evidence exists concerning the day and month of his birth. Celebration of December 25 as Christmas originated in the fourth century, probably as a Christian alternative to the pagan winter solstice festival (Saturnalia).<\/p>\n<h5>The Beginning of Public Ministry<\/h5>\n<p>Luke 3:23 says that Jesus, “when he began his ministry, was about thirty years of age”; since the age given is only approximate, he may have been two or three years older or younger (cf. the pseudepigraphal Testament of Levi 2:2; 12:5). If exactly 30 is added to the suggested date of birth, one gets <span>AD<\/span> 24. That date cannot be right, because Jesus’ ministry began after John the Baptist appears; Luke 3:1-3 dates John’s public appearance precisely in “the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberias Caesar” while Pilate was procurator (governor) over Judea. Pilate governed from <span>AD<\/span> 26 to 36, and the 15th year of Tiberius was most likely <span>AD<\/span> 27. Therefore Jesus did not begin his public ministry before <span>AD<\/span> 27. If only a short time elapsed between the beginning of John’s ministry and the beginning of Jesus’ ministry, then Jesus probably began in <span>AD<\/span> 27 or 28 when he was approximately 33 years old.<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus’ Death<\/h5>\n<p>All four Gospel records seem to imply that Jesus ate the Last Supper with his disciples on Thursday evening, was crucified on Friday, and rose from the dead early Sunday morning (Mt 28:1; Mk 16:1; Lk 24:1). The claim that Jesus rose on the third day (1 Cor 15:4) comes from the Jewish custom of counting a part of the day as a whole day. According to Matthew (26:19), Mark (14:12), and Luke (22:15), the Last Supper was the Passover meal, a yearly celebration of Israel’s escape from Egypt (Ex 12–15). But according to John 13:1 and 19:14, the Passover meal had not yet been eaten on Friday; hence the Last Supper in John was not the Passover meal.<\/p>\n<p>No completely satisfying solution to the apparent discrepancy has been put forward. Some scholars suggest plausibly that the use of two different calendars was responsible. According to that theory, Jesus was following a calendar that placed the Passover meal on Thursday night. Temple officials, on the other hand, followed an alternate calendar that placed the killing of sacrificial victims on the next day. John may have used the second system to emphasize the fact that Christ was offered as the Passover sacrifice (cf. Jn 19:36; 1 Cor 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>To find out how long Jesus’ public ministry lasted and thus the year in which he died, one can turn to time references in John’s Gospel. John referred to at least three Passovers (2:13; 6:4; 13:1) and possibly four (5:1). Since the Passover was a yearly feast, the ministry of Jesus would have lasted at least two and possibly three years. In Matthew, Mark, and Luke the Friday of Jesus’ death occurred on the 15th of the Jewish month Nisan (which overlaps March and April). According to John, Jesus died on 14 Nisan. The question is: In which years from 26 to 36 (when Pilate was procurator in Judea) did 14 or 15 Nisan fall on a Friday? The answer is <span>AD<\/span> 27, 29, 30, and 33. Of those, the year 27 is too early and 33 is probably too late. Thus Jesus was probably crucified in 29 or 30, his public ministry lasted two or three years, and he was 35 or 36 years old when he died.<\/p>\n<h4>Events from <span>AD<\/span> 30 to 50<\/h4>\n<p>Acts is the only NT book that records how much time elapsed between Jesus’ death and his ascension: “To them he presented himself alive after his passion by many proofs, appearing to them during forty days, and speaking of the kingdom of God” (Acts 1:3, <span>rsv<\/span>). The next key event after the ascension of Jesus into heaven was Pentecost (Acts 2:1). Pentecost, the Greek word for “fiftieth,” referred to a celebration of the Feast of Weeks\/Harvest (cf. Ex 34:22; Dt 16:9-12) 50 days after the Passover. Since Jesus was crucified during the Passover season, the Pentecost of Acts 2:1, during which the disciples were filled with the Holy Spirit, took place in <span>AD<\/span> 29 or 30, some 50 days after the Crucifixion and about 10 days after the Ascension.<\/p>\n<p>After that, events of the early chapters of Acts are hard to date because no precise statements are made about the amount of time between various events. Therefore, the usual method for dating events of the apostolic age is first to find at least one event that can be dated with relative certainty from sources outside the NT; one then dates events before and after that event by figuring out how much time elapsed between them. Sometimes Acts records how much time passed between two events; usually it does not, so dating can only be approximate.<\/p>\n<p>One pivotal starting point is the great famine prophesied by Agabus, which befell Palestine during the reign of the Roman emperor Claudius (Acts 11:28-29). Josephus, who was alive at the time, gives enough information to locate the famine sometime between the years 46 and 48. We also know from the Mishnah, a collection of Jewish laws, that the autumn of 47 to the autumn of 48 was a sabbatical year, when the Jews let the land rest and harvested nothing (cf. Lv 25:2-7). That could have aggravated and prolonged a famine, but one cannot be sure how early the famine started; some scholars propose 46 and some 47.<\/p>\n<p>At first, it seems peculiar that Luke, the author of Acts, should have recorded that famine (Acts 11:28) before recording the death of Herod Agrippa (12:20-23). From facts reported by Josephus, the death of Herod (a grandson of Herod the Great) can be dated in <span>AD<\/span> 44, probably in the spring. That means that Herod must have died several years before the famine Luke recorded earlier. Some scholars think that Luke simply got his chronological facts wrong. Others see Acts 12:1-24 as a kind of flashback to bring the history of the church in Jerusalem up to date. Such a practice was common among ancient historians, who often followed one source up to a suitable stopping point before moving on to another source. To charge Luke with inaccurate dating, it is argued, is to misunderstand the techniques of historical writing he was using.<\/p>\n<p>Since Herod Agrippa died in <span>AD<\/span> 44 (Acts 12:23), the apostle James, whom Herod put to death with the sword (v 2), must have died soon before 44, perhaps during the Passover season of 43 (v 3). The apostle Peter’s imprisonment and his miraculous escape (vv 3-17) also belong to that period.<\/p>\n<p>When the Christians of Antioch decided to send relief to the Christians in Jerusalem in the midst of the great famine (Acts 11:29), Barnabas and Paul were appointed to transport the money to Jerusalem. That was Paul’s second visit to Jerusalem after his conversion. The first visit is recorded in Acts 9:26-30. The third comes in Acts 15 when Paul and Barnabas were sent to discuss with the apostles and elders whether gentile converts to Christianity had to be circumcised. How one dates the first and third visits to Jerusalem, as well as Paul’s conversion, depends on how those Jerusalem visits are related to those reported in Paul’s letter to the Galatians.<\/p>\n<p>The basic problem, which still divides NT scholars, is this: In Galatians 1:15–2:10 Paul recounted that his conversion was followed by two visits to Jerusalem, one three years after his conversion (1:18) and one 14 years after that (2:1-10). All scholars agree that the first visit three years after his conversion is the same as the first visit recorded in Acts 9:26-30. Answers differ, however, to the question of whether Galatians 2:1-10 refers to the second (famine) visit to Jerusalem in Acts 11:30 (in which case the third visit of Acts 15 is the one omitted from Galatians) or whether Galatians 2:1-10 refers to the visit in Acts 15 (in which case the famine visit was the one omitted from Galatians).<\/p>\n\n<p>Those who favor the first reconstruction offer six arguments: (1) The reason Paul gave such a rigorous account of his comings and goings in Galatians 1:15-24 was to show that he did not get his gospel from men, nor was he taught it (1:12). In other words, his visits to the Jerusalem apostles were not for the purpose of receiving his gospel. If that is so, for Paul to omit the second Jerusalem visit would jeopardize his integrity and his authority with the Galatians. The first reconstruction avoids that difficulty; omission of a third Jerusalem visit from Galatians 2:1-10 could mean that it had not yet happened when Galatians was written. (2) Galatians 2:1-10 pictures a private meeting between Paul and Barnabas on one hand and the “pillar” apostles on the other. But the meeting in Acts 15 was public and before the whole church. Hence Galatians 2:1-10 more likely refers to a private meeting during the visit of Acts 11:30, which Galatians does not record. (3) Paul’s eagerness to give to the poor mentioned in Galatians 2:10 connects naturally with the second Jerusalem visit, when he was in fact delivering relief to the poor (Acts 11:30). (4) If Galatians 2 recorded the same trip as Acts 15, one would expect some mention of the decision reached by the Jerusalem Council, especially since that decision related directly to the problem of circumcision that Paul was handling in his Letter to the Galatians. (5) Further, it seems unlikely that the Jerusalem Council preceded the event of Galatians 2:11-21, when Peter was rebuked by Paul for withdrawing from fellowship with gentile believers; that incident could hardly have happened so soon after the issue of gentile status in the church had been settled in Jerusalem. (6) According to Galatians 1:6, the letter was written “quickly” after Paul had established the Galatian churches. That makes sense if Galatians was written soon after the first missionary journey, hence just before the Jerusalem Council of Acts 15; that would make Galatians Paul’s first letter.<\/p>\n<p>Scholars who favor the second reconstruction offer four arguments: (1) The main purpose of Paul’s visit in Galatians 2:1-10 appears to be the same as that in Acts 15:1-20; both dealt with the issue of whether circumcision should be required of gentile converts (Gal 2:3-5; Acts 15:1, 5). That similarity is obvious, but there is no such explicit similarity between Galatians 2 and Acts 11:30. (2) On the basis of form and content Galatians is similar to Romans and to 1 and 2 Corinthians; it would thus seem to come from the same period—considerably later than the Jerusalem Council. If so, it is likely that Paul would have included a reference to the Jerusalem Council (namely Gal 2:1-10) in his recollections, since its outcome supported his own stance on circumcision set forth in the letter. (3) Acts 11:30 pictures Barnabas as the leader of the Barnabas\/Paul team, since his name is given first place (as in Acts 12:25; 13:1-2, 7; cf. 11:25-26). But in the description Paul gives of the visit in Galatians 2, he sees himself as the leader of the team. Since Acts does picture Paul as the leader from the time of the first missionary journey (Acts 13:9, 13, 43, 46, 50), including the third Jerusalem visit (15:2), it is more likely that Galatians 2 records the trip of Acts 15. (4) Finally, in Galatians 2:7-8 Paul was recognized as an apostle to the Gentiles with a standing equal to that of Peter. But if Galatians 2 recorded the events of Acts 11:30 and the first missionary journey had not yet occurred, the “pillar” apostles could hardly have recognized Paul’s authority as apostle to the Gentiles. It is more likely that Galatians 2 followed the first missionary journey, just as Acts 15 followed the first missionary journey in Acts, and that both refer to the same event.<\/p>\n<p>The significance of those arguments for chronology is that, according to the first view, Paul’s conversion came 17 years before the famine visit of Acts 11:30 (cf. Gal 1:18; 2:1). According to the second view, Paul’s conversion took place 17 years before the Jerusalem Council in Acts 15. The difference amounts to only one year, however.<\/p>\n<p>It is helpful to consider one more date that can be fixed with high probability—namely, Paul’s arrival in Corinth on his second missionary journey (Acts 18:1). On the second missionary journey (15:40–18:22), Paul and Silas set out on land through Syria, Cilicia, Phrygia, and Galatia, visiting churches founded on the first missionary journey. They came to Troas, then passed over to Philippi and continued down the coast through Thessalonica and Berea. Paul went on to Athens before arriving at Corinth. From Acts 18:12 we know that Gallio was a proconsul in Corinth while Paul was there. An inscription discovered at nearby Delphi indicates that in all likelihood Gallio’s term of office was from mid-51 to mid-52. The incident recorded in Acts 18:12-17 probably occurred at the beginning of Gallio’s term, since the Jews hoped to get a ruling against Paul from their new proconsul. Not long after that, Paul left Corinth, probably in the summer or autumn of 52. According to Acts 18:11 Paul had spent 18 months in Corinth; that means that he probably arrived in the early months of 50 or the end of 49. That arrival date is confirmed by Acts 18:2, which says that Aquila and Priscilla had only recently been exiled from Rome when Paul came to Corinth. A fifth-century historian, Orosius, dated the edict of Claudius expelling the Jews from Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 49. Therefore, Paul and Aquila and Priscilla probably arrived close together late in 49 or early in 50. Early in his 18-month stay Paul wrote his First and Second Letters to the Thessalonians.<\/p>\n<p>The two fixed dates, then, are 46 or 47 for the famine visit (Acts 11:30) and late 49 or early 50 for Paul’s arrival in Corinth (Acts 18:1). Taking into account the time gaps mentioned in Galatians 1:18 and 2:1, as well as the supposition that the first missionary journey lasted about a year, the two reconstructions are presented in the following table. Keep in mind that they are approximations and that they reflect the ancient custom of counting a part of a year as a whole year.<\/p>\n\n<h4>Events from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 70<\/h4>\n<p>Acts 24:27 describes an event that helps us date events in the rest of the book, namely, Porcius Festus’s replacement of Felix as the governor of Judea. A careful analysis of the evidence given by Eusebius, a fourth-century historian, leads to the probable conclusion that Felix was replaced in the summer of 59.<\/p>\n<p>Working backward from that date, Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem (Acts 21:33) must have occurred in 57, some two years before the coming of Festus. More precisely, Paul’s arrest probably occurred in the late spring or summer of 57; Paul’s goal (20:16) was to arrive in Jerusalem by Pentecost of that year, and Pentecost occurred at the end of May. He was not long in the city before he was arrested.<\/p>\n<p>The Passover festival, 50 days before Pentecost, was celebrated by Paul with the church in Philippi (Acts 20:6). That would have been April 7–14, <span>AD<\/span> 57. Only after the feast did he continue his hurried journey to Caesarea and Jerusalem (20:6–21:16). Before his Passover visit to Philippi, Paul had spent three months in Greece (20:3). Allowing some time for him to travel through Macedonia and visit the Thessalonians and Bereans, those three months were probably the winter months of 56–57 (Acts 20:3; cf. 1 Cor 16:6). No doubt they were spent in the main church of Greece, Corinth, and were used in part for the writing of the Letter to the Romans.<\/p>\n<p>Between Paul’s departure from Corinth on the second missionary journey (Acts 18:18) in the autumn of 51 and his arrival in Corinth on the third missionary journey (20:2) in the late winter of 56 are five years of activities that cannot be given exact dates. Paul said that he worked during three of those years in Ephesus (20:31; cf. 19:1–20:1). With enough time allowed for the travels before and after, that stay at Ephesus probably lasted from 52 or 53 to the summer of 55 or 56 (cf. 1 Cor 16:8). During his long stay in Ephesus, Paul wrote his First Letter to the Corinthians. Then, on his way to Corinth in 56, he wrote 2 Corinthians from Macedonia.<\/p>\n<p>Festus arrived as governor in the summer of 59, after Paul had been in prison in Caesarea for two years. Within a matter of days, Paul was tried before Festus (Acts 25:1-12). Not wanting to be remanded to the Jewish authorities, Paul appealed to Caesar (v 12), which meant that he would go to Rome. The account in Acts gives no hint of a delay, so the voyage most likely began in the summer or fall of 59 (27:2).<\/p>\n<p>Luke reported that when Paul the prisoner got to Fair Havens on the island of Crete, the weather had become dangerous for sea travel “because the fast had already gone by” (Acts 27:8-9). One ancient writer said that sailing became dangerous between mid-September and mid-November, and after that, impossible until spring. The fast referred to was no doubt the one in preparation for the Day of Atonement, which in the year 59 fell on October 5. It is not surprising that, 14 days after leaving Fair Havens, the ship in which Paul was traveling was wrecked on the coast of Malta, south of Sicily (vv 27-44). Three months later Paul set sail for Rome again in a ship that had spent the winter at Malta (28:11). Soon he was welcomed into Rome by Christians who came out to meet him (v 15). Thus Paul arrived in Rome in the early part of <span>AD<\/span> 60. The book of Acts closes with the remark that “For two whole years Paul stayed there in his own rented house” (v 30, <span>niv<\/span>). The NT does not report the outcome of his trial. During that period, according to the traditional view, he wrote Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon.<\/p>\n<p>Eusebius wrote, “Tradition has it that after defending himself the Apostle was again sent on the ministry of preaching, and coming a second time to the same city suffered martyrdom under Nero.” Nero, who was the Roman emperor from 54 to 68, put to death a multitude of Christians in Rome soon after a disastrous fire in July of 64, according to the Roman historian Tacitus. A number of early Christian writings (e.g., Clement) seem to indicate that Peter and Paul were both killed in Rome during that savage persecution. If so, and if Eusebius was right, then Paul may have spent the two years from 62 to 64 freely ministering back in the eastern provinces. Many conservative scholars date Paul’s First Letter to Timothy and his Letter to Titus from that period. Written from Rome shortly before Paul’s martyrdom in 64, 2 Timothy was probably his last letter (2 Tm 2:9; 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem, within three years after Paul had been carried off to Rome, James the brother of Jesus was stoned to death by the Jewish authorities. According to Josephus, that occurred in 62. Not long afterward, according to Eusebius, the church in Jerusalem received a prophecy warning them to leave that doomed city and settle in Pella, one of the cities of the Decapolis (“ten cities”) east of the Jordan. Thus when war broke out between the Jews and the Romans in 66, the Christians for the most part escaped its fury. That war ended in 70 with the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (cf. Mk 13:2; Lk 21:24).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Apostle, Apostleship; Age; “Date” under each NT book; First Jewish Revolt; Genealogy of Jesus Christ; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (New Testament)<\/h3>\n<p>Branch of biblical studies that attempts to discover the sequence of NT events and the amount of time that elapsed between them. Chronology is essential to historians, whose task it is to determine the causes and effects of past events. Generally, for a historian’s purpose, assigning absolute dates is less important than knowing the sequence of events that may have influenced each other. Very few NT happenings, in fact, can be given exact dates.<\/p>\n\n<p>A remarkable testimony to the influence of Christianity is the fact that the entire Western world now divides history into <span>BC<\/span> (before Christ) and <span>AD<\/span> (<em>anno Domini,<\/em> “in the year of the Lord”). Before that method of dating became widespread in the Middle Ages, events were dated by their relation to other important events such as the founding of Rome or the beginning of a king’s reign. When a monk named Dionysius Exiguus (sixth century) invented our present method of dating, with the birth of Christ dividing history, he made a mistake in his computations. The odd result is the historical anomaly that Jesus himself was born no later than four years “before Christ.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ChronologyofJesusLife\">Chronology of Jesus’ Life<\/p>\n<h5>Birth<\/h5>\n<p>According to Matthew 2:1 Jesus was born “in the days of Herod the king.” A first-century <span>AD<\/span> historian, Josephus, recorded that Herod died in the spring of the year we identify as 4 <span>BC<\/span>. Hence, Jesus was born sometime before that, but how much before is uncertain. Luke 2:1-2 records that Jesus’ birth occurred when “Caesar Augustus,” the Roman emperor, decreed that a census, or enrollment, should be taken throughout the nation. “This was the first census taken when Quirinius was governor of Syria” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Those statements raise two questions: When was such a census taken, and when was Quirinius governor of Syria? Neither question has received a completely satisfying answer.<\/p>\n<p>Census documents discovered in Egypt, together with earlier references, suggest that such enrollments were held every 14 years. That would put a census roughly in 8 or 9 <span>BC<\/span>. In view of the time needed to carry out the census (which required a person to travel to his birthplace), the birth of Jesus may have been somewhat later than the actual year of the decree (perhaps 7 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Josephus recorded that Quirinius became governor of Syria in <span>AD<\/span> 6, rather late as a date for Jesus’ birth. But some scholars have argued from ancient inscriptions that Quirinius also served in Syria as a special legate of the emperor Augustus before 6 <span>BC<\/span>. That could be the period referred to in Luke 2:2. Why did Luke choose to cite Quirinius instead of the regular governor of Syria at that time? Perhaps by so doing he could provide a more exact date for the birth of Jesus, since Quirinius was in authority for a shorter time than the regular governor of Syria.<\/p>\n<p>A reasonable conclusion is that Jesus was born about 7 or 6 <span>BC<\/span>. That fits with Matthew 2:16, which seems to say that Jesus was born at least two years before Herod’s death in 4 <span>BC<\/span>. No clear evidence exists concerning the day and month of his birth. Celebration of December 25 as Christmas originated in the fourth century, probably as a Christian alternative to the pagan winter solstice festival (Saturnalia).<\/p>\n<h5>The Beginning of Public Ministry<\/h5>\n<p>Luke 3:23 says that Jesus, “when he began his ministry, was about thirty years of age”; since the age given is only approximate, he may have been two or three years older or younger (cf. the pseudepigraphal Testament of Levi 2:2; 12:5). If exactly 30 is added to the suggested date of birth, one gets <span>AD<\/span> 24. That date cannot be right, because Jesus’ ministry began after John the Baptist appears; Luke 3:1-3 dates John’s public appearance precisely in “the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberias Caesar” while Pilate was procurator (governor) over Judea. Pilate governed from <span>AD<\/span> 26 to 36, and the 15th year of Tiberius was most likely <span>AD<\/span> 27. Therefore Jesus did not begin his public ministry before <span>AD<\/span> 27. If only a short time elapsed between the beginning of John’s ministry and the beginning of Jesus’ ministry, then Jesus probably began in <span>AD<\/span> 27 or 28 when he was approximately 33 years old.<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus’ Death<\/h5>\n<p>All four Gospel records seem to imply that Jesus ate the Last Supper with his disciples on Thursday evening, was crucified on Friday, and rose from the dead early Sunday morning (Mt 28:1; Mk 16:1; Lk 24:1). The claim that Jesus rose on the third day (1 Cor 15:4) comes from the Jewish custom of counting a part of the day as a whole day. According to Matthew (26:19), Mark (14:12), and Luke (22:15), the Last Supper was the Passover meal, a yearly celebration of Israel’s escape from Egypt (Ex 12–15). But according to John 13:1 and 19:14, the Passover meal had not yet been eaten on Friday; hence the Last Supper in John was not the Passover meal.<\/p>\n<p>No completely satisfying solution to the apparent discrepancy has been put forward. Some scholars suggest plausibly that the use of two different calendars was responsible. According to that theory, Jesus was following a calendar that placed the Passover meal on Thursday night. Temple officials, on the other hand, followed an alternate calendar that placed the killing of sacrificial victims on the next day. John may have used the second system to emphasize the fact that Christ was offered as the Passover sacrifice (cf. Jn 19:36; 1 Cor 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>To find out how long Jesus’ public ministry lasted and thus the year in which he died, one can turn to time references in John’s Gospel. John referred to at least three Passovers (2:13; 6:4; 13:1) and possibly four (5:1). Since the Passover was a yearly feast, the ministry of Jesus would have lasted at least two and possibly three years. In Matthew, Mark, and Luke the Friday of Jesus’ death occurred on the 15th of the Jewish month Nisan (which overlaps March and April). According to John, Jesus died on 14 Nisan. The question is: In which years from 26 to 36 (when Pilate was procurator in Judea) did 14 or 15 Nisan fall on a Friday? The answer is <span>AD<\/span> 27, 29, 30, and 33. Of those, the year 27 is too early and 33 is probably too late. Thus Jesus was probably crucified in 29 or 30, his public ministry lasted two or three years, and he was 35 or 36 years old when he died.<\/p>\n<h4>Events from <span>AD<\/span> 30 to 50<\/h4>\n<p>Acts is the only NT book that records how much time elapsed between Jesus’ death and his ascension: “To them he presented himself alive after his passion by many proofs, appearing to them during forty days, and speaking of the kingdom of God” (Acts 1:3, <span>rsv<\/span>). The next key event after the ascension of Jesus into heaven was Pentecost (Acts 2:1). Pentecost, the Greek word for “fiftieth,” referred to a celebration of the Feast of Weeks\/Harvest (cf. Ex 34:22; Dt 16:9-12) 50 days after the Passover. Since Jesus was crucified during the Passover season, the Pentecost of Acts 2:1, during which the disciples were filled with the Holy Spirit, took place in <span>AD<\/span> 29 or 30, some 50 days after the Crucifixion and about 10 days after the Ascension.<\/p>\n<p>After that, events of the early chapters of Acts are hard to date because no precise statements are made about the amount of time between various events. Therefore, the usual method for dating events of the apostolic age is first to find at least one event that can be dated with relative certainty from sources outside the NT; one then dates events before and after that event by figuring out how much time elapsed between them. Sometimes Acts records how much time passed between two events; usually it does not, so dating can only be approximate.<\/p>\n<p>One pivotal starting point is the great famine prophesied by Agabus, which befell Palestine during the reign of the Roman emperor Claudius (Acts 11:28-29). Josephus, who was alive at the time, gives enough information to locate the famine sometime between the years 46 and 48. We also know from the Mishnah, a collection of Jewish laws, that the autumn of 47 to the autumn of 48 was a sabbatical year, when the Jews let the land rest and harvested nothing (cf. Lv 25:2-7). That could have aggravated and prolonged a famine, but one cannot be sure how early the famine started; some scholars propose 46 and some 47.<\/p>\n<p>At first, it seems peculiar that Luke, the author of Acts, should have recorded that famine (Acts 11:28) before recording the death of Herod Agrippa (12:20-23). From facts reported by Josephus, the death of Herod (a grandson of Herod the Great) can be dated in <span>AD<\/span> 44, probably in the spring. That means that Herod must have died several years before the famine Luke recorded earlier. Some scholars think that Luke simply got his chronological facts wrong. Others see Acts 12:1-24 as a kind of flashback to bring the history of the church in Jerusalem up to date. Such a practice was common among ancient historians, who often followed one source up to a suitable stopping point before moving on to another source. To charge Luke with inaccurate dating, it is argued, is to misunderstand the techniques of historical writing he was using.<\/p>\n<p>Since Herod Agrippa died in <span>AD<\/span> 44 (Acts 12:23), the apostle James, whom Herod put to death with the sword (v 2), must have died soon before 44, perhaps during the Passover season of 43 (v 3). The apostle Peter’s imprisonment and his miraculous escape (vv 3-17) also belong to that period.<\/p>\n<p>When the Christians of Antioch decided to send relief to the Christians in Jerusalem in the midst of the great famine (Acts 11:29), Barnabas and Paul were appointed to transport the money to Jerusalem. That was Paul’s second visit to Jerusalem after his conversion. The first visit is recorded in Acts 9:26-30. The third comes in Acts 15 when Paul and Barnabas were sent to discuss with the apostles and elders whether gentile converts to Christianity had to be circumcised. How one dates the first and third visits to Jerusalem, as well as Paul’s conversion, depends on how those Jerusalem visits are related to those reported in Paul’s letter to the Galatians.<\/p>\n<p>The basic problem, which still divides NT scholars, is this: In Galatians 1:15–2:10 Paul recounted that his conversion was followed by two visits to Jerusalem, one three years after his conversion (1:18) and one 14 years after that (2:1-10). All scholars agree that the first visit three years after his conversion is the same as the first visit recorded in Acts 9:26-30. Answers differ, however, to the question of whether Galatians 2:1-10 refers to the second (famine) visit to Jerusalem in Acts 11:30 (in which case the third visit of Acts 15 is the one omitted from Galatians) or whether Galatians 2:1-10 refers to the visit in Acts 15 (in which case the famine visit was the one omitted from Galatians).<\/p>\n\n<p>Those who favor the first reconstruction offer six arguments: (1) The reason Paul gave such a rigorous account of his comings and goings in Galatians 1:15-24 was to show that he did not get his gospel from men, nor was he taught it (1:12). In other words, his visits to the Jerusalem apostles were not for the purpose of receiving his gospel. If that is so, for Paul to omit the second Jerusalem visit would jeopardize his integrity and his authority with the Galatians. The first reconstruction avoids that difficulty; omission of a third Jerusalem visit from Galatians 2:1-10 could mean that it had not yet happened when Galatians was written. (2) Galatians 2:1-10 pictures a private meeting between Paul and Barnabas on one hand and the “pillar” apostles on the other. But the meeting in Acts 15 was public and before the whole church. Hence Galatians 2:1-10 more likely refers to a private meeting during the visit of Acts 11:30, which Galatians does not record. (3) Paul’s eagerness to give to the poor mentioned in Galatians 2:10 connects naturally with the second Jerusalem visit, when he was in fact delivering relief to the poor (Acts 11:30). (4) If Galatians 2 recorded the same trip as Acts 15, one would expect some mention of the decision reached by the Jerusalem Council, especially since that decision related directly to the problem of circumcision that Paul was handling in his Letter to the Galatians. (5) Further, it seems unlikely that the Jerusalem Council preceded the event of Galatians 2:11-21, when Peter was rebuked by Paul for withdrawing from fellowship with gentile believers; that incident could hardly have happened so soon after the issue of gentile status in the church had been settled in Jerusalem. (6) According to Galatians 1:6, the letter was written “quickly” after Paul had established the Galatian churches. That makes sense if Galatians was written soon after the first missionary journey, hence just before the Jerusalem Council of Acts 15; that would make Galatians Paul’s first letter.<\/p>\n<p>Scholars who favor the second reconstruction offer four arguments: (1) The main purpose of Paul’s visit in Galatians 2:1-10 appears to be the same as that in Acts 15:1-20; both dealt with the issue of whether circumcision should be required of gentile converts (Gal 2:3-5; Acts 15:1, 5). That similarity is obvious, but there is no such explicit similarity between Galatians 2 and Acts 11:30. (2) On the basis of form and content Galatians is similar to Romans and to 1 and 2 Corinthians; it would thus seem to come from the same period—considerably later than the Jerusalem Council. If so, it is likely that Paul would have included a reference to the Jerusalem Council (namely Gal 2:1-10) in his recollections, since its outcome supported his own stance on circumcision set forth in the letter. (3) Acts 11:30 pictures Barnabas as the leader of the Barnabas\/Paul team, since his name is given first place (as in Acts 12:25; 13:1-2, 7; cf. 11:25-26). But in the description Paul gives of the visit in Galatians 2, he sees himself as the leader of the team. Since Acts does picture Paul as the leader from the time of the first missionary journey (Acts 13:9, 13, 43, 46, 50), including the third Jerusalem visit (15:2), it is more likely that Galatians 2 records the trip of Acts 15. (4) Finally, in Galatians 2:7-8 Paul was recognized as an apostle to the Gentiles with a standing equal to that of Peter. But if Galatians 2 recorded the events of Acts 11:30 and the first missionary journey had not yet occurred, the “pillar” apostles could hardly have recognized Paul’s authority as apostle to the Gentiles. It is more likely that Galatians 2 followed the first missionary journey, just as Acts 15 followed the first missionary journey in Acts, and that both refer to the same event.<\/p>\n<p>The significance of those arguments for chronology is that, according to the first view, Paul’s conversion came 17 years before the famine visit of Acts 11:30 (cf. Gal 1:18; 2:1). According to the second view, Paul’s conversion took place 17 years before the Jerusalem Council in Acts 15. The difference amounts to only one year, however.<\/p>\n<p>It is helpful to consider one more date that can be fixed with high probability—namely, Paul’s arrival in Corinth on his second missionary journey (Acts 18:1). On the second missionary journey (15:40–18:22), Paul and Silas set out on land through Syria, Cilicia, Phrygia, and Galatia, visiting churches founded on the first missionary journey. They came to Troas, then passed over to Philippi and continued down the coast through Thessalonica and Berea. Paul went on to Athens before arriving at Corinth. From Acts 18:12 we know that Gallio was a proconsul in Corinth while Paul was there. An inscription discovered at nearby Delphi indicates that in all likelihood Gallio’s term of office was from mid-51 to mid-52. The incident recorded in Acts 18:12-17 probably occurred at the beginning of Gallio’s term, since the Jews hoped to get a ruling against Paul from their new proconsul. Not long after that, Paul left Corinth, probably in the summer or autumn of 52. According to Acts 18:11 Paul had spent 18 months in Corinth; that means that he probably arrived in the early months of 50 or the end of 49. That arrival date is confirmed by Acts 18:2, which says that Aquila and Priscilla had only recently been exiled from Rome when Paul came to Corinth. A fifth-century historian, Orosius, dated the edict of Claudius expelling the Jews from Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 49. Therefore, Paul and Aquila and Priscilla probably arrived close together late in 49 or early in 50. Early in his 18-month stay Paul wrote his First and Second Letters to the Thessalonians.<\/p>\n<p>The two fixed dates, then, are 46 or 47 for the famine visit (Acts 11:30) and late 49 or early 50 for Paul’s arrival in Corinth (Acts 18:1). Taking into account the time gaps mentioned in Galatians 1:18 and 2:1, as well as the supposition that the first missionary journey lasted about a year, the two reconstructions are presented in the following table. Keep in mind that they are approximations and that they reflect the ancient custom of counting a part of a year as a whole year.<\/p>\n\n<h4>Events from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 70<\/h4>\n<p>Acts 24:27 describes an event that helps us date events in the rest of the book, namely, Porcius Festus’s replacement of Felix as the governor of Judea. A careful analysis of the evidence given by Eusebius, a fourth-century historian, leads to the probable conclusion that Felix was replaced in the summer of 59.<\/p>\n<p>Working backward from that date, Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem (Acts 21:33) must have occurred in 57, some two years before the coming of Festus. More precisely, Paul’s arrest probably occurred in the late spring or summer of 57; Paul’s goal (20:16) was to arrive in Jerusalem by Pentecost of that year, and Pentecost occurred at the end of May. He was not long in the city before he was arrested.<\/p>\n<p>The Passover festival, 50 days before Pentecost, was celebrated by Paul with the church in Philippi (Acts 20:6). That would have been April 7–14, <span>AD<\/span> 57. Only after the feast did he continue his hurried journey to Caesarea and Jerusalem (20:6–21:16). Before his Passover visit to Philippi, Paul had spent three months in Greece (20:3). Allowing some time for him to travel through Macedonia and visit the Thessalonians and Bereans, those three months were probably the winter months of 56–57 (Acts 20:3; cf. 1 Cor 16:6). No doubt they were spent in the main church of Greece, Corinth, and were used in part for the writing of the Letter to the Romans.<\/p>\n<p>Between Paul’s departure from Corinth on the second missionary journey (Acts 18:18) in the autumn of 51 and his arrival in Corinth on the third missionary journey (20:2) in the late winter of 56 are five years of activities that cannot be given exact dates. Paul said that he worked during three of those years in Ephesus (20:31; cf. 19:1–20:1). With enough time allowed for the travels before and after, that stay at Ephesus probably lasted from 52 or 53 to the summer of 55 or 56 (cf. 1 Cor 16:8). During his long stay in Ephesus, Paul wrote his First Letter to the Corinthians. Then, on his way to Corinth in 56, he wrote 2 Corinthians from Macedonia.<\/p>\n<p>Festus arrived as governor in the summer of 59, after Paul had been in prison in Caesarea for two years. Within a matter of days, Paul was tried before Festus (Acts 25:1-12). Not wanting to be remanded to the Jewish authorities, Paul appealed to Caesar (v 12), which meant that he would go to Rome. The account in Acts gives no hint of a delay, so the voyage most likely began in the summer or fall of 59 (27:2).<\/p>\n<p>Luke reported that when Paul the prisoner got to Fair Havens on the island of Crete, the weather had become dangerous for sea travel “because the fast had already gone by” (Acts 27:8-9). One ancient writer said that sailing became dangerous between mid-September and mid-November, and after that, impossible until spring. The fast referred to was no doubt the one in preparation for the Day of Atonement, which in the year 59 fell on October 5. It is not surprising that, 14 days after leaving Fair Havens, the ship in which Paul was traveling was wrecked on the coast of Malta, south of Sicily (vv 27-44). Three months later Paul set sail for Rome again in a ship that had spent the winter at Malta (28:11). Soon he was welcomed into Rome by Christians who came out to meet him (v 15). Thus Paul arrived in Rome in the early part of <span>AD<\/span> 60. The book of Acts closes with the remark that “For two whole years Paul stayed there in his own rented house” (v 30, <span>niv<\/span>). The NT does not report the outcome of his trial. During that period, according to the traditional view, he wrote Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon.<\/p>\n<p>Eusebius wrote, “Tradition has it that after defending himself the Apostle was again sent on the ministry of preaching, and coming a second time to the same city suffered martyrdom under Nero.” Nero, who was the Roman emperor from 54 to 68, put to death a multitude of Christians in Rome soon after a disastrous fire in July of 64, according to the Roman historian Tacitus. A number of early Christian writings (e.g., Clement) seem to indicate that Peter and Paul were both killed in Rome during that savage persecution. If so, and if Eusebius was right, then Paul may have spent the two years from 62 to 64 freely ministering back in the eastern provinces. Many conservative scholars date Paul’s First Letter to Timothy and his Letter to Titus from that period. Written from Rome shortly before Paul’s martyrdom in 64, 2 Timothy was probably his last letter (2 Tm 2:9; 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem, within three years after Paul had been carried off to Rome, James the brother of Jesus was stoned to death by the Jewish authorities. According to Josephus, that occurred in 62. Not long afterward, according to Eusebius, the church in Jerusalem received a prophecy warning them to leave that doomed city and settle in Pella, one of the cities of the Decapolis (“ten cities”) east of the Jordan. Thus when war broke out between the Jews and the Romans in 66, the Christians for the most part escaped its fury. That war ended in 70 with the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (cf. Mk 13:2; Lk 21:24).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Apostle, Apostleship; Age; “Date” under each NT book; First Jewish Revolt; Genealogy of Jesus Christ; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (New Testament) Branch of biblical studies that attempts to discover the sequence of NT events and the amount of time that elapsed between them. Chronology is essential to historians, whose task it is to determine the causes and effects of past events. Generally, for a historian’s purpose, assigning absolute dates is less important than knowing the sequence of events that may have influenced each other. Very few NT happenings, in fact, can be given exact dates. A rema...","summary_en":"CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (New Testament) Branch of biblical studies that attempts to discover the sequence of NT events and the amount of time that elapsed between them. Chronology is essential to historians, whose task it is to determine the causes and effects of past events. Generally, for a historian’s purpose, assigning absolute dates is less important than knowing the sequence of events that may have influenced each other. Very few NT happenings, in fact, can be given exact dates. A rema...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":12789,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Forum","title_en":"Forum","content_ro":"<h3>FORUM<\/h3>\n<p>Open area in Roman cities used for commerce, political affairs, and judicial matters. The forum was usually on level ground, rectangular in shape, and surrounded by temples, law courts, colonnades, and other public buildings.<\/p>\n<p>The forum of Appius was a traveler’s stop on the Appian Way, 43 miles (69.2 kilometers) south of Rome, where Paul was met by Christians from Rome on his way to the capital under guard (Acts 28:15).<\/p>\n<p>The most important of the forums were those located in the city of Rome. These were built at different times in its history, and existing forums were changed through continued building. The Rome to which Paul went for his trial had several forums, including those of Julius Caesar (begun by him but actually completed by Augustus Caesar) and of Augustus Caesar. Most important was the Roman Forum, center of the world in Paul’s day. It lay between the two central hills of the seven hills on which the city was built. It contained many columns, statues, works of art, and buildings important in the political and religious life of the empire.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul was brought directly into the city by the centurion who had charge of him, he would have passed the triumphal arch of Augustus, the temple of Castor and Pollux, and the temples dedicated to Julius and Augustus for emperor worship. Arriving at the Roman Forum proper, he would have noticed on the northwest the famous ideal center of the city (and thus of the empire), and on the southwest the gilded milestone, giving distances to places as far away as London to the west and Jerusalem to the east. In the background was the temple to Jupiter, chief god in the Roman pantheon. On the south side was a large public building, the Basilica Julia, completed in <span>AD<\/span> 12, the probable site of the pronouncement of Paul’s death sentence. On the north side was the Basilica Aemilia, a building from which marble columns were taken and used in the building of a church over the traditional site of Paul’s tomb. That church was completed in <span>AD<\/span> 398 and stood for 1,400 years.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Appius, Forum of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FORUM<\/h3>\n<p>Open area in Roman cities used for commerce, political affairs, and judicial matters. The forum was usually on level ground, rectangular in shape, and surrounded by temples, law courts, colonnades, and other public buildings.<\/p>\n<p>The forum of Appius was a traveler’s stop on the Appian Way, 43 miles (69.2 kilometers) south of Rome, where Paul was met by Christians from Rome on his way to the capital under guard (Acts 28:15).<\/p>\n<p>The most important of the forums were those located in the city of Rome. These were built at different times in its history, and existing forums were changed through continued building. The Rome to which Paul went for his trial had several forums, including those of Julius Caesar (begun by him but actually completed by Augustus Caesar) and of Augustus Caesar. Most important was the Roman Forum, center of the world in Paul’s day. It lay between the two central hills of the seven hills on which the city was built. It contained many columns, statues, works of art, and buildings important in the political and religious life of the empire.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul was brought directly into the city by the centurion who had charge of him, he would have passed the triumphal arch of Augustus, the temple of Castor and Pollux, and the temples dedicated to Julius and Augustus for emperor worship. Arriving at the Roman Forum proper, he would have noticed on the northwest the famous ideal center of the city (and thus of the empire), and on the southwest the gilded milestone, giving distances to places as far away as London to the west and Jerusalem to the east. In the background was the temple to Jupiter, chief god in the Roman pantheon. On the south side was a large public building, the Basilica Julia, completed in <span>AD<\/span> 12, the probable site of the pronouncement of Paul’s death sentence. On the north side was the Basilica Aemilia, a building from which marble columns were taken and used in the building of a church over the traditional site of Paul’s tomb. That church was completed in <span>AD<\/span> 398 and stood for 1,400 years.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Appius, Forum of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FORUM Open area in Roman cities used for commerce, political affairs, and judicial matters. The forum was usually on level ground, rectangular in shape, and surrounded by temples, law courts, colonnades, and other public buildings. The forum of Appius was a traveler’s stop on the Appian Way, 43 miles (69.2 kilometers) south of Rome, where Paul was met by Christians from Rome on his way to the capital under guard (Acts 28:15). The most important of the forums were those located in the city of ...","summary_en":"FORUM Open area in Roman cities used for commerce, political affairs, and judicial matters. The forum was usually on level ground, rectangular in shape, and surrounded by temples, law courts, colonnades, and other public buildings. The forum of Appius was a traveler’s stop on the Appian Way, 43 miles (69.2 kilometers) south of Rome, where Paul was met by Christians from Rome on his way to the capital under guard (Acts 28:15). The most important of the forums were those located in the city of ...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":17560,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Inn","title_en":"Inn","content_ro":"<h3>INN<\/h3>\n<p>Place of lodging for travelers.<\/p>\n<p>In the OT, the word “inn” occurs three times (<span>kjv<\/span>): twice in reference to overnight rests of Joseph’s brothers during their journeys between Egypt and Canaan (Gn 42:27; 43:21), and once in a similar situation when Moses was returning to Egypt from Midian to lead the children of Israel (Ex 4:24). The <span>rsv<\/span> translates each of these instances as “lodging place” because in the time of the patriarchs and Moses the Near East had nothing to correspond to the inn as a public place with accommodations for hire to travelers. In a settled country a traveler could ordinarily expect hospitality from the inhabitants. Throughout the Near East, hospitality was viewed as a serious social responsibility (see Gn 19:1-3; Jgs 19:15-21). In deserted areas travelers would provide for their own shelter (e.g., Gn 28:11) and sustenance (e.g., Jos 9:11-13).<\/p>\n<p>The beginning of real inns in Palestine is obscure. It has been argued that they had a foreign origin, since the rabbinic words for “inn” are borrowed from Greek and Latin. References to Rahab (Jos 2:1) as innkeeper in the Targum and in Josephus (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 5.1.12) may be anachronistic, and they provide no reliable witness to the existence of inns during the time of Joshua, though there are parallels in the Near East of women keeping an establishment providing both lodging and sexual activity for travelers. Certainly there is evidence for Greek inns as early as the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>, and they became common in the Hellenized Mediterranean. They were typically uncomfortable and dangerous.<\/p>\n<p>Such an “inn” with an “innkeeper” sheltered the victim of robbers whom the Good Samaritan befriended (Lk 10:34-35). This inn was probably much like the khan or caravansary, which has been common along the trade and pilgrimage routes of Syria since ancient times. It was built in the form of a square enclosing an open court where water and shelter were available, but the traveler typically supplied his own food and sometimes his own bedding. The Good Samaritan clearly expected the host to provide full care for the wounded man; it is difficult to tell whether this was customary or simply an accommodation to the emergency. The inn of Jesus’ story has long been identified with the Khan Hathrur, halfway between Jerusalem and Jericho, though the present structure is probably only one of many built in the same place.<\/p>\n<p>Two other well-known passages in the NT allude, not to a real inn, but to other social customs and arrangements. First, Christians from the church at Rome met the prisoner Paul at Three Taverns, a stopping place 33 miles (53 kilometers) from Rome at the intersection of the Appian Way with the road from Antium (Acts 28:15). Second, there is the “inn” from which Joseph and Mary were excluded (Lk 2:7). The word is elsewhere translated “guestchamber” (<span>kjv<\/span>) and “guest room” (Mk 14:14; Lk 22:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Jews of Jerusalem took pride in having enough such guest rooms to accommodate the huge influx of pilgrims keeping Passover in the city (cf. Acts 2:6-11 on the crowd at Pentecost); evidently Joseph and Mary expected such accommodation in Bethlehem for the census, but found their place already taken.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>INN<\/h3>\n<p>Place of lodging for travelers.<\/p>\n<p>In the OT, the word “inn” occurs three times (<span>kjv<\/span>): twice in reference to overnight rests of Joseph’s brothers during their journeys between Egypt and Canaan (Gn 42:27; 43:21), and once in a similar situation when Moses was returning to Egypt from Midian to lead the children of Israel (Ex 4:24). The <span>rsv<\/span> translates each of these instances as “lodging place” because in the time of the patriarchs and Moses the Near East had nothing to correspond to the inn as a public place with accommodations for hire to travelers. In a settled country a traveler could ordinarily expect hospitality from the inhabitants. Throughout the Near East, hospitality was viewed as a serious social responsibility (see Gn 19:1-3; Jgs 19:15-21). In deserted areas travelers would provide for their own shelter (e.g., Gn 28:11) and sustenance (e.g., Jos 9:11-13).<\/p>\n<p>The beginning of real inns in Palestine is obscure. It has been argued that they had a foreign origin, since the rabbinic words for “inn” are borrowed from Greek and Latin. References to Rahab (Jos 2:1) as innkeeper in the Targum and in Josephus (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 5.1.12) may be anachronistic, and they provide no reliable witness to the existence of inns during the time of Joshua, though there are parallels in the Near East of women keeping an establishment providing both lodging and sexual activity for travelers. Certainly there is evidence for Greek inns as early as the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>, and they became common in the Hellenized Mediterranean. They were typically uncomfortable and dangerous.<\/p>\n<p>Such an “inn” with an “innkeeper” sheltered the victim of robbers whom the Good Samaritan befriended (Lk 10:34-35). This inn was probably much like the khan or caravansary, which has been common along the trade and pilgrimage routes of Syria since ancient times. It was built in the form of a square enclosing an open court where water and shelter were available, but the traveler typically supplied his own food and sometimes his own bedding. The Good Samaritan clearly expected the host to provide full care for the wounded man; it is difficult to tell whether this was customary or simply an accommodation to the emergency. The inn of Jesus’ story has long been identified with the Khan Hathrur, halfway between Jerusalem and Jericho, though the present structure is probably only one of many built in the same place.<\/p>\n<p>Two other well-known passages in the NT allude, not to a real inn, but to other social customs and arrangements. First, Christians from the church at Rome met the prisoner Paul at Three Taverns, a stopping place 33 miles (53 kilometers) from Rome at the intersection of the Appian Way with the road from Antium (Acts 28:15). Second, there is the “inn” from which Joseph and Mary were excluded (Lk 2:7). The word is elsewhere translated “guestchamber” (<span>kjv<\/span>) and “guest room” (Mk 14:14; Lk 22:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Jews of Jerusalem took pride in having enough such guest rooms to accommodate the huge influx of pilgrims keeping Passover in the city (cf. Acts 2:6-11 on the crowd at Pentecost); evidently Joseph and Mary expected such accommodation in Bethlehem for the census, but found their place already taken.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>","summary_ro":"INN Place of lodging for travelers. In the OT, the word “inn” occurs three times (kjv): twice in reference to overnight rests of Joseph’s brothers during their journeys between Egypt and Canaan (Gn 42:27; 43:21), and once in a similar situation when Moses was returning to Egypt from Midian to lead the children of Israel (Ex 4:24). The rsv translates each of these instances as “lodging place” because in the time of the patriarchs and Moses the Near East had nothing to correspond to the inn as ...","summary_en":"INN Place of lodging for travelers. In the OT, the word “inn” occurs three times (kjv): twice in reference to overnight rests of Joseph’s brothers during their journeys between Egypt and Canaan (Gn 42:27; 43:21), and once in a similar situation when Moses was returning to Egypt from Midian to lead the children of Israel (Ex 4:24). The rsv translates each of these instances as “lodging place” because in the time of the patriarchs and Moses the Near East had nothing to correspond to the inn as ...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37249,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Three Taverns","title_en":"Three Taverns","content_ro":"<h3>THREE TAVERNS<\/h3>\n<p>Place where the believers came to meet Paul when he arrived in Rome (Acts 28:15). It was on the Appian Way located at milepost 33 (30.5 English miles or 49.1 kilometers). The Forum of Appius is ten miles (16.1 kilometers) further south along the same road. Three Taverns was near modern Cisterna at an important junction between the Appian Way and the road from Antium to Norba and was thus a common meeting place for travelers.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>THREE TAVERNS<\/h3>\n<p>Place where the believers came to meet Paul when he arrived in Rome (Acts 28:15). It was on the Appian Way located at milepost 33 (30.5 English miles or 49.1 kilometers). The Forum of Appius is ten miles (16.1 kilometers) further south along the same road. Three Taverns was near modern Cisterna at an important junction between the Appian Way and the road from Antium to Norba and was thus a common meeting place for travelers.<\/p>","summary_ro":"THREE TAVERNS Place where the believers came to meet Paul when he arrived in Rome (Acts 28:15). It was on the Appian Way located at milepost 33 (30.5 English miles or 49.1 kilometers). The Forum of Appius is ten miles (16.1 kilometers) further south along the same road. Three Taverns was near modern Cisterna at an important junction between the Appian Way and the road from Antium to Norba and was thus a common meeting place for travelers.","summary_en":"THREE TAVERNS Place where the believers came to meet Paul when he arrived in Rome (Acts 28:15). It was on the Appian Way located at milepost 33 (30.5 English miles or 49.1 kilometers). The Forum of Appius is ten miles (16.1 kilometers) further south along the same road. Three Taverns was near modern Cisterna at an important junction between the Appian Way and the road from Antium to Norba and was thus a common meeting place for travelers.","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57181,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:15","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:15<\/strong> Paul was greeted by <em>brothers and sisters<\/em> who met his party on the way up to Rome.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:15<\/strong> Paul was greeted by <em>brothers and sisters<\/em> who met his party on the way up to Rome.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:15 Paul was greeted by brothers and sisters who met his party on the way up to Rome.","summary_en":"28:15 Paul was greeted by brothers and sisters who met his party on the way up to Rome.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84807,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:15","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:15<\/strong> Paul was greeted by <em>brothers and sisters<\/em> who met his party on the way up to Rome.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:15<\/strong> Paul was greeted by <em>brothers and sisters<\/em> who met his party on the way up to Rome.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:15 Paul was greeted by brothers and sisters who met his party on the way up to Rome.","summary_en":"28:15 Paul was greeted by brothers and sisters who met his party on the way up to Rome.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112433,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:15","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:15<\/strong> Paul was greeted by <em>brothers and sisters<\/em> who met his party on the way up to Rome.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:15<\/strong> Paul was greeted by <em>brothers and sisters<\/em> who met his party on the way up to Rome.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:15 Paul was greeted by brothers and sisters who met his party on the way up to Rome.","summary_en":"28:15 Paul was greeted by brothers and sisters who met his party on the way up to Rome.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140059,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:15","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:15<\/strong> Paul was greeted by <em>brothers and sisters<\/em> who met his party on the way up to Rome.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:15<\/strong> Paul was greeted by <em>brothers and sisters<\/em> who met his party on the way up to Rome.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:15 Paul was greeted by brothers and sisters who met his party on the way up to Rome.","summary_en":"28:15 Paul was greeted by brothers and sisters who met his party on the way up to Rome.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"16":[{"id":42704,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rome","title_en":"Rome","content_ro":"<h3>Rome<\/h3>\n<p>In the first century <span>AD<\/span> Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\n<p>The Founding and Early Growth of Rome<\/p>\n<p>Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 <span>BC<\/span> on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate.<\/p>\n<p>Around 600 <span>BC<\/span> the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous works, including the forum, which became the social, commercial, and political center for the city, and a temple for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Rome was now linked by roads to the Etruscans in the north, to the Greek trading cities in the south, to the sea to the west, and to the inland highlands to the east.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman Republic<\/p>\n<p>When Rome’s kings became autocratic, the Latin population rebelled. In 509 <span>BC<\/span>, Rome established a “republic,” an oligarchy of the powerful families who controlled the Senate. The small city-state steadily gained control of the region, expanding their influence across the Mediterranean. In 273 <span>BC<\/span> they made a treaty with the Ptolemies of Egypt. They expanded into North Africa, defeating the rival city-state Carthage in the course of the three Punic Wars (264–146 <span>BC<\/span>), and pressed on into Spain. Rome’s many conquests brought enormous wealth.<\/p>\n<p>With geographical expansion came social changes in Italy. Between 200 and 100 <span>BC<\/span>, rich landowners bought out small independent farmers, who subsequently drifted into Rome, landless and unemployed. Huge, overcrowded slums appeared alongside the vast wealth and magnificent buildings. The foundations of the republic were cracking under the strain of popular discontent.<\/p>\n<p>The Beginning of the Empire: Julius and Octavian<\/p>\n<p>During this time of social and political upheaval, Julius Caesar pursued an ambitious and tumultuous career which sought to centralize power in his own person. Senators who favored the old republic assassinated him in 44 <span>BC<\/span>, but their action ultimately backfired: Julius’s grandnephew and heir, Octavian, became a senator, consul, and the commander-in-chief in 43 <span>BC<\/span> with the support of the Senate. The Senate also deified Julius in 42 <span>BC<\/span>. After Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 <span>BC<\/span> and took control of Egypt, the Senate gave him the titles Augustus (“illustrious”) and Princeps (“first citizen”) in 27 <span>BC<\/span>, and Octavian began to call himself “son of a god” because of Julius’s divine status. The form of a republic survived, but the reality of a divine emperor had arrived.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the Birth of the Church<\/p>\n<p>“When the right time came, God sent his Son” (Gal 4:4). The change into an empire brought peace and stability, a <em>pax Romana<\/em> (“Roman peace”) that lasted well into the 100s <span>AD<\/span>. Many observers have noted that Roman rule during the first century <span>AD<\/span> provided the ideal setting for the spread of Christianity. The borders were secure and the roads were good, making travel relatively trouble-free. Roman laws and customs protected the rights of its citizens (see, e.g., Acts 16:35-40; 22:24-29). Judaism was protected, and the Romans viewed Christianity as a sect within Judaism (see, e.g., Acts 25:13-19). As a result, the Romans largely rejected complaints against Christians on religious grounds (see, e.g., Acts 19:23-41). Christians were free to proclaim the Good News about Jesus, and many people of all nationalities became followers of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The Changing Status of Christianity<\/p>\n<p>This favorable situation began to change in the time of Nero. Nero blamed Christians for the fire that destroyed a good part of Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 64, and he proceeded with the first large-scale persecution of Christians. The overt persecution ceased in <span>AD<\/span> 66, but Christianity was no longer viewed as a sect of Judaism and lost its protected status. It later became imperial policy to require people to burn incense to the emperor—those who refused were usually either Jews (who were protected) or Christians (who were not). As a result, from the time of Domitian (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) to Galerius (<span>AD<\/span> 305–311), Christianity was officially illegal, punishable by death, and persecuted to varying extents depending on the zeal of those in power. Thus for over two hundred years Rome drank “the blood of God’s holy people who were witnesses for Jesus” (Rev 17:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:1-7, 15; 2 Tim 1:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rome<\/h3>\n<p>In the first century <span>AD<\/span> Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\n<p>The Founding and Early Growth of Rome<\/p>\n<p>Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 <span>BC<\/span> on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate.<\/p>\n<p>Around 600 <span>BC<\/span> the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous works, including the forum, which became the social, commercial, and political center for the city, and a temple for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Rome was now linked by roads to the Etruscans in the north, to the Greek trading cities in the south, to the sea to the west, and to the inland highlands to the east.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman Republic<\/p>\n<p>When Rome’s kings became autocratic, the Latin population rebelled. In 509 <span>BC<\/span>, Rome established a “republic,” an oligarchy of the powerful families who controlled the Senate. The small city-state steadily gained control of the region, expanding their influence across the Mediterranean. In 273 <span>BC<\/span> they made a treaty with the Ptolemies of Egypt. They expanded into North Africa, defeating the rival city-state Carthage in the course of the three Punic Wars (264–146 <span>BC<\/span>), and pressed on into Spain. Rome’s many conquests brought enormous wealth.<\/p>\n<p>With geographical expansion came social changes in Italy. Between 200 and 100 <span>BC<\/span>, rich landowners bought out small independent farmers, who subsequently drifted into Rome, landless and unemployed. Huge, overcrowded slums appeared alongside the vast wealth and magnificent buildings. The foundations of the republic were cracking under the strain of popular discontent.<\/p>\n<p>The Beginning of the Empire: Julius and Octavian<\/p>\n<p>During this time of social and political upheaval, Julius Caesar pursued an ambitious and tumultuous career which sought to centralize power in his own person. Senators who favored the old republic assassinated him in 44 <span>BC<\/span>, but their action ultimately backfired: Julius’s grandnephew and heir, Octavian, became a senator, consul, and the commander-in-chief in 43 <span>BC<\/span> with the support of the Senate. The Senate also deified Julius in 42 <span>BC<\/span>. After Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 <span>BC<\/span> and took control of Egypt, the Senate gave him the titles Augustus (“illustrious”) and Princeps (“first citizen”) in 27 <span>BC<\/span>, and Octavian began to call himself “son of a god” because of Julius’s divine status. The form of a republic survived, but the reality of a divine emperor had arrived.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the Birth of the Church<\/p>\n<p>“When the right time came, God sent his Son” (Gal 4:4). The change into an empire brought peace and stability, a <em>pax Romana<\/em> (“Roman peace”) that lasted well into the 100s <span>AD<\/span>. Many observers have noted that Roman rule during the first century <span>AD<\/span> provided the ideal setting for the spread of Christianity. The borders were secure and the roads were good, making travel relatively trouble-free. Roman laws and customs protected the rights of its citizens (see, e.g., Acts 16:35-40; 22:24-29). Judaism was protected, and the Romans viewed Christianity as a sect within Judaism (see, e.g., Acts 25:13-19). As a result, the Romans largely rejected complaints against Christians on religious grounds (see, e.g., Acts 19:23-41). Christians were free to proclaim the Good News about Jesus, and many people of all nationalities became followers of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The Changing Status of Christianity<\/p>\n<p>This favorable situation began to change in the time of Nero. Nero blamed Christians for the fire that destroyed a good part of Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 64, and he proceeded with the first large-scale persecution of Christians. The overt persecution ceased in <span>AD<\/span> 66, but Christianity was no longer viewed as a sect of Judaism and lost its protected status. It later became imperial policy to require people to burn incense to the emperor—those who refused were usually either Jews (who were protected) or Christians (who were not). As a result, from the time of Domitian (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) to Galerius (<span>AD<\/span> 305–311), Christianity was officially illegal, punishable by death, and persecuted to varying extents depending on the zeal of those in power. Thus for over two hundred years Rome drank “the blood of God’s holy people who were witnesses for Jesus” (Rev 17:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:1-7, 15; 2 Tim 1:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rome In the first century AD Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world. The Founding and Early Growth of Rome Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 BC on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate. Around 600 BC the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous ...","summary_en":"Rome In the first century AD Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world. The Founding and Early Growth of Rome Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 BC on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate. Around 600 BC the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70330,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rome","title_en":"Rome","content_ro":"<h3>Rome<\/h3>\n<p>In the first century <span>AD<\/span> Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\n<p>The Founding and Early Growth of Rome<\/p>\n<p>Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 <span>BC<\/span> on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate.<\/p>\n<p>Around 600 <span>BC<\/span> the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous works, including the forum, which became the social, commercial, and political center for the city, and a temple for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Rome was now linked by roads to the Etruscans in the north, to the Greek trading cities in the south, to the sea to the west, and to the inland highlands to the east.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman Republic<\/p>\n<p>When Rome’s kings became autocratic, the Latin population rebelled. In 509 <span>BC<\/span>, Rome established a “republic,” an oligarchy of the powerful families who controlled the Senate. The small city-state steadily gained control of the region, expanding their influence across the Mediterranean. In 273 <span>BC<\/span> they made a treaty with the Ptolemies of Egypt. They expanded into North Africa, defeating the rival city-state Carthage in the course of the three Punic Wars (264–146 <span>BC<\/span>), and pressed on into Spain. Rome’s many conquests brought enormous wealth.<\/p>\n<p>With geographical expansion came social changes in Italy. Between 200 and 100 <span>BC<\/span>, rich landowners bought out small independent farmers, who subsequently drifted into Rome, landless and unemployed. Huge, overcrowded slums appeared alongside the vast wealth and magnificent buildings. The foundations of the republic were cracking under the strain of popular discontent.<\/p>\n<p>The Beginning of the Empire: Julius and Octavian<\/p>\n<p>During this time of social and political upheaval, Julius Caesar pursued an ambitious and tumultuous career which sought to centralize power in his own person. Senators who favored the old republic assassinated him in 44 <span>BC<\/span>, but their action ultimately backfired: Julius’s grandnephew and heir, Octavian, became a senator, consul, and the commander-in-chief in 43 <span>BC<\/span> with the support of the Senate. The Senate also deified Julius in 42 <span>BC<\/span>. After Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 <span>BC<\/span> and took control of Egypt, the Senate gave him the titles Augustus (“illustrious”) and Princeps (“first citizen”) in 27 <span>BC<\/span>, and Octavian began to call himself “son of a god” because of Julius’s divine status. The form of a republic survived, but the reality of a divine emperor had arrived.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the Birth of the Church<\/p>\n<p>“When the right time came, God sent his Son” (Gal 4:4). The change into an empire brought peace and stability, a <em>pax Romana<\/em> (“Roman peace”) that lasted well into the 100s <span>AD<\/span>. Many observers have noted that Roman rule during the first century <span>AD<\/span> provided the ideal setting for the spread of Christianity. The borders were secure and the roads were good, making travel relatively trouble-free. Roman laws and customs protected the rights of its citizens (see, e.g., Acts 16:35-40; 22:24-29). Judaism was protected, and the Romans viewed Christianity as a sect within Judaism (see, e.g., Acts 25:13-19). As a result, the Romans largely rejected complaints against Christians on religious grounds (see, e.g., Acts 19:23-41). Christians were free to proclaim the Good News about Jesus, and many people of all nationalities became followers of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The Changing Status of Christianity<\/p>\n<p>This favorable situation began to change in the time of Nero. Nero blamed Christians for the fire that destroyed a good part of Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 64, and he proceeded with the first large-scale persecution of Christians. The overt persecution ceased in <span>AD<\/span> 66, but Christianity was no longer viewed as a sect of Judaism and lost its protected status. It later became imperial policy to require people to burn incense to the emperor—those who refused were usually either Jews (who were protected) or Christians (who were not). As a result, from the time of Domitian (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) to Galerius (<span>AD<\/span> 305–311), Christianity was officially illegal, punishable by death, and persecuted to varying extents depending on the zeal of those in power. Thus for over two hundred years Rome drank “the blood of God’s holy people who were witnesses for Jesus” (Rev 17:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:1-7, 15; 2 Tim 1:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rome<\/h3>\n<p>In the first century <span>AD<\/span> Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\n<p>The Founding and Early Growth of Rome<\/p>\n<p>Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 <span>BC<\/span> on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate.<\/p>\n<p>Around 600 <span>BC<\/span> the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous works, including the forum, which became the social, commercial, and political center for the city, and a temple for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Rome was now linked by roads to the Etruscans in the north, to the Greek trading cities in the south, to the sea to the west, and to the inland highlands to the east.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman Republic<\/p>\n<p>When Rome’s kings became autocratic, the Latin population rebelled. In 509 <span>BC<\/span>, Rome established a “republic,” an oligarchy of the powerful families who controlled the Senate. The small city-state steadily gained control of the region, expanding their influence across the Mediterranean. In 273 <span>BC<\/span> they made a treaty with the Ptolemies of Egypt. They expanded into North Africa, defeating the rival city-state Carthage in the course of the three Punic Wars (264–146 <span>BC<\/span>), and pressed on into Spain. Rome’s many conquests brought enormous wealth.<\/p>\n<p>With geographical expansion came social changes in Italy. Between 200 and 100 <span>BC<\/span>, rich landowners bought out small independent farmers, who subsequently drifted into Rome, landless and unemployed. Huge, overcrowded slums appeared alongside the vast wealth and magnificent buildings. The foundations of the republic were cracking under the strain of popular discontent.<\/p>\n<p>The Beginning of the Empire: Julius and Octavian<\/p>\n<p>During this time of social and political upheaval, Julius Caesar pursued an ambitious and tumultuous career which sought to centralize power in his own person. Senators who favored the old republic assassinated him in 44 <span>BC<\/span>, but their action ultimately backfired: Julius’s grandnephew and heir, Octavian, became a senator, consul, and the commander-in-chief in 43 <span>BC<\/span> with the support of the Senate. The Senate also deified Julius in 42 <span>BC<\/span>. After Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 <span>BC<\/span> and took control of Egypt, the Senate gave him the titles Augustus (“illustrious”) and Princeps (“first citizen”) in 27 <span>BC<\/span>, and Octavian began to call himself “son of a god” because of Julius’s divine status. The form of a republic survived, but the reality of a divine emperor had arrived.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the Birth of the Church<\/p>\n<p>“When the right time came, God sent his Son” (Gal 4:4). The change into an empire brought peace and stability, a <em>pax Romana<\/em> (“Roman peace”) that lasted well into the 100s <span>AD<\/span>. Many observers have noted that Roman rule during the first century <span>AD<\/span> provided the ideal setting for the spread of Christianity. The borders were secure and the roads were good, making travel relatively trouble-free. Roman laws and customs protected the rights of its citizens (see, e.g., Acts 16:35-40; 22:24-29). Judaism was protected, and the Romans viewed Christianity as a sect within Judaism (see, e.g., Acts 25:13-19). As a result, the Romans largely rejected complaints against Christians on religious grounds (see, e.g., Acts 19:23-41). Christians were free to proclaim the Good News about Jesus, and many people of all nationalities became followers of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The Changing Status of Christianity<\/p>\n<p>This favorable situation began to change in the time of Nero. Nero blamed Christians for the fire that destroyed a good part of Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 64, and he proceeded with the first large-scale persecution of Christians. The overt persecution ceased in <span>AD<\/span> 66, but Christianity was no longer viewed as a sect of Judaism and lost its protected status. It later became imperial policy to require people to burn incense to the emperor—those who refused were usually either Jews (who were protected) or Christians (who were not). As a result, from the time of Domitian (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) to Galerius (<span>AD<\/span> 305–311), Christianity was officially illegal, punishable by death, and persecuted to varying extents depending on the zeal of those in power. Thus for over two hundred years Rome drank “the blood of God’s holy people who were witnesses for Jesus” (Rev 17:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:1-7, 15; 2 Tim 1:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rome In the first century AD Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world. The Founding and Early Growth of Rome Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 BC on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate. Around 600 BC the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous ...","summary_en":"Rome In the first century AD Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world. The Founding and Early Growth of Rome Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 BC on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate. Around 600 BC the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97956,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rome","title_en":"Rome","content_ro":"<h3>Rome<\/h3>\n<p>In the first century <span>AD<\/span> Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\n<p>The Founding and Early Growth of Rome<\/p>\n<p>Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 <span>BC<\/span> on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate.<\/p>\n<p>Around 600 <span>BC<\/span> the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous works, including the forum, which became the social, commercial, and political center for the city, and a temple for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Rome was now linked by roads to the Etruscans in the north, to the Greek trading cities in the south, to the sea to the west, and to the inland highlands to the east.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman Republic<\/p>\n<p>When Rome’s kings became autocratic, the Latin population rebelled. In 509 <span>BC<\/span>, Rome established a “republic,” an oligarchy of the powerful families who controlled the Senate. The small city-state steadily gained control of the region, expanding their influence across the Mediterranean. In 273 <span>BC<\/span> they made a treaty with the Ptolemies of Egypt. They expanded into North Africa, defeating the rival city-state Carthage in the course of the three Punic Wars (264–146 <span>BC<\/span>), and pressed on into Spain. Rome’s many conquests brought enormous wealth.<\/p>\n<p>With geographical expansion came social changes in Italy. Between 200 and 100 <span>BC<\/span>, rich landowners bought out small independent farmers, who subsequently drifted into Rome, landless and unemployed. Huge, overcrowded slums appeared alongside the vast wealth and magnificent buildings. The foundations of the republic were cracking under the strain of popular discontent.<\/p>\n<p>The Beginning of the Empire: Julius and Octavian<\/p>\n<p>During this time of social and political upheaval, Julius Caesar pursued an ambitious and tumultuous career which sought to centralize power in his own person. Senators who favored the old republic assassinated him in 44 <span>BC<\/span>, but their action ultimately backfired: Julius’s grandnephew and heir, Octavian, became a senator, consul, and the commander-in-chief in 43 <span>BC<\/span> with the support of the Senate. The Senate also deified Julius in 42 <span>BC<\/span>. After Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 <span>BC<\/span> and took control of Egypt, the Senate gave him the titles Augustus (“illustrious”) and Princeps (“first citizen”) in 27 <span>BC<\/span>, and Octavian began to call himself “son of a god” because of Julius’s divine status. The form of a republic survived, but the reality of a divine emperor had arrived.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the Birth of the Church<\/p>\n<p>“When the right time came, God sent his Son” (Gal 4:4). The change into an empire brought peace and stability, a <em>pax Romana<\/em> (“Roman peace”) that lasted well into the 100s <span>AD<\/span>. Many observers have noted that Roman rule during the first century <span>AD<\/span> provided the ideal setting for the spread of Christianity. The borders were secure and the roads were good, making travel relatively trouble-free. Roman laws and customs protected the rights of its citizens (see, e.g., Acts 16:35-40; 22:24-29). Judaism was protected, and the Romans viewed Christianity as a sect within Judaism (see, e.g., Acts 25:13-19). As a result, the Romans largely rejected complaints against Christians on religious grounds (see, e.g., Acts 19:23-41). Christians were free to proclaim the Good News about Jesus, and many people of all nationalities became followers of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The Changing Status of Christianity<\/p>\n<p>This favorable situation began to change in the time of Nero. Nero blamed Christians for the fire that destroyed a good part of Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 64, and he proceeded with the first large-scale persecution of Christians. The overt persecution ceased in <span>AD<\/span> 66, but Christianity was no longer viewed as a sect of Judaism and lost its protected status. It later became imperial policy to require people to burn incense to the emperor—those who refused were usually either Jews (who were protected) or Christians (who were not). As a result, from the time of Domitian (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) to Galerius (<span>AD<\/span> 305–311), Christianity was officially illegal, punishable by death, and persecuted to varying extents depending on the zeal of those in power. Thus for over two hundred years Rome drank “the blood of God’s holy people who were witnesses for Jesus” (Rev 17:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:1-7, 15; 2 Tim 1:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rome<\/h3>\n<p>In the first century <span>AD<\/span> Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\n<p>The Founding and Early Growth of Rome<\/p>\n<p>Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 <span>BC<\/span> on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate.<\/p>\n<p>Around 600 <span>BC<\/span> the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous works, including the forum, which became the social, commercial, and political center for the city, and a temple for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Rome was now linked by roads to the Etruscans in the north, to the Greek trading cities in the south, to the sea to the west, and to the inland highlands to the east.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman Republic<\/p>\n<p>When Rome’s kings became autocratic, the Latin population rebelled. In 509 <span>BC<\/span>, Rome established a “republic,” an oligarchy of the powerful families who controlled the Senate. The small city-state steadily gained control of the region, expanding their influence across the Mediterranean. In 273 <span>BC<\/span> they made a treaty with the Ptolemies of Egypt. They expanded into North Africa, defeating the rival city-state Carthage in the course of the three Punic Wars (264–146 <span>BC<\/span>), and pressed on into Spain. Rome’s many conquests brought enormous wealth.<\/p>\n<p>With geographical expansion came social changes in Italy. Between 200 and 100 <span>BC<\/span>, rich landowners bought out small independent farmers, who subsequently drifted into Rome, landless and unemployed. Huge, overcrowded slums appeared alongside the vast wealth and magnificent buildings. The foundations of the republic were cracking under the strain of popular discontent.<\/p>\n<p>The Beginning of the Empire: Julius and Octavian<\/p>\n<p>During this time of social and political upheaval, Julius Caesar pursued an ambitious and tumultuous career which sought to centralize power in his own person. Senators who favored the old republic assassinated him in 44 <span>BC<\/span>, but their action ultimately backfired: Julius’s grandnephew and heir, Octavian, became a senator, consul, and the commander-in-chief in 43 <span>BC<\/span> with the support of the Senate. The Senate also deified Julius in 42 <span>BC<\/span>. After Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 <span>BC<\/span> and took control of Egypt, the Senate gave him the titles Augustus (“illustrious”) and Princeps (“first citizen”) in 27 <span>BC<\/span>, and Octavian began to call himself “son of a god” because of Julius’s divine status. The form of a republic survived, but the reality of a divine emperor had arrived.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the Birth of the Church<\/p>\n<p>“When the right time came, God sent his Son” (Gal 4:4). The change into an empire brought peace and stability, a <em>pax Romana<\/em> (“Roman peace”) that lasted well into the 100s <span>AD<\/span>. Many observers have noted that Roman rule during the first century <span>AD<\/span> provided the ideal setting for the spread of Christianity. The borders were secure and the roads were good, making travel relatively trouble-free. Roman laws and customs protected the rights of its citizens (see, e.g., Acts 16:35-40; 22:24-29). Judaism was protected, and the Romans viewed Christianity as a sect within Judaism (see, e.g., Acts 25:13-19). As a result, the Romans largely rejected complaints against Christians on religious grounds (see, e.g., Acts 19:23-41). Christians were free to proclaim the Good News about Jesus, and many people of all nationalities became followers of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The Changing Status of Christianity<\/p>\n<p>This favorable situation began to change in the time of Nero. Nero blamed Christians for the fire that destroyed a good part of Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 64, and he proceeded with the first large-scale persecution of Christians. The overt persecution ceased in <span>AD<\/span> 66, but Christianity was no longer viewed as a sect of Judaism and lost its protected status. It later became imperial policy to require people to burn incense to the emperor—those who refused were usually either Jews (who were protected) or Christians (who were not). As a result, from the time of Domitian (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) to Galerius (<span>AD<\/span> 305–311), Christianity was officially illegal, punishable by death, and persecuted to varying extents depending on the zeal of those in power. Thus for over two hundred years Rome drank “the blood of God’s holy people who were witnesses for Jesus” (Rev 17:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:1-7, 15; 2 Tim 1:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rome In the first century AD Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world. The Founding and Early Growth of Rome Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 BC on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate. Around 600 BC the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous ...","summary_en":"Rome In the first century AD Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world. The Founding and Early Growth of Rome Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 BC on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate. Around 600 BC the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":125582,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Rome","title_en":"Rome","content_ro":"<h3>Rome<\/h3>\n<p>In the first century <span>AD<\/span> Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\n<p>The Founding and Early Growth of Rome<\/p>\n<p>Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 <span>BC<\/span> on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate.<\/p>\n<p>Around 600 <span>BC<\/span> the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous works, including the forum, which became the social, commercial, and political center for the city, and a temple for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Rome was now linked by roads to the Etruscans in the north, to the Greek trading cities in the south, to the sea to the west, and to the inland highlands to the east.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman Republic<\/p>\n<p>When Rome’s kings became autocratic, the Latin population rebelled. In 509 <span>BC<\/span>, Rome established a “republic,” an oligarchy of the powerful families who controlled the Senate. The small city-state steadily gained control of the region, expanding their influence across the Mediterranean. In 273 <span>BC<\/span> they made a treaty with the Ptolemies of Egypt. They expanded into North Africa, defeating the rival city-state Carthage in the course of the three Punic Wars (264–146 <span>BC<\/span>), and pressed on into Spain. Rome’s many conquests brought enormous wealth.<\/p>\n<p>With geographical expansion came social changes in Italy. Between 200 and 100 <span>BC<\/span>, rich landowners bought out small independent farmers, who subsequently drifted into Rome, landless and unemployed. Huge, overcrowded slums appeared alongside the vast wealth and magnificent buildings. The foundations of the republic were cracking under the strain of popular discontent.<\/p>\n<p>The Beginning of the Empire: Julius and Octavian<\/p>\n<p>During this time of social and political upheaval, Julius Caesar pursued an ambitious and tumultuous career which sought to centralize power in his own person. Senators who favored the old republic assassinated him in 44 <span>BC<\/span>, but their action ultimately backfired: Julius’s grandnephew and heir, Octavian, became a senator, consul, and the commander-in-chief in 43 <span>BC<\/span> with the support of the Senate. The Senate also deified Julius in 42 <span>BC<\/span>. After Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 <span>BC<\/span> and took control of Egypt, the Senate gave him the titles Augustus (“illustrious”) and Princeps (“first citizen”) in 27 <span>BC<\/span>, and Octavian began to call himself “son of a god” because of Julius’s divine status. The form of a republic survived, but the reality of a divine emperor had arrived.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the Birth of the Church<\/p>\n<p>“When the right time came, God sent his Son” (Gal 4:4). The change into an empire brought peace and stability, a <em>pax Romana<\/em> (“Roman peace”) that lasted well into the 100s <span>AD<\/span>. Many observers have noted that Roman rule during the first century <span>AD<\/span> provided the ideal setting for the spread of Christianity. The borders were secure and the roads were good, making travel relatively trouble-free. Roman laws and customs protected the rights of its citizens (see, e.g., Acts 16:35-40; 22:24-29). Judaism was protected, and the Romans viewed Christianity as a sect within Judaism (see, e.g., Acts 25:13-19). As a result, the Romans largely rejected complaints against Christians on religious grounds (see, e.g., Acts 19:23-41). Christians were free to proclaim the Good News about Jesus, and many people of all nationalities became followers of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The Changing Status of Christianity<\/p>\n<p>This favorable situation began to change in the time of Nero. Nero blamed Christians for the fire that destroyed a good part of Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 64, and he proceeded with the first large-scale persecution of Christians. The overt persecution ceased in <span>AD<\/span> 66, but Christianity was no longer viewed as a sect of Judaism and lost its protected status. It later became imperial policy to require people to burn incense to the emperor—those who refused were usually either Jews (who were protected) or Christians (who were not). As a result, from the time of Domitian (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) to Galerius (<span>AD<\/span> 305–311), Christianity was officially illegal, punishable by death, and persecuted to varying extents depending on the zeal of those in power. Thus for over two hundred years Rome drank “the blood of God’s holy people who were witnesses for Jesus” (Rev 17:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:1-7, 15; 2 Tim 1:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rome<\/h3>\n<p>In the first century <span>AD<\/span> Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\n<p>The Founding and Early Growth of Rome<\/p>\n<p>Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 <span>BC<\/span> on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate.<\/p>\n<p>Around 600 <span>BC<\/span> the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous works, including the forum, which became the social, commercial, and political center for the city, and a temple for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Rome was now linked by roads to the Etruscans in the north, to the Greek trading cities in the south, to the sea to the west, and to the inland highlands to the east.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman Republic<\/p>\n<p>When Rome’s kings became autocratic, the Latin population rebelled. In 509 <span>BC<\/span>, Rome established a “republic,” an oligarchy of the powerful families who controlled the Senate. The small city-state steadily gained control of the region, expanding their influence across the Mediterranean. In 273 <span>BC<\/span> they made a treaty with the Ptolemies of Egypt. They expanded into North Africa, defeating the rival city-state Carthage in the course of the three Punic Wars (264–146 <span>BC<\/span>), and pressed on into Spain. Rome’s many conquests brought enormous wealth.<\/p>\n<p>With geographical expansion came social changes in Italy. Between 200 and 100 <span>BC<\/span>, rich landowners bought out small independent farmers, who subsequently drifted into Rome, landless and unemployed. Huge, overcrowded slums appeared alongside the vast wealth and magnificent buildings. The foundations of the republic were cracking under the strain of popular discontent.<\/p>\n<p>The Beginning of the Empire: Julius and Octavian<\/p>\n<p>During this time of social and political upheaval, Julius Caesar pursued an ambitious and tumultuous career which sought to centralize power in his own person. Senators who favored the old republic assassinated him in 44 <span>BC<\/span>, but their action ultimately backfired: Julius’s grandnephew and heir, Octavian, became a senator, consul, and the commander-in-chief in 43 <span>BC<\/span> with the support of the Senate. The Senate also deified Julius in 42 <span>BC<\/span>. After Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 <span>BC<\/span> and took control of Egypt, the Senate gave him the titles Augustus (“illustrious”) and Princeps (“first citizen”) in 27 <span>BC<\/span>, and Octavian began to call himself “son of a god” because of Julius’s divine status. The form of a republic survived, but the reality of a divine emperor had arrived.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the Birth of the Church<\/p>\n<p>“When the right time came, God sent his Son” (Gal 4:4). The change into an empire brought peace and stability, a <em>pax Romana<\/em> (“Roman peace”) that lasted well into the 100s <span>AD<\/span>. Many observers have noted that Roman rule during the first century <span>AD<\/span> provided the ideal setting for the spread of Christianity. The borders were secure and the roads were good, making travel relatively trouble-free. Roman laws and customs protected the rights of its citizens (see, e.g., Acts 16:35-40; 22:24-29). Judaism was protected, and the Romans viewed Christianity as a sect within Judaism (see, e.g., Acts 25:13-19). As a result, the Romans largely rejected complaints against Christians on religious grounds (see, e.g., Acts 19:23-41). Christians were free to proclaim the Good News about Jesus, and many people of all nationalities became followers of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The Changing Status of Christianity<\/p>\n<p>This favorable situation began to change in the time of Nero. Nero blamed Christians for the fire that destroyed a good part of Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 64, and he proceeded with the first large-scale persecution of Christians. The overt persecution ceased in <span>AD<\/span> 66, but Christianity was no longer viewed as a sect of Judaism and lost its protected status. It later became imperial policy to require people to burn incense to the emperor—those who refused were usually either Jews (who were protected) or Christians (who were not). As a result, from the time of Domitian (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) to Galerius (<span>AD<\/span> 305–311), Christianity was officially illegal, punishable by death, and persecuted to varying extents depending on the zeal of those in power. Thus for over two hundred years Rome drank “the blood of God’s holy people who were witnesses for Jesus” (Rev 17:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:1-7, 15; 2 Tim 1:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rome In the first century AD Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world. The Founding and Early Growth of Rome Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 BC on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate. Around 600 BC the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous ...","summary_en":"Rome In the first century AD Rome was both a cosmopolitan city and a mighty empire that had brought peace and stability to the Mediterranean world. The Founding and Early Growth of Rome Rome was founded, according to tradition, in 753 BC on the Tiber River in Italy by a Latin-speaking agricultural tribe. A loose association of chieftains comprised the earliest Senate. Around 600 BC the Etruscans from central Italy invaded the territory of Rome and became its rulers. They constructed numerous ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":388,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of the Acts of the Apostles","title_en":"Book of the Acts of the Apostles","content_ro":"<h3>ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, B<span>ook of the<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>NT book presenting the history of the early church and written as a sequel to the Gospel of Luke. In the arrangement of the NT books, Acts comes after the four Gospels and before the Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background and Content<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts does not state clearly who its writer is, but the general consensus is that Luke was its author.<\/p>\n<p>Early church tradition from the second century states that Acts (as well as the third Gospel) was written by a traveling companion and fellow worker of the apostle Paul. That companion is identified in Colossians 4:14 as “Luke, the beloved physician” (<span>nasb<\/span>) and mentioned among Paul’s coworkers (Col 4:10-17; see also 2 Tm 4:11; Phlm 1:24).<\/p>\n<p>Strong support for the tradition that the author of Acts was a companion of Paul comes from the second half of the book recounting Paul’s ministry. There, several narratives are told in the first person plural:<\/p>\n<p>1. “That night Paul had a vision. He saw a man from Macedonia in northern Greece, pleading with him, ‘Come over here and help us.’ So we decided to leave for Macedonia at once, for we could only conclude that God was calling us to preach the Good News there” (16:9-10, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<li>2. “They went ahead and waited for us at Troas . . . we boarded a ship at Philippi in Macedonia and five days later arrived in Troas, where we stayed a week” (20:5-6, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>3. “When the time came, we set sail for Italy” (27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n<p>These “we” sections (16:9-18; 20:5–21:18; 27:1–28:16) sound like part of a travel narrative or diary written by an eyewitness who accompanied Paul from Troas to Philippi on his second missionary journey; from Philippi to Miletus on the third; from Miletus to Jerusalem; and from Caesarea to Rome. Since the style and vocabulary of these travel narratives resemble those of the rest of the book, it is highly probably that the diarist was also the author of the entire book.<\/p>\n<p>The sophisticated literary style and polished use of the Greek language in the book, as well as the fact that it is addressed to someone called Theophilus (possibly a high-ranking Roman official), provide strong support for the tradition that Luke was a gentile convert to Christianity. His consistent and frequent use of the Greek OT may indicate that he had been a gentile “God-fearer” before conversion to the new faith.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginDestination\">Date, Origin, Destination<\/p>\n\n<p>The question of the date and place of the origin of Acts continues to be debated. There are no clear indications in the book itself. With regard to its destination, however, Luke did not leave any doubt. In the opening verse he addresses a certain Theophilus, to whom he had already written an earlier book about the life of Jesus. There can be no doubt that he was referring to the work we know as the Gospel of Luke. In the preface to that Gospel (Lk 1:1-4), Luke clearly stated his purpose for writing and addressed his account to the “most honorable Theophilus.” It is not clear who that person was. Some interpreters think that Theophilus (which means “dear to God” or “lover of God”) stands for Christian readers in general rather than any specific individual. However, the designation “most honorable” argues against such an assumption. That ascription was a common title of honor, designating a person with official standing in the Roman sociopolitical order (cf. use of the title for Felix, Acts 23:26; 24:2; and for Festus, 26:25). It is thus likely that Luke intended his two-volume work for an official representative of Roman society.<\/p>\n<p>When was Acts written? Some scholars date it in the last quarter of the first century. Since the Gospel was written first, and since Luke based his story of Jesus on eyewitness accounts and written sources (among which was possibly the Gospel of Mark, probably written in the 60s), Acts should not be dated much before <span>AD<\/span> 85. Proponents of such a late date claim support from the theology of Acts, which they see as picturing a Christian church settled into history, adjusted to the prospect of a lengthy period before the Lord’s return. Since expectation of the Lord’s imminent return was fanned into a living flame by the Jewish revolt and the fall of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 70, time must be allowed for that flame to have died down a bit.<\/p>\n<p>Other scholars date Acts around <span>AD<\/span> 70 or shortly thereafter. The Jewish rebellion of <span>AD<\/span> 66–70, which culminated in the destruction of Jerusalem, brought the Jewish faith—legal until then—into disrepute. The Christian movement, which had been accepted as a Jewish sect, became suspect. Christians were increasingly charged with being enemies of Rome. A study of Acts shows that among a number of purposes (see below), Luke seems to have been defending the Christians against the charge of hostility toward the state. He showed how Roman officials repeatedly testified to the complete innocence of Christians and above all else of Paul (16:39; 18:14-17; 19:37; 23:29; 25:25; 26:32). Luke also made it clear that Paul was allowed to carry on his mission with full approval of Roman officials in the very heart of the imperial capital (28:16-31).<\/p>\n<p>A still earlier date, closer to Paul’s Roman imprisonment (early 60s), has been advocated by a number of scholars. There are two compelling reasons: (1) The abrupt ending of Acts, describing Paul carrying on a ministry in Rome before his trial had commenced, may indicate that Luke was writing at that point. It is possible, of course, that Luke ended his story with Paul preaching the gospel in Rome because one of his purposes had been accomplished: namely, showing how the gospel spread from Jerusalem to Rome. But it seems highly unlikely that Luke would close his history without Paul’s defense of the gospel before Caesar himself if that had already happened. (2) The most appropriate period for Luke’s history, with its defense of the Christian movement against all kinds of accusations from both Jews and Gentiles, is the period when Christianity was becoming suspect but was not yet proscribed. That was the time before the start of the persecutions under Nero in <span>AD<\/span> 64. The early date would correspond with the contention that Luke was with Paul during his Roman imprisonment and that he wrote his history in Rome while waiting for Paul’s trial to begin. It is possible that Luke’s work was partially intended to influence the verdict. Luke presented a picture of Christianity and of Paul that he hoped would enable Paul to continue his work among the Gentiles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BackgroundandContent\">Background and Content<\/p>\n<p>Luke grounds his documentary of the rapid expansion of Christianity in the history of the Roman Empire and Palestine during the three decades from <span>AD<\/span> 30 to 60. Some brief historical and geographical considerations will aid in understanding Luke’s history.<\/p>\n<p>Acts 1–12 reports the beginnings of the Christian movement within the imperial province of Syria, which included Judea and Samaria. In the first century <span>AD<\/span>, those regions were generally governed by Roman procurators or puppet kings. At the time of Jesus’ death and resurrection (c. <span>AD<\/span> 30), Pontius Pilate was procurator in Judea and Samaria (<span>AD<\/span> 26–36). Galilee was ruled by King Herod Antipas (4 <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 39). Tiberius was emperor of the Roman Empire (<span>AD<\/span> 14–37). The account of Acts 1–12 took place in the period <span>AD<\/span> 30–44.<\/p>\n<p>The conversion of Saul (Acts 9) is generally dated in <span>AD <\/span>33. After Saul’s conversion and departure to his native Tarsus, the church evidently enjoyed a period of tranquility, consolidating its gains and growing steadily (9:31–11:26). It can be assumed, from Galatians 1:18-21 and the existence of Christian communities that Paul and Silas visited on the second missionary tour (Acts 15:40-41), that Paul was not idle during that decade, but intensely involved in the mission to the Gentiles. (After Acts 13:9, the name “Saul” is dropped from the narrative.)<\/p>\n<p>In <span>AD<\/span> 41, Claudius became emperor of Rome and installed Herod Agrippa I as king of the Jews. (The procurator Pontius Pilate had been removed several years earlier for inept administration of the region.) Agrippa I was grandson of Herod the Great and his Jewish princess Mariamne. Because of his Jewish roots, he was more popular with his subjects than the former Herods. No doubt it was his desire to increase that popularity and gain the support of the Jewish religious authorities that led to a renewed outbreak of violence against the Jerusalem church. Acts 12 recounts the execution of James (the brother of the apostle John) and the imprisonment of Peter. The story of Agrippa I’s death (12:20-23) is paralleled in an account by the Jewish historian Josephus, who dates the event in <span>AD<\/span> 44.<\/p>\n<p>A second event providing a time reference for the unfolding story of the early church is the collection of famine relief in Antioch for Christians in Judea (11:27-29). Luke stated that a severe famine took place (v 28) during the reign of Emperor Claudius (<span>AD<\/span> 41–54). Josephus, writing his <em>Antiquities<\/em> at the end of the first century, spoke of a severe famine in Palestine between the years <span>AD<\/span> 44 and 48. According to Acts 12:25, Barnabas and Paul finished their mission to famine-stricken Christians in Judea after the death of Agrippa I, making it possible to date their mission about <span>AD<\/span> 45.<\/p>\n<p>At that point in the narrative of Acts, Paul is launched officially into his mission to the Gentiles (13:1-3), for which the history and geography of the larger Roman Empire form the backdrop. The official Roman policy toward the various religions in the empire was one of toleration. That policy, plus use of the Greek language throughout the empire and a phenomenal network of roads and sea routes, paved the way for Paul’s far-ranging missionary work.<\/p>\n<p>The first tour (<span>AD<\/span> 46–47) took Paul and Barnabas through the island province of Cyprus in the northeastern tip of the Mediterranean Sea and into the province of Galatia, where churches were established in several cities of southern Galatia (Antioch of Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra, Derbe). Galatia is located in Asia Minor, bordered by the Black Sea, the Aegean Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea on its northern, western, and southern sides. Those cities, important colonial outposts for the Romans, contained mixed populations, including large Jewish communities. It was in the synagogues of those communities that Paul launched his missionary efforts, almost always meeting with considerable opposition (chs 13–14).<\/p>\n<p>The deliberation of the Jerusalem Council about differences between Jewish and gentile Christians (ch 15) can be dated in the year <span>AD<\/span> 48. It was followed by Paul’s second missionary journey, which led him through the already evangelized territory of his native Cilicia, Galatia, and through Troas on the Aegean coast to Macedonia and down into Achaia, the Greek Peninsula (15:40–18:22). Churches were established in the important Macedonian cities of Philippi, Thessalonica, and Beroea.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s one and a half years in Corinth (18:11) can be dated with some certainty in <span>AD<\/span> 51–52. An ancient inscription among the ruins of Delphi, a city in central Greece, states that Gallio became proconsul of Achaia in 51. Acts 18:12-17 tells how Paul was accused by antagonistic Jews before Gallio. The implication is that Paul’s adversaries in Corinth felt that a new proconsul could be persuaded to side with their cause. Thus, Paul’s stay in Corinth can be dated around the beginning of Gallio’s proconsulship.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s account of Paul’s return to Palestine and the beginning of his third missionary tour brings up a fascinating historical question about what happened to the followers of John the Baptist (13:13–19:7). Acts 18:24-28 refers to a learned Jew, Apollos, who was actively teaching about Jesus in the synagogue at Ephesus, but who was apparently not a member of a distinctively Christian community, not having been baptized in the name of Jesus. He was acquainted only with the baptism of repentance practiced by John the Baptist. After Apollos went to Corinth to minister to the young congregation that Paul founded the previous year, Paul went to Ephesus. There he met several disciples of Jesus who, like Apollos, had experienced John’s baptism of repentance, but who had not been baptized as Christians.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s reference to Apollos and those disciples, as well as several passages in the Gospels, indicate that the movement begun by John the Baptist did not simply come to an end when Jesus began his ministry. Evidently John continued to baptize until his death (Jn 3:22-24), and many of his disciples maintained John’s work after his death. Probably both Apollos and the disciples at Ephesus were products of the continuing ministry of John’s disciples. Eventually they were introduced to “the way of the Lord” (18:25). Their lack of knowledge about a distinctive Christian baptism or about the reality of the Holy Spirit (19:2-4) shows how much diversity in both belief and practice existed in early Christianity.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s third missionary tour began with a three-year ministry in Ephesus (19:1–20:1), continued with a visit to churches established on the previous journey (20:2-12), and came to a climax with his arrest in Jerusalem (Acts 21). It took place in the mid-50s (<span>AD<\/span> 53–57). Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem and arraignment before the provincial governor, Felix, in Caesarea (23:23–24:23) must be dated about 57. After Paul had spent two years under house arrest, no doubt prolonged by Felix to gain favor with Jewish subjects, Felix was replaced by Porcius Festus (<span>AD<\/span> 59–60). Josephus noted that Felix was recalled because of an outbreak of civil strife between Jewish and gentile inhabitants of Caesarea and Felix’s unwise handling of the situation.<\/p>\n<p>The new procurator, Festus, was uncertain about what to do with his prisoner. The Jewish leadership sought to seize that opportunity, aware of the desire of new procurators to gain popularity with their subjects (25:1-9). Realizing the threat, Paul appealed his case to the highest court of the empire, presided over by Caesar himself (25:10-12).<\/p>\n<p>Festus was then left with a problem. He had to send with his prisoner a report to the emperor, clearly outlining the charges. Since he did not really comprehend the case (25:25-27), he sought the advice of Herod Agrippa II, who with his sister had come to Caesarea to pay their respects to the new imperial governor of Palestine (25:13). Agrippa II was the son of Herod Agrippa I and, at least in theory, a Jew. He ruled over parts of Palestine from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 100 and had been given the right to appoint the Jewish high priests. His familiarity with Jewish religious traditions and the Law thus put him in a better position to understand Jerusalem’s case against Paul. The outcome of Paul’s appearance before Festus and Agrippa (26:1-29) was recognition of Paul’s innocence (26:31). Yet Paul’s appeal to Rome had to be honored; the law governing such cases had to be followed (26:32).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s relative freedom during the next two-year period (28:30) seems unusual but was a rather common practice in Roman judicial proceedings, especially for Roman citizens who had appealed to the emperor. There is no good reason to believe that Paul was executed at the time when Luke’s narrative ends (c. <span>AD<\/span> 61–62). The great fire of Rome and Nero’s subsequent persecution of Christians were still a few years away (<span>AD<\/span> 64). It is likely that the case against Paul was dismissed, especially in light of the favorable verdict by Festus and King Agrippa. It is also likely that Paul was executed during the later, more general persecution of Christians. Such a sequence would correspond with the tradition cited by Eusebius, a fourth-century church historian, that Paul resumed his ministry and later suffered martyrdom under Nero.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>In the preface to the Gospel, intended to cover the second volume also, Luke told Theophilus (and the audience he represented) that he had set out to write an accurate, orderly account about the beginnings of the Christian movement in the ministry of Jesus of Nazareth (Lk 1:1-4). The opening lines in Acts indicate that the narrative beginning with Jesus of Nazareth (vol 1) is continuing and that Luke’s second volume intends to trace the story from Palestine to Rome (Acts 1:1-8).<\/p>\n<p>While recounting this story, Luke attempted to defend the Christian movement against false charges brought against it. A number of misconceptions attended the birth and growth of the Christian movement. One concerned the relationship between the new faith and Judaism. Many, both within the church and among Roman officials, understood the Christian faith as no more than a particular expression of, or sect within, Judaism. Against that restricted notion, Luke-Acts strikes a universal note. The Gospel proclaims Jesus as Savior of the world (Lk 2:29-32). In Acts, Stephen’s defense before the Jewish council (ch 7), Peter’s experience in Joppa with Cornelius (ch 10), and Paul’s speech at Athens (ch 17) all demonstrate that Christianity is not merely a Jewish sect, some narrow messianic movement, but rather a universal faith. Another problem was popular identification of the new faith with the various religious cults and mystery religions in the Roman Empire. The accounts of the early church’s conflict with Simon the magician (ch 8) and of Paul and Barnabas’s rejection of an attempt to worship them at Lystra (ch 14) undermine the popular charge of superstition. Also, Christianity is not a mystery cult in which esoteric, secret rites bring a worshiper into union with the divine. The Lord worshiped by Christians, said Luke, belongs to real history; he lived his life in Palestine in the then-recent past, openly, for all to observe (see the speeches of Peter and Paul in Acts 2; 10; 13).<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s major purpose, however, was defense of Christianity against the charge that it posed a threat to the order and stability of the Roman Empire. There were, of course, grounds for such suspicions. After all, the founder of the movement had been crucified on a charge of sedition by a Roman procurator, and the movement that claimed his name seemed to evoke tumult, disorder, and riots wherever it spread. Luke’s account met those problems head-on. In the Gospel he presented the trial of Jesus as a serious miscarriage of justice. Pilate had handed Jesus over for crucifixion, but he had found Jesus not guilty. Herod Antipas likewise found no substance in the charges against Jesus (Lk 23:13-16; Acts 13:28). A neutral or even friendly attitude of Roman officials toward leading Christians and the movement as a whole is documented throughout Acts. The Roman proconsul of Cyprus, Sergius Paulus, gladly received Paul and Barnabas and responded positively to their message (Acts 13:7-12). The chief magistrate in Philippi apologized for the illegal beating and imprisonment of Paul and Silas (16:37-39). The proconsul of Achaia, Gallio, found Paul guiltless in the eyes of Roman law (18:12-16). In Ephesus the magistrate intervened in a crowd’s attack on Paul and his companions, rejecting the charges against them (19:35-39). A tribune of the Roman military contingent in Jerusalem arrested Paul, but it turned out that he really saved the apostle from the wrath of a mob; in his letter to the procurator Felix, the tribune acknowledged that Paul was not guilty by Roman law (23:26-29). The same verdict was repeated after Paul’s arraignment before Felix, his successor Festus, and Herod Agrippa II: “This man hasn’t done anything worthy of death or imprisonment” (26:31, <span>nlt<\/span>). Luke climaxed his story by telling how Paul carried on his missionary activity in Rome, the very heart of the empire, and with the permission of the imperial guards (28:30-31). It is clear throughout Luke’s defense that the strife that attended the beginnings and progress of Christianity was not due primarily to anything within the movement, but rather to Jewish opposition and falsification.<\/p>\n<p>Within his lengthy apology for the integrity of Christianity, Luke’s specific theological perspectives can be clearly seen. The two volume work presents a grand scheme of the history of redemption, extending from the <em>time of Israel<\/em> (Lk 1–2) through the <em>time of Jesus,<\/em> and continuing through the <em>time of the church,<\/em> when the good news for Israel is extended to all nations. Paralleling that emphasis is an insistence that God is present in the redemptive story through the Holy Spirit. In the Gospel, Jesus is presented as the Man of the Spirit; the reality of the Spirit empowered him for his work (Lk 3:22; 4:1, 14, 18). In Acts, the fellowship of Jesus’ disciples is presented as the community of the Spirit (1:8; 2:1-8). What Jesus in the power of the Spirit had begun in his own ministry, the church in the power of the Spirit continues to do.<\/p>\n<p>For Luke, the empowering presence of God’s Spirit was a reality that gave the new faith its power, integrity, and perseverance. It enabled faithful witness (1:8) and created genuine community (2:44-47; 4:32-37), something for which the ancient world desperately longed. The Spirit in the new community produced courage and boldness (see Peter’s defenses in chs 2–5), empowered for service (ch 6), overcame prejudice as in the mission in Samaria (ch 8), broke down walls as in the Cornelius episode (chs 10–11), and sent believers out on missions (ch 13).<\/p>\n<p>The entire story is also punctuated by the centrality of Jesus’ resurrection. Luke, like Paul (see 1 Cor 15:12-21), must have been convinced that without the resurrection of Jesus there would be no Christian faith at all. More than that, the resurrection put God’s stamp of approval on Jesus’ life and ministry, authenticating the truth of his claims. Luke announced his interest in that theme at the outset: the ultimate criterion for an apostolic replacement for Judas was that he must have been, with the other disciples, a witness to Jesus’ resurrection. Throughout Acts, from Peter’s Pentecost sermon and defenses before the Sanhedrin to Paul’s speeches before Felix and Agrippa, the church is shown bearing witness to Jesus’ resurrection as a great reversal executed by God (2:22-24, 36; 3:14-15; 5:30-31; 10:39-42).<\/p>\n<p>Acts falls naturally into two parts, chapters 1–12, and 13–28. The first part, roughly speaking, contains the “acts of Peter.” Part two is largely concerned with the “acts of Paul.” In the first 12 chapters, Peter is the central figure who initiates the choosing of a replacement for Judas Iscariot (ch 1); addresses the multitudes at Pentecost (ch 2); interprets the significance of the healing of a lame man to a temple crowd (ch 3); delivers a defense of the Christian proclamation before the supreme Jewish council (ch 4); leads the apostles in a healing ministry and speaks for them (ch 5); stands in the forefront of conflict with a Samaritan magician, “Simon the Great” (ch 8); launches—though somewhat unwillingly—the movement of the gospel to the Gentiles through Cornelius (chs 10–11); and draws the fire of Herod’s campaign against the church but is miraculously delivered from prison (ch 12).<\/p>\n<p>Proclamation of the gospel to the Gentiles through Paul’s ministry is the theme of part two of Acts (chs 13–28). The story primarily concerns three major missionary tours, each of which moved the gospel into yet untouched territory and expanded earlier missionary efforts. The account of Paul’s life and work climaxes in his arrest in Jerusalem (chs 21–22), a lengthy imprisonment in Caesarea (chs 23–26), and a voyage to Rome (chs 27–28).<\/p>\n<p>Another way of getting at the structure and content of Acts is thematic. It has its starting point in Jesus’ statement, “You shall receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you; and you shall be my witnesses in Jerusalem and in all Judea and Samaria and to the ends of the earth” (1:8). Acts can be seen as the story of the fulfillment of that “Great Commission,” unfolding essentially in three stages: (1) witness to Judaism, focused in Jerusalem but also expanding into surrounding Judea and north into Galilee (chs 1–7); (2) witness to Samaria through Philip, Peter, and John (8:1–9:31); (3) witness to the gentile world, first haltingly through Peter (9:32–12:25), and then decisively through Paul (chs 13–28).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Luke (Person); Paul, The Apostle; Simon Peter; Theophilus #1; Chronology of the Bible (New Testament).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, B<span>ook of the<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>NT book presenting the history of the early church and written as a sequel to the Gospel of Luke. In the arrangement of the NT books, Acts comes after the four Gospels and before the Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background and Content<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts does not state clearly who its writer is, but the general consensus is that Luke was its author.<\/p>\n<p>Early church tradition from the second century states that Acts (as well as the third Gospel) was written by a traveling companion and fellow worker of the apostle Paul. That companion is identified in Colossians 4:14 as “Luke, the beloved physician” (<span>nasb<\/span>) and mentioned among Paul’s coworkers (Col 4:10-17; see also 2 Tm 4:11; Phlm 1:24).<\/p>\n<p>Strong support for the tradition that the author of Acts was a companion of Paul comes from the second half of the book recounting Paul’s ministry. There, several narratives are told in the first person plural:<\/p>\n<p>1. “That night Paul had a vision. He saw a man from Macedonia in northern Greece, pleading with him, ‘Come over here and help us.’ So we decided to leave for Macedonia at once, for we could only conclude that God was calling us to preach the Good News there” (16:9-10, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<li>2. “They went ahead and waited for us at Troas . . . we boarded a ship at Philippi in Macedonia and five days later arrived in Troas, where we stayed a week” (20:5-6, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>3. “When the time came, we set sail for Italy” (27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n<p>These “we” sections (16:9-18; 20:5–21:18; 27:1–28:16) sound like part of a travel narrative or diary written by an eyewitness who accompanied Paul from Troas to Philippi on his second missionary journey; from Philippi to Miletus on the third; from Miletus to Jerusalem; and from Caesarea to Rome. Since the style and vocabulary of these travel narratives resemble those of the rest of the book, it is highly probably that the diarist was also the author of the entire book.<\/p>\n<p>The sophisticated literary style and polished use of the Greek language in the book, as well as the fact that it is addressed to someone called Theophilus (possibly a high-ranking Roman official), provide strong support for the tradition that Luke was a gentile convert to Christianity. His consistent and frequent use of the Greek OT may indicate that he had been a gentile “God-fearer” before conversion to the new faith.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginDestination\">Date, Origin, Destination<\/p>\n\n<p>The question of the date and place of the origin of Acts continues to be debated. There are no clear indications in the book itself. With regard to its destination, however, Luke did not leave any doubt. In the opening verse he addresses a certain Theophilus, to whom he had already written an earlier book about the life of Jesus. There can be no doubt that he was referring to the work we know as the Gospel of Luke. In the preface to that Gospel (Lk 1:1-4), Luke clearly stated his purpose for writing and addressed his account to the “most honorable Theophilus.” It is not clear who that person was. Some interpreters think that Theophilus (which means “dear to God” or “lover of God”) stands for Christian readers in general rather than any specific individual. However, the designation “most honorable” argues against such an assumption. That ascription was a common title of honor, designating a person with official standing in the Roman sociopolitical order (cf. use of the title for Felix, Acts 23:26; 24:2; and for Festus, 26:25). It is thus likely that Luke intended his two-volume work for an official representative of Roman society.<\/p>\n<p>When was Acts written? Some scholars date it in the last quarter of the first century. Since the Gospel was written first, and since Luke based his story of Jesus on eyewitness accounts and written sources (among which was possibly the Gospel of Mark, probably written in the 60s), Acts should not be dated much before <span>AD<\/span> 85. Proponents of such a late date claim support from the theology of Acts, which they see as picturing a Christian church settled into history, adjusted to the prospect of a lengthy period before the Lord’s return. Since expectation of the Lord’s imminent return was fanned into a living flame by the Jewish revolt and the fall of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 70, time must be allowed for that flame to have died down a bit.<\/p>\n<p>Other scholars date Acts around <span>AD<\/span> 70 or shortly thereafter. The Jewish rebellion of <span>AD<\/span> 66–70, which culminated in the destruction of Jerusalem, brought the Jewish faith—legal until then—into disrepute. The Christian movement, which had been accepted as a Jewish sect, became suspect. Christians were increasingly charged with being enemies of Rome. A study of Acts shows that among a number of purposes (see below), Luke seems to have been defending the Christians against the charge of hostility toward the state. He showed how Roman officials repeatedly testified to the complete innocence of Christians and above all else of Paul (16:39; 18:14-17; 19:37; 23:29; 25:25; 26:32). Luke also made it clear that Paul was allowed to carry on his mission with full approval of Roman officials in the very heart of the imperial capital (28:16-31).<\/p>\n<p>A still earlier date, closer to Paul’s Roman imprisonment (early 60s), has been advocated by a number of scholars. There are two compelling reasons: (1) The abrupt ending of Acts, describing Paul carrying on a ministry in Rome before his trial had commenced, may indicate that Luke was writing at that point. It is possible, of course, that Luke ended his story with Paul preaching the gospel in Rome because one of his purposes had been accomplished: namely, showing how the gospel spread from Jerusalem to Rome. But it seems highly unlikely that Luke would close his history without Paul’s defense of the gospel before Caesar himself if that had already happened. (2) The most appropriate period for Luke’s history, with its defense of the Christian movement against all kinds of accusations from both Jews and Gentiles, is the period when Christianity was becoming suspect but was not yet proscribed. That was the time before the start of the persecutions under Nero in <span>AD<\/span> 64. The early date would correspond with the contention that Luke was with Paul during his Roman imprisonment and that he wrote his history in Rome while waiting for Paul’s trial to begin. It is possible that Luke’s work was partially intended to influence the verdict. Luke presented a picture of Christianity and of Paul that he hoped would enable Paul to continue his work among the Gentiles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BackgroundandContent\">Background and Content<\/p>\n<p>Luke grounds his documentary of the rapid expansion of Christianity in the history of the Roman Empire and Palestine during the three decades from <span>AD<\/span> 30 to 60. Some brief historical and geographical considerations will aid in understanding Luke’s history.<\/p>\n<p>Acts 1–12 reports the beginnings of the Christian movement within the imperial province of Syria, which included Judea and Samaria. In the first century <span>AD<\/span>, those regions were generally governed by Roman procurators or puppet kings. At the time of Jesus’ death and resurrection (c. <span>AD<\/span> 30), Pontius Pilate was procurator in Judea and Samaria (<span>AD<\/span> 26–36). Galilee was ruled by King Herod Antipas (4 <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 39). Tiberius was emperor of the Roman Empire (<span>AD<\/span> 14–37). The account of Acts 1–12 took place in the period <span>AD<\/span> 30–44.<\/p>\n<p>The conversion of Saul (Acts 9) is generally dated in <span>AD <\/span>33. After Saul’s conversion and departure to his native Tarsus, the church evidently enjoyed a period of tranquility, consolidating its gains and growing steadily (9:31–11:26). It can be assumed, from Galatians 1:18-21 and the existence of Christian communities that Paul and Silas visited on the second missionary tour (Acts 15:40-41), that Paul was not idle during that decade, but intensely involved in the mission to the Gentiles. (After Acts 13:9, the name “Saul” is dropped from the narrative.)<\/p>\n<p>In <span>AD<\/span> 41, Claudius became emperor of Rome and installed Herod Agrippa I as king of the Jews. (The procurator Pontius Pilate had been removed several years earlier for inept administration of the region.) Agrippa I was grandson of Herod the Great and his Jewish princess Mariamne. Because of his Jewish roots, he was more popular with his subjects than the former Herods. No doubt it was his desire to increase that popularity and gain the support of the Jewish religious authorities that led to a renewed outbreak of violence against the Jerusalem church. Acts 12 recounts the execution of James (the brother of the apostle John) and the imprisonment of Peter. The story of Agrippa I’s death (12:20-23) is paralleled in an account by the Jewish historian Josephus, who dates the event in <span>AD<\/span> 44.<\/p>\n<p>A second event providing a time reference for the unfolding story of the early church is the collection of famine relief in Antioch for Christians in Judea (11:27-29). Luke stated that a severe famine took place (v 28) during the reign of Emperor Claudius (<span>AD<\/span> 41–54). Josephus, writing his <em>Antiquities<\/em> at the end of the first century, spoke of a severe famine in Palestine between the years <span>AD<\/span> 44 and 48. According to Acts 12:25, Barnabas and Paul finished their mission to famine-stricken Christians in Judea after the death of Agrippa I, making it possible to date their mission about <span>AD<\/span> 45.<\/p>\n<p>At that point in the narrative of Acts, Paul is launched officially into his mission to the Gentiles (13:1-3), for which the history and geography of the larger Roman Empire form the backdrop. The official Roman policy toward the various religions in the empire was one of toleration. That policy, plus use of the Greek language throughout the empire and a phenomenal network of roads and sea routes, paved the way for Paul’s far-ranging missionary work.<\/p>\n<p>The first tour (<span>AD<\/span> 46–47) took Paul and Barnabas through the island province of Cyprus in the northeastern tip of the Mediterranean Sea and into the province of Galatia, where churches were established in several cities of southern Galatia (Antioch of Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra, Derbe). Galatia is located in Asia Minor, bordered by the Black Sea, the Aegean Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea on its northern, western, and southern sides. Those cities, important colonial outposts for the Romans, contained mixed populations, including large Jewish communities. It was in the synagogues of those communities that Paul launched his missionary efforts, almost always meeting with considerable opposition (chs 13–14).<\/p>\n<p>The deliberation of the Jerusalem Council about differences between Jewish and gentile Christians (ch 15) can be dated in the year <span>AD<\/span> 48. It was followed by Paul’s second missionary journey, which led him through the already evangelized territory of his native Cilicia, Galatia, and through Troas on the Aegean coast to Macedonia and down into Achaia, the Greek Peninsula (15:40–18:22). Churches were established in the important Macedonian cities of Philippi, Thessalonica, and Beroea.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s one and a half years in Corinth (18:11) can be dated with some certainty in <span>AD<\/span> 51–52. An ancient inscription among the ruins of Delphi, a city in central Greece, states that Gallio became proconsul of Achaia in 51. Acts 18:12-17 tells how Paul was accused by antagonistic Jews before Gallio. The implication is that Paul’s adversaries in Corinth felt that a new proconsul could be persuaded to side with their cause. Thus, Paul’s stay in Corinth can be dated around the beginning of Gallio’s proconsulship.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s account of Paul’s return to Palestine and the beginning of his third missionary tour brings up a fascinating historical question about what happened to the followers of John the Baptist (13:13–19:7). Acts 18:24-28 refers to a learned Jew, Apollos, who was actively teaching about Jesus in the synagogue at Ephesus, but who was apparently not a member of a distinctively Christian community, not having been baptized in the name of Jesus. He was acquainted only with the baptism of repentance practiced by John the Baptist. After Apollos went to Corinth to minister to the young congregation that Paul founded the previous year, Paul went to Ephesus. There he met several disciples of Jesus who, like Apollos, had experienced John’s baptism of repentance, but who had not been baptized as Christians.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s reference to Apollos and those disciples, as well as several passages in the Gospels, indicate that the movement begun by John the Baptist did not simply come to an end when Jesus began his ministry. Evidently John continued to baptize until his death (Jn 3:22-24), and many of his disciples maintained John’s work after his death. Probably both Apollos and the disciples at Ephesus were products of the continuing ministry of John’s disciples. Eventually they were introduced to “the way of the Lord” (18:25). Their lack of knowledge about a distinctive Christian baptism or about the reality of the Holy Spirit (19:2-4) shows how much diversity in both belief and practice existed in early Christianity.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s third missionary tour began with a three-year ministry in Ephesus (19:1–20:1), continued with a visit to churches established on the previous journey (20:2-12), and came to a climax with his arrest in Jerusalem (Acts 21). It took place in the mid-50s (<span>AD<\/span> 53–57). Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem and arraignment before the provincial governor, Felix, in Caesarea (23:23–24:23) must be dated about 57. After Paul had spent two years under house arrest, no doubt prolonged by Felix to gain favor with Jewish subjects, Felix was replaced by Porcius Festus (<span>AD<\/span> 59–60). Josephus noted that Felix was recalled because of an outbreak of civil strife between Jewish and gentile inhabitants of Caesarea and Felix’s unwise handling of the situation.<\/p>\n<p>The new procurator, Festus, was uncertain about what to do with his prisoner. The Jewish leadership sought to seize that opportunity, aware of the desire of new procurators to gain popularity with their subjects (25:1-9). Realizing the threat, Paul appealed his case to the highest court of the empire, presided over by Caesar himself (25:10-12).<\/p>\n<p>Festus was then left with a problem. He had to send with his prisoner a report to the emperor, clearly outlining the charges. Since he did not really comprehend the case (25:25-27), he sought the advice of Herod Agrippa II, who with his sister had come to Caesarea to pay their respects to the new imperial governor of Palestine (25:13). Agrippa II was the son of Herod Agrippa I and, at least in theory, a Jew. He ruled over parts of Palestine from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 100 and had been given the right to appoint the Jewish high priests. His familiarity with Jewish religious traditions and the Law thus put him in a better position to understand Jerusalem’s case against Paul. The outcome of Paul’s appearance before Festus and Agrippa (26:1-29) was recognition of Paul’s innocence (26:31). Yet Paul’s appeal to Rome had to be honored; the law governing such cases had to be followed (26:32).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s relative freedom during the next two-year period (28:30) seems unusual but was a rather common practice in Roman judicial proceedings, especially for Roman citizens who had appealed to the emperor. There is no good reason to believe that Paul was executed at the time when Luke’s narrative ends (c. <span>AD<\/span> 61–62). The great fire of Rome and Nero’s subsequent persecution of Christians were still a few years away (<span>AD<\/span> 64). It is likely that the case against Paul was dismissed, especially in light of the favorable verdict by Festus and King Agrippa. It is also likely that Paul was executed during the later, more general persecution of Christians. Such a sequence would correspond with the tradition cited by Eusebius, a fourth-century church historian, that Paul resumed his ministry and later suffered martyrdom under Nero.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>In the preface to the Gospel, intended to cover the second volume also, Luke told Theophilus (and the audience he represented) that he had set out to write an accurate, orderly account about the beginnings of the Christian movement in the ministry of Jesus of Nazareth (Lk 1:1-4). The opening lines in Acts indicate that the narrative beginning with Jesus of Nazareth (vol 1) is continuing and that Luke’s second volume intends to trace the story from Palestine to Rome (Acts 1:1-8).<\/p>\n<p>While recounting this story, Luke attempted to defend the Christian movement against false charges brought against it. A number of misconceptions attended the birth and growth of the Christian movement. One concerned the relationship between the new faith and Judaism. Many, both within the church and among Roman officials, understood the Christian faith as no more than a particular expression of, or sect within, Judaism. Against that restricted notion, Luke-Acts strikes a universal note. The Gospel proclaims Jesus as Savior of the world (Lk 2:29-32). In Acts, Stephen’s defense before the Jewish council (ch 7), Peter’s experience in Joppa with Cornelius (ch 10), and Paul’s speech at Athens (ch 17) all demonstrate that Christianity is not merely a Jewish sect, some narrow messianic movement, but rather a universal faith. Another problem was popular identification of the new faith with the various religious cults and mystery religions in the Roman Empire. The accounts of the early church’s conflict with Simon the magician (ch 8) and of Paul and Barnabas’s rejection of an attempt to worship them at Lystra (ch 14) undermine the popular charge of superstition. Also, Christianity is not a mystery cult in which esoteric, secret rites bring a worshiper into union with the divine. The Lord worshiped by Christians, said Luke, belongs to real history; he lived his life in Palestine in the then-recent past, openly, for all to observe (see the speeches of Peter and Paul in Acts 2; 10; 13).<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s major purpose, however, was defense of Christianity against the charge that it posed a threat to the order and stability of the Roman Empire. There were, of course, grounds for such suspicions. After all, the founder of the movement had been crucified on a charge of sedition by a Roman procurator, and the movement that claimed his name seemed to evoke tumult, disorder, and riots wherever it spread. Luke’s account met those problems head-on. In the Gospel he presented the trial of Jesus as a serious miscarriage of justice. Pilate had handed Jesus over for crucifixion, but he had found Jesus not guilty. Herod Antipas likewise found no substance in the charges against Jesus (Lk 23:13-16; Acts 13:28). A neutral or even friendly attitude of Roman officials toward leading Christians and the movement as a whole is documented throughout Acts. The Roman proconsul of Cyprus, Sergius Paulus, gladly received Paul and Barnabas and responded positively to their message (Acts 13:7-12). The chief magistrate in Philippi apologized for the illegal beating and imprisonment of Paul and Silas (16:37-39). The proconsul of Achaia, Gallio, found Paul guiltless in the eyes of Roman law (18:12-16). In Ephesus the magistrate intervened in a crowd’s attack on Paul and his companions, rejecting the charges against them (19:35-39). A tribune of the Roman military contingent in Jerusalem arrested Paul, but it turned out that he really saved the apostle from the wrath of a mob; in his letter to the procurator Felix, the tribune acknowledged that Paul was not guilty by Roman law (23:26-29). The same verdict was repeated after Paul’s arraignment before Felix, his successor Festus, and Herod Agrippa II: “This man hasn’t done anything worthy of death or imprisonment” (26:31, <span>nlt<\/span>). Luke climaxed his story by telling how Paul carried on his missionary activity in Rome, the very heart of the empire, and with the permission of the imperial guards (28:30-31). It is clear throughout Luke’s defense that the strife that attended the beginnings and progress of Christianity was not due primarily to anything within the movement, but rather to Jewish opposition and falsification.<\/p>\n<p>Within his lengthy apology for the integrity of Christianity, Luke’s specific theological perspectives can be clearly seen. The two volume work presents a grand scheme of the history of redemption, extending from the <em>time of Israel<\/em> (Lk 1–2) through the <em>time of Jesus,<\/em> and continuing through the <em>time of the church,<\/em> when the good news for Israel is extended to all nations. Paralleling that emphasis is an insistence that God is present in the redemptive story through the Holy Spirit. In the Gospel, Jesus is presented as the Man of the Spirit; the reality of the Spirit empowered him for his work (Lk 3:22; 4:1, 14, 18). In Acts, the fellowship of Jesus’ disciples is presented as the community of the Spirit (1:8; 2:1-8). What Jesus in the power of the Spirit had begun in his own ministry, the church in the power of the Spirit continues to do.<\/p>\n<p>For Luke, the empowering presence of God’s Spirit was a reality that gave the new faith its power, integrity, and perseverance. It enabled faithful witness (1:8) and created genuine community (2:44-47; 4:32-37), something for which the ancient world desperately longed. The Spirit in the new community produced courage and boldness (see Peter’s defenses in chs 2–5), empowered for service (ch 6), overcame prejudice as in the mission in Samaria (ch 8), broke down walls as in the Cornelius episode (chs 10–11), and sent believers out on missions (ch 13).<\/p>\n<p>The entire story is also punctuated by the centrality of Jesus’ resurrection. Luke, like Paul (see 1 Cor 15:12-21), must have been convinced that without the resurrection of Jesus there would be no Christian faith at all. More than that, the resurrection put God’s stamp of approval on Jesus’ life and ministry, authenticating the truth of his claims. Luke announced his interest in that theme at the outset: the ultimate criterion for an apostolic replacement for Judas was that he must have been, with the other disciples, a witness to Jesus’ resurrection. Throughout Acts, from Peter’s Pentecost sermon and defenses before the Sanhedrin to Paul’s speeches before Felix and Agrippa, the church is shown bearing witness to Jesus’ resurrection as a great reversal executed by God (2:22-24, 36; 3:14-15; 5:30-31; 10:39-42).<\/p>\n<p>Acts falls naturally into two parts, chapters 1–12, and 13–28. The first part, roughly speaking, contains the “acts of Peter.” Part two is largely concerned with the “acts of Paul.” In the first 12 chapters, Peter is the central figure who initiates the choosing of a replacement for Judas Iscariot (ch 1); addresses the multitudes at Pentecost (ch 2); interprets the significance of the healing of a lame man to a temple crowd (ch 3); delivers a defense of the Christian proclamation before the supreme Jewish council (ch 4); leads the apostles in a healing ministry and speaks for them (ch 5); stands in the forefront of conflict with a Samaritan magician, “Simon the Great” (ch 8); launches—though somewhat unwillingly—the movement of the gospel to the Gentiles through Cornelius (chs 10–11); and draws the fire of Herod’s campaign against the church but is miraculously delivered from prison (ch 12).<\/p>\n<p>Proclamation of the gospel to the Gentiles through Paul’s ministry is the theme of part two of Acts (chs 13–28). The story primarily concerns three major missionary tours, each of which moved the gospel into yet untouched territory and expanded earlier missionary efforts. The account of Paul’s life and work climaxes in his arrest in Jerusalem (chs 21–22), a lengthy imprisonment in Caesarea (chs 23–26), and a voyage to Rome (chs 27–28).<\/p>\n<p>Another way of getting at the structure and content of Acts is thematic. It has its starting point in Jesus’ statement, “You shall receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you; and you shall be my witnesses in Jerusalem and in all Judea and Samaria and to the ends of the earth” (1:8). Acts can be seen as the story of the fulfillment of that “Great Commission,” unfolding essentially in three stages: (1) witness to Judaism, focused in Jerusalem but also expanding into surrounding Judea and north into Galilee (chs 1–7); (2) witness to Samaria through Philip, Peter, and John (8:1–9:31); (3) witness to the gentile world, first haltingly through Peter (9:32–12:25), and then decisively through Paul (chs 13–28).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Luke (Person); Paul, The Apostle; Simon Peter; Theophilus #1; Chronology of the Bible (New Testament).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, Book of the NT book presenting the history of the early church and written as a sequel to the Gospel of Luke. In the arrangement of the NT books, Acts comes after the four Gospels and before the Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, Destination • Background and Content • Purpose Author The book of Acts does not state clearly who its writer is, but the general consensus is that Luke was its author. Early church tradition from the second century states that Acts (as w...","summary_en":"ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, Book of the NT book presenting the history of the early church and written as a sequel to the Gospel of Luke. In the arrangement of the NT books, Acts comes after the four Gospels and before the Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, Destination • Background and Content • Purpose Author The book of Acts does not state clearly who its writer is, but the general consensus is that Luke was its author. Early church tradition from the second century states that Acts (as w...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10877,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter to the Ephesians","title_en":"Letter to the Ephesians","content_ro":"<h3>EPHESIANS, Letter to the<\/h3>\n<p>Letter to the Christians in Ephesus and the surrouding churches written with a magnificence that both instructs and inspires the reader. It provides a sweeping view of the role of the church as history moves toward the ultimate recognition of the universal headship of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Date and Origin<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The writer of the letter identifies himself as the apostle Paul (Eph 1:1; 3:1). He also describes his own ministry in terms that reflect what we know of Paul (3:7, 13; 4:1; 6:19-20). This claim is confirmed by the testimonies of Irenaeus, Origen, Polycarp, Tertullian, and Ignatius, who in his own espistle to the Ephesians alludes to the frequent and affectionate mention made by Paul of the Christian state, privileges, and persons of the Ephesians.<\/p>\n<p>There are some characteristics of the letter, however, that have caused many scholars to question its clear claim to Pauline authorship. Some of these characteristics would be a problem only if the letter were intended exclusively for people in Ephesus, but such was probably not the case. Otherwise, it would be hard to understand why, after establishing the church there over a three-year period, Paul would write as though author and recipients had only a secondhand knowledge of each other. It would also be strange that the warm personal words of greeting to various individuals that are found in other Pauline letters are missing here. There is instead only a general greeting to “the brothers” (6:23). But all this can be easily explained once it is understood that the epistle was an encyclical for several churches.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Destination\">Destination<\/p>\n<p>This epistle was addressed, most probably, to several churches in the district around Ephesus—namely, Asia. The Epistle to the Ephesians, so-called, was not really intended to be only for the church at Ephesus. Most modern scholars are convinced that it was an encyclical that went to several churches in Asia, including Ephesus. There are several reasons to affirm this. First, the earliest manuscripts (the Chester Beatty Papyrus—P46, Codex Sinaiticus, Codex Vaticanus) do not contain the words “in Ephesus” in Ephesians 1:1. It appears that Paul purposely left the name of the locality out, so as to be filled in later as the letter circulated to each locality. (The Greek construction in 1:1 calls for a prepositional phrase designating a locality to be present in the sentence.) Since Ephesus was the leading city of Asia, it was quite natural for scribes to assign this epistle to the church at Ephesus. Second, the Epistle to the Ephesians has all the marks of being a general treatise rather than an epistle to a specific local church. Paul had lived with the believers at Ephesus for three years (Acts 20:31). He knew them intimately, yet in this epistle there are no personal greetings or specific exhortations. When we consider Paul’s manner in many of his other epistles, it would be quite unlike him to have excluded these personal expressions. Quite the contrary, Paul speaks to the saints whom he has only heard about and who have only heard about him (see Eph 1:15; 3:1). It is possible that this epistle was the one sent to Laodicea.<\/p>\n\n<p>In all fairness it must be said that the encyclical theory has been opposed by some scholars. For example, Henry Alford makes the following objections to this theory: (1) It is at variance with the spirit of the epistle, which is clearly addressed to one set of persons throughout, coexisting in one place and as one body and under the same circumstances. (2) It is improbable that the apostle, who in two of his epistles (2 Corinthians and Galatians) has so plainly specified their encyclical character, should have here omitted such specification. (3) The absence of personal greetings is not an argument for either of the two theories, for similarly there are none in Galatians, Philippians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and 1 Timothy. The better he knows the parties addressed, and the more general and solemn the subject, the less he seems to give of these individual notices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateandOrigin\">Date and Origin<\/p>\n<p>Ephesians 3:1, 4:1, and 6:20 indicate that the letter was written while Paul was a prisoner. Since he was imprisoned several times, it is necessary to narrow the options. The first major imprisonment may have been at Ephesus itself, but this is obviously not in consideration. The second was at Caesarea for two years (Acts 24:27; cf. 23:23-24, 33). It is possible that Paul wrote some letters at that time, but most scholars think that Ephesians (along with Colossians, Philemon, and probably Philippians) was written during Paul’s imprisonment at Rome (28:16, 30). This probably took place sometime between <span>AD<\/span> 59 and 63 and lasted for two years. This period of time, following about 25 years of spiritual growth and 12 years or so of missionary experience, gave Paul a splendid opportunity for reflection and writing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Ephesus was the most important city in Asia Minor, located on the Cayster River, with a harbor on the Aegean Sea. With this location it became a center for commercial travel, and major trade routes led to it from several directions. A great pagan temple dedicated to the goddess Artemis (Diana) was located in Ephesus. Paul made the city a center of evangelistic and church-building ministry (Acts 19), spending three years there (20:31). It was natural, therefore, for a letter intended for a wide readership in that part of Asia Minor to have Ephesus as its main destination.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s first visit to Ephesus (on the seacoast of Lydia, near the river Cayster) is related in Acts 18:19-21. The work, begun by his disputations with the Jews in his short visit, was carried on by Apollos (vv 24-26) and Aquila and Priscilla (18:26). At his second visit, after his journey to Jerusalem, and thence to the east regions of Asia Minor, he remained at Ephesus “three years” (19:10—the “two years” in this verse are only <em>part<\/em> of the time—and 20:31); therefore, the founding and rearing of this church occupied an unusually large portion of the apostle’s time and care. The language in the epistle shows a warmth of feeling and a free outpouring of thought, and a union in spiritual privileges and hope between him and them, such as are natural from one so long and so intimately associated with those whom he addresses. On his last journey to Jerusalem, he sailed by Ephesus and summoned the elders of the Ephesian church to meet him at Miletus, where he delivered his remarkable farewell charge (20:18-35).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>It may be said that the purpose of Ephesians is “doxological”; that is, it should cause the readers to glorify God, both in grateful praise and in manner of life. This is seen in the opening section, which is like a hymn in style: “Praise God, the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ” (Eph 1:3; cf. the Doxology often sung in church). Paul says three times in the first chapter that the result of God’s blessings should be praise (vv 6, 12, 14).<\/p>\n<p>While the letter contains much doctrinal and moral instruction (with the latter solidly based on the former), its purpose is not only teaching or exhortation, important as these are. It is rather to lift up its readers to a new vantage point that will help them to identify with the risen, ascended Christ and to share his perspective on the church and its role in the world.<\/p>\n<p>In this connection a significant term occurs in 1:3 and elsewhere. It is perhaps best translated “heavenly realms.” It is different in form from the usual word for “heaven” and seems to have a special significance in Ephesians as the realm of Jesus’ victorious reign in the present age. This is seen in 1:20, read in the context of verses 19-23. Whatever beings there may be, Christ is above them all. The believer, although obviously on earth physically, “sits with Christ” in the heavenly realms (2:6) and is “blessed” (1:3), drawing on the unlimited resources of heaven for his daily life. It is also in this realm that the spiritual conflict takes place (6:12).<\/p>\n<p>Paul thus makes it clear that Christians are not to have a limited or merely earthly viewpoint. Those who do, mistakenly think that their enemies are people (6:12) and our resources human (2 Cor 10:3-4). With this orientation to the heavenly world of the Lord’s present exaltation, the reader is prepared to understand that the church does not function merely to carry out routine activities here, but that it displays the wisdom of God to beings who exist in the heavenly realms (Eph 3:10). Even the function of church leaders is discussed in terms of the gifts of the Christ who has ascended to the heavens (4:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>There is a strong sense of ultimate purpose in Ephesians. The first chapter contains a number of different expressions of purpose. The great goal of history is expressed in 1:10. The sense of purpose is never lost. The church is even seen, in chapter 3, as the expression of God’s eternal, secret plan. There is also a movement throughout the letter, from (1) reconciliation of individuals to God, to (2) their reconciliation to each other, to (3) their life together in the church. There is no arguing of points along the way, such as one finds in most of the letters, but rather a connected series of affirmations, each leading the reader on to the next.<\/p>\n<p>Paul discusses a number of topics from this heavenly perspective and the sense of purpose this provides. These topics will be discussed below in such a way as to show their interconnection, rather than necessarily in the order of their importance or prominence in Ephesians.<\/p>\n<h5>The Church<\/h5>\n<p>Paul employs a number of figures of speech to describe the church, including a household, a temple, and a body (1:22-23; 2:19-22). Actually, it may be insufficient to call the word “body” a figure of speech, because it seems to be more than that. There is a sense in which Christ and the church have an actual organic relationship, in which he functions as the head and believers as parts of his body.<\/p>\n<p>The church is the result of the reconciling work of Christ, whose death has made peace between mutually hostile Jews and Gentiles (2:11-18). The ensuing unity was long planned by God (3:2-6), and is furthered by a proper attitude and mutual ministry (ch 4).<\/p>\n<p>An especially remarkable feature of Ephesians is the parallel drawn between the relationship between a husband and wife and that between Christ and the church (5:22-33). In this comparison the prior reality is not marriage, with the relationship of Christ and the church only providing an illustration. Rather, the essential reality is Christ and the church.<\/p>\n<h5>The Headship of Christ<\/h5>\n<p>Not only is Christ the head of the church, but he is head over all things to the church’s benefit (1:22). The meaning of 1:10 is that the presently disparate parts and beings of the universe will be brought into order under the headship of Christ. This universal headship is anticipated in the ascension and present exaltation of Christ. The expression of universal domination—“God has put all things under his feet” (1:22, from Ps 8:6)—fortifies this expectation.<\/p>\n<h5>The “Mystery” or “Secret Plan”<\/h5>\n<p>The Greek word “mystery” has a special meaning in early Jewish and Christian literature. It refers to the private eternal decisions of God concerning his saving work and his ultimate purposes in history, which are revealed stage by stage. The term is used in connection with the kingdom in the Gospels (Mt 13:11), with the preaching of the gospel in 1 Corinthians 1:18–2:16, with the destiny of Israel in Romans 11:25, and elsewhere with differing applications. Finally, Revelation 10:6-7 declares that there will be no more delay, but that God’s “mystery,” initially announced by the prophets, will reach its completion.<\/p>\n<p>The aspect of God’s plan that Paul presents in Ephesians 3:3-6 is not only the inclusion of Gentiles among God’s people but their complete integration with Jews in the church. The extent of this was not revealed prior to the time of Paul’s ministry.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Divine Purpose: The Glory and Headship of Christ (1:1-14)<\/h5>\n<p>This whole section constitutes a “doxology.” Paul reminds readers, by expressing his own prayer of praise, of all the blessings God has given believers. These include being chosen to live in God’s presence without guilt (v 4), being given the destiny of full sonship (v 5), and being forgiven because Christ died for them.<\/p>\n<p>But Paul is not only giving a recitation of what God has done; he interweaves a number of words and phrases indicating <em>why<\/em> God has acted, that is, what God’s <em>purposes<\/em> are. Various translations use different English words to represent Greek expressions of purpose, such as “chose,” “predestined,” “plan,” “will,” “secret reason,” “good pleasure,” “purpose” (vv 4-10). Perhaps the most comprehensive statement is in verses 11-12.<\/p>\n<p>It is clear from this that the ultimate purpose of God’s saving work is not merely the happiness of believers but the glory of God through the Lord Jesus Christ. The Spirit is given to guarantee not only the believer’s security but also God’s investment, so to speak, in the believer.<\/p>\n<h5>Prayer That Christians May Realize God’s Purpose and Power (1:15-23)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul’s prayer issues from his opening section, constituting a request that believers may appropriate all that is contained in that statement. It is here that the fact of Jesus’ death, resurrection, and ascension is cited as the basis for the believer’s present vantage point and power.<\/p>\n<h5>Steps toward the Fulfillment of God’s Purpose (2:1–3:21)<\/h5>\n<p>The first step was the death of Christ in order to save individuals from sin and death (2:1-10). Since this was at God’s initiative, not man’s, and since man was spiritually “dead” and helpless, salvation can only be by grace.<\/p>\n<p>The second step was the reconciliation of people not only to God but to each other (2:11-18). Paul thus moves from the individual to the corporate aspect of salvation. This was particularly significant for Gentiles, who previously did not have even a formal relationship with God. One of the key words in this section is “peace” (vv 14-17).<\/p>\n<p>Step three goes beyond reconciliation to the actual uniting of Jews and Gentiles in one “household” (2:19-22). God has not only brought people individually to himself, and to each other as individuals, but has formed a new corporate entity, a new society that is described both in political and family terms. Ultimately, believers together form a corporate body in whom God is exalted.<\/p>\n<p>This third step is amplified in a fourth step, the revelation of God’s eternal purpose in the formation of this one body, the church (3:1-13). Using the biblical concept of the “mystery,” Paul shows how the church displays the wisdom of God to all who may be looking on throughout the universe. This immediately gives the believer a new awareness of the reason for his salvation and participation in the church. Self-centeredness and boredom with the routine of church activity give way to a sense of meaning and purpose.<\/p>\n<p>These steps are now summarized in a second prayer (3:14-21). An exalted series of petitions culminate in another “doxology.” This expresses Paul’s awe over the infinite power of God to accomplish all that he has described in the epistle thus far, and his desire that this will indeed result in great glory to God both in the church and in Christ.<\/p>\n<h5>Practical Ways to Fulfill God’s Purpose in the Church (4:1–6:20)<\/h5>\n<p>Doctrine and life are never separated in Paul’s thinking, but in Ephesians the connection is even more vital than usual. The believer’s life is to be lived in a manner worthy of the great purposes of God. The believer’s “calling” is not merely to be saved or eternally happy, but to participate with the entire body, the church, in bringing glory to God. This contributes to the realization of the prayer in 3:20-21.<\/p>\n<p>The first way to fulfill God’s purpose is to maintain the unity he established in the church. This is accomplished by recognizing the strong basis for unity (“one Lord, one faith,” etc., 4:5-6). Then believers must acknowledge diversity in that unity, remembering that God has given each one special abilities (vv 7-8). These abilities are to be used to bring the church both individually and corporately to maturity. This diversity in unity constitutes the second way in which God’s purpose is fulfilled. Christian maturity enables the individual members of the church to relate to each other in love (v 16).<\/p>\n<p>The third way to accomplish the purposes of God is by renewal of personal life (4:17–5:21). Paul emphasizes the kind of lifestyle that is expected of a Christian by contrasting the behavior patterns that had characterized the believers before their conversion. But the new life of the believer is not simply structured as a reaction against the old. Rather, the Lord has given both his teachings and the example of his own sacrificial love (4:20-21, 32; 5:1-2). The believer should cast off his old way of life, his old self or character. (The actual term is “old man” in Paul’s wording, not, as is often thought, “old nature.”) He should at the same time put on the “new man,” which, in Paul’s words in verse 24, is “created according to God” (<span>niv<\/span> “created to be like God”). The section closes with the important exhortation to be filled with the Spirit (5:18).<\/p>\n<p>The expression of the new character in interpersonal relations is the fourth way in which believers can forward the purposes of God in the church. Unity is either achieved or broken in accordance with the presence or absence of the proper submission described in 5:22–6:9. The basic principle of submission is first expressed by verse 21 as a result of the Spirit’s full control.<\/p>\n<p>Marriage then provides the first example of mutual submission. The wife submits to the husband, and this in turn is an expression of her submission, along with that of the whole church, to the Lord. The husband loves his wife as Christ loved the church. While the husband’s love is not described as submission, in effect, love does cost the lover his freedom. Jesus thus expressed his love for the church by his death (5:25). Further, husband and wife are bound together in a unity, just as God intended at the time of creation (Gn 2:24, quoted here in 5:31). This unity portrays that spiritual unity that exists between Christ and the church.<\/p>\n<p>It should be noted that this list of examples is similar to a pattern used elsewhere in the NT (e.g., Col 3:18–4:1; 1 Pt 3:1-7). Thus, following the example of marriage, Paul turns to the relationship that should exist between parent and child. The child obeys the father; the father refrains from excessive reactions (6:1-4). The last example is that of slaves and masters.<\/p>\n\n<p>The final way in which believers forward God’s great purposes is to carry on the spiritual conflict by depending on spiritual resources (Eph 6:10-20). Drawing on imagery both from the OT and from contemporary Roman warfare, Paul shows that the heavenly perspective is essential for victory. This includes dependence on God as expressed in prayer (vv 18-20). He acknowledges his own need in this respect.<\/p>\n<p>The conclusion to the letter (6:21-24) is a word of encouragement and an explanation of Paul’s decision to send the letter in the good hands of Tychicus. One of the concluding words is “grace,” a word that underlies the entire divine process described in Ephesians.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Colossians, Letter to the; Ephesus; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EPHESIANS, Letter to the<\/h3>\n<p>Letter to the Christians in Ephesus and the surrouding churches written with a magnificence that both instructs and inspires the reader. It provides a sweeping view of the role of the church as history moves toward the ultimate recognition of the universal headship of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Date and Origin<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The writer of the letter identifies himself as the apostle Paul (Eph 1:1; 3:1). He also describes his own ministry in terms that reflect what we know of Paul (3:7, 13; 4:1; 6:19-20). This claim is confirmed by the testimonies of Irenaeus, Origen, Polycarp, Tertullian, and Ignatius, who in his own espistle to the Ephesians alludes to the frequent and affectionate mention made by Paul of the Christian state, privileges, and persons of the Ephesians.<\/p>\n<p>There are some characteristics of the letter, however, that have caused many scholars to question its clear claim to Pauline authorship. Some of these characteristics would be a problem only if the letter were intended exclusively for people in Ephesus, but such was probably not the case. Otherwise, it would be hard to understand why, after establishing the church there over a three-year period, Paul would write as though author and recipients had only a secondhand knowledge of each other. It would also be strange that the warm personal words of greeting to various individuals that are found in other Pauline letters are missing here. There is instead only a general greeting to “the brothers” (6:23). But all this can be easily explained once it is understood that the epistle was an encyclical for several churches.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Destination\">Destination<\/p>\n<p>This epistle was addressed, most probably, to several churches in the district around Ephesus—namely, Asia. The Epistle to the Ephesians, so-called, was not really intended to be only for the church at Ephesus. Most modern scholars are convinced that it was an encyclical that went to several churches in Asia, including Ephesus. There are several reasons to affirm this. First, the earliest manuscripts (the Chester Beatty Papyrus—P46, Codex Sinaiticus, Codex Vaticanus) do not contain the words “in Ephesus” in Ephesians 1:1. It appears that Paul purposely left the name of the locality out, so as to be filled in later as the letter circulated to each locality. (The Greek construction in 1:1 calls for a prepositional phrase designating a locality to be present in the sentence.) Since Ephesus was the leading city of Asia, it was quite natural for scribes to assign this epistle to the church at Ephesus. Second, the Epistle to the Ephesians has all the marks of being a general treatise rather than an epistle to a specific local church. Paul had lived with the believers at Ephesus for three years (Acts 20:31). He knew them intimately, yet in this epistle there are no personal greetings or specific exhortations. When we consider Paul’s manner in many of his other epistles, it would be quite unlike him to have excluded these personal expressions. Quite the contrary, Paul speaks to the saints whom he has only heard about and who have only heard about him (see Eph 1:15; 3:1). It is possible that this epistle was the one sent to Laodicea.<\/p>\n\n<p>In all fairness it must be said that the encyclical theory has been opposed by some scholars. For example, Henry Alford makes the following objections to this theory: (1) It is at variance with the spirit of the epistle, which is clearly addressed to one set of persons throughout, coexisting in one place and as one body and under the same circumstances. (2) It is improbable that the apostle, who in two of his epistles (2 Corinthians and Galatians) has so plainly specified their encyclical character, should have here omitted such specification. (3) The absence of personal greetings is not an argument for either of the two theories, for similarly there are none in Galatians, Philippians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and 1 Timothy. The better he knows the parties addressed, and the more general and solemn the subject, the less he seems to give of these individual notices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateandOrigin\">Date and Origin<\/p>\n<p>Ephesians 3:1, 4:1, and 6:20 indicate that the letter was written while Paul was a prisoner. Since he was imprisoned several times, it is necessary to narrow the options. The first major imprisonment may have been at Ephesus itself, but this is obviously not in consideration. The second was at Caesarea for two years (Acts 24:27; cf. 23:23-24, 33). It is possible that Paul wrote some letters at that time, but most scholars think that Ephesians (along with Colossians, Philemon, and probably Philippians) was written during Paul’s imprisonment at Rome (28:16, 30). This probably took place sometime between <span>AD<\/span> 59 and 63 and lasted for two years. This period of time, following about 25 years of spiritual growth and 12 years or so of missionary experience, gave Paul a splendid opportunity for reflection and writing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Ephesus was the most important city in Asia Minor, located on the Cayster River, with a harbor on the Aegean Sea. With this location it became a center for commercial travel, and major trade routes led to it from several directions. A great pagan temple dedicated to the goddess Artemis (Diana) was located in Ephesus. Paul made the city a center of evangelistic and church-building ministry (Acts 19), spending three years there (20:31). It was natural, therefore, for a letter intended for a wide readership in that part of Asia Minor to have Ephesus as its main destination.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s first visit to Ephesus (on the seacoast of Lydia, near the river Cayster) is related in Acts 18:19-21. The work, begun by his disputations with the Jews in his short visit, was carried on by Apollos (vv 24-26) and Aquila and Priscilla (18:26). At his second visit, after his journey to Jerusalem, and thence to the east regions of Asia Minor, he remained at Ephesus “three years” (19:10—the “two years” in this verse are only <em>part<\/em> of the time—and 20:31); therefore, the founding and rearing of this church occupied an unusually large portion of the apostle’s time and care. The language in the epistle shows a warmth of feeling and a free outpouring of thought, and a union in spiritual privileges and hope between him and them, such as are natural from one so long and so intimately associated with those whom he addresses. On his last journey to Jerusalem, he sailed by Ephesus and summoned the elders of the Ephesian church to meet him at Miletus, where he delivered his remarkable farewell charge (20:18-35).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>It may be said that the purpose of Ephesians is “doxological”; that is, it should cause the readers to glorify God, both in grateful praise and in manner of life. This is seen in the opening section, which is like a hymn in style: “Praise God, the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ” (Eph 1:3; cf. the Doxology often sung in church). Paul says three times in the first chapter that the result of God’s blessings should be praise (vv 6, 12, 14).<\/p>\n<p>While the letter contains much doctrinal and moral instruction (with the latter solidly based on the former), its purpose is not only teaching or exhortation, important as these are. It is rather to lift up its readers to a new vantage point that will help them to identify with the risen, ascended Christ and to share his perspective on the church and its role in the world.<\/p>\n<p>In this connection a significant term occurs in 1:3 and elsewhere. It is perhaps best translated “heavenly realms.” It is different in form from the usual word for “heaven” and seems to have a special significance in Ephesians as the realm of Jesus’ victorious reign in the present age. This is seen in 1:20, read in the context of verses 19-23. Whatever beings there may be, Christ is above them all. The believer, although obviously on earth physically, “sits with Christ” in the heavenly realms (2:6) and is “blessed” (1:3), drawing on the unlimited resources of heaven for his daily life. It is also in this realm that the spiritual conflict takes place (6:12).<\/p>\n<p>Paul thus makes it clear that Christians are not to have a limited or merely earthly viewpoint. Those who do, mistakenly think that their enemies are people (6:12) and our resources human (2 Cor 10:3-4). With this orientation to the heavenly world of the Lord’s present exaltation, the reader is prepared to understand that the church does not function merely to carry out routine activities here, but that it displays the wisdom of God to beings who exist in the heavenly realms (Eph 3:10). Even the function of church leaders is discussed in terms of the gifts of the Christ who has ascended to the heavens (4:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>There is a strong sense of ultimate purpose in Ephesians. The first chapter contains a number of different expressions of purpose. The great goal of history is expressed in 1:10. The sense of purpose is never lost. The church is even seen, in chapter 3, as the expression of God’s eternal, secret plan. There is also a movement throughout the letter, from (1) reconciliation of individuals to God, to (2) their reconciliation to each other, to (3) their life together in the church. There is no arguing of points along the way, such as one finds in most of the letters, but rather a connected series of affirmations, each leading the reader on to the next.<\/p>\n<p>Paul discusses a number of topics from this heavenly perspective and the sense of purpose this provides. These topics will be discussed below in such a way as to show their interconnection, rather than necessarily in the order of their importance or prominence in Ephesians.<\/p>\n<h5>The Church<\/h5>\n<p>Paul employs a number of figures of speech to describe the church, including a household, a temple, and a body (1:22-23; 2:19-22). Actually, it may be insufficient to call the word “body” a figure of speech, because it seems to be more than that. There is a sense in which Christ and the church have an actual organic relationship, in which he functions as the head and believers as parts of his body.<\/p>\n<p>The church is the result of the reconciling work of Christ, whose death has made peace between mutually hostile Jews and Gentiles (2:11-18). The ensuing unity was long planned by God (3:2-6), and is furthered by a proper attitude and mutual ministry (ch 4).<\/p>\n<p>An especially remarkable feature of Ephesians is the parallel drawn between the relationship between a husband and wife and that between Christ and the church (5:22-33). In this comparison the prior reality is not marriage, with the relationship of Christ and the church only providing an illustration. Rather, the essential reality is Christ and the church.<\/p>\n<h5>The Headship of Christ<\/h5>\n<p>Not only is Christ the head of the church, but he is head over all things to the church’s benefit (1:22). The meaning of 1:10 is that the presently disparate parts and beings of the universe will be brought into order under the headship of Christ. This universal headship is anticipated in the ascension and present exaltation of Christ. The expression of universal domination—“God has put all things under his feet” (1:22, from Ps 8:6)—fortifies this expectation.<\/p>\n<h5>The “Mystery” or “Secret Plan”<\/h5>\n<p>The Greek word “mystery” has a special meaning in early Jewish and Christian literature. It refers to the private eternal decisions of God concerning his saving work and his ultimate purposes in history, which are revealed stage by stage. The term is used in connection with the kingdom in the Gospels (Mt 13:11), with the preaching of the gospel in 1 Corinthians 1:18–2:16, with the destiny of Israel in Romans 11:25, and elsewhere with differing applications. Finally, Revelation 10:6-7 declares that there will be no more delay, but that God’s “mystery,” initially announced by the prophets, will reach its completion.<\/p>\n<p>The aspect of God’s plan that Paul presents in Ephesians 3:3-6 is not only the inclusion of Gentiles among God’s people but their complete integration with Jews in the church. The extent of this was not revealed prior to the time of Paul’s ministry.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Divine Purpose: The Glory and Headship of Christ (1:1-14)<\/h5>\n<p>This whole section constitutes a “doxology.” Paul reminds readers, by expressing his own prayer of praise, of all the blessings God has given believers. These include being chosen to live in God’s presence without guilt (v 4), being given the destiny of full sonship (v 5), and being forgiven because Christ died for them.<\/p>\n<p>But Paul is not only giving a recitation of what God has done; he interweaves a number of words and phrases indicating <em>why<\/em> God has acted, that is, what God’s <em>purposes<\/em> are. Various translations use different English words to represent Greek expressions of purpose, such as “chose,” “predestined,” “plan,” “will,” “secret reason,” “good pleasure,” “purpose” (vv 4-10). Perhaps the most comprehensive statement is in verses 11-12.<\/p>\n<p>It is clear from this that the ultimate purpose of God’s saving work is not merely the happiness of believers but the glory of God through the Lord Jesus Christ. The Spirit is given to guarantee not only the believer’s security but also God’s investment, so to speak, in the believer.<\/p>\n<h5>Prayer That Christians May Realize God’s Purpose and Power (1:15-23)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul’s prayer issues from his opening section, constituting a request that believers may appropriate all that is contained in that statement. It is here that the fact of Jesus’ death, resurrection, and ascension is cited as the basis for the believer’s present vantage point and power.<\/p>\n<h5>Steps toward the Fulfillment of God’s Purpose (2:1–3:21)<\/h5>\n<p>The first step was the death of Christ in order to save individuals from sin and death (2:1-10). Since this was at God’s initiative, not man’s, and since man was spiritually “dead” and helpless, salvation can only be by grace.<\/p>\n<p>The second step was the reconciliation of people not only to God but to each other (2:11-18). Paul thus moves from the individual to the corporate aspect of salvation. This was particularly significant for Gentiles, who previously did not have even a formal relationship with God. One of the key words in this section is “peace” (vv 14-17).<\/p>\n<p>Step three goes beyond reconciliation to the actual uniting of Jews and Gentiles in one “household” (2:19-22). God has not only brought people individually to himself, and to each other as individuals, but has formed a new corporate entity, a new society that is described both in political and family terms. Ultimately, believers together form a corporate body in whom God is exalted.<\/p>\n<p>This third step is amplified in a fourth step, the revelation of God’s eternal purpose in the formation of this one body, the church (3:1-13). Using the biblical concept of the “mystery,” Paul shows how the church displays the wisdom of God to all who may be looking on throughout the universe. This immediately gives the believer a new awareness of the reason for his salvation and participation in the church. Self-centeredness and boredom with the routine of church activity give way to a sense of meaning and purpose.<\/p>\n<p>These steps are now summarized in a second prayer (3:14-21). An exalted series of petitions culminate in another “doxology.” This expresses Paul’s awe over the infinite power of God to accomplish all that he has described in the epistle thus far, and his desire that this will indeed result in great glory to God both in the church and in Christ.<\/p>\n<h5>Practical Ways to Fulfill God’s Purpose in the Church (4:1–6:20)<\/h5>\n<p>Doctrine and life are never separated in Paul’s thinking, but in Ephesians the connection is even more vital than usual. The believer’s life is to be lived in a manner worthy of the great purposes of God. The believer’s “calling” is not merely to be saved or eternally happy, but to participate with the entire body, the church, in bringing glory to God. This contributes to the realization of the prayer in 3:20-21.<\/p>\n<p>The first way to fulfill God’s purpose is to maintain the unity he established in the church. This is accomplished by recognizing the strong basis for unity (“one Lord, one faith,” etc., 4:5-6). Then believers must acknowledge diversity in that unity, remembering that God has given each one special abilities (vv 7-8). These abilities are to be used to bring the church both individually and corporately to maturity. This diversity in unity constitutes the second way in which God’s purpose is fulfilled. Christian maturity enables the individual members of the church to relate to each other in love (v 16).<\/p>\n<p>The third way to accomplish the purposes of God is by renewal of personal life (4:17–5:21). Paul emphasizes the kind of lifestyle that is expected of a Christian by contrasting the behavior patterns that had characterized the believers before their conversion. But the new life of the believer is not simply structured as a reaction against the old. Rather, the Lord has given both his teachings and the example of his own sacrificial love (4:20-21, 32; 5:1-2). The believer should cast off his old way of life, his old self or character. (The actual term is “old man” in Paul’s wording, not, as is often thought, “old nature.”) He should at the same time put on the “new man,” which, in Paul’s words in verse 24, is “created according to God” (<span>niv<\/span> “created to be like God”). The section closes with the important exhortation to be filled with the Spirit (5:18).<\/p>\n<p>The expression of the new character in interpersonal relations is the fourth way in which believers can forward the purposes of God in the church. Unity is either achieved or broken in accordance with the presence or absence of the proper submission described in 5:22–6:9. The basic principle of submission is first expressed by verse 21 as a result of the Spirit’s full control.<\/p>\n<p>Marriage then provides the first example of mutual submission. The wife submits to the husband, and this in turn is an expression of her submission, along with that of the whole church, to the Lord. The husband loves his wife as Christ loved the church. While the husband’s love is not described as submission, in effect, love does cost the lover his freedom. Jesus thus expressed his love for the church by his death (5:25). Further, husband and wife are bound together in a unity, just as God intended at the time of creation (Gn 2:24, quoted here in 5:31). This unity portrays that spiritual unity that exists between Christ and the church.<\/p>\n<p>It should be noted that this list of examples is similar to a pattern used elsewhere in the NT (e.g., Col 3:18–4:1; 1 Pt 3:1-7). Thus, following the example of marriage, Paul turns to the relationship that should exist between parent and child. The child obeys the father; the father refrains from excessive reactions (6:1-4). The last example is that of slaves and masters.<\/p>\n\n<p>The final way in which believers forward God’s great purposes is to carry on the spiritual conflict by depending on spiritual resources (Eph 6:10-20). Drawing on imagery both from the OT and from contemporary Roman warfare, Paul shows that the heavenly perspective is essential for victory. This includes dependence on God as expressed in prayer (vv 18-20). He acknowledges his own need in this respect.<\/p>\n<p>The conclusion to the letter (6:21-24) is a word of encouragement and an explanation of Paul’s decision to send the letter in the good hands of Tychicus. One of the concluding words is “grace,” a word that underlies the entire divine process described in Ephesians.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Colossians, Letter to the; Ephesus; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EPHESIANS, Letter to the Letter to the Christians in Ephesus and the surrouding churches written with a magnificence that both instructs and inspires the reader. It provides a sweeping view of the role of the church as history moves toward the ultimate recognition of the universal headship of Christ. Preview • Author • Destination • Date and Origin • Background • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author The writer of the letter identifies himself as the apostle Paul (Eph 1:1; 3:1). H...","summary_en":"EPHESIANS, Letter to the Letter to the Christians in Ephesus and the surrouding churches written with a magnificence that both instructs and inspires the reader. It provides a sweeping view of the role of the church as history moves toward the ultimate recognition of the universal headship of Christ. Preview • Author • Destination • Date and Origin • Background • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author The writer of the letter identifies himself as the apostle Paul (Eph 1:1; 3:1). H...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21429,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Julius","title_en":"Julius","content_ro":"<h3>JULIUS<\/h3>\n<p>Roman centurion of the Augustan cohort who escorted the apostle Paul and other prisoners from Palestine to Rome (Acts 27:1). Jewish leaders in Jerusalem accused Paul of teaching false doctrine and defiling the temple. Because indecision by two successive Roman governors kept Paul in prison for more than two years, he finally appealed to Caesar. Julius was a kind man. He allowed Paul to leave the ship in Sidon to be comforted by his friends (v 3). However, in his eagerness to get his prisoners to Rome, Julius ignored Paul’s advice to spend the winter in Fair Havens. Instead, he ordered the ship to sail to Phoenix, another harbor in Crete, which was more suitable for harboring in winter (vv 9-12). During the trip, a storm wrecked the ship. The soldiers on board wanted to kill the prisoners for fear of their escaping, but Julius prevented that massacre, ordering all to jump ship and swim to shore. This decision spared Paul’s life (vv 42-44). Some scholars have conjectured that Julius was the soldier who stayed with Paul in Rome (28:16).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JULIUS<\/h3>\n<p>Roman centurion of the Augustan cohort who escorted the apostle Paul and other prisoners from Palestine to Rome (Acts 27:1). Jewish leaders in Jerusalem accused Paul of teaching false doctrine and defiling the temple. Because indecision by two successive Roman governors kept Paul in prison for more than two years, he finally appealed to Caesar. Julius was a kind man. He allowed Paul to leave the ship in Sidon to be comforted by his friends (v 3). However, in his eagerness to get his prisoners to Rome, Julius ignored Paul’s advice to spend the winter in Fair Havens. Instead, he ordered the ship to sail to Phoenix, another harbor in Crete, which was more suitable for harboring in winter (vv 9-12). During the trip, a storm wrecked the ship. The soldiers on board wanted to kill the prisoners for fear of their escaping, but Julius prevented that massacre, ordering all to jump ship and swim to shore. This decision spared Paul’s life (vv 42-44). Some scholars have conjectured that Julius was the soldier who stayed with Paul in Rome (28:16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"JULIUS Roman centurion of the Augustan cohort who escorted the apostle Paul and other prisoners from Palestine to Rome (Acts 27:1). Jewish leaders in Jerusalem accused Paul of teaching false doctrine and defiling the temple. Because indecision by two successive Roman governors kept Paul in prison for more than two years, he finally appealed to Caesar. Julius was a kind man. He allowed Paul to leave the ship in Sidon to be comforted by his friends (v 3). However, in his eagerness to get his pr...","summary_en":"JULIUS Roman centurion of the Augustan cohort who escorted the apostle Paul and other prisoners from Palestine to Rome (Acts 27:1). Jewish leaders in Jerusalem accused Paul of teaching false doctrine and defiling the temple. Because indecision by two successive Roman governors kept Paul in prison for more than two years, he finally appealed to Caesar. Julius was a kind man. He allowed Paul to leave the ship in Sidon to be comforted by his friends (v 3). However, in his eagerness to get his pr...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29295,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Paul, the Apostle","title_en":"Paul, the Apostle","content_ro":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","summary_en":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":33313,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"City of Rome","title_en":"City of Rome","content_ro":"<h3>ROME, City of<\/h3>\n<p>City in Italy founded, according to tradition, in 753 <span>BC<\/span> on seven hills about 15 miles (24.1 kilometers) from the mouth of the Tiber River. It was of no biblical interest until NT times. There are nine explicit references to the city in the NT (Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:7, 15; 2 Tm 1:17), but Paul’s sojourn there and his letter to the Roman Christians, written probably from Corinth around <span>AD<\/span> 57 and 58, make the imperial city of considerable interest to Bible readers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"History\">History<\/p>\n<p>In the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>, Indo-European migrants moved into Europe and settled in the Italian peninsula. One group settled around the mouth of the Tiber River. A vigorous and more cultured group, the Etruscans from Asia Minor, occupied central Italy. At the time of Rome’s emergence in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, the population of the Italian peninsula was mixed. The Latin-speaking enclave, which settled toward the mouth of the Tiber, were agriculturalists. The scattered groups formed leagues and communities to defend themselves against raiders. They built stockades on the hills to protect families and flocks while fighting off the raiders. From such beginnings Rome emerged as a dominant center with its focal point in the area of the seven hills (the Palatine, the Capitoline, the Aventine, the Caelian, the Esquiline, the Viminal, and the Quirinal). Traditionally these hills were considered to be seven in number; in fact, there are more than seven, although some are simply flat-topped spurs. The Tiber River winds in a large S-curve between the hills. At one point it divided to form an island where it was shallow enough to ford. The town that grew up there was linked by roads, north to the Etruscans, south to the Greek trading cities, west to the coast, and inland to the tribal areas on the highlands. Knowledge of early Rome is based largely on archaeological evidence from the remains of the simple forts and numerous burial sites in the area.<\/p>\n<p>Rome developed politically in a remarkable fashion over the next 1,000 years. The loose association of the original chieftains, who comprised the earliest “senate,” gave place to domination by Etruscan kings who seem to have trained the people in discipline and obedience. They constructed numerous works, draining the forum area and making it a social, commercial, industrial, and political center. They built a temple for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva on the Capitoline Hill as a common shrine for all the people. When the kings became autocratic, the Latin population rebelled and expelled the kings.<\/p>\n<p>The republic was established in 510 <span>BC<\/span>. This establishment marked the beginning of Rome’s remarkable expansion to the dimensions of a world empire. The population, which was now spread out over the hills and valleys, despite their tribal differences, united and solved political problems without bloodshed. Strictly speaking, the term “republican” should not be understood in any modern sense as indicating a kind of democracy. Rather, the ancient families (patricians) dominated the senate and constituted an oligarchy. This arrangement was useful for Rome at that time. The small city-state soon broke out of its confined area, overcame the Etruscans, and dominated the Greek cities to the south. The Romans then looked farther afield. In 273 <span>BC<\/span> they made a treaty with the Ptolemies of Egypt. Before long, they expanded into North Africa, overcame the Carthaginians, pressed on into Spain, and developed ambitions to occupy the Middle East as well. Rome’s many conquests brought enormous wealth.<\/p>\n<p>With geographical expansion came social changes in Italy. During the second century <span>BC<\/span>, rich landowners bought out the small independent farmers, who subsequently drifted into Rome, landless and unemployed. Huge, overcrowded tenement houses appeared, which constituted creeping slums. Alongside this squalor there was evidence of vast wealth from Rome’s conquests in distant lands. In the capital, many fine buildings appeared. Pompey, who subdued and organized the East, did much to adorn the great capital.<\/p>\n<p>The next stage in Rome’s political development came when the senate, the governing body of the republic, proved unable to control its more radical and violent members. As their political ambitions increased, aspiring leaders sought to gain popular support by granting privileges to the people without the concurrence of the senate. Civil strife broke out and plagued the last century of the republic. Military victories beyond Rome gave power to the generals. In the civil wars that followed, constitutional questions were decided by the power of the sword. Marius, Sulla, Pompey, Crassus, Julius Caesar, Antony, and Octavian were the real political forces in the land.<\/p>\n\n<p>By 27 <span>BC<\/span>, Octavian emerged supreme and was given the title Augustus. Theoretically, a dual government existed between the senate and Augustus (the emperor), but a weak senate allowed the emperor to become the virtual ruler. As a result, Roman peace (<em>pax Romana<\/em>) reigned at home and abroad until well into the second century <span>AD<\/span>. The emperors of the first century <span>AD<\/span> cover the period of the life of Jesus and of the emerging church, and several are mentioned in the NT: Augustus (Lk 2:1), Tiberius (Lk 3:1), Claudius (Acts 11:28; 18:2), and Nero, who is referred to without being explicitly named (Acts 25:10-12; 27:24; 2 Tm 4:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>The city of Rome was the capital of the empire and the home of the emperor, senators, administrators, military personnel, and priests. Augustus, the first of the emperors whose leadership and diplomatic endeavors gave peace to Rome after two civil wars and a century of strife, gave attention to the restoration and adornment of the city. He boasted that he found Rome built of brick and left it built of marble. His efforts at restoring Rome’s ancient religions led to the building of many temples. On the Palatine hill, Augustus united several houses already there into a palace for his own residence. A new and sumptuous temple of Apollo, surrounded by colonnades in which the emperor housed a large library, was erected near the palace. The palace itself overlooked an imposing group of new marble buildings in the valley below: a basilica business hall, a senate house, a temple of “the divine Julius,” a marble speaker’s platform, two impressive new forums, the forum of Caesar, and the forum of Augustus. Later emperors added to this splendor. Beyond the central forum area, the palaces of Tiberius and Caligula, various baths, arches, and theaters, the Circus Maximus, and the Circus Nero were built. The whole was enclosed by a wall built outside the old rampart of Servius. Several aqueducts brought water into the city, and significant roads from north, south, east, and west converged on the central city area.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"RomesMilitaryPresenceinPalestine\">Rome’s Military Presence in Palestine<\/p>\n<p>With the military intervention of Pompey in the internal affairs of Judea in 63 <span>BC<\/span>, Rome established its presence in Palestine. The census ordered by Augustus Caesar, affecting the eastern provinces as well as the rest of the Roman world (Lk 2:1-2), was a vivid reminder. Roman military presence is amply reflected on the pages of the Gospels and Acts (e.g., Mk 15:16; Lk 3:14; 7:1-8; Acts 5:37).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT period, service in the legions was open to all Roman citizens. A professional volunteer army had replaced a conscripted militia. The permanent standing army was made up of legions recruited from the ranks of citizens. The legions were commanded by experienced officers of the rank of consul. Auxiliary forces were raised outside Italy, the inducement for enlistment being Roman citizenship for a soldier and his descendants after 25 years of service.<\/p>\n<p>In the provinces supreme military command lay with the provincial governor or prefect. In Judea at the time of Jesus’ public ministry, Pontius Pilate was designated “prefect of Judea” in a Latin inscription found in Caesarea in 1961. At the official center for administration of Judea, Caesarea Maritima, one or more legions at the disposal of the governor would be garrisoned. On special occasions, particularly at the great Jewish festivals, when riots and disorders could be anticipated, the provincial governor would take up residence in Jerusalem some 60 miles (96.5 kilometers) to the south, accompanied by a substantial contingent of troops (cf. Lk 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>Augustus established a standing army large enough to defend and pacify the empire. In 15 <span>BC<\/span> there were 28 legions, each composed of some 5,000 foot soldiers plus a mounted bodyguard of 128 men. After three legions were destroyed in uprisings by fierce Germanic tribes in <span>AD<\/span> 9, the number remained at 25 for some time. That suggests a standing army of about 125,000 legionaries in the first century.<\/p>\n<p>Augustus was also responsible for establishing a permanent auxiliary army, almost the same size as the legionary army. The auxiliary forces, recruited from provincials who had not yet received Roman citizenship, included both cavalry and infantry. The cavalry was organized in squadrons, the infantry in cohorts of 1,000 under command of a military tribune (Acts 21:31-33). When the apostle Paul was in Jerusalem, the tribune was Claudius Lysias, a man of Greek birth whose purchased Roman citizenship made possible his elevation to commander of an auxiliary cohort (22:28; 23:26). To send Paul from Jerusalem to Caesarea, Claudius could delegate a military escort of 200 soldiers commanded by two centurions, plus 70 mounted guards (23:23), without dangerously weakening the strength of the fortress garrison.<\/p>\n<p>A cohort was made up of either ten or five “centuries,” units consisting of 100 men under the command of a centurion whose duties resembled those of a modern army captain. Cornelius (Acts 10:1) was a Roman centurion assigned to one of the auxiliary cohorts in Judea. There is inscriptional evidence for the presence of his unit, “the Second Italian Cohort of Roman Citizens,” in Syria about <span>AD<\/span> 69. Paul was sent to Rome in the custody of another centurion, Julius, who belonged to the Augustan or imperial cohort (27:1). The term Augustan was a title of honor sometimes bestowed on auxiliary troops. Julius was evidently a legionary centurion assigned to the corps of officer-couriers who maintained a communication service between the emperor and his provincial armies. He had a detachment of soldiers under his command on the voyage to Rome (v 3) and on arrival handed his prisoners over to the commander of the courier corps (28:16). Probably all of the Roman centurions mentioned in the Gospels or Acts (Mt 8:5; Mk 15:39; Lk 7:2) were officers assigned to an auxiliary cohort.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ChristiansinRome\">Christians in Rome<\/p>\n<p>It was to this magnificent city that Paul came under escort in March <span>AD<\/span> 59. He found that the Christian church had already been established there. Indeed, he had already communicated with the Christians in his letter to the Romans early in 57. There was a considerable Jewish colony in Rome in the first century <span>AD<\/span>, descended from the large number of Jewish slaves brought to the city by Pompey after the capture of Jerusalem in 63 <span>BC<\/span>. The emperor Claudius expelled Jews from Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 49, possibly when Jesus was proclaimed as Messiah in the synagogue. Who the preachers were is not known, but they were probably Christian travelers and traders. Paul’s Letter to the Romans was his exposition to the Gentile churches that had come into existence independently of him. His first known contact with the people of Rome was when he met Aquila and Priscilla at Corinth (Acts 18:2). This couple was expelled from Rome in the time of Claudius. Later, Paul hoped to visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:24). In his salutation he mentioned a considerable circle of Christians in Rome (ch 16). The references to households in several places (vv 5, 10, 11, 14, 15) suggest that these were house churches of the Roman Christian church. During his captivity, Paul was a prisoner of Roman authorities, but he was able to meet the local leaders of the Jews, explain his experiences to them, and expound the gospel to them in person (Acts 28:16-31).<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Revelation, Rome is given a sinister significance. By the end of the first century <span>AD<\/span>, Rome had already drunk the “blood of the martyrs of Jesus” (Rv 17:6), a reference to early martyrs.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Caesars, The; Romans, Letter to the.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ROME, City of<\/h3>\n<p>City in Italy founded, according to tradition, in 753 <span>BC<\/span> on seven hills about 15 miles (24.1 kilometers) from the mouth of the Tiber River. It was of no biblical interest until NT times. There are nine explicit references to the city in the NT (Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:7, 15; 2 Tm 1:17), but Paul’s sojourn there and his letter to the Roman Christians, written probably from Corinth around <span>AD<\/span> 57 and 58, make the imperial city of considerable interest to Bible readers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"History\">History<\/p>\n<p>In the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>, Indo-European migrants moved into Europe and settled in the Italian peninsula. One group settled around the mouth of the Tiber River. A vigorous and more cultured group, the Etruscans from Asia Minor, occupied central Italy. At the time of Rome’s emergence in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, the population of the Italian peninsula was mixed. The Latin-speaking enclave, which settled toward the mouth of the Tiber, were agriculturalists. The scattered groups formed leagues and communities to defend themselves against raiders. They built stockades on the hills to protect families and flocks while fighting off the raiders. From such beginnings Rome emerged as a dominant center with its focal point in the area of the seven hills (the Palatine, the Capitoline, the Aventine, the Caelian, the Esquiline, the Viminal, and the Quirinal). Traditionally these hills were considered to be seven in number; in fact, there are more than seven, although some are simply flat-topped spurs. The Tiber River winds in a large S-curve between the hills. At one point it divided to form an island where it was shallow enough to ford. The town that grew up there was linked by roads, north to the Etruscans, south to the Greek trading cities, west to the coast, and inland to the tribal areas on the highlands. Knowledge of early Rome is based largely on archaeological evidence from the remains of the simple forts and numerous burial sites in the area.<\/p>\n<p>Rome developed politically in a remarkable fashion over the next 1,000 years. The loose association of the original chieftains, who comprised the earliest “senate,” gave place to domination by Etruscan kings who seem to have trained the people in discipline and obedience. They constructed numerous works, draining the forum area and making it a social, commercial, industrial, and political center. They built a temple for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva on the Capitoline Hill as a common shrine for all the people. When the kings became autocratic, the Latin population rebelled and expelled the kings.<\/p>\n<p>The republic was established in 510 <span>BC<\/span>. This establishment marked the beginning of Rome’s remarkable expansion to the dimensions of a world empire. The population, which was now spread out over the hills and valleys, despite their tribal differences, united and solved political problems without bloodshed. Strictly speaking, the term “republican” should not be understood in any modern sense as indicating a kind of democracy. Rather, the ancient families (patricians) dominated the senate and constituted an oligarchy. This arrangement was useful for Rome at that time. The small city-state soon broke out of its confined area, overcame the Etruscans, and dominated the Greek cities to the south. The Romans then looked farther afield. In 273 <span>BC<\/span> they made a treaty with the Ptolemies of Egypt. Before long, they expanded into North Africa, overcame the Carthaginians, pressed on into Spain, and developed ambitions to occupy the Middle East as well. Rome’s many conquests brought enormous wealth.<\/p>\n<p>With geographical expansion came social changes in Italy. During the second century <span>BC<\/span>, rich landowners bought out the small independent farmers, who subsequently drifted into Rome, landless and unemployed. Huge, overcrowded tenement houses appeared, which constituted creeping slums. Alongside this squalor there was evidence of vast wealth from Rome’s conquests in distant lands. In the capital, many fine buildings appeared. Pompey, who subdued and organized the East, did much to adorn the great capital.<\/p>\n<p>The next stage in Rome’s political development came when the senate, the governing body of the republic, proved unable to control its more radical and violent members. As their political ambitions increased, aspiring leaders sought to gain popular support by granting privileges to the people without the concurrence of the senate. Civil strife broke out and plagued the last century of the republic. Military victories beyond Rome gave power to the generals. In the civil wars that followed, constitutional questions were decided by the power of the sword. Marius, Sulla, Pompey, Crassus, Julius Caesar, Antony, and Octavian were the real political forces in the land.<\/p>\n\n<p>By 27 <span>BC<\/span>, Octavian emerged supreme and was given the title Augustus. Theoretically, a dual government existed between the senate and Augustus (the emperor), but a weak senate allowed the emperor to become the virtual ruler. As a result, Roman peace (<em>pax Romana<\/em>) reigned at home and abroad until well into the second century <span>AD<\/span>. The emperors of the first century <span>AD<\/span> cover the period of the life of Jesus and of the emerging church, and several are mentioned in the NT: Augustus (Lk 2:1), Tiberius (Lk 3:1), Claudius (Acts 11:28; 18:2), and Nero, who is referred to without being explicitly named (Acts 25:10-12; 27:24; 2 Tm 4:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>The city of Rome was the capital of the empire and the home of the emperor, senators, administrators, military personnel, and priests. Augustus, the first of the emperors whose leadership and diplomatic endeavors gave peace to Rome after two civil wars and a century of strife, gave attention to the restoration and adornment of the city. He boasted that he found Rome built of brick and left it built of marble. His efforts at restoring Rome’s ancient religions led to the building of many temples. On the Palatine hill, Augustus united several houses already there into a palace for his own residence. A new and sumptuous temple of Apollo, surrounded by colonnades in which the emperor housed a large library, was erected near the palace. The palace itself overlooked an imposing group of new marble buildings in the valley below: a basilica business hall, a senate house, a temple of “the divine Julius,” a marble speaker’s platform, two impressive new forums, the forum of Caesar, and the forum of Augustus. Later emperors added to this splendor. Beyond the central forum area, the palaces of Tiberius and Caligula, various baths, arches, and theaters, the Circus Maximus, and the Circus Nero were built. The whole was enclosed by a wall built outside the old rampart of Servius. Several aqueducts brought water into the city, and significant roads from north, south, east, and west converged on the central city area.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"RomesMilitaryPresenceinPalestine\">Rome’s Military Presence in Palestine<\/p>\n<p>With the military intervention of Pompey in the internal affairs of Judea in 63 <span>BC<\/span>, Rome established its presence in Palestine. The census ordered by Augustus Caesar, affecting the eastern provinces as well as the rest of the Roman world (Lk 2:1-2), was a vivid reminder. Roman military presence is amply reflected on the pages of the Gospels and Acts (e.g., Mk 15:16; Lk 3:14; 7:1-8; Acts 5:37).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT period, service in the legions was open to all Roman citizens. A professional volunteer army had replaced a conscripted militia. The permanent standing army was made up of legions recruited from the ranks of citizens. The legions were commanded by experienced officers of the rank of consul. Auxiliary forces were raised outside Italy, the inducement for enlistment being Roman citizenship for a soldier and his descendants after 25 years of service.<\/p>\n<p>In the provinces supreme military command lay with the provincial governor or prefect. In Judea at the time of Jesus’ public ministry, Pontius Pilate was designated “prefect of Judea” in a Latin inscription found in Caesarea in 1961. At the official center for administration of Judea, Caesarea Maritima, one or more legions at the disposal of the governor would be garrisoned. On special occasions, particularly at the great Jewish festivals, when riots and disorders could be anticipated, the provincial governor would take up residence in Jerusalem some 60 miles (96.5 kilometers) to the south, accompanied by a substantial contingent of troops (cf. Lk 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>Augustus established a standing army large enough to defend and pacify the empire. In 15 <span>BC<\/span> there were 28 legions, each composed of some 5,000 foot soldiers plus a mounted bodyguard of 128 men. After three legions were destroyed in uprisings by fierce Germanic tribes in <span>AD<\/span> 9, the number remained at 25 for some time. That suggests a standing army of about 125,000 legionaries in the first century.<\/p>\n<p>Augustus was also responsible for establishing a permanent auxiliary army, almost the same size as the legionary army. The auxiliary forces, recruited from provincials who had not yet received Roman citizenship, included both cavalry and infantry. The cavalry was organized in squadrons, the infantry in cohorts of 1,000 under command of a military tribune (Acts 21:31-33). When the apostle Paul was in Jerusalem, the tribune was Claudius Lysias, a man of Greek birth whose purchased Roman citizenship made possible his elevation to commander of an auxiliary cohort (22:28; 23:26). To send Paul from Jerusalem to Caesarea, Claudius could delegate a military escort of 200 soldiers commanded by two centurions, plus 70 mounted guards (23:23), without dangerously weakening the strength of the fortress garrison.<\/p>\n<p>A cohort was made up of either ten or five “centuries,” units consisting of 100 men under the command of a centurion whose duties resembled those of a modern army captain. Cornelius (Acts 10:1) was a Roman centurion assigned to one of the auxiliary cohorts in Judea. There is inscriptional evidence for the presence of his unit, “the Second Italian Cohort of Roman Citizens,” in Syria about <span>AD<\/span> 69. Paul was sent to Rome in the custody of another centurion, Julius, who belonged to the Augustan or imperial cohort (27:1). The term Augustan was a title of honor sometimes bestowed on auxiliary troops. Julius was evidently a legionary centurion assigned to the corps of officer-couriers who maintained a communication service between the emperor and his provincial armies. He had a detachment of soldiers under his command on the voyage to Rome (v 3) and on arrival handed his prisoners over to the commander of the courier corps (28:16). Probably all of the Roman centurions mentioned in the Gospels or Acts (Mt 8:5; Mk 15:39; Lk 7:2) were officers assigned to an auxiliary cohort.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ChristiansinRome\">Christians in Rome<\/p>\n<p>It was to this magnificent city that Paul came under escort in March <span>AD<\/span> 59. He found that the Christian church had already been established there. Indeed, he had already communicated with the Christians in his letter to the Romans early in 57. There was a considerable Jewish colony in Rome in the first century <span>AD<\/span>, descended from the large number of Jewish slaves brought to the city by Pompey after the capture of Jerusalem in 63 <span>BC<\/span>. The emperor Claudius expelled Jews from Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 49, possibly when Jesus was proclaimed as Messiah in the synagogue. Who the preachers were is not known, but they were probably Christian travelers and traders. Paul’s Letter to the Romans was his exposition to the Gentile churches that had come into existence independently of him. His first known contact with the people of Rome was when he met Aquila and Priscilla at Corinth (Acts 18:2). This couple was expelled from Rome in the time of Claudius. Later, Paul hoped to visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:24). In his salutation he mentioned a considerable circle of Christians in Rome (ch 16). The references to households in several places (vv 5, 10, 11, 14, 15) suggest that these were house churches of the Roman Christian church. During his captivity, Paul was a prisoner of Roman authorities, but he was able to meet the local leaders of the Jews, explain his experiences to them, and expound the gospel to them in person (Acts 28:16-31).<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Revelation, Rome is given a sinister significance. By the end of the first century <span>AD<\/span>, Rome had already drunk the “blood of the martyrs of Jesus” (Rv 17:6), a reference to early martyrs.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Caesars, The; Romans, Letter to the.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ROME, City of City in Italy founded, according to tradition, in 753 BC on seven hills about 15 miles (24.1 kilometers) from the mouth of the Tiber River. It was of no biblical interest until NT times. There are nine explicit references to the city in the NT (Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:7, 15; 2 Tm 1:17), but Paul’s sojourn there and his letter to the Roman Christians, written probably from Corinth around AD 57 and 58, make the imperial city of considerable interest to Bibl...","summary_en":"ROME, City of City in Italy founded, according to tradition, in 753 BC on seven hills about 15 miles (24.1 kilometers) from the mouth of the Tiber River. It was of no biblical interest until NT times. There are nine explicit references to the city in the NT (Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Rom 1:7, 15; 2 Tm 1:17), but Paul’s sojourn there and his letter to the Roman Christians, written probably from Corinth around AD 57 and 58, make the imperial city of considerable interest to Bibl...","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37452,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter to Titus","title_en":"Letter to Titus","content_ro":"<h3>TITUS, Letter to<\/h3>\n<p>Paul’s epistle to his coworker, Titus.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Recipient<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Though this letter begins with the name and greeting of Paul (Ti 1:1-3), Paul’s authorship has been questioned by modern scholars on the grounds of its language and style, the church situation it presents, and the way that it sets forth Christian teaching. But Pauline authorship has been stoutly defended by eminent scholars and careful students who have argued that there is no reason for supposing that this epistle was written by someone else using Paul’s name, after the apostle himself had died. The differences in this epistle and Paul’s other letters are explained previously in the section on “Author” in the article “Timothy, First Letter to.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Recipient\">Recipient<\/p>\n<p>Titus appears to have been one of Paul’s most trusted and valuable coworkers. Paul speaks of him (2 Cor 8:23) as “my partner and coworker.” According to Titus 1:4, he owed his conversion to Paul. It is clear from Galatians 2:1-4 that he was a Gentile, as his was a test case whether gentile Christians should be compelled to be circumcised. At that time Titus was with Paul and Barnabas in Jerusalem. Much later, at the time of Paul’s third missionary journey, he had two delicate missions to carry out for Paul in Corinth: the first pertained to the strained relationship between the apostle and the Corinthian Christians; the second related to the gentile collection for the Jerusalem church (2 Cor 2:12-13; 7:5-16; 8:1-24). If 2 Timothy 4:9-18 was written at the end of Paul’s life, then Titus went to Dalmatia after the time of this letter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>To date this letter with precision is difficult. Titus was left by the apostle in Crete to continue his work (Ti 1:5). Paul was in Crete briefly on his voyage to Rome (Acts 27:7-13), but that could not have been the occasion referred to. In 3:12 Titus is called to come to Nicopolis (probably the Nicopolis in Epirus in Greece), as Paul had decided to winter there. Many have favored the view that after Paul’s first imprisonment in Rome (Acts 28:16-31) he was released, carried out further ministry in various places (including Spain, Crete, and Greece), and then was arrested, imprisoned a second time, and finally put to death. Those who do not accept Pauline authorship of Titus, date this letter, like 1 and 2 Timothy, in the generation that followed Paul’s death.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTeaching\">Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Although this letter is addressed to an individual colleague of the apostle, it has a minimum of personal references and exhortations. The growing and developing churches in Crete were Paul’s main concern. They were being bothered by false teachings that appear to have had Jewish elements, ascetic emphases, and a great deal of speculative discussion (Ti 1:10, 14-15: 3:9). In short, it seems that they were dealing with an early Jewish form of Gnosticism. Its advocates promoted this teaching “for base gain” (1:11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Titus and those whom he would appoint as elders were called upon to refute the wrong teaching and to provide the believers with healthy teaching (v 9). Though this healthy teaching is not specified, it must have pertained to the saving grace of God in Christ, the renewing work of the Holy Spirit, and the future coming of the Lord Jesus (2:11-13; 3:4-7). In this letter there is constant emphasis on the lifestyle that bears out the truth of the gospel—with application to different groups in the Christian community: older men and women, young women, young men, and slaves.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Salutation (1:1-4)<\/h5>\n<p>Greetings come from Paul—whose apostleship is described as a stewardship of the gospel that promotes faith and strengthens the knowledge of the truth, hope of eternal life, and godliness of living—to Titus, spoken of as “my true son in our common faith.”<\/p>\n<h5>Titus’s Work in Crete (1:5-9)<\/h5>\n<p>Titus was left behind in Crete to continue Paul’s work and to appoint elders in every church (cf. Acts 14:23). These elders are also called bishops (cf. 20:17, 28)—that is, those with oversight of the church. The necessary qualities of life for these positions are described (cf. 1 Tm 3:2-7).<\/p>\n<h5>Dealing with False Teachings (1:10-16)<\/h5>\n<p>The closing words of the previous section speak about the responsibility of elders “to encourage others with right teaching and show those who oppose it where they are wrong” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The opposers were upsetting people, indeed “whole families,” by teaching what was not true. These false teachers were described by Paul in terms disparaging of Cretans, and as people whose lives do not demonstrate the knowledge of God that they professed to have.<\/p>\n<h5>Promoting Right Teaching (2:1-10)<\/h5>\n<p>Titus had a particular responsibility to “promote the kind of living that reflects right teaching.” He was charged to exhort the older men to exercise self-control (2:2), and he was supposed to teach the older women to live godly lives (v 3). In turn, these women were supposed to train the younger women to live pure and loving lives in their homes so that no one will malign the word of God (vv 4-5). Younger men were to show self-control (v 6), and Titus himself was to be an example in word and life so that the opponents would have nothing bad to say about the Christians (vv 7-8). Finally, in this section slaves are taught to submit to their masters, to give good and honest service with the motivation that “then they will make the teaching about God our Savior attractive in every way” (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Grace (2:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>What has been said leads now to a great statement of the purpose of the revelation of the grace of God in Jesus Christ: to bring salvation to all people, who will make a complete break with godless and sensual living so that they may live upright lives with the constant expectancy of the coming again of “our great God and Savior Jesus Christ.” Their lives will show them to be a people who are God’s very own, always eager to do what is right.<\/p>\n<h5>Doing What Is Good (3:1-8)<\/h5>\n<p>In this section, Paul encourages Titus to tell the Christians at Crete that it is their duty to submit to rulers (cf. Rom 13:1-7; 1 Pt 2:13-17) and to be available in the community for honest work. Again, the quality of lifestyle is emphasized—in particular, courtesy and the desire for peace in relationships with others. This lifestyle comes from spiritual transformation. The means of that transformation is the saving work of Christ—not merited, but entirely of his mercy. He has brought cleansing from sin, “rebirth and renewal by the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Final Remarks and Greetings (3:9-15)<\/h5>\n<p>In this final section, Paul encourages Titus to avoid those who like to debate about religion for the sake of debating. And he tells Titus how to deal with those who cause divisions.<\/p>\n<p>Following this, Paul tells Titus that he will send him Artemas (not mentioned otherwise in the NT) or Tychicus. Then he encourages Titus to take care of Apollos and Zenas if they pass by Crete. Titus himself is supposed to come to Paul in Nicopolis before winter.<\/p>\n<p>The epistle closes with a final exhortation to “good deeds” and to a spiritually fruitful life.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Timothy, First Letter to; Timothy, Second Letter to; Titus (Person) #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TITUS, Letter to<\/h3>\n<p>Paul’s epistle to his coworker, Titus.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Recipient<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Though this letter begins with the name and greeting of Paul (Ti 1:1-3), Paul’s authorship has been questioned by modern scholars on the grounds of its language and style, the church situation it presents, and the way that it sets forth Christian teaching. But Pauline authorship has been stoutly defended by eminent scholars and careful students who have argued that there is no reason for supposing that this epistle was written by someone else using Paul’s name, after the apostle himself had died. The differences in this epistle and Paul’s other letters are explained previously in the section on “Author” in the article “Timothy, First Letter to.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Recipient\">Recipient<\/p>\n<p>Titus appears to have been one of Paul’s most trusted and valuable coworkers. Paul speaks of him (2 Cor 8:23) as “my partner and coworker.” According to Titus 1:4, he owed his conversion to Paul. It is clear from Galatians 2:1-4 that he was a Gentile, as his was a test case whether gentile Christians should be compelled to be circumcised. At that time Titus was with Paul and Barnabas in Jerusalem. Much later, at the time of Paul’s third missionary journey, he had two delicate missions to carry out for Paul in Corinth: the first pertained to the strained relationship between the apostle and the Corinthian Christians; the second related to the gentile collection for the Jerusalem church (2 Cor 2:12-13; 7:5-16; 8:1-24). If 2 Timothy 4:9-18 was written at the end of Paul’s life, then Titus went to Dalmatia after the time of this letter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>To date this letter with precision is difficult. Titus was left by the apostle in Crete to continue his work (Ti 1:5). Paul was in Crete briefly on his voyage to Rome (Acts 27:7-13), but that could not have been the occasion referred to. In 3:12 Titus is called to come to Nicopolis (probably the Nicopolis in Epirus in Greece), as Paul had decided to winter there. Many have favored the view that after Paul’s first imprisonment in Rome (Acts 28:16-31) he was released, carried out further ministry in various places (including Spain, Crete, and Greece), and then was arrested, imprisoned a second time, and finally put to death. Those who do not accept Pauline authorship of Titus, date this letter, like 1 and 2 Timothy, in the generation that followed Paul’s death.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTeaching\">Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Although this letter is addressed to an individual colleague of the apostle, it has a minimum of personal references and exhortations. The growing and developing churches in Crete were Paul’s main concern. They were being bothered by false teachings that appear to have had Jewish elements, ascetic emphases, and a great deal of speculative discussion (Ti 1:10, 14-15: 3:9). In short, it seems that they were dealing with an early Jewish form of Gnosticism. Its advocates promoted this teaching “for base gain” (1:11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Titus and those whom he would appoint as elders were called upon to refute the wrong teaching and to provide the believers with healthy teaching (v 9). Though this healthy teaching is not specified, it must have pertained to the saving grace of God in Christ, the renewing work of the Holy Spirit, and the future coming of the Lord Jesus (2:11-13; 3:4-7). In this letter there is constant emphasis on the lifestyle that bears out the truth of the gospel—with application to different groups in the Christian community: older men and women, young women, young men, and slaves.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Salutation (1:1-4)<\/h5>\n<p>Greetings come from Paul—whose apostleship is described as a stewardship of the gospel that promotes faith and strengthens the knowledge of the truth, hope of eternal life, and godliness of living—to Titus, spoken of as “my true son in our common faith.”<\/p>\n<h5>Titus’s Work in Crete (1:5-9)<\/h5>\n<p>Titus was left behind in Crete to continue Paul’s work and to appoint elders in every church (cf. Acts 14:23). These elders are also called bishops (cf. 20:17, 28)—that is, those with oversight of the church. The necessary qualities of life for these positions are described (cf. 1 Tm 3:2-7).<\/p>\n<h5>Dealing with False Teachings (1:10-16)<\/h5>\n<p>The closing words of the previous section speak about the responsibility of elders “to encourage others with right teaching and show those who oppose it where they are wrong” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The opposers were upsetting people, indeed “whole families,” by teaching what was not true. These false teachers were described by Paul in terms disparaging of Cretans, and as people whose lives do not demonstrate the knowledge of God that they professed to have.<\/p>\n<h5>Promoting Right Teaching (2:1-10)<\/h5>\n<p>Titus had a particular responsibility to “promote the kind of living that reflects right teaching.” He was charged to exhort the older men to exercise self-control (2:2), and he was supposed to teach the older women to live godly lives (v 3). In turn, these women were supposed to train the younger women to live pure and loving lives in their homes so that no one will malign the word of God (vv 4-5). Younger men were to show self-control (v 6), and Titus himself was to be an example in word and life so that the opponents would have nothing bad to say about the Christians (vv 7-8). Finally, in this section slaves are taught to submit to their masters, to give good and honest service with the motivation that “then they will make the teaching about God our Savior attractive in every way” (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Grace (2:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>What has been said leads now to a great statement of the purpose of the revelation of the grace of God in Jesus Christ: to bring salvation to all people, who will make a complete break with godless and sensual living so that they may live upright lives with the constant expectancy of the coming again of “our great God and Savior Jesus Christ.” Their lives will show them to be a people who are God’s very own, always eager to do what is right.<\/p>\n<h5>Doing What Is Good (3:1-8)<\/h5>\n<p>In this section, Paul encourages Titus to tell the Christians at Crete that it is their duty to submit to rulers (cf. Rom 13:1-7; 1 Pt 2:13-17) and to be available in the community for honest work. Again, the quality of lifestyle is emphasized—in particular, courtesy and the desire for peace in relationships with others. This lifestyle comes from spiritual transformation. The means of that transformation is the saving work of Christ—not merited, but entirely of his mercy. He has brought cleansing from sin, “rebirth and renewal by the Holy Spirit.”<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Final Remarks and Greetings (3:9-15)<\/h5>\n<p>In this final section, Paul encourages Titus to avoid those who like to debate about religion for the sake of debating. And he tells Titus how to deal with those who cause divisions.<\/p>\n<p>Following this, Paul tells Titus that he will send him Artemas (not mentioned otherwise in the NT) or Tychicus. Then he encourages Titus to take care of Apollos and Zenas if they pass by Crete. Titus himself is supposed to come to Paul in Nicopolis before winter.<\/p>\n<p>The epistle closes with a final exhortation to “good deeds” and to a spiritually fruitful life.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Timothy, First Letter to; Timothy, Second Letter to; Titus (Person) #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TITUS, Letter to Paul’s epistle to his coworker, Titus. Preview • Author • Recipient • Date • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author Though this letter begins with the name and greeting of Paul (Ti 1:1-3), Paul’s authorship has been questioned by modern scholars on the grounds of its language and style, the church situation it presents, and the way that it sets forth Christian teaching. But Pauline authorship has been stoutly defended by eminent scholars and careful students who have argued th...","summary_en":"TITUS, Letter to Paul’s epistle to his coworker, Titus. Preview • Author • Recipient • Date • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author Though this letter begins with the name and greeting of Paul (Ti 1:1-3), Paul’s authorship has been questioned by modern scholars on the grounds of its language and style, the church situation it presents, and the way that it sets forth Christian teaching. But Pauline authorship has been stoutly defended by eminent scholars and careful students who have argued th...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57182,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:16","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:16<\/strong> Paul was allowed <em>to have his own<\/em> . . . <em>lodging<\/em><em>,<\/em> apparently in <em>private<\/em> facilities, <em>though he was guarded by a soldier<\/em>. Though Paul was traveling in chains, “the word of God cannot be chained” (2 Tim 2:9). Paul was possibly treated so well because of his social status or Roman citizenship (cp. Acts 16:37-38; 22:25-28).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:16<\/strong> Paul was allowed <em>to have his own<\/em> . . . <em>lodging<\/em><em>,<\/em> apparently in <em>private<\/em> facilities, <em>though he was guarded by a soldier<\/em>. Though Paul was traveling in chains, “the word of God cannot be chained” (2 Tim 2:9). Paul was possibly treated so well because of his social status or Roman citizenship (cp. Acts 16:37-38; 22:25-28).<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:16 Paul was allowed to have his own . . . lodging, apparently in private facilities, though he was guarded by a soldier. Though Paul was traveling in chains, “the word of God cannot be chained” (2 Tim 2:9). Paul was possibly treated so well because of his social status or Roman citizenship (cp. Acts 16:37-38; 22:25-28).","summary_en":"28:16 Paul was allowed to have his own . . . lodging, apparently in private facilities, though he was guarded by a soldier. Though Paul was traveling in chains, “the word of God cannot be chained” (2 Tim 2:9). Paul was possibly treated so well because of his social status or Roman citizenship (cp. Acts 16:37-38; 22:25-28).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84808,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:16","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:16<\/strong> Paul was allowed <em>to have his own<\/em> . . . <em>lodging<\/em><em>,<\/em> apparently in <em>private<\/em> facilities, <em>though he was guarded by a soldier<\/em>. Though Paul was traveling in chains, “the word of God cannot be chained” (2 Tim 2:9). Paul was possibly treated so well because of his social status or Roman citizenship (cp. Acts 16:37-38; 22:25-28).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:16<\/strong> Paul was allowed <em>to have his own<\/em> . . . <em>lodging<\/em><em>,<\/em> apparently in <em>private<\/em> facilities, <em>though he was guarded by a soldier<\/em>. Though Paul was traveling in chains, “the word of God cannot be chained” (2 Tim 2:9). Paul was possibly treated so well because of his social status or Roman citizenship (cp. Acts 16:37-38; 22:25-28).<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:16 Paul was allowed to have his own . . . lodging, apparently in private facilities, though he was guarded by a soldier. Though Paul was traveling in chains, “the word of God cannot be chained” (2 Tim 2:9). Paul was possibly treated so well because of his social status or Roman citizenship (cp. Acts 16:37-38; 22:25-28).","summary_en":"28:16 Paul was allowed to have his own . . . lodging, apparently in private facilities, though he was guarded by a soldier. Though Paul was traveling in chains, “the word of God cannot be chained” (2 Tim 2:9). Paul was possibly treated so well because of his social status or Roman citizenship (cp. Acts 16:37-38; 22:25-28).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112434,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:16","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:16<\/strong> Paul was allowed <em>to have his own<\/em> . . . <em>lodging<\/em><em>,<\/em> apparently in <em>private<\/em> facilities, <em>though he was guarded by a soldier<\/em>. Though Paul was traveling in chains, “the word of God cannot be chained” (2 Tim 2:9). Paul was possibly treated so well because of his social status or Roman citizenship (cp. Acts 16:37-38; 22:25-28).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:16<\/strong> Paul was allowed <em>to have his own<\/em> . . . <em>lodging<\/em><em>,<\/em> apparently in <em>private<\/em> facilities, <em>though he was guarded by a soldier<\/em>. Though Paul was traveling in chains, “the word of God cannot be chained” (2 Tim 2:9). Paul was possibly treated so well because of his social status or Roman citizenship (cp. Acts 16:37-38; 22:25-28).<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:16 Paul was allowed to have his own . . . lodging, apparently in private facilities, though he was guarded by a soldier. Though Paul was traveling in chains, “the word of God cannot be chained” (2 Tim 2:9). Paul was possibly treated so well because of his social status or Roman citizenship (cp. Acts 16:37-38; 22:25-28).","summary_en":"28:16 Paul was allowed to have his own . . . lodging, apparently in private facilities, though he was guarded by a soldier. Though Paul was traveling in chains, “the word of God cannot be chained” (2 Tim 2:9). Paul was possibly treated so well because of his social status or Roman citizenship (cp. Acts 16:37-38; 22:25-28).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140060,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:16","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:16<\/strong> Paul was allowed <em>to have his own<\/em> . . . <em>lodging<\/em><em>,<\/em> apparently in <em>private<\/em> facilities, <em>though he was guarded by a soldier<\/em>. Though Paul was traveling in chains, “the word of God cannot be chained” (2 Tim 2:9). Paul was possibly treated so well because of his social status or Roman citizenship (cp. Acts 16:37-38; 22:25-28).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:16<\/strong> Paul was allowed <em>to have his own<\/em> . . . <em>lodging<\/em><em>,<\/em> apparently in <em>private<\/em> facilities, <em>though he was guarded by a soldier<\/em>. Though Paul was traveling in chains, “the word of God cannot be chained” (2 Tim 2:9). Paul was possibly treated so well because of his social status or Roman citizenship (cp. Acts 16:37-38; 22:25-28).<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:16 Paul was allowed to have his own . . . lodging, apparently in private facilities, though he was guarded by a soldier. Though Paul was traveling in chains, “the word of God cannot be chained” (2 Tim 2:9). Paul was possibly treated so well because of his social status or Roman citizenship (cp. Acts 16:37-38; 22:25-28).","summary_en":"28:16 Paul was allowed to have his own . . . lodging, apparently in private facilities, though he was guarded by a soldier. Though Paul was traveling in chains, “the word of God cannot be chained” (2 Tim 2:9). Paul was possibly treated so well because of his social status or Roman citizenship (cp. Acts 16:37-38; 22:25-28).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"17":[{"id":42478,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jewish Leaders","title_en":"Jewish Leaders","content_ro":"<h3>Jewish Leaders<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus experienced numerous conflicts with Jewish leaders throughout his public ministry. These opponents viewed themselves as defending the Temple and its sacrifices or the synagogue and its teachings. In Jesus’ final week in Jerusalem, these debates intensified (see Matt 23) and contributed to the case against him.<\/p>\n<p>When John wrote his Gospel, Christians were being persecuted by local Jewish synagogues, and the language of those conflicts spilled over into John’s Gospel (see Acts 14:19; 1 Thes 2:14; cp. Gal 1:13-14). The Greek term translated “Jewish leaders” could be literally translated as “Jews.” But the word took on this technical meaning to refer to the Temple leadership who confronted Jesus, judged him, and orchestrated his crucifixion (see John 1:19; 2:18; 5:9-18; 9:18-22). This is important because the New Testament—particularly John’s Gospel—has often been seen as anti-Semitic. But the truth is that Jesus, who was himself a Jew, did not wrestle with “Jews” in general. His antagonists were the “Jewish leaders”—the brokers of religious power in first-century Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 1:19-24; 2:18-20; 5:9-18; 7:1, 10-13, 35-36; 9:13-34; 11:45-54; 12:41-43; 18:28-36; 19:6-8, 12-16, 31, 38; 20:19; Acts 6:10-12; 7:54-58; 12:11; 21:11; 25:1-3, 7; 26:1-11; 28:17-24; 2 Corinthians 11:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jewish Leaders<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus experienced numerous conflicts with Jewish leaders throughout his public ministry. These opponents viewed themselves as defending the Temple and its sacrifices or the synagogue and its teachings. In Jesus’ final week in Jerusalem, these debates intensified (see Matt 23) and contributed to the case against him.<\/p>\n<p>When John wrote his Gospel, Christians were being persecuted by local Jewish synagogues, and the language of those conflicts spilled over into John’s Gospel (see Acts 14:19; 1 Thes 2:14; cp. Gal 1:13-14). The Greek term translated “Jewish leaders” could be literally translated as “Jews.” But the word took on this technical meaning to refer to the Temple leadership who confronted Jesus, judged him, and orchestrated his crucifixion (see John 1:19; 2:18; 5:9-18; 9:18-22). This is important because the New Testament—particularly John’s Gospel—has often been seen as anti-Semitic. But the truth is that Jesus, who was himself a Jew, did not wrestle with “Jews” in general. His antagonists were the “Jewish leaders”—the brokers of religious power in first-century Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 1:19-24; 2:18-20; 5:9-18; 7:1, 10-13, 35-36; 9:13-34; 11:45-54; 12:41-43; 18:28-36; 19:6-8, 12-16, 31, 38; 20:19; Acts 6:10-12; 7:54-58; 12:11; 21:11; 25:1-3, 7; 26:1-11; 28:17-24; 2 Corinthians 11:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jewish Leaders Jesus experienced numerous conflicts with Jewish leaders throughout his public ministry. These opponents viewed themselves as defending the Temple and its sacrifices or the synagogue and its teachings. In Jesus’ final week in Jerusalem, these debates intensified (see Matt 23) and contributed to the case against him. When John wrote his Gospel, Christians were being persecuted by local Jewish synagogues, and the language of those conflicts spilled over into John’s Gospel (see Ac...","summary_en":"Jewish Leaders Jesus experienced numerous conflicts with Jewish leaders throughout his public ministry. These opponents viewed themselves as defending the Temple and its sacrifices or the synagogue and its teachings. In Jesus’ final week in Jerusalem, these debates intensified (see Matt 23) and contributed to the case against him. When John wrote his Gospel, Christians were being persecuted by local Jewish synagogues, and the language of those conflicts spilled over into John’s Gospel (see Ac...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70104,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jewish Leaders","title_en":"Jewish Leaders","content_ro":"<h3>Jewish Leaders<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus experienced numerous conflicts with Jewish leaders throughout his public ministry. These opponents viewed themselves as defending the Temple and its sacrifices or the synagogue and its teachings. In Jesus’ final week in Jerusalem, these debates intensified (see Matt 23) and contributed to the case against him.<\/p>\n<p>When John wrote his Gospel, Christians were being persecuted by local Jewish synagogues, and the language of those conflicts spilled over into John’s Gospel (see Acts 14:19; 1 Thes 2:14; cp. Gal 1:13-14). The Greek term translated “Jewish leaders” could be literally translated as “Jews.” But the word took on this technical meaning to refer to the Temple leadership who confronted Jesus, judged him, and orchestrated his crucifixion (see John 1:19; 2:18; 5:9-18; 9:18-22). This is important because the New Testament—particularly John’s Gospel—has often been seen as anti-Semitic. But the truth is that Jesus, who was himself a Jew, did not wrestle with “Jews” in general. His antagonists were the “Jewish leaders”—the brokers of religious power in first-century Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 1:19-24; 2:18-20; 5:9-18; 7:1, 10-13, 35-36; 9:13-34; 11:45-54; 12:41-43; 18:28-36; 19:6-8, 12-16, 31, 38; 20:19; Acts 6:10-12; 7:54-58; 12:11; 21:11; 25:1-3, 7; 26:1-11; 28:17-24; 2 Corinthians 11:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jewish Leaders<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus experienced numerous conflicts with Jewish leaders throughout his public ministry. These opponents viewed themselves as defending the Temple and its sacrifices or the synagogue and its teachings. In Jesus’ final week in Jerusalem, these debates intensified (see Matt 23) and contributed to the case against him.<\/p>\n<p>When John wrote his Gospel, Christians were being persecuted by local Jewish synagogues, and the language of those conflicts spilled over into John’s Gospel (see Acts 14:19; 1 Thes 2:14; cp. Gal 1:13-14). The Greek term translated “Jewish leaders” could be literally translated as “Jews.” But the word took on this technical meaning to refer to the Temple leadership who confronted Jesus, judged him, and orchestrated his crucifixion (see John 1:19; 2:18; 5:9-18; 9:18-22). This is important because the New Testament—particularly John’s Gospel—has often been seen as anti-Semitic. But the truth is that Jesus, who was himself a Jew, did not wrestle with “Jews” in general. His antagonists were the “Jewish leaders”—the brokers of religious power in first-century Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 1:19-24; 2:18-20; 5:9-18; 7:1, 10-13, 35-36; 9:13-34; 11:45-54; 12:41-43; 18:28-36; 19:6-8, 12-16, 31, 38; 20:19; Acts 6:10-12; 7:54-58; 12:11; 21:11; 25:1-3, 7; 26:1-11; 28:17-24; 2 Corinthians 11:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jewish Leaders Jesus experienced numerous conflicts with Jewish leaders throughout his public ministry. These opponents viewed themselves as defending the Temple and its sacrifices or the synagogue and its teachings. In Jesus’ final week in Jerusalem, these debates intensified (see Matt 23) and contributed to the case against him. When John wrote his Gospel, Christians were being persecuted by local Jewish synagogues, and the language of those conflicts spilled over into John’s Gospel (see Ac...","summary_en":"Jewish Leaders Jesus experienced numerous conflicts with Jewish leaders throughout his public ministry. These opponents viewed themselves as defending the Temple and its sacrifices or the synagogue and its teachings. In Jesus’ final week in Jerusalem, these debates intensified (see Matt 23) and contributed to the case against him. When John wrote his Gospel, Christians were being persecuted by local Jewish synagogues, and the language of those conflicts spilled over into John’s Gospel (see Ac...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97730,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jewish Leaders","title_en":"Jewish Leaders","content_ro":"<h3>Jewish Leaders<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus experienced numerous conflicts with Jewish leaders throughout his public ministry. These opponents viewed themselves as defending the Temple and its sacrifices or the synagogue and its teachings. In Jesus’ final week in Jerusalem, these debates intensified (see Matt 23) and contributed to the case against him.<\/p>\n<p>When John wrote his Gospel, Christians were being persecuted by local Jewish synagogues, and the language of those conflicts spilled over into John’s Gospel (see Acts 14:19; 1 Thes 2:14; cp. Gal 1:13-14). The Greek term translated “Jewish leaders” could be literally translated as “Jews.” But the word took on this technical meaning to refer to the Temple leadership who confronted Jesus, judged him, and orchestrated his crucifixion (see John 1:19; 2:18; 5:9-18; 9:18-22). This is important because the New Testament—particularly John’s Gospel—has often been seen as anti-Semitic. But the truth is that Jesus, who was himself a Jew, did not wrestle with “Jews” in general. His antagonists were the “Jewish leaders”—the brokers of religious power in first-century Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 1:19-24; 2:18-20; 5:9-18; 7:1, 10-13, 35-36; 9:13-34; 11:45-54; 12:41-43; 18:28-36; 19:6-8, 12-16, 31, 38; 20:19; Acts 6:10-12; 7:54-58; 12:11; 21:11; 25:1-3, 7; 26:1-11; 28:17-24; 2 Corinthians 11:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jewish Leaders<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus experienced numerous conflicts with Jewish leaders throughout his public ministry. These opponents viewed themselves as defending the Temple and its sacrifices or the synagogue and its teachings. In Jesus’ final week in Jerusalem, these debates intensified (see Matt 23) and contributed to the case against him.<\/p>\n<p>When John wrote his Gospel, Christians were being persecuted by local Jewish synagogues, and the language of those conflicts spilled over into John’s Gospel (see Acts 14:19; 1 Thes 2:14; cp. Gal 1:13-14). The Greek term translated “Jewish leaders” could be literally translated as “Jews.” But the word took on this technical meaning to refer to the Temple leadership who confronted Jesus, judged him, and orchestrated his crucifixion (see John 1:19; 2:18; 5:9-18; 9:18-22). This is important because the New Testament—particularly John’s Gospel—has often been seen as anti-Semitic. But the truth is that Jesus, who was himself a Jew, did not wrestle with “Jews” in general. His antagonists were the “Jewish leaders”—the brokers of religious power in first-century Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 1:19-24; 2:18-20; 5:9-18; 7:1, 10-13, 35-36; 9:13-34; 11:45-54; 12:41-43; 18:28-36; 19:6-8, 12-16, 31, 38; 20:19; Acts 6:10-12; 7:54-58; 12:11; 21:11; 25:1-3, 7; 26:1-11; 28:17-24; 2 Corinthians 11:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jewish Leaders Jesus experienced numerous conflicts with Jewish leaders throughout his public ministry. These opponents viewed themselves as defending the Temple and its sacrifices or the synagogue and its teachings. In Jesus’ final week in Jerusalem, these debates intensified (see Matt 23) and contributed to the case against him. When John wrote his Gospel, Christians were being persecuted by local Jewish synagogues, and the language of those conflicts spilled over into John’s Gospel (see Ac...","summary_en":"Jewish Leaders Jesus experienced numerous conflicts with Jewish leaders throughout his public ministry. These opponents viewed themselves as defending the Temple and its sacrifices or the synagogue and its teachings. In Jesus’ final week in Jerusalem, these debates intensified (see Matt 23) and contributed to the case against him. When John wrote his Gospel, Christians were being persecuted by local Jewish synagogues, and the language of those conflicts spilled over into John’s Gospel (see Ac...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":125356,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jewish Leaders","title_en":"Jewish Leaders","content_ro":"<h3>Jewish Leaders<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus experienced numerous conflicts with Jewish leaders throughout his public ministry. These opponents viewed themselves as defending the Temple and its sacrifices or the synagogue and its teachings. In Jesus’ final week in Jerusalem, these debates intensified (see Matt 23) and contributed to the case against him.<\/p>\n<p>When John wrote his Gospel, Christians were being persecuted by local Jewish synagogues, and the language of those conflicts spilled over into John’s Gospel (see Acts 14:19; 1 Thes 2:14; cp. Gal 1:13-14). The Greek term translated “Jewish leaders” could be literally translated as “Jews.” But the word took on this technical meaning to refer to the Temple leadership who confronted Jesus, judged him, and orchestrated his crucifixion (see John 1:19; 2:18; 5:9-18; 9:18-22). This is important because the New Testament—particularly John’s Gospel—has often been seen as anti-Semitic. But the truth is that Jesus, who was himself a Jew, did not wrestle with “Jews” in general. His antagonists were the “Jewish leaders”—the brokers of religious power in first-century Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 1:19-24; 2:18-20; 5:9-18; 7:1, 10-13, 35-36; 9:13-34; 11:45-54; 12:41-43; 18:28-36; 19:6-8, 12-16, 31, 38; 20:19; Acts 6:10-12; 7:54-58; 12:11; 21:11; 25:1-3, 7; 26:1-11; 28:17-24; 2 Corinthians 11:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jewish Leaders<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus experienced numerous conflicts with Jewish leaders throughout his public ministry. These opponents viewed themselves as defending the Temple and its sacrifices or the synagogue and its teachings. In Jesus’ final week in Jerusalem, these debates intensified (see Matt 23) and contributed to the case against him.<\/p>\n<p>When John wrote his Gospel, Christians were being persecuted by local Jewish synagogues, and the language of those conflicts spilled over into John’s Gospel (see Acts 14:19; 1 Thes 2:14; cp. Gal 1:13-14). The Greek term translated “Jewish leaders” could be literally translated as “Jews.” But the word took on this technical meaning to refer to the Temple leadership who confronted Jesus, judged him, and orchestrated his crucifixion (see John 1:19; 2:18; 5:9-18; 9:18-22). This is important because the New Testament—particularly John’s Gospel—has often been seen as anti-Semitic. But the truth is that Jesus, who was himself a Jew, did not wrestle with “Jews” in general. His antagonists were the “Jewish leaders”—the brokers of religious power in first-century Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>John 1:19-24; 2:18-20; 5:9-18; 7:1, 10-13, 35-36; 9:13-34; 11:45-54; 12:41-43; 18:28-36; 19:6-8, 12-16, 31, 38; 20:19; Acts 6:10-12; 7:54-58; 12:11; 21:11; 25:1-3, 7; 26:1-11; 28:17-24; 2 Corinthians 11:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jewish Leaders Jesus experienced numerous conflicts with Jewish leaders throughout his public ministry. These opponents viewed themselves as defending the Temple and its sacrifices or the synagogue and its teachings. In Jesus’ final week in Jerusalem, these debates intensified (see Matt 23) and contributed to the case against him. When John wrote his Gospel, Christians were being persecuted by local Jewish synagogues, and the language of those conflicts spilled over into John’s Gospel (see Ac...","summary_en":"Jewish Leaders Jesus experienced numerous conflicts with Jewish leaders throughout his public ministry. These opponents viewed themselves as defending the Temple and its sacrifices or the synagogue and its teachings. In Jesus’ final week in Jerusalem, these debates intensified (see Matt 23) and contributed to the case against him. When John wrote his Gospel, Christians were being persecuted by local Jewish synagogues, and the language of those conflicts spilled over into John’s Gospel (see Ac...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":5916,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Household*, Caesar’s","title_en":"Household*, Caesar’s","content_ro":"<h3>CAESAR’S HOUSEHOLD*<\/h3>\n<p>Term referring to imperial servants, both slave and free, in Rome and in the provinces of the Roman Empire. The apostle Paul closed his letter to the Philippian Christians with greetings from those “of Caesar’s household” (4:22, <span>rsv<\/span>). The imperial household staff numbered in the hundreds, and the positions carried a certain amount of social importance.<\/p>\n<p>According to the Martyrdom of Paul, written in the second century, when Paul arrived at Rome, he was greeted by people “from Caesar’s household.” He put himself in communication with the local Jewish leaders and preached and taught unhindered (Acts 28:17, 31). Some men and women were convinced and believed (Acts 28:23-24), no doubt including some in Caesar’s household. The message even spread to the whole Praetorian Guard (Phil 1:13). Some scholars trace certain believers mentioned in Romans 16 to members of the imperial household.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Caesars, The.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CAESAR’S HOUSEHOLD*<\/h3>\n<p>Term referring to imperial servants, both slave and free, in Rome and in the provinces of the Roman Empire. The apostle Paul closed his letter to the Philippian Christians with greetings from those “of Caesar’s household” (4:22, <span>rsv<\/span>). The imperial household staff numbered in the hundreds, and the positions carried a certain amount of social importance.<\/p>\n<p>According to the Martyrdom of Paul, written in the second century, when Paul arrived at Rome, he was greeted by people “from Caesar’s household.” He put himself in communication with the local Jewish leaders and preached and taught unhindered (Acts 28:17, 31). Some men and women were convinced and believed (Acts 28:23-24), no doubt including some in Caesar’s household. The message even spread to the whole Praetorian Guard (Phil 1:13). Some scholars trace certain believers mentioned in Romans 16 to members of the imperial household.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Caesars, The.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CAESAR’S HOUSEHOLD* Term referring to imperial servants, both slave and free, in Rome and in the provinces of the Roman Empire. The apostle Paul closed his letter to the Philippian Christians with greetings from those “of Caesar’s household” (4:22, rsv). The imperial household staff numbered in the hundreds, and the positions carried a certain amount of social importance. According to the Martyrdom of Paul, written in the second century, when Paul arrived at Rome, he was greeted by people “fr...","summary_en":"CAESAR’S HOUSEHOLD* Term referring to imperial servants, both slave and free, in Rome and in the provinces of the Roman Empire. The apostle Paul closed his letter to the Philippian Christians with greetings from those “of Caesar’s household” (4:22, rsv). The imperial household staff numbered in the hundreds, and the positions carried a certain amount of social importance. According to the Martyrdom of Paul, written in the second century, when Paul arrived at Rome, he was greeted by people “fr...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29296,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Paul, the Apostle","title_en":"Paul, the Apostle","content_ro":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","summary_en":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57183,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:17","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:17-20<\/strong> Conscious that the Good News was to be presented to the Jews first (13:46; Rom 1:16) and concerned that the false charges against him might already have reached Rome, Paul summoned <em>the local Jewish leaders<\/em> and gave an account of his life and work. He insisted that he was guilty of no criminal offense, but strong <em>Jewish<\/em> opposition had made it necessary for him <em>to appeal<\/em> to the emperor. Paul had nothing against his <em>own people<\/em><em>;<\/em> rather, he wanted to explain his great conviction that <em>the Messiah<\/em> they had been expecting had <em>already come<\/em> in the person of Jesus of Nazareth.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:17-20<\/strong> Conscious that the Good News was to be presented to the Jews first (13:46; Rom 1:16) and concerned that the false charges against him might already have reached Rome, Paul summoned <em>the local Jewish leaders<\/em> and gave an account of his life and work. He insisted that he was guilty of no criminal offense, but strong <em>Jewish<\/em> opposition had made it necessary for him <em>to appeal<\/em> to the emperor. Paul had nothing against his <em>own people<\/em><em>;<\/em> rather, he wanted to explain his great conviction that <em>the Messiah<\/em> they had been expecting had <em>already come<\/em> in the person of Jesus of Nazareth.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:17-20 Conscious that the Good News was to be presented to the Jews first (13:46; Rom 1:16) and concerned that the false charges against him might already have reached Rome, Paul summoned the local Jewish leaders and gave an account of his life and work. He insisted that he was guilty of no criminal offense, but strong Jewish opposition had made it necessary for him to appeal to the emperor. Paul had nothing against his own people; rather, he wanted to explain his great conviction that the ...","summary_en":"28:17-20 Conscious that the Good News was to be presented to the Jews first (13:46; Rom 1:16) and concerned that the false charges against him might already have reached Rome, Paul summoned the local Jewish leaders and gave an account of his life and work. He insisted that he was guilty of no criminal offense, but strong Jewish opposition had made it necessary for him to appeal to the emperor. Paul had nothing against his own people; rather, he wanted to explain his great conviction that the ...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84809,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:17","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:17-20<\/strong> Conscious that the Good News was to be presented to the Jews first (13:46; Rom 1:16) and concerned that the false charges against him might already have reached Rome, Paul summoned <em>the local Jewish leaders<\/em> and gave an account of his life and work. He insisted that he was guilty of no criminal offense, but strong <em>Jewish<\/em> opposition had made it necessary for him <em>to appeal<\/em> to the emperor. Paul had nothing against his <em>own people<\/em><em>;<\/em> rather, he wanted to explain his great conviction that <em>the Messiah<\/em> they had been expecting had <em>already come<\/em> in the person of Jesus of Nazareth.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:17-20<\/strong> Conscious that the Good News was to be presented to the Jews first (13:46; Rom 1:16) and concerned that the false charges against him might already have reached Rome, Paul summoned <em>the local Jewish leaders<\/em> and gave an account of his life and work. He insisted that he was guilty of no criminal offense, but strong <em>Jewish<\/em> opposition had made it necessary for him <em>to appeal<\/em> to the emperor. Paul had nothing against his <em>own people<\/em><em>;<\/em> rather, he wanted to explain his great conviction that <em>the Messiah<\/em> they had been expecting had <em>already come<\/em> in the person of Jesus of Nazareth.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:17-20 Conscious that the Good News was to be presented to the Jews first (13:46; Rom 1:16) and concerned that the false charges against him might already have reached Rome, Paul summoned the local Jewish leaders and gave an account of his life and work. He insisted that he was guilty of no criminal offense, but strong Jewish opposition had made it necessary for him to appeal to the emperor. Paul had nothing against his own people; rather, he wanted to explain his great conviction that the ...","summary_en":"28:17-20 Conscious that the Good News was to be presented to the Jews first (13:46; Rom 1:16) and concerned that the false charges against him might already have reached Rome, Paul summoned the local Jewish leaders and gave an account of his life and work. He insisted that he was guilty of no criminal offense, but strong Jewish opposition had made it necessary for him to appeal to the emperor. Paul had nothing against his own people; rather, he wanted to explain his great conviction that the ...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112435,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:17","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:17-20<\/strong> Conscious that the Good News was to be presented to the Jews first (13:46; Rom 1:16) and concerned that the false charges against him might already have reached Rome, Paul summoned <em>the local Jewish leaders<\/em> and gave an account of his life and work. He insisted that he was guilty of no criminal offense, but strong <em>Jewish<\/em> opposition had made it necessary for him <em>to appeal<\/em> to the emperor. Paul had nothing against his <em>own people<\/em><em>;<\/em> rather, he wanted to explain his great conviction that <em>the Messiah<\/em> they had been expecting had <em>already come<\/em> in the person of Jesus of Nazareth.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:17-20<\/strong> Conscious that the Good News was to be presented to the Jews first (13:46; Rom 1:16) and concerned that the false charges against him might already have reached Rome, Paul summoned <em>the local Jewish leaders<\/em> and gave an account of his life and work. He insisted that he was guilty of no criminal offense, but strong <em>Jewish<\/em> opposition had made it necessary for him <em>to appeal<\/em> to the emperor. Paul had nothing against his <em>own people<\/em><em>;<\/em> rather, he wanted to explain his great conviction that <em>the Messiah<\/em> they had been expecting had <em>already come<\/em> in the person of Jesus of Nazareth.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:17-20 Conscious that the Good News was to be presented to the Jews first (13:46; Rom 1:16) and concerned that the false charges against him might already have reached Rome, Paul summoned the local Jewish leaders and gave an account of his life and work. He insisted that he was guilty of no criminal offense, but strong Jewish opposition had made it necessary for him to appeal to the emperor. Paul had nothing against his own people; rather, he wanted to explain his great conviction that the ...","summary_en":"28:17-20 Conscious that the Good News was to be presented to the Jews first (13:46; Rom 1:16) and concerned that the false charges against him might already have reached Rome, Paul summoned the local Jewish leaders and gave an account of his life and work. He insisted that he was guilty of no criminal offense, but strong Jewish opposition had made it necessary for him to appeal to the emperor. Paul had nothing against his own people; rather, he wanted to explain his great conviction that the ...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140061,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:17","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:17-20<\/strong> Conscious that the Good News was to be presented to the Jews first (13:46; Rom 1:16) and concerned that the false charges against him might already have reached Rome, Paul summoned <em>the local Jewish leaders<\/em> and gave an account of his life and work. He insisted that he was guilty of no criminal offense, but strong <em>Jewish<\/em> opposition had made it necessary for him <em>to appeal<\/em> to the emperor. Paul had nothing against his <em>own people<\/em><em>;<\/em> rather, he wanted to explain his great conviction that <em>the Messiah<\/em> they had been expecting had <em>already come<\/em> in the person of Jesus of Nazareth.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:17-20<\/strong> Conscious that the Good News was to be presented to the Jews first (13:46; Rom 1:16) and concerned that the false charges against him might already have reached Rome, Paul summoned <em>the local Jewish leaders<\/em> and gave an account of his life and work. He insisted that he was guilty of no criminal offense, but strong <em>Jewish<\/em> opposition had made it necessary for him <em>to appeal<\/em> to the emperor. Paul had nothing against his <em>own people<\/em><em>;<\/em> rather, he wanted to explain his great conviction that <em>the Messiah<\/em> they had been expecting had <em>already come<\/em> in the person of Jesus of Nazareth.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:17-20 Conscious that the Good News was to be presented to the Jews first (13:46; Rom 1:16) and concerned that the false charges against him might already have reached Rome, Paul summoned the local Jewish leaders and gave an account of his life and work. He insisted that he was guilty of no criminal offense, but strong Jewish opposition had made it necessary for him to appeal to the emperor. Paul had nothing against his own people; rather, he wanted to explain his great conviction that the ...","summary_en":"28:17-20 Conscious that the Good News was to be presented to the Jews first (13:46; Rom 1:16) and concerned that the false charges against him might already have reached Rome, Paul summoned the local Jewish leaders and gave an account of his life and work. He insisted that he was guilty of no criminal offense, but strong Jewish opposition had made it necessary for him to appeal to the emperor. Paul had nothing against his own people; rather, he wanted to explain his great conviction that the ...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":65124,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Messiah","title_en":"The Messiah","content_ro":"<h3>The Messiah<\/h3>\n<p>The Greek term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">christos<\/span> is equivalent to the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mashiakh<\/span> (“anointed one”), and both terms can be translated as “Messiah.”<\/p>\n<p>In Judaism, the term <em>messiah<\/em> was understood in a variety of ways. The Old Testament refers to people, not all of them honorable, who were specially anointed by God for a variety of reasons or tasks (Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; 1 Kgs 19:16; Isa 45:1).The prophets expected a future Messiah who would usher in God’s Kingdom (Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10). The dominant expectation among Jews in Jesus’ time was that the Messiah would be a political warrior who would lead Israel to victory over its oppressors and reestablish Israel as a separate kingdom (see <em>Psalms of Solomon<\/em> 17–18). Some Jews saw the Messiah as a forerunner of the Kingdom of God. The community at Qumran, where the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered, expected a Messiah who would function both as a priest and as a political warrior.<\/p>\n<p>Given such ambiguity, it is not surprising that Jesus avoided the title. He taught his followers that he would suffer according to Isaiah’s predictions (Isa 52:13–53:12, which Jews interpreted as referring to the nation of Israel). The emphasis Jesus gave to suffering and service as the path of victory (Matt 16:21-28; 20:25-28) collided with the popular Jewish paradigm of the Messiah as a royal conqueror. It was, however, God’s means of bringing about his Kingdom (see Luke 2:25-32; John 12:37-50; Acts 2:29-36).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:6; Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; Isa 52:13–53:12; Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10; Matt 2:4-6; 11:2-6; 16:13-20; 17:10-12; 22:41-46; 24:23-27; 26:62-65; Luke 2:8-11, 25-35; 3:15-18; 23:35-43; 24:26-27, 46-47; John 4:21-29; 7:25-27, 31, 40-43; 12:34-50; 20:30-31; Acts 2:22-36; 3:17-26; 4:25-28; 9:22; 13:23-25; 17:3; 26:22-23; 28:17-24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Messiah<\/h3>\n<p>The Greek term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">christos<\/span> is equivalent to the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mashiakh<\/span> (“anointed one”), and both terms can be translated as “Messiah.”<\/p>\n<p>In Judaism, the term <em>messiah<\/em> was understood in a variety of ways. The Old Testament refers to people, not all of them honorable, who were specially anointed by God for a variety of reasons or tasks (Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; 1 Kgs 19:16; Isa 45:1).The prophets expected a future Messiah who would usher in God’s Kingdom (Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10). The dominant expectation among Jews in Jesus’ time was that the Messiah would be a political warrior who would lead Israel to victory over its oppressors and reestablish Israel as a separate kingdom (see <em>Psalms of Solomon<\/em> 17–18). Some Jews saw the Messiah as a forerunner of the Kingdom of God. The community at Qumran, where the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered, expected a Messiah who would function both as a priest and as a political warrior.<\/p>\n<p>Given such ambiguity, it is not surprising that Jesus avoided the title. He taught his followers that he would suffer according to Isaiah’s predictions (Isa 52:13–53:12, which Jews interpreted as referring to the nation of Israel). The emphasis Jesus gave to suffering and service as the path of victory (Matt 16:21-28; 20:25-28) collided with the popular Jewish paradigm of the Messiah as a royal conqueror. It was, however, God’s means of bringing about his Kingdom (see Luke 2:25-32; John 12:37-50; Acts 2:29-36).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:6; Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; Isa 52:13–53:12; Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10; Matt 2:4-6; 11:2-6; 16:13-20; 17:10-12; 22:41-46; 24:23-27; 26:62-65; Luke 2:8-11, 25-35; 3:15-18; 23:35-43; 24:26-27, 46-47; John 4:21-29; 7:25-27, 31, 40-43; 12:34-50; 20:30-31; Acts 2:22-36; 3:17-26; 4:25-28; 9:22; 13:23-25; 17:3; 26:22-23; 28:17-24<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Messiah The Greek term christos is equivalent to the Hebrew mashiakh (“anointed one”), and both terms can be translated as “Messiah.” In Judaism, the term messiah was understood in a variety of ways. The Old Testament refers to people, not all of them honorable, who were specially anointed by God for a variety of reasons or tasks (Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; 1 Kgs 19:16; Isa 45:1).The prophets expected a future Messiah who would usher in God’s Kingdom (Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10). The dominant ...","summary_en":"The Messiah The Greek term christos is equivalent to the Hebrew mashiakh (“anointed one”), and both terms can be translated as “Messiah.” In Judaism, the term messiah was understood in a variety of ways. The Old Testament refers to people, not all of them honorable, who were specially anointed by God for a variety of reasons or tasks (Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; 1 Kgs 19:16; Isa 45:1).The prophets expected a future Messiah who would usher in God’s Kingdom (Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10). The dominant ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":92750,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Messiah","title_en":"The Messiah","content_ro":"<h3>The Messiah<\/h3>\n<p>The Greek term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">christos<\/span> is equivalent to the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mashiakh<\/span> (“anointed one”), and both terms can be translated as “Messiah.”<\/p>\n<p>In Judaism, the term <em>messiah<\/em> was understood in a variety of ways. The Old Testament refers to people, not all of them honorable, who were specially anointed by God for a variety of reasons or tasks (Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; 1 Kgs 19:16; Isa 45:1).The prophets expected a future Messiah who would usher in God’s Kingdom (Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10). The dominant expectation among Jews in Jesus’ time was that the Messiah would be a political warrior who would lead Israel to victory over its oppressors and reestablish Israel as a separate kingdom (see <em>Psalms of Solomon<\/em> 17–18). Some Jews saw the Messiah as a forerunner of the Kingdom of God. The community at Qumran, where the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered, expected a Messiah who would function both as a priest and as a political warrior.<\/p>\n<p>Given such ambiguity, it is not surprising that Jesus avoided the title. He taught his followers that he would suffer according to Isaiah’s predictions (Isa 52:13–53:12, which Jews interpreted as referring to the nation of Israel). The emphasis Jesus gave to suffering and service as the path of victory (Matt 16:21-28; 20:25-28) collided with the popular Jewish paradigm of the Messiah as a royal conqueror. It was, however, God’s means of bringing about his Kingdom (see Luke 2:25-32; John 12:37-50; Acts 2:29-36).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:6; Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; Isa 52:13–53:12; Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10; Matt 2:4-6; 11:2-6; 16:13-20; 17:10-12; 22:41-46; 24:23-27; 26:62-65; Luke 2:8-11, 25-35; 3:15-18; 23:35-43; 24:26-27, 46-47; John 4:21-29; 7:25-27, 31, 40-43; 12:34-50; 20:30-31; Acts 2:22-36; 3:17-26; 4:25-28; 9:22; 13:23-25; 17:3; 26:22-23; 28:17-24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Messiah<\/h3>\n<p>The Greek term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">christos<\/span> is equivalent to the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mashiakh<\/span> (“anointed one”), and both terms can be translated as “Messiah.”<\/p>\n<p>In Judaism, the term <em>messiah<\/em> was understood in a variety of ways. The Old Testament refers to people, not all of them honorable, who were specially anointed by God for a variety of reasons or tasks (Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; 1 Kgs 19:16; Isa 45:1).The prophets expected a future Messiah who would usher in God’s Kingdom (Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10). The dominant expectation among Jews in Jesus’ time was that the Messiah would be a political warrior who would lead Israel to victory over its oppressors and reestablish Israel as a separate kingdom (see <em>Psalms of Solomon<\/em> 17–18). Some Jews saw the Messiah as a forerunner of the Kingdom of God. The community at Qumran, where the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered, expected a Messiah who would function both as a priest and as a political warrior.<\/p>\n<p>Given such ambiguity, it is not surprising that Jesus avoided the title. He taught his followers that he would suffer according to Isaiah’s predictions (Isa 52:13–53:12, which Jews interpreted as referring to the nation of Israel). The emphasis Jesus gave to suffering and service as the path of victory (Matt 16:21-28; 20:25-28) collided with the popular Jewish paradigm of the Messiah as a royal conqueror. It was, however, God’s means of bringing about his Kingdom (see Luke 2:25-32; John 12:37-50; Acts 2:29-36).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:6; Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; Isa 52:13–53:12; Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10; Matt 2:4-6; 11:2-6; 16:13-20; 17:10-12; 22:41-46; 24:23-27; 26:62-65; Luke 2:8-11, 25-35; 3:15-18; 23:35-43; 24:26-27, 46-47; John 4:21-29; 7:25-27, 31, 40-43; 12:34-50; 20:30-31; Acts 2:22-36; 3:17-26; 4:25-28; 9:22; 13:23-25; 17:3; 26:22-23; 28:17-24<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Messiah The Greek term christos is equivalent to the Hebrew mashiakh (“anointed one”), and both terms can be translated as “Messiah.” In Judaism, the term messiah was understood in a variety of ways. The Old Testament refers to people, not all of them honorable, who were specially anointed by God for a variety of reasons or tasks (Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; 1 Kgs 19:16; Isa 45:1).The prophets expected a future Messiah who would usher in God’s Kingdom (Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10). The dominant ...","summary_en":"The Messiah The Greek term christos is equivalent to the Hebrew mashiakh (“anointed one”), and both terms can be translated as “Messiah.” In Judaism, the term messiah was understood in a variety of ways. The Old Testament refers to people, not all of them honorable, who were specially anointed by God for a variety of reasons or tasks (Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; 1 Kgs 19:16; Isa 45:1).The prophets expected a future Messiah who would usher in God’s Kingdom (Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10). The dominant ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":120376,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Messiah","title_en":"The Messiah","content_ro":"<h3>The Messiah<\/h3>\n<p>The Greek term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">christos<\/span> is equivalent to the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mashiakh<\/span> (“anointed one”), and both terms can be translated as “Messiah.”<\/p>\n<p>In Judaism, the term <em>messiah<\/em> was understood in a variety of ways. The Old Testament refers to people, not all of them honorable, who were specially anointed by God for a variety of reasons or tasks (Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; 1 Kgs 19:16; Isa 45:1).The prophets expected a future Messiah who would usher in God’s Kingdom (Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10). The dominant expectation among Jews in Jesus’ time was that the Messiah would be a political warrior who would lead Israel to victory over its oppressors and reestablish Israel as a separate kingdom (see <em>Psalms of Solomon<\/em> 17–18). Some Jews saw the Messiah as a forerunner of the Kingdom of God. The community at Qumran, where the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered, expected a Messiah who would function both as a priest and as a political warrior.<\/p>\n<p>Given such ambiguity, it is not surprising that Jesus avoided the title. He taught his followers that he would suffer according to Isaiah’s predictions (Isa 52:13–53:12, which Jews interpreted as referring to the nation of Israel). The emphasis Jesus gave to suffering and service as the path of victory (Matt 16:21-28; 20:25-28) collided with the popular Jewish paradigm of the Messiah as a royal conqueror. It was, however, God’s means of bringing about his Kingdom (see Luke 2:25-32; John 12:37-50; Acts 2:29-36).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:6; Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; Isa 52:13–53:12; Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10; Matt 2:4-6; 11:2-6; 16:13-20; 17:10-12; 22:41-46; 24:23-27; 26:62-65; Luke 2:8-11, 25-35; 3:15-18; 23:35-43; 24:26-27, 46-47; John 4:21-29; 7:25-27, 31, 40-43; 12:34-50; 20:30-31; Acts 2:22-36; 3:17-26; 4:25-28; 9:22; 13:23-25; 17:3; 26:22-23; 28:17-24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Messiah<\/h3>\n<p>The Greek term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">christos<\/span> is equivalent to the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mashiakh<\/span> (“anointed one”), and both terms can be translated as “Messiah.”<\/p>\n<p>In Judaism, the term <em>messiah<\/em> was understood in a variety of ways. The Old Testament refers to people, not all of them honorable, who were specially anointed by God for a variety of reasons or tasks (Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; 1 Kgs 19:16; Isa 45:1).The prophets expected a future Messiah who would usher in God’s Kingdom (Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10). The dominant expectation among Jews in Jesus’ time was that the Messiah would be a political warrior who would lead Israel to victory over its oppressors and reestablish Israel as a separate kingdom (see <em>Psalms of Solomon<\/em> 17–18). Some Jews saw the Messiah as a forerunner of the Kingdom of God. The community at Qumran, where the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered, expected a Messiah who would function both as a priest and as a political warrior.<\/p>\n<p>Given such ambiguity, it is not surprising that Jesus avoided the title. He taught his followers that he would suffer according to Isaiah’s predictions (Isa 52:13–53:12, which Jews interpreted as referring to the nation of Israel). The emphasis Jesus gave to suffering and service as the path of victory (Matt 16:21-28; 20:25-28) collided with the popular Jewish paradigm of the Messiah as a royal conqueror. It was, however, God’s means of bringing about his Kingdom (see Luke 2:25-32; John 12:37-50; Acts 2:29-36).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:6; Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; Isa 52:13–53:12; Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10; Matt 2:4-6; 11:2-6; 16:13-20; 17:10-12; 22:41-46; 24:23-27; 26:62-65; Luke 2:8-11, 25-35; 3:15-18; 23:35-43; 24:26-27, 46-47; John 4:21-29; 7:25-27, 31, 40-43; 12:34-50; 20:30-31; Acts 2:22-36; 3:17-26; 4:25-28; 9:22; 13:23-25; 17:3; 26:22-23; 28:17-24<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Messiah The Greek term christos is equivalent to the Hebrew mashiakh (“anointed one”), and both terms can be translated as “Messiah.” In Judaism, the term messiah was understood in a variety of ways. The Old Testament refers to people, not all of them honorable, who were specially anointed by God for a variety of reasons or tasks (Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; 1 Kgs 19:16; Isa 45:1).The prophets expected a future Messiah who would usher in God’s Kingdom (Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10). The dominant ...","summary_en":"The Messiah The Greek term christos is equivalent to the Hebrew mashiakh (“anointed one”), and both terms can be translated as “Messiah.” In Judaism, the term messiah was understood in a variety of ways. The Old Testament refers to people, not all of them honorable, who were specially anointed by God for a variety of reasons or tasks (Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; 1 Kgs 19:16; Isa 45:1).The prophets expected a future Messiah who would usher in God’s Kingdom (Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10). The dominant ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":148002,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Messiah","title_en":"The Messiah","content_ro":"<h3>The Messiah<\/h3>\n<p>The Greek term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">christos<\/span> is equivalent to the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mashiakh<\/span> (“anointed one”), and both terms can be translated as “Messiah.”<\/p>\n<p>In Judaism, the term <em>messiah<\/em> was understood in a variety of ways. The Old Testament refers to people, not all of them honorable, who were specially anointed by God for a variety of reasons or tasks (Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; 1 Kgs 19:16; Isa 45:1).The prophets expected a future Messiah who would usher in God’s Kingdom (Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10). The dominant expectation among Jews in Jesus’ time was that the Messiah would be a political warrior who would lead Israel to victory over its oppressors and reestablish Israel as a separate kingdom (see <em>Psalms of Solomon<\/em> 17–18). Some Jews saw the Messiah as a forerunner of the Kingdom of God. The community at Qumran, where the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered, expected a Messiah who would function both as a priest and as a political warrior.<\/p>\n<p>Given such ambiguity, it is not surprising that Jesus avoided the title. He taught his followers that he would suffer according to Isaiah’s predictions (Isa 52:13–53:12, which Jews interpreted as referring to the nation of Israel). The emphasis Jesus gave to suffering and service as the path of victory (Matt 16:21-28; 20:25-28) collided with the popular Jewish paradigm of the Messiah as a royal conqueror. It was, however, God’s means of bringing about his Kingdom (see Luke 2:25-32; John 12:37-50; Acts 2:29-36).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:6; Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; Isa 52:13–53:12; Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10; Matt 2:4-6; 11:2-6; 16:13-20; 17:10-12; 22:41-46; 24:23-27; 26:62-65; Luke 2:8-11, 25-35; 3:15-18; 23:35-43; 24:26-27, 46-47; John 4:21-29; 7:25-27, 31, 40-43; 12:34-50; 20:30-31; Acts 2:22-36; 3:17-26; 4:25-28; 9:22; 13:23-25; 17:3; 26:22-23; 28:17-24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Messiah<\/h3>\n<p>The Greek term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">christos<\/span> is equivalent to the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mashiakh<\/span> (“anointed one”), and both terms can be translated as “Messiah.”<\/p>\n<p>In Judaism, the term <em>messiah<\/em> was understood in a variety of ways. The Old Testament refers to people, not all of them honorable, who were specially anointed by God for a variety of reasons or tasks (Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; 1 Kgs 19:16; Isa 45:1).The prophets expected a future Messiah who would usher in God’s Kingdom (Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10). The dominant expectation among Jews in Jesus’ time was that the Messiah would be a political warrior who would lead Israel to victory over its oppressors and reestablish Israel as a separate kingdom (see <em>Psalms of Solomon<\/em> 17–18). Some Jews saw the Messiah as a forerunner of the Kingdom of God. The community at Qumran, where the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered, expected a Messiah who would function both as a priest and as a political warrior.<\/p>\n<p>Given such ambiguity, it is not surprising that Jesus avoided the title. He taught his followers that he would suffer according to Isaiah’s predictions (Isa 52:13–53:12, which Jews interpreted as referring to the nation of Israel). The emphasis Jesus gave to suffering and service as the path of victory (Matt 16:21-28; 20:25-28) collided with the popular Jewish paradigm of the Messiah as a royal conqueror. It was, however, God’s means of bringing about his Kingdom (see Luke 2:25-32; John 12:37-50; Acts 2:29-36).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:6; Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; Isa 52:13–53:12; Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10; Matt 2:4-6; 11:2-6; 16:13-20; 17:10-12; 22:41-46; 24:23-27; 26:62-65; Luke 2:8-11, 25-35; 3:15-18; 23:35-43; 24:26-27, 46-47; John 4:21-29; 7:25-27, 31, 40-43; 12:34-50; 20:30-31; Acts 2:22-36; 3:17-26; 4:25-28; 9:22; 13:23-25; 17:3; 26:22-23; 28:17-24<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Messiah The Greek term christos is equivalent to the Hebrew mashiakh (“anointed one”), and both terms can be translated as “Messiah.” In Judaism, the term messiah was understood in a variety of ways. The Old Testament refers to people, not all of them honorable, who were specially anointed by God for a variety of reasons or tasks (Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; 1 Kgs 19:16; Isa 45:1).The prophets expected a future Messiah who would usher in God’s Kingdom (Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10). The dominant ...","summary_en":"The Messiah The Greek term christos is equivalent to the Hebrew mashiakh (“anointed one”), and both terms can be translated as “Messiah.” In Judaism, the term messiah was understood in a variety of ways. The Old Testament refers to people, not all of them honorable, who were specially anointed by God for a variety of reasons or tasks (Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 9:16; 1 Kgs 19:16; Isa 45:1).The prophets expected a future Messiah who would usher in God’s Kingdom (Dan 9:25-26; Zech 9:9-10). The dominant ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"19":[{"id":5904,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"the Caesars","title_en":"the Caesars","content_ro":"<h3>CAESARS, The<\/h3>\n<p>Succession of Roman emperors. The name Caesar, which has derivatives in the German Kaiser, Dutch Keizer, and Russian Czar, goes back to the family name of Julius Caesar (100–44 <span>BC<\/span>), which his successors took to themselves. Luke’s Gospel mentions Caesar Augustus (Lk 2:1) and Tiberius Caesar (Lk 3:1). In the book of Acts the title “Caesar” is used to refer to Nero (Acts 25:11-12, 21; 26:32; 27:24; 28:19). During NT times, 12 Caesars reigned, 6 of them actually of the Caesarean lineage.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"EmperorsofCaesarsLineage\">Emperors of Caesar’s Lineage<\/p>\n<h5>Julius Caesar (100–44 <span>BC<\/span>)<\/h5>\n<p>Julius had imperial powers but never held the title of emperor. Rome had been a republic (really an aristocracy) for almost 500 years. Its citizens hated the idea of a monarch, a position Julius Caesar judiciously declined, accepting a republican office but ruling as virtual dictator. The republic was dead in practice if not in principle. Vainly hoping to revive it and fearing Caesar’s imperial ambitions, a group of republicans conspired to assassinate him. Caesar was murdered on March 15 (the “ides of March”), 44 <span>BC<\/span>, as he entered the Roman Senate. Although the conspiracy succeeded, its purpose failed. In the civil war that followed, Caesar’s grand-nephew Octavian emerged as victor and in 31 <span>BC<\/span> became the first Roman emperor.<\/p>\n<h5>Augustus (63 <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 14, reigned 31 <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 14)<\/h5>\n<p>Gaius Octavianus (Octavian) was the grandson of Julia, Julius Caesar’s sister. He was 18 and studying in Greece when his great-uncle was assassinated. Caesar’s will, which adopted him as son and made him heir, brought him into the resulting power struggle.<\/p>\n<p>Within a year and a half, a trio consisting of Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian was confirmed in power. The following year, in a battle at Philippi (in Macedonia, now Greece), Octavian defeated both Cassius and Brutus, the chief conspirators against Caesar. Antony took command of the eastern provinces (which included Greece and Egypt), Octavian led his forces back to Italy, and Lepidus assumed jurisdiction over Gaul and western North Africa. Lepidus, however, was forced into retirement, and the area he controlled fell to Octavian. Thus Octavian and Antony, who had clashed even before their alliance, became rivals again. In the battle of Actium (31 <span>BC<\/span>), Octavian defeated Antony to become sole ruler of the Roman world and its first emperor.<\/p>\n<p>Octavian did not possess the military brilliance of his great-uncle, but he had a talent for ending strife and maintaining peace, which immediately gained him the support of the people. During his reign Roman culture enjoyed a golden age, particularly in architecture and literature. Augustus founded the Praetorian Guard, the emperor’s private honor corps of 9,000 soldiers. Originally intended to secure the emperor’s position, it later became so influential that it could independently depose an emperor or elect a new one without Senate confirmation.<\/p>\n<p>The title Augustus <em>(Augoustos),<\/em> meaning “exalted one,” was given to Octavian in 27 <span>BC<\/span>. The title reflects the practice of emperor worship that had been partly initiated in the reign of Julius Caesar, who declared himself to be “the unconquered god” and “the father of the fatherland.” Augustus continued the cult, although at first he declared that he should be worshiped only in association with the goddess Roma. Later, however, Augustus’s name became equated with Rome, and the emperor was regarded as the savior of the world. A temple to Augustus was built in Athens, and even Herod the Great built temples in his honor.<\/p>\n<p>When Augustus became emperor, he devoted himself to reorganizing his empire. Because of the chaos that had prevailed in the provinces, he took it upon himself to restructure economic and financial policies.<\/p>\n<p>Though Caesar Augustus is mentioned only once in the NT, he nevertheless is known to every reader of the Bible because of the census he decreed in all the provinces just before the birth of Jesus (Lk 2:1). Little information is available about that census, but Luke wrote that the first census was held when Jesus was born. The second was conducted in <span>AD<\/span> 6 and resulted in an uprising instigated by Judas of Galilee (Acts 5:37).<\/p>\n<p>During the time of Augustus’s reign, Herod the Great gained the emperor’s trust and was allowed to rule the Jews without Roman interference. In appreciation Herod rebuilt the old city of Samaria and renamed it Sebaste to honor Augustus. Caesarea on the Mediterranean coast of Palestine was also named in his honor.<\/p>\n<p>Conflicts between Herod and his sons were settled by Augustus in 12 <span>BC<\/span>. When dispute between father and sons arose again, however, Augustus ordered that it be settled in a Roman court, which ruled in 7 <span>BC<\/span> that two of them, Alexander and Aristobulus, be executed. In 4 <span>BC<\/span>, Augustus permitted the execution of Herod’s son Antipater.<\/p>\n<p>In Herod’s last will and testament, three of his sons (Archelaus, Antipas, and Philip) were appointed to rule his kingdom. Augustus’s approval of those appointments was necessary. Archelaus made a personal visit to Rome immediately after the death of his father to request possible changes in his status. Likewise, Antipas journeyed to Rome to see whether Augustus might be willing to grant him royal status as well. While the two of them sought separate audiences with the emperor, a delegation representing the people of Judea appeared before Augustus with the request that the Herodian rule—which was never very popular—be terminated. At the same time riots in Judea had to be suppressed by Roman legions sent from Syria.<\/p>\n<p>Augustus compromised. He converted Herod’s old kingdom to a Roman province and refused kingship to all of Herod’s sons. Otherwise he kept to the provisions of Herod’s testament: Archelaus became ethnarch (overlord) of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea (half of the new province); Antipas became tetrarch of Galilee and Perea (one quarter of the province); Philip became tetrarch of Iturea and Trachonitis (Lk 3:1; an area east of Galilee—the final quarter of the province). Because Archelaus was unable to rule effectively, he was deposed by the emperor in <span>AD<\/span> 6 and banished to Vienne in southern France.<\/p>\n<p>Augustus died in <span>AD<\/span> 14 after a brief illness, leaving the empire to his appointed successor, Tiberius.<\/p>\n<h5>Tiberius (42 <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 37, reigned <span>AD<\/span> 14–37)<\/h5>\n<p>Tiberius Claudius Nero became Octavian’s stepson at the age of four, when his mother, Livia, divorced his father to marry the future emperor. Tiberius was made Augustus’s co-regent in <span>AD<\/span> 13 and succeeded him the following year. When he became emperor, he changed his name to Tiberius Caesar Augustus.<\/p>\n<p>Tiberius did not have an easy life. His stepfather had forced an unhappy marriage upon him. The Roman Senate often opposed him. In <span>AD<\/span> 27 Tiberius left Rome for the island of Capri, leaving the task of governing the empire in the hands of Sejanus, a Roman prefect (high-ranking official). During the next five years, Sejanus secretly tried to depose the emperor and seize power for himself. His conspiracy almost succeeded, but Tiberius eventually had him executed. Despite this, Tiberius’s administration was characterized by wisdom, intelligence, prudence, and duty. He continued his predecessor’s policy of striving for peace and security.<\/p>\n<p>In <span>AD<\/span> 26, presumably before going into semiretirement, Tiberius appointed Pontius Pilate as governor of Judea. Directly responsible to the emperor, Pilate could be immediately removed from office if word of Jewish disturbances or complaints reached Tiberius. Pilate’s capitulation to the Jewish authorities during the trial of Jesus can be best understood in view of this. The Jews accused Jesus of claiming to be king, implying a rivalry with the emperor. When Pilate judged Christ innocent of the charge and sought to release him (Jn 18:33-38), the Jews insisted he could not do so and still be a friend of Caesar (19:12). If he released Jesus, they insinuated, he would risk losing the emperor’s favor. Because of crimes committed at his command against the Jews, Pilate knew they might carry out their threat, resulting in his banishment. So, surrendering to their demands, he condemned Jesus to death by crucifixion.<\/p>\n<p>Tiberius Caesar is mentioned only once in the NT. The Gospel of Luke states that John the Baptist began his ministry in the 15th year of Tiberius Caesar’s reign, when Pontius Pilate was governor of Judea (Lk 3:1). Whether that date was calculated from Tiberius’s actual accession or from the time of his co-regency is difficult to determine.<\/p>\n<p>Tiberius was a strangely humble emperor. At his own request he was never officially recognized as a god (a sort of honorary title that the Senate had given to his predecessors). Interest in emperor worship had waned, and Tiberius intended to confine deity to his two predecessors. He also stopped the practice of naming months of the year after emperors; thus there is a July for Julius, an August for Augustus, but no Tiber for Tiberius. Plagued by domestic and political problems all his life, Tiberius died a tired and dejected old man. In fact, he was an excellent administrator.<\/p>\n<h5>Caligula (<span>AD<\/span> 12–41, reigned <span>AD<\/span> 37–41)<\/h5>\n<p>At the death of Tiberius, Gaius Julius Caesar became emperor at the age of 25. He was the son of an influential general, Germanicus; Augustus had forced Tiberius to adopt Gaius and make him his heir. As a child, Gaius had accompanied Germanicus on his military duties along the Rhine River in Germany. The soldiers nicknamed him Caligula (“Little Boot”) for his military attire. The name stuck.<\/p>\n<p>To gain popularity with the Romans, Caligula began his reign by pardoning people and recalling exiles. He squandered the money of the Roman treasury, however, and was forced to levy new taxes. His popularity was short-lived.<\/p>\n<p>Six months after assuming office, Caligula suffered a serious illness that left him insane. On one occasion, for example, he appointed his horse as consul (chief magistrate). He insulted many people, banished others on whim, and had others murdered without provocation. When he felt that he had been insulted by the Jews in Jamnia, a Judean town near the Mediterranean coast, he ordered a statue of himself placed in the temple at Jerusalem in revenge. The Jews were outraged, and a full-scale revolt was avoided only by the prudence of the governor of Syria, Petronius, who delayed carrying out the order. Not long afterward the emperor was assassinated by one of the many men he had insulted.<\/p>\n<p>It was Caligula who appointed Herod Agrippa I (Herod in Acts 12) king over a tetrarchy northeast of Galilee—one of the first acts he performed as emperor, according to the Jewish historian Josephus. The two had become close friends before either had come to power, while Agrippa was living in Rome, where even as king he later spent much of his time. But unlike Caligula, Agrippa was a capable and popular ruler. Both king and emperor, in the tradition of many eastern monarchs, fancied themselves gods. Caligula, in fact, revived the notion in Rome of the emperor’s deity and madly proclaimed himself equal to Jupiter. The Senate, however, refrained from officially recognizing that status.<\/p>\n<h5>Claudius (10 <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 54, reigned <span>AD<\/span> 41–54)<\/h5>\n<p>Tiberius Claudius Germanicus was born in Lyon (France). He was Tiberius’s nephew and a grandson of Livia, the wife of Augustus. In <span>AD<\/span> 37 he was appointed consul by Caligula. After Caligula’s death Claudius was proclaimed emperor by the Praetorian Guard, and the Senate approved the choice.<\/p>\n<p>When Claudius became emperor, he faced the task of healing the broken relationships caused by Caligula’s madness. He ended the persecution of Jews in the city of Alexandria. Josephus recorded an edict that Claudius sent to Egypt, which read, in part: “Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, high priest and tribune of the people, ordains thus. . . . I will, therefore, that the nation of the Jews be not deprived of their rights and privileges on account of the madness of Gaius; but that those rights and privileges that they formerly enjoyed, be preserved to them, and that they may continue in their own customs.”<\/p>\n<p>That change of policy reflected the emperor’s friendship with Herod Agrippa, who had played an influential role in Claudius’s succession as emperor. Claudius, in turn, added Judea and Samaria to Agrippa’s kingdom, giving him the dominion that once belonged to his grandfather, Herod the Great. He also promoted him to consular rank. Further, having complete trust in Agrippa’s abilities, Claudius removed Judea from Roman provincial rule.<\/p>\n<p>Agrippa’s rule, however, was of short duration. In order to please the Jews, he had the apostle James, Zebedee’s son, killed. He also had the apostle Peter imprisoned, planning to have him executed after the Passover feast in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 44 (Acts 12:1-5). Peter escaped. During the summer of that year, Agrippa, who was wearing a glistening garment made of silver thread, gave a speech from his throne. The people acclaimed him as a god (v 22), and immediately he was struck down by an angel of the Lord. Five days later he died.<\/p>\n<p>The emperor wished to stay on the right side of the Jewish people, yet five years after the death of Agrippa, Claudius issued an edict expelling all Jews from Rome. Luke related that Aquila and Priscilla were among those who had been ordered to leave the imperial city (Acts 18:2). The Roman biographer and historian Suetonius wrote that “because the Jews of Rome were indulging in constant riots at the instigation of Chrestus he [Claudius] expelled them from the city.” The writer could easily have been uncertain of the spelling, because Chrestus, a common slave name, was pronounced virtually the same as Christus. It appears that Suetonius sought to convey to his readers that Chrestus was the founder of a movement (presumably Christianity).<\/p>\n<p>Because of mismanagement by Caligula, the supply of grain for food was at an all-time low when Claudius began to reign (cf. Acts 11:28). Josephus related that during Claudius’s administration, famine plagued Judea, Samaria, and Galilee. To alleviate the famine in Jerusalem, Helena, mother of the king of Adiabene, bought grain from Egypt and dried figs from Cyprus. That must have taken place in <span>AD<\/span> 45–46. Various ancient historians, including Tacitus, Suetonius, and Eusebius, reported that on frequent occasions famines prevailed in Rome and elsewhere. Repeatedly, harvests were minimal and distribution of food supplies was poor.<\/p>\n<p>Claudius’s family life and reputation were marred by intrigue. His immoral third wife, Messalina, was eventually put to death. Causing a slight scandal, he married his niece Agrippina, who had a son by a former marriage. She wanted her son Nero to be emperor, but Britannicus, Messalina’s son, stood first in line. In <span>AD<\/span> 54, when Claudius decided that Britannicus should succeed him, Agrippina poisoned her husband and made Nero emperor. The Senate officially deified Claudius, making him the third emperor to receive that honor.<\/p>\n<h5>Nero (<span>AD<\/span> 37–68, reigned <span>AD<\/span> 54–68)<\/h5>\n<p>Nero was born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus. His father was a senator and consul who died when Nero was still a boy. His mother, Agrippina, Germanicus’s daughter, was reputed to be one of the wealthiest and most beautiful women in Rome. When she married the emperor, her son received the name Nero Claudius Caesar Germanicus at his adoption by Claudius.<\/p>\n<p>Nero was at first dominated by his proud mother, who wished to reign alongside her son. In those years Rome was a hotbed of political intrigue, murder plots, and assassinations. During the first five years of his reign, Nero had Britannicus and Agrippina eliminated in quick succession. A few years later he banished his wife, Octavia, and had her killed.<\/p>\n<p>Ironically, the church at Rome flourished at that same time. The last chapter of the apostle Paul’s Letter to the Romans, written from Corinth in <span>AD<\/span> 57, contains a long and impressive list of names of personal acquaintances—especially impressive because Paul had never been in Rome.<\/p>\n<p>Nero had reigned more than five years when Paul, imprisoned at Caesarea, appealed to Caesar (Acts 25:11). Motives for the appeal may have been a prison release for Paul and an opportunity to seek legal recognition of Christianity. Paul’s appeal to Caesar, however, does not necessarily mean that he was judged by Nero. The emperor had made it known at the beginning of his reign that he would not be a judge. Instead, he appointed prefects of the Praetorian Guard to judge cases for him. In the early part of <span>AD<\/span> 62, Nero changed that rule and judged a case himself. Therefore, whether Paul stood before Nero or before one of the prefects is difficult to determine. If prosecutors failed to appear, Paul’s case may not have come before the judge at all. According to Philippians 1:7-14, Paul was still expecting a trial at the time of his writing that letter.<\/p>\n<p>In <span>AD<\/span> 62 Nero’s adviser Afranius Burrus died. Burrus had been a prefect of the Praetorian Guard and, together with an able senator, Seneca, had ruled the empire effectively while Nero spent his time on pleasure. After Burrus’s death (Seneca was forced to commit suicide three years later), Nero began to indulge his whims unchecked. His greedy advisers, who sought self-advancement at the expense of the state, caused a severe financial crisis. Nero was also unbalanced in regarding himself the savior of the world.<\/p>\n<p>In <span>AD<\/span> 64 a fire broke out at the Circus Maximus in Rome. It spread quickly, devouring everything in its path. Fanned by the wind, it raged for more than five days and devastated a large area of the city before being brought under control. At the time, Nero was at Antium, his birthplace, some 33 miles (53 kilometers) to the south. He rushed to Rome to organize relief work. Because of his evil record, however, people put stock in the rumor that Nero had set the fire himself.<\/p>\n<p>Nero, in turn, found a scapegoat in the Christians, whom he charged with the crime. Many were persecuted. Perhaps the apostle Peter in his first letter was referring to the sufferings of Christians during the last few years of Nero’s reign (1 Pt 4:12). Nero may have been influenced by his second wife, Poppaea, to blame the Christians for the devastation of Rome. The church had increased in numbers and had become a movement. Tacitus alluded to the size of the church when he wrote that “a huge crowd was convicted not so much of arson as of hatred of the human race.”<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Peter and Paul were executed during the Neronian persecution. Clement of Rome, an early church father, in his letter to the church at Corinth (written presumably in <span>AD<\/span> 95), referred to the heroes of faith “who lived nearest to our time,” namely Peter and Paul, who suffered martyrdom.<\/p>\n<p>In <span>AD<\/span> 66 a Jewish revolt broke out in Caesarea. Nero dispatched his general Vespasian to squelch the revolt, taking no interest himself in the affairs of state. He left Rome for a journey to Greece, leaving the responsibility of governing the empire to a Roman prefect, Helius. Because of the inescapable opposition he encountered from leading governors in France, Spain, and Africa on his return, Nero committed suicide in <span>AD<\/span> 68. He was the last emperor of the Caesarean line by blood or marriage.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SomeLaterEmperors\">Some Later Emperors<\/p>\n<h5>Galba (3 <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 69, reigned <span>AD<\/span> 68–69)<\/h5>\n<p>After Nero’s death, the Praetorian Guard selected Serius Sulpicius Galba to become emperor. Galba was a popular and capable governor at various times in the provinces of France, Germany, Spain, and Africa. He was a less successful emperor and became increasingly unpopular with the army and the people for his frugality and dislike of ceremony. The German legions of the Roman army, who had only reluctantly recognized him as their commander-in-chief, withdrew their support in <span>AD<\/span> 69, proclaiming Aulus Vitellius emperor.<\/p>\n<p>When Galba failed to appoint one of his chief supporters, Marcus Salvius Otho, as his successor, he in essence signed his own death warrant. Otho gained the support of the Praetorian Guard, was proclaimed emperor, had Galba killed, and was confirmed by the Senate.<\/p>\n<h5>Vespasian (<span>AD<\/span> 9–79, reigned <span>AD<\/span> 69–79)<\/h5>\n<p>In the fall of <span>AD<\/span> 69, Vespasian found Rome ready for a period of stability, peace, and order. The son of a tax collector, he lived frugally, reestablished Rome’s finances, reorganized the armies, and reemphasized the outward forms of the old republic. According to Suetonius, no innocent party was ever punished while Vespasian was emperor. He grieved when convicted criminals were executed.<\/p>\n<p>Because of Nero’s financial mismanagement, Vespasian had to levy new taxes and increase existing taxes in order to meet his fiscal obligations. As a result he was slandered as avaricious, although he was generous in aiding underprivileged senators and impoverished ex-consuls. Vespasian improved a number of cities in the empire that had been devastated by fire or earthquake, and he promoted the arts and sciences. In Rome he built the Temple of Peace after the destruction of Jerusalem and the defeat of the Jews, erected a forum, restored the Capitol, and began construction of the Colosseum.<\/p>\n<p>During his 10-year reign, Vespasian established peace throughout the empire. His son Titus ended the war in Palestine, and other Roman generals suppressed a revolt in Germany. Public confidence was largely restored with the return to earlier standards of morality. Vespasian appointed his sons Titus and Domitian to succeed him.<\/p>\n<h5>Titus (<span>AD<\/span> 39–81, reigned <span>AD<\/span> 79–81)<\/h5>\n<p>Titus Flavius Vespasianus had served efficiently as a colonel in Germany and Britain. When the Jewish revolt broke out, he accompanied his father to Palestine. When Vespasian left for Rome five years later, Titus was appointed general of the Roman forces in Palestine. On September 26, <span>AD<\/span> 70, the temple in Jerusalem was destroyed by fire, the citadel fell into the hands of the Romans, and countless Jews were killed. Titus returned to Rome with Jewish captives and spoils from the temple to celebrate his victory with his father. The Arch of Titus was erected in Rome, depicting his conquest of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Until Vespasian’s death, Titus was almost a co-ruler with his father. He served as Vespasian’s secretary, drafted edicts, and addressed the Senate in session. Titus was a talented person, especially in politics and music. He had fallen in love with Queen Bernice, King Agrippa II’s sister (see Acts 25–26) and allegedly had promised to marry her, but moral integrity prevented him when rumor reached him of an incestuous relationship with her brother.<\/p>\n<p>During Titus’s brief reign as emperor (<span>AD<\/span> 79–81), a series of catastrophes occurred: Mt Vesuvius in southern Italy erupted and buried the towns of Pompeii, Stabiae, and Herculaneum (August, <span>AD<\/span> 79); a fire raged for three days and nights in Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 80); and a plague spread throughout the imperial city. Suetonius wrote that during those disasters Titus cared for the people with a love resembling the deep love of a father for his children. When Titus died unexpectedly, his death caused universal mourning; he was eulogized by senators and common people alike.<\/p>\n<h5>Domitian (<span>AD<\/span> 51–96, reigned <span>AD<\/span> 81–96)<\/h5>\n<p>During Titus’s rule, his brother Domitian expressed bitterness at having to take second place, openly coveted power, and conspired to seize command of the armed forces. He secretly rejoiced over Titus’s sudden death and tried to slight his older brother’s reputation. As it turned out, Domitian proved to be a capable administrator: he restored the fire-gutted Capitol and built a temple to Jupiter, the Flavian Temple, a forum, a stadium, a concert hall, and an artificial lake for sea battles. He instituted the Capitoline Festival, promoted the arts and sciences, and maintained the public libraries.<\/p>\n<p>After the custom of earlier emperors Domitian proclaimed himself divine and had his subjects call him “Lord God.” The Senate, however, never officially deified him. Throughout his reign they resented and often opposed the power he exercised by prerogative. Domitian did not hesitate to persecute senators who made their objections known. In order to protect himself, he sought the army’s support by periodically increasing their pay. He collected additional taxes and often resorted to extortion. Jewish people were especially affected by his taxation. In the last years of Domitian’s reign, religious persecution was revived.<\/p>\n<p>The early Christian writers Irenaeus, Tertullian, and Eusebius mention the persecution of Christians during Domitian’s administration. Domitian appears to have been a relentless persecutor, second only to Nero. He even put members of his own family to death; his wife, Domitia, feared for her life because of her alleged affiliation with Christianity. With friends and freedmen, she plotted her husband’s assassination.<\/p>\n<p>After ruling the empire for 15 years, Domitian was murdered. Mourned by none, except perhaps his well-paid army, he left in the wake of his reign a bitter memory of oppression.<\/p>\n<h5>Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 53–117, reigned <span>AD<\/span> 98–117)<\/h5>\n<p>Trajan was born Marcus Trajanus of Roman parents in Italica, Spain. His father was a soldier who was promoted to governor of an eastern province in Spain. Trajan, trained to be a military commander, proved himself in campaigns in Spain, Syria, and Germany. In <span>AD<\/span> 97, Emperor Nerva adopted him as his son and heir. Upon Nerva’s death the following year, Trajan was named emperor.<\/p>\n<p>A powerful military leader, Trajan expanded the Roman Empire by many conquests in Dacia (now part of Romania and Hungary), Arabia, and Parthia (now part of Iran). He established new cities, including Thamugadi in what is now Algeria. He also oversaw many building programs, including bridges across the Danube River in Dacia and Tagus River in Spain, and a harbor at the port of Rome. According to the writings of Pliny (see <em>Letters<\/em> 10.96), we know that Trajan instigated persecutions against Christians because their worship of Jesus threatened to exterminate the traditional forms of Roman worship. The Christians’ refusal to invoke the Roman gods and make offerings to the emperor’s statue was considered a treasonous act because it undermined the empire’s security.<\/p>\n<h5>Diocletian (<span>AD<\/span> 245–313, reigned <span>AD<\/span> 284–305)<\/h5>\n<p>Born to parents of humble means in Dalmatia (now part of Yugoslavia), Diocles changed his name to Diocletian when he became emperor. As a young man he joined the army and rose in rank, becoming commander of the imperial guard. When the emperor Numerian was murdered, Diocles’ troops proclaimed him the new ruler. Numerian’s brother, Carinus, was killed by his own troops when he sought the throne, and the way was clear for Diocles to assume control unopposed.<\/p>\n<p>Diocletian, an able organizer and administrator, used his skills to enact many structural reforms in the Roman Empire, including the establishment of the tetrarchy (293), a new imperial system in which four rulers shared power. His other reforms affected military, administrative, and economic areas. As a result of such reorganization, Diocletian created an efficient bureaucracy. Nevertheless, Rome declined as a political power center, and the Senate was further subordinated to the tetrarchy.<\/p>\n<p>A persecution of Christians began during Diocletian’s reign in 303, which was aimed at destroying church buildings and copies of the NT Scriptures. Among the tetrarchs, Galerius was the most active in carrying out the persecution. Because persecution continued under Galerius after Diocletian’s abdication, some scholars maintain that Diocletian was not responsible for the policy. Diocletian retired to a villa at Split in his native Dalmatia, avoiding public association with the new administration’s superstitious and violent policies.<\/p>\n<h5>Constantine the Great (<span>AD<\/span> 272 or 273–337, reigned <span>AD<\/span> 306–337)<\/h5>\n<p>Constantine’s parents were Constantius Chlorus, the Western co-emperor of the Roman Empire, and Helena, a concubine. When his father died in England in 306, Constantine was proclaimed emperor by the troops and grudgingly accepted by Galerius, the Eastern emperor. The government of the empire was thrown into turmoil, and within two years five men had claimed to be emperor.<\/p>\n<p>Shortly before his death in 311, Galerius, the senior co-emperor, issued an edict of toleration that ended the persecution of Christians. With Galerius gone, Constantine and Licinius (who had become his co-emperor) allied themselves against Maxentius and Maximin Daia. In 312 Constantine defeated and killed Maxentius in a battle at the Mulvian Bridge near Rome. Maximin Daia fell to Licinius in the next year. An uneasy peace between Constantine and Licinius was maintained until 323, when Constantine crossed into Licinius’s territory while chasing out Gothic invaders. Battles at Adrianople and Chrysopolis in the next year decided the matter and left Constantine the sole emperor.<\/p>\n<p>One of his most significant political moves was the founding of the city of Constantinople, dedicated in 330 on the site of Byzantium. Its location on the Strait of Bosporus was ideal from a military standpoint since it gave access to both the Rhine-Danube and Persian fronts. Constantine continued a reorganization of government started by Diocletian (reigned 284-305) and reformed the currency. He also allowed barbarians to settle within the empire in order to use them in the army.<\/p>\n<p>Constantine is most remembered for his religious policies. The nature of his own religious beliefs has been disputed. From the first he was tolerant of Christians in his own realm. His preference for Christianity was demonstrated just before the battle at the Mulvian Bridge. According to one account, in a dream before the battle Constantine saw a vision of a monogram composed of the first two Greek letters of the name of “Christ.” The next day he had his soldiers inscribe that monogram on their shields. Another story says that, while marching one day, he and his army saw the image of a cross appear before the sun with the words “In this sign conquer.” During the winter of 312–13, he wrote to an officer in North Africa instructing him to supply money to the bishop of Carthage in order to pay expenses of the clergy. When he and Licinius met in Milan in 313, they issued an edict granting all persons the freedom to follow whichever religion they wished. His Christian sentiments also resulted in laws allowing bishops to decide civil lawsuits, banning any branding on the face (because it marred the image of God), closing law courts and workshops on Sunday, and banning gladiatorial games. Though he favored Christianity, Constantine was also tolerant of paganism and, as late as 324, pagan themes were engraved on his coins. With Christians such a minority in the empire, Constantine felt he could not risk offending the pagan majority.<\/p>\n<p>Constantine took an active role in church controversies. When Caecilian was challenged as bishop of Carthage (313) by the Donatists (separatists in the African church), Constantine instructed the bishops of Rome to summon a commission to hear the case. Since the Donatists were not content with the results of that commission, Constantine himself eventually heard the case, and in 316 he declared Caecilian to be the rightful bishop. Constantine also summoned the Council of Nicaea in 325, which ruled against Arianism (a heresy that denied that Christ as the Son of God was coeternal with the Father). It was the emperor’s edict that gave legal force to the Nicaean decision.<\/p>\n<p>One serious scandal marred Constantine’s reign. In 326 he had his son Crispus and his own wife, Faustus, executed on charges of adultery. Constantine was succeeded by his three other sons (Constans, Constantius, Constantine II), after being baptized a Christian on his deathbed (according to legend).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Rome, City of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CAESARS, The<\/h3>\n<p>Succession of Roman emperors. The name Caesar, which has derivatives in the German Kaiser, Dutch Keizer, and Russian Czar, goes back to the family name of Julius Caesar (100–44 <span>BC<\/span>), which his successors took to themselves. Luke’s Gospel mentions Caesar Augustus (Lk 2:1) and Tiberius Caesar (Lk 3:1). In the book of Acts the title “Caesar” is used to refer to Nero (Acts 25:11-12, 21; 26:32; 27:24; 28:19). During NT times, 12 Caesars reigned, 6 of them actually of the Caesarean lineage.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"EmperorsofCaesarsLineage\">Emperors of Caesar’s Lineage<\/p>\n<h5>Julius Caesar (100–44 <span>BC<\/span>)<\/h5>\n<p>Julius had imperial powers but never held the title of emperor. Rome had been a republic (really an aristocracy) for almost 500 years. Its citizens hated the idea of a monarch, a position Julius Caesar judiciously declined, accepting a republican office but ruling as virtual dictator. The republic was dead in practice if not in principle. Vainly hoping to revive it and fearing Caesar’s imperial ambitions, a group of republicans conspired to assassinate him. Caesar was murdered on March 15 (the “ides of March”), 44 <span>BC<\/span>, as he entered the Roman Senate. Although the conspiracy succeeded, its purpose failed. In the civil war that followed, Caesar’s grand-nephew Octavian emerged as victor and in 31 <span>BC<\/span> became the first Roman emperor.<\/p>\n<h5>Augustus (63 <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 14, reigned 31 <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 14)<\/h5>\n<p>Gaius Octavianus (Octavian) was the grandson of Julia, Julius Caesar’s sister. He was 18 and studying in Greece when his great-uncle was assassinated. Caesar’s will, which adopted him as son and made him heir, brought him into the resulting power struggle.<\/p>\n<p>Within a year and a half, a trio consisting of Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian was confirmed in power. The following year, in a battle at Philippi (in Macedonia, now Greece), Octavian defeated both Cassius and Brutus, the chief conspirators against Caesar. Antony took command of the eastern provinces (which included Greece and Egypt), Octavian led his forces back to Italy, and Lepidus assumed jurisdiction over Gaul and western North Africa. Lepidus, however, was forced into retirement, and the area he controlled fell to Octavian. Thus Octavian and Antony, who had clashed even before their alliance, became rivals again. In the battle of Actium (31 <span>BC<\/span>), Octavian defeated Antony to become sole ruler of the Roman world and its first emperor.<\/p>\n<p>Octavian did not possess the military brilliance of his great-uncle, but he had a talent for ending strife and maintaining peace, which immediately gained him the support of the people. During his reign Roman culture enjoyed a golden age, particularly in architecture and literature. Augustus founded the Praetorian Guard, the emperor’s private honor corps of 9,000 soldiers. Originally intended to secure the emperor’s position, it later became so influential that it could independently depose an emperor or elect a new one without Senate confirmation.<\/p>\n<p>The title Augustus <em>(Augoustos),<\/em> meaning “exalted one,” was given to Octavian in 27 <span>BC<\/span>. The title reflects the practice of emperor worship that had been partly initiated in the reign of Julius Caesar, who declared himself to be “the unconquered god” and “the father of the fatherland.” Augustus continued the cult, although at first he declared that he should be worshiped only in association with the goddess Roma. Later, however, Augustus’s name became equated with Rome, and the emperor was regarded as the savior of the world. A temple to Augustus was built in Athens, and even Herod the Great built temples in his honor.<\/p>\n<p>When Augustus became emperor, he devoted himself to reorganizing his empire. Because of the chaos that had prevailed in the provinces, he took it upon himself to restructure economic and financial policies.<\/p>\n<p>Though Caesar Augustus is mentioned only once in the NT, he nevertheless is known to every reader of the Bible because of the census he decreed in all the provinces just before the birth of Jesus (Lk 2:1). Little information is available about that census, but Luke wrote that the first census was held when Jesus was born. The second was conducted in <span>AD<\/span> 6 and resulted in an uprising instigated by Judas of Galilee (Acts 5:37).<\/p>\n<p>During the time of Augustus’s reign, Herod the Great gained the emperor’s trust and was allowed to rule the Jews without Roman interference. In appreciation Herod rebuilt the old city of Samaria and renamed it Sebaste to honor Augustus. Caesarea on the Mediterranean coast of Palestine was also named in his honor.<\/p>\n<p>Conflicts between Herod and his sons were settled by Augustus in 12 <span>BC<\/span>. When dispute between father and sons arose again, however, Augustus ordered that it be settled in a Roman court, which ruled in 7 <span>BC<\/span> that two of them, Alexander and Aristobulus, be executed. In 4 <span>BC<\/span>, Augustus permitted the execution of Herod’s son Antipater.<\/p>\n<p>In Herod’s last will and testament, three of his sons (Archelaus, Antipas, and Philip) were appointed to rule his kingdom. Augustus’s approval of those appointments was necessary. Archelaus made a personal visit to Rome immediately after the death of his father to request possible changes in his status. Likewise, Antipas journeyed to Rome to see whether Augustus might be willing to grant him royal status as well. While the two of them sought separate audiences with the emperor, a delegation representing the people of Judea appeared before Augustus with the request that the Herodian rule—which was never very popular—be terminated. At the same time riots in Judea had to be suppressed by Roman legions sent from Syria.<\/p>\n<p>Augustus compromised. He converted Herod’s old kingdom to a Roman province and refused kingship to all of Herod’s sons. Otherwise he kept to the provisions of Herod’s testament: Archelaus became ethnarch (overlord) of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea (half of the new province); Antipas became tetrarch of Galilee and Perea (one quarter of the province); Philip became tetrarch of Iturea and Trachonitis (Lk 3:1; an area east of Galilee—the final quarter of the province). Because Archelaus was unable to rule effectively, he was deposed by the emperor in <span>AD<\/span> 6 and banished to Vienne in southern France.<\/p>\n<p>Augustus died in <span>AD<\/span> 14 after a brief illness, leaving the empire to his appointed successor, Tiberius.<\/p>\n<h5>Tiberius (42 <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 37, reigned <span>AD<\/span> 14–37)<\/h5>\n<p>Tiberius Claudius Nero became Octavian’s stepson at the age of four, when his mother, Livia, divorced his father to marry the future emperor. Tiberius was made Augustus’s co-regent in <span>AD<\/span> 13 and succeeded him the following year. When he became emperor, he changed his name to Tiberius Caesar Augustus.<\/p>\n<p>Tiberius did not have an easy life. His stepfather had forced an unhappy marriage upon him. The Roman Senate often opposed him. In <span>AD<\/span> 27 Tiberius left Rome for the island of Capri, leaving the task of governing the empire in the hands of Sejanus, a Roman prefect (high-ranking official). During the next five years, Sejanus secretly tried to depose the emperor and seize power for himself. His conspiracy almost succeeded, but Tiberius eventually had him executed. Despite this, Tiberius’s administration was characterized by wisdom, intelligence, prudence, and duty. He continued his predecessor’s policy of striving for peace and security.<\/p>\n<p>In <span>AD<\/span> 26, presumably before going into semiretirement, Tiberius appointed Pontius Pilate as governor of Judea. Directly responsible to the emperor, Pilate could be immediately removed from office if word of Jewish disturbances or complaints reached Tiberius. Pilate’s capitulation to the Jewish authorities during the trial of Jesus can be best understood in view of this. The Jews accused Jesus of claiming to be king, implying a rivalry with the emperor. When Pilate judged Christ innocent of the charge and sought to release him (Jn 18:33-38), the Jews insisted he could not do so and still be a friend of Caesar (19:12). If he released Jesus, they insinuated, he would risk losing the emperor’s favor. Because of crimes committed at his command against the Jews, Pilate knew they might carry out their threat, resulting in his banishment. So, surrendering to their demands, he condemned Jesus to death by crucifixion.<\/p>\n<p>Tiberius Caesar is mentioned only once in the NT. The Gospel of Luke states that John the Baptist began his ministry in the 15th year of Tiberius Caesar’s reign, when Pontius Pilate was governor of Judea (Lk 3:1). Whether that date was calculated from Tiberius’s actual accession or from the time of his co-regency is difficult to determine.<\/p>\n<p>Tiberius was a strangely humble emperor. At his own request he was never officially recognized as a god (a sort of honorary title that the Senate had given to his predecessors). Interest in emperor worship had waned, and Tiberius intended to confine deity to his two predecessors. He also stopped the practice of naming months of the year after emperors; thus there is a July for Julius, an August for Augustus, but no Tiber for Tiberius. Plagued by domestic and political problems all his life, Tiberius died a tired and dejected old man. In fact, he was an excellent administrator.<\/p>\n<h5>Caligula (<span>AD<\/span> 12–41, reigned <span>AD<\/span> 37–41)<\/h5>\n<p>At the death of Tiberius, Gaius Julius Caesar became emperor at the age of 25. He was the son of an influential general, Germanicus; Augustus had forced Tiberius to adopt Gaius and make him his heir. As a child, Gaius had accompanied Germanicus on his military duties along the Rhine River in Germany. The soldiers nicknamed him Caligula (“Little Boot”) for his military attire. The name stuck.<\/p>\n<p>To gain popularity with the Romans, Caligula began his reign by pardoning people and recalling exiles. He squandered the money of the Roman treasury, however, and was forced to levy new taxes. His popularity was short-lived.<\/p>\n<p>Six months after assuming office, Caligula suffered a serious illness that left him insane. On one occasion, for example, he appointed his horse as consul (chief magistrate). He insulted many people, banished others on whim, and had others murdered without provocation. When he felt that he had been insulted by the Jews in Jamnia, a Judean town near the Mediterranean coast, he ordered a statue of himself placed in the temple at Jerusalem in revenge. The Jews were outraged, and a full-scale revolt was avoided only by the prudence of the governor of Syria, Petronius, who delayed carrying out the order. Not long afterward the emperor was assassinated by one of the many men he had insulted.<\/p>\n<p>It was Caligula who appointed Herod Agrippa I (Herod in Acts 12) king over a tetrarchy northeast of Galilee—one of the first acts he performed as emperor, according to the Jewish historian Josephus. The two had become close friends before either had come to power, while Agrippa was living in Rome, where even as king he later spent much of his time. But unlike Caligula, Agrippa was a capable and popular ruler. Both king and emperor, in the tradition of many eastern monarchs, fancied themselves gods. Caligula, in fact, revived the notion in Rome of the emperor’s deity and madly proclaimed himself equal to Jupiter. The Senate, however, refrained from officially recognizing that status.<\/p>\n<h5>Claudius (10 <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 54, reigned <span>AD<\/span> 41–54)<\/h5>\n<p>Tiberius Claudius Germanicus was born in Lyon (France). He was Tiberius’s nephew and a grandson of Livia, the wife of Augustus. In <span>AD<\/span> 37 he was appointed consul by Caligula. After Caligula’s death Claudius was proclaimed emperor by the Praetorian Guard, and the Senate approved the choice.<\/p>\n<p>When Claudius became emperor, he faced the task of healing the broken relationships caused by Caligula’s madness. He ended the persecution of Jews in the city of Alexandria. Josephus recorded an edict that Claudius sent to Egypt, which read, in part: “Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, high priest and tribune of the people, ordains thus. . . . I will, therefore, that the nation of the Jews be not deprived of their rights and privileges on account of the madness of Gaius; but that those rights and privileges that they formerly enjoyed, be preserved to them, and that they may continue in their own customs.”<\/p>\n<p>That change of policy reflected the emperor’s friendship with Herod Agrippa, who had played an influential role in Claudius’s succession as emperor. Claudius, in turn, added Judea and Samaria to Agrippa’s kingdom, giving him the dominion that once belonged to his grandfather, Herod the Great. He also promoted him to consular rank. Further, having complete trust in Agrippa’s abilities, Claudius removed Judea from Roman provincial rule.<\/p>\n<p>Agrippa’s rule, however, was of short duration. In order to please the Jews, he had the apostle James, Zebedee’s son, killed. He also had the apostle Peter imprisoned, planning to have him executed after the Passover feast in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 44 (Acts 12:1-5). Peter escaped. During the summer of that year, Agrippa, who was wearing a glistening garment made of silver thread, gave a speech from his throne. The people acclaimed him as a god (v 22), and immediately he was struck down by an angel of the Lord. Five days later he died.<\/p>\n<p>The emperor wished to stay on the right side of the Jewish people, yet five years after the death of Agrippa, Claudius issued an edict expelling all Jews from Rome. Luke related that Aquila and Priscilla were among those who had been ordered to leave the imperial city (Acts 18:2). The Roman biographer and historian Suetonius wrote that “because the Jews of Rome were indulging in constant riots at the instigation of Chrestus he [Claudius] expelled them from the city.” The writer could easily have been uncertain of the spelling, because Chrestus, a common slave name, was pronounced virtually the same as Christus. It appears that Suetonius sought to convey to his readers that Chrestus was the founder of a movement (presumably Christianity).<\/p>\n<p>Because of mismanagement by Caligula, the supply of grain for food was at an all-time low when Claudius began to reign (cf. Acts 11:28). Josephus related that during Claudius’s administration, famine plagued Judea, Samaria, and Galilee. To alleviate the famine in Jerusalem, Helena, mother of the king of Adiabene, bought grain from Egypt and dried figs from Cyprus. That must have taken place in <span>AD<\/span> 45–46. Various ancient historians, including Tacitus, Suetonius, and Eusebius, reported that on frequent occasions famines prevailed in Rome and elsewhere. Repeatedly, harvests were minimal and distribution of food supplies was poor.<\/p>\n<p>Claudius’s family life and reputation were marred by intrigue. His immoral third wife, Messalina, was eventually put to death. Causing a slight scandal, he married his niece Agrippina, who had a son by a former marriage. She wanted her son Nero to be emperor, but Britannicus, Messalina’s son, stood first in line. In <span>AD<\/span> 54, when Claudius decided that Britannicus should succeed him, Agrippina poisoned her husband and made Nero emperor. The Senate officially deified Claudius, making him the third emperor to receive that honor.<\/p>\n<h5>Nero (<span>AD<\/span> 37–68, reigned <span>AD<\/span> 54–68)<\/h5>\n<p>Nero was born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus. His father was a senator and consul who died when Nero was still a boy. His mother, Agrippina, Germanicus’s daughter, was reputed to be one of the wealthiest and most beautiful women in Rome. When she married the emperor, her son received the name Nero Claudius Caesar Germanicus at his adoption by Claudius.<\/p>\n<p>Nero was at first dominated by his proud mother, who wished to reign alongside her son. In those years Rome was a hotbed of political intrigue, murder plots, and assassinations. During the first five years of his reign, Nero had Britannicus and Agrippina eliminated in quick succession. A few years later he banished his wife, Octavia, and had her killed.<\/p>\n<p>Ironically, the church at Rome flourished at that same time. The last chapter of the apostle Paul’s Letter to the Romans, written from Corinth in <span>AD<\/span> 57, contains a long and impressive list of names of personal acquaintances—especially impressive because Paul had never been in Rome.<\/p>\n<p>Nero had reigned more than five years when Paul, imprisoned at Caesarea, appealed to Caesar (Acts 25:11). Motives for the appeal may have been a prison release for Paul and an opportunity to seek legal recognition of Christianity. Paul’s appeal to Caesar, however, does not necessarily mean that he was judged by Nero. The emperor had made it known at the beginning of his reign that he would not be a judge. Instead, he appointed prefects of the Praetorian Guard to judge cases for him. In the early part of <span>AD<\/span> 62, Nero changed that rule and judged a case himself. Therefore, whether Paul stood before Nero or before one of the prefects is difficult to determine. If prosecutors failed to appear, Paul’s case may not have come before the judge at all. According to Philippians 1:7-14, Paul was still expecting a trial at the time of his writing that letter.<\/p>\n<p>In <span>AD<\/span> 62 Nero’s adviser Afranius Burrus died. Burrus had been a prefect of the Praetorian Guard and, together with an able senator, Seneca, had ruled the empire effectively while Nero spent his time on pleasure. After Burrus’s death (Seneca was forced to commit suicide three years later), Nero began to indulge his whims unchecked. His greedy advisers, who sought self-advancement at the expense of the state, caused a severe financial crisis. Nero was also unbalanced in regarding himself the savior of the world.<\/p>\n<p>In <span>AD<\/span> 64 a fire broke out at the Circus Maximus in Rome. It spread quickly, devouring everything in its path. Fanned by the wind, it raged for more than five days and devastated a large area of the city before being brought under control. At the time, Nero was at Antium, his birthplace, some 33 miles (53 kilometers) to the south. He rushed to Rome to organize relief work. Because of his evil record, however, people put stock in the rumor that Nero had set the fire himself.<\/p>\n<p>Nero, in turn, found a scapegoat in the Christians, whom he charged with the crime. Many were persecuted. Perhaps the apostle Peter in his first letter was referring to the sufferings of Christians during the last few years of Nero’s reign (1 Pt 4:12). Nero may have been influenced by his second wife, Poppaea, to blame the Christians for the devastation of Rome. The church had increased in numbers and had become a movement. Tacitus alluded to the size of the church when he wrote that “a huge crowd was convicted not so much of arson as of hatred of the human race.”<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Peter and Paul were executed during the Neronian persecution. Clement of Rome, an early church father, in his letter to the church at Corinth (written presumably in <span>AD<\/span> 95), referred to the heroes of faith “who lived nearest to our time,” namely Peter and Paul, who suffered martyrdom.<\/p>\n<p>In <span>AD<\/span> 66 a Jewish revolt broke out in Caesarea. Nero dispatched his general Vespasian to squelch the revolt, taking no interest himself in the affairs of state. He left Rome for a journey to Greece, leaving the responsibility of governing the empire to a Roman prefect, Helius. Because of the inescapable opposition he encountered from leading governors in France, Spain, and Africa on his return, Nero committed suicide in <span>AD<\/span> 68. He was the last emperor of the Caesarean line by blood or marriage.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SomeLaterEmperors\">Some Later Emperors<\/p>\n<h5>Galba (3 <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 69, reigned <span>AD<\/span> 68–69)<\/h5>\n<p>After Nero’s death, the Praetorian Guard selected Serius Sulpicius Galba to become emperor. Galba was a popular and capable governor at various times in the provinces of France, Germany, Spain, and Africa. He was a less successful emperor and became increasingly unpopular with the army and the people for his frugality and dislike of ceremony. The German legions of the Roman army, who had only reluctantly recognized him as their commander-in-chief, withdrew their support in <span>AD<\/span> 69, proclaiming Aulus Vitellius emperor.<\/p>\n<p>When Galba failed to appoint one of his chief supporters, Marcus Salvius Otho, as his successor, he in essence signed his own death warrant. Otho gained the support of the Praetorian Guard, was proclaimed emperor, had Galba killed, and was confirmed by the Senate.<\/p>\n<h5>Vespasian (<span>AD<\/span> 9–79, reigned <span>AD<\/span> 69–79)<\/h5>\n<p>In the fall of <span>AD<\/span> 69, Vespasian found Rome ready for a period of stability, peace, and order. The son of a tax collector, he lived frugally, reestablished Rome’s finances, reorganized the armies, and reemphasized the outward forms of the old republic. According to Suetonius, no innocent party was ever punished while Vespasian was emperor. He grieved when convicted criminals were executed.<\/p>\n<p>Because of Nero’s financial mismanagement, Vespasian had to levy new taxes and increase existing taxes in order to meet his fiscal obligations. As a result he was slandered as avaricious, although he was generous in aiding underprivileged senators and impoverished ex-consuls. Vespasian improved a number of cities in the empire that had been devastated by fire or earthquake, and he promoted the arts and sciences. In Rome he built the Temple of Peace after the destruction of Jerusalem and the defeat of the Jews, erected a forum, restored the Capitol, and began construction of the Colosseum.<\/p>\n<p>During his 10-year reign, Vespasian established peace throughout the empire. His son Titus ended the war in Palestine, and other Roman generals suppressed a revolt in Germany. Public confidence was largely restored with the return to earlier standards of morality. Vespasian appointed his sons Titus and Domitian to succeed him.<\/p>\n<h5>Titus (<span>AD<\/span> 39–81, reigned <span>AD<\/span> 79–81)<\/h5>\n<p>Titus Flavius Vespasianus had served efficiently as a colonel in Germany and Britain. When the Jewish revolt broke out, he accompanied his father to Palestine. When Vespasian left for Rome five years later, Titus was appointed general of the Roman forces in Palestine. On September 26, <span>AD<\/span> 70, the temple in Jerusalem was destroyed by fire, the citadel fell into the hands of the Romans, and countless Jews were killed. Titus returned to Rome with Jewish captives and spoils from the temple to celebrate his victory with his father. The Arch of Titus was erected in Rome, depicting his conquest of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Until Vespasian’s death, Titus was almost a co-ruler with his father. He served as Vespasian’s secretary, drafted edicts, and addressed the Senate in session. Titus was a talented person, especially in politics and music. He had fallen in love with Queen Bernice, King Agrippa II’s sister (see Acts 25–26) and allegedly had promised to marry her, but moral integrity prevented him when rumor reached him of an incestuous relationship with her brother.<\/p>\n<p>During Titus’s brief reign as emperor (<span>AD<\/span> 79–81), a series of catastrophes occurred: Mt Vesuvius in southern Italy erupted and buried the towns of Pompeii, Stabiae, and Herculaneum (August, <span>AD<\/span> 79); a fire raged for three days and nights in Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 80); and a plague spread throughout the imperial city. Suetonius wrote that during those disasters Titus cared for the people with a love resembling the deep love of a father for his children. When Titus died unexpectedly, his death caused universal mourning; he was eulogized by senators and common people alike.<\/p>\n<h5>Domitian (<span>AD<\/span> 51–96, reigned <span>AD<\/span> 81–96)<\/h5>\n<p>During Titus’s rule, his brother Domitian expressed bitterness at having to take second place, openly coveted power, and conspired to seize command of the armed forces. He secretly rejoiced over Titus’s sudden death and tried to slight his older brother’s reputation. As it turned out, Domitian proved to be a capable administrator: he restored the fire-gutted Capitol and built a temple to Jupiter, the Flavian Temple, a forum, a stadium, a concert hall, and an artificial lake for sea battles. He instituted the Capitoline Festival, promoted the arts and sciences, and maintained the public libraries.<\/p>\n<p>After the custom of earlier emperors Domitian proclaimed himself divine and had his subjects call him “Lord God.” The Senate, however, never officially deified him. Throughout his reign they resented and often opposed the power he exercised by prerogative. Domitian did not hesitate to persecute senators who made their objections known. In order to protect himself, he sought the army’s support by periodically increasing their pay. He collected additional taxes and often resorted to extortion. Jewish people were especially affected by his taxation. In the last years of Domitian’s reign, religious persecution was revived.<\/p>\n<p>The early Christian writers Irenaeus, Tertullian, and Eusebius mention the persecution of Christians during Domitian’s administration. Domitian appears to have been a relentless persecutor, second only to Nero. He even put members of his own family to death; his wife, Domitia, feared for her life because of her alleged affiliation with Christianity. With friends and freedmen, she plotted her husband’s assassination.<\/p>\n<p>After ruling the empire for 15 years, Domitian was murdered. Mourned by none, except perhaps his well-paid army, he left in the wake of his reign a bitter memory of oppression.<\/p>\n<h5>Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 53–117, reigned <span>AD<\/span> 98–117)<\/h5>\n<p>Trajan was born Marcus Trajanus of Roman parents in Italica, Spain. His father was a soldier who was promoted to governor of an eastern province in Spain. Trajan, trained to be a military commander, proved himself in campaigns in Spain, Syria, and Germany. In <span>AD<\/span> 97, Emperor Nerva adopted him as his son and heir. Upon Nerva’s death the following year, Trajan was named emperor.<\/p>\n<p>A powerful military leader, Trajan expanded the Roman Empire by many conquests in Dacia (now part of Romania and Hungary), Arabia, and Parthia (now part of Iran). He established new cities, including Thamugadi in what is now Algeria. He also oversaw many building programs, including bridges across the Danube River in Dacia and Tagus River in Spain, and a harbor at the port of Rome. According to the writings of Pliny (see <em>Letters<\/em> 10.96), we know that Trajan instigated persecutions against Christians because their worship of Jesus threatened to exterminate the traditional forms of Roman worship. The Christians’ refusal to invoke the Roman gods and make offerings to the emperor’s statue was considered a treasonous act because it undermined the empire’s security.<\/p>\n<h5>Diocletian (<span>AD<\/span> 245–313, reigned <span>AD<\/span> 284–305)<\/h5>\n<p>Born to parents of humble means in Dalmatia (now part of Yugoslavia), Diocles changed his name to Diocletian when he became emperor. As a young man he joined the army and rose in rank, becoming commander of the imperial guard. When the emperor Numerian was murdered, Diocles’ troops proclaimed him the new ruler. Numerian’s brother, Carinus, was killed by his own troops when he sought the throne, and the way was clear for Diocles to assume control unopposed.<\/p>\n<p>Diocletian, an able organizer and administrator, used his skills to enact many structural reforms in the Roman Empire, including the establishment of the tetrarchy (293), a new imperial system in which four rulers shared power. His other reforms affected military, administrative, and economic areas. As a result of such reorganization, Diocletian created an efficient bureaucracy. Nevertheless, Rome declined as a political power center, and the Senate was further subordinated to the tetrarchy.<\/p>\n<p>A persecution of Christians began during Diocletian’s reign in 303, which was aimed at destroying church buildings and copies of the NT Scriptures. Among the tetrarchs, Galerius was the most active in carrying out the persecution. Because persecution continued under Galerius after Diocletian’s abdication, some scholars maintain that Diocletian was not responsible for the policy. Diocletian retired to a villa at Split in his native Dalmatia, avoiding public association with the new administration’s superstitious and violent policies.<\/p>\n<h5>Constantine the Great (<span>AD<\/span> 272 or 273–337, reigned <span>AD<\/span> 306–337)<\/h5>\n<p>Constantine’s parents were Constantius Chlorus, the Western co-emperor of the Roman Empire, and Helena, a concubine. When his father died in England in 306, Constantine was proclaimed emperor by the troops and grudgingly accepted by Galerius, the Eastern emperor. The government of the empire was thrown into turmoil, and within two years five men had claimed to be emperor.<\/p>\n<p>Shortly before his death in 311, Galerius, the senior co-emperor, issued an edict of toleration that ended the persecution of Christians. With Galerius gone, Constantine and Licinius (who had become his co-emperor) allied themselves against Maxentius and Maximin Daia. In 312 Constantine defeated and killed Maxentius in a battle at the Mulvian Bridge near Rome. Maximin Daia fell to Licinius in the next year. An uneasy peace between Constantine and Licinius was maintained until 323, when Constantine crossed into Licinius’s territory while chasing out Gothic invaders. Battles at Adrianople and Chrysopolis in the next year decided the matter and left Constantine the sole emperor.<\/p>\n<p>One of his most significant political moves was the founding of the city of Constantinople, dedicated in 330 on the site of Byzantium. Its location on the Strait of Bosporus was ideal from a military standpoint since it gave access to both the Rhine-Danube and Persian fronts. Constantine continued a reorganization of government started by Diocletian (reigned 284-305) and reformed the currency. He also allowed barbarians to settle within the empire in order to use them in the army.<\/p>\n<p>Constantine is most remembered for his religious policies. The nature of his own religious beliefs has been disputed. From the first he was tolerant of Christians in his own realm. His preference for Christianity was demonstrated just before the battle at the Mulvian Bridge. According to one account, in a dream before the battle Constantine saw a vision of a monogram composed of the first two Greek letters of the name of “Christ.” The next day he had his soldiers inscribe that monogram on their shields. Another story says that, while marching one day, he and his army saw the image of a cross appear before the sun with the words “In this sign conquer.” During the winter of 312–13, he wrote to an officer in North Africa instructing him to supply money to the bishop of Carthage in order to pay expenses of the clergy. When he and Licinius met in Milan in 313, they issued an edict granting all persons the freedom to follow whichever religion they wished. His Christian sentiments also resulted in laws allowing bishops to decide civil lawsuits, banning any branding on the face (because it marred the image of God), closing law courts and workshops on Sunday, and banning gladiatorial games. Though he favored Christianity, Constantine was also tolerant of paganism and, as late as 324, pagan themes were engraved on his coins. With Christians such a minority in the empire, Constantine felt he could not risk offending the pagan majority.<\/p>\n<p>Constantine took an active role in church controversies. When Caecilian was challenged as bishop of Carthage (313) by the Donatists (separatists in the African church), Constantine instructed the bishops of Rome to summon a commission to hear the case. Since the Donatists were not content with the results of that commission, Constantine himself eventually heard the case, and in 316 he declared Caecilian to be the rightful bishop. Constantine also summoned the Council of Nicaea in 325, which ruled against Arianism (a heresy that denied that Christ as the Son of God was coeternal with the Father). It was the emperor’s edict that gave legal force to the Nicaean decision.<\/p>\n<p>One serious scandal marred Constantine’s reign. In 326 he had his son Crispus and his own wife, Faustus, executed on charges of adultery. Constantine was succeeded by his three other sons (Constans, Constantius, Constantine II), after being baptized a Christian on his deathbed (according to legend).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Rome, City of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CAESARS, The Succession of Roman emperors. The name Caesar, which has derivatives in the German Kaiser, Dutch Keizer, and Russian Czar, goes back to the family name of Julius Caesar (100–44 BC), which his successors took to themselves. Luke’s Gospel mentions Caesar Augustus (Lk 2:1) and Tiberius Caesar (Lk 3:1). In the book of Acts the title “Caesar” is used to refer to Nero (Acts 25:11-12, 21; 26:32; 27:24; 28:19). During NT times, 12 Caesars reigned, 6 of them actually of the Caesarean line...","summary_en":"CAESARS, The Succession of Roman emperors. The name Caesar, which has derivatives in the German Kaiser, Dutch Keizer, and Russian Czar, goes back to the family name of Julius Caesar (100–44 BC), which his successors took to themselves. Luke’s Gospel mentions Caesar Augustus (Lk 2:1) and Tiberius Caesar (Lk 3:1). In the book of Acts the title “Caesar” is used to refer to Nero (Acts 25:11-12, 21; 26:32; 27:24; 28:19). During NT times, 12 Caesars reigned, 6 of them actually of the Caesarean line...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"21":[{"id":5783,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Brothers (and Sisters)","title_en":"Brothers (and Sisters)","content_ro":"<h3>BROTHERS (<span>and Sisters<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Designation of those in the household of God. Good evidence exists that Jews at the time of Jesus frequently referred to themselves as brothers (Acts 2:29, 37; 7:2; 22:5; 28:21; Rom 9:3). From the beginning it seemed natural for Jewish Christians to call each other “brothers” (that is, “siblings”—the term included both male and female; Acts 1:15-16; 9:30; 11:1). Members of gentile religious communities also called each other brothers, so the name found a home in the gentile churches as well (Acts 17:14; Rom 1:13; 1 Cor 1:1, 10; plus dozens of other places in Paul’s letters to gentile churches). In fact, along with “disciple” (in Acts) and “saint” (always plural in the writings of Paul and the book of Revelation), it was one of the most popular names for Christians and the only one used in James and 1 John.<\/p>\n<p>Each Christian was called “brother,” and the Christians collectively were “the brothers.” The name stressed the intimacy of the Christian community. That is, the relationship of believers to one another was as close as that of blood kin (closer, in fact—Mk 10:23-31). In 1 John and James the name underlines the claim that poorer Christians have upon those better off (Jas 2:15; 1 Jn 3:10-18; 4:20-21). It also points to equality among members of the Christian community.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BROTHERS (<span>and Sisters<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Designation of those in the household of God. Good evidence exists that Jews at the time of Jesus frequently referred to themselves as brothers (Acts 2:29, 37; 7:2; 22:5; 28:21; Rom 9:3). From the beginning it seemed natural for Jewish Christians to call each other “brothers” (that is, “siblings”—the term included both male and female; Acts 1:15-16; 9:30; 11:1). Members of gentile religious communities also called each other brothers, so the name found a home in the gentile churches as well (Acts 17:14; Rom 1:13; 1 Cor 1:1, 10; plus dozens of other places in Paul’s letters to gentile churches). In fact, along with “disciple” (in Acts) and “saint” (always plural in the writings of Paul and the book of Revelation), it was one of the most popular names for Christians and the only one used in James and 1 John.<\/p>\n<p>Each Christian was called “brother,” and the Christians collectively were “the brothers.” The name stressed the intimacy of the Christian community. That is, the relationship of believers to one another was as close as that of blood kin (closer, in fact—Mk 10:23-31). In 1 John and James the name underlines the claim that poorer Christians have upon those better off (Jas 2:15; 1 Jn 3:10-18; 4:20-21). It also points to equality among members of the Christian community.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BROTHERS (and Sisters) Designation of those in the household of God. Good evidence exists that Jews at the time of Jesus frequently referred to themselves as brothers (Acts 2:29, 37; 7:2; 22:5; 28:21; Rom 9:3). From the beginning it seemed natural for Jewish Christians to call each other “brothers” (that is, “siblings”—the term included both male and female; Acts 1:15-16; 9:30; 11:1). Members of gentile religious communities also called each other brothers, so the name found a home in the gen...","summary_en":"BROTHERS (and Sisters) Designation of those in the household of God. Good evidence exists that Jews at the time of Jesus frequently referred to themselves as brothers (Acts 2:29, 37; 7:2; 22:5; 28:21; Rom 9:3). From the beginning it seemed natural for Jewish Christians to call each other “brothers” (that is, “siblings”—the term included both male and female; Acts 1:15-16; 9:30; 11:1). Members of gentile religious communities also called each other brothers, so the name found a home in the gen...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57184,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:21","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:21-22<\/strong> The Jewish leaders assured Paul that they had received no <em>reports against<\/em> him, and they wanted <em>to hear<\/em> his explanation of <em>this movement<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:21-22<\/strong> The Jewish leaders assured Paul that they had received no <em>reports against<\/em> him, and they wanted <em>to hear<\/em> his explanation of <em>this movement<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:21-22 The Jewish leaders assured Paul that they had received no reports against him, and they wanted to hear his explanation of this movement.","summary_en":"28:21-22 The Jewish leaders assured Paul that they had received no reports against him, and they wanted to hear his explanation of this movement.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84810,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:21","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:21-22<\/strong> The Jewish leaders assured Paul that they had received no <em>reports against<\/em> him, and they wanted <em>to hear<\/em> his explanation of <em>this movement<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:21-22<\/strong> The Jewish leaders assured Paul that they had received no <em>reports against<\/em> him, and they wanted <em>to hear<\/em> his explanation of <em>this movement<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:21-22 The Jewish leaders assured Paul that they had received no reports against him, and they wanted to hear his explanation of this movement.","summary_en":"28:21-22 The Jewish leaders assured Paul that they had received no reports against him, and they wanted to hear his explanation of this movement.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112436,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:21","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:21-22<\/strong> The Jewish leaders assured Paul that they had received no <em>reports against<\/em> him, and they wanted <em>to hear<\/em> his explanation of <em>this movement<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:21-22<\/strong> The Jewish leaders assured Paul that they had received no <em>reports against<\/em> him, and they wanted <em>to hear<\/em> his explanation of <em>this movement<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:21-22 The Jewish leaders assured Paul that they had received no reports against him, and they wanted to hear his explanation of this movement.","summary_en":"28:21-22 The Jewish leaders assured Paul that they had received no reports against him, and they wanted to hear his explanation of this movement.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140062,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:21","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:21-22<\/strong> The Jewish leaders assured Paul that they had received no <em>reports against<\/em> him, and they wanted <em>to hear<\/em> his explanation of <em>this movement<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:21-22<\/strong> The Jewish leaders assured Paul that they had received no <em>reports against<\/em> him, and they wanted <em>to hear<\/em> his explanation of <em>this movement<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:21-22 The Jewish leaders assured Paul that they had received no reports against him, and they wanted to hear his explanation of this movement.","summary_en":"28:21-22 The Jewish leaders assured Paul that they had received no reports against him, and they wanted to hear his explanation of this movement.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"22":[{"id":11121,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Essenes*","title_en":"Essenes*","content_ro":"<h3>ESSENES*<\/h3>\n<p>Jewish sect or community in Palestine in the last century <span>BC<\/span> and the first century <span>AD<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Name<\/p>\n<p>• Sources of Information<\/p>\n<p>• Origin and History<\/p>\n<p>• Admission to the Sect<\/p>\n<p>• Community Life<\/p>\n<p>• Religious Beliefs<\/p>\n<p>• The Essenes and the Qumran Community<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheName\">The Name<\/p>\n<p>The sect is called <em>Esseni, Osseni, Ossaei, Essaeans,<\/em> and other variations; sometimes two different forms are found in the same author. No satisfactory explanation of the name has been given, but a number of scholars tend to prefer “healers,” which hardly seems likely since the term describes the Therapeutae (“Healers”), a sect that was only distantly related to the Essenes, if at all.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SourcesofInformation\">Sources of Information<\/p>\n<p>The principal sources of information about the Essenes are (1) Philo of Alexandria, a Jew who lived in Egypt from about 30 <span>BC<\/span> to sometime after <span>AD<\/span> 40, in his works <em>Let Every Good Man Be Free<\/em> and <em>Apology for the Jews;<\/em> (2) Flavius Josephus, a Jew of Palestine and later of Rome, who lived from <span>AD<\/span> 37 to about <span>AD<\/span> 100, in his works <em>War of the Jews<\/em> and <em>Jewish Antiquities<\/em>—our most extensive sources; (3) Pliny the Elder, a Roman who died in <span>AD<\/span> 79 and who may have been in Palestine with Titus during the Jewish War, in his <em>Natural History;<\/em> and (4) Hippolytus of Rome, in his work <em>A Refutation of All Heresies,<\/em> written about <span>AD<\/span> 230 and largely dependent on Josephus.<\/p>\n<p>Josephus tells us that he determined to know the three Jewish “sects” intimately, so he joined the Essenes when he was 16. But since he was a Pharisee by the time he was 19, and since it took at least three years for the initiatory rites of the Essenes, we must conclude that he did not have time or opportunity to learn much about the inner life of the Essenes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginandHistory\">Origin and History<\/p>\n<p>The first mention of the Essenes, as well as that of the Pharisees and the Sadducees, is in the time of Jonathan (160–143 <span>BC<\/span>), successor of Judas Maccabeus (see Josephus’s <em>Antiquities<\/em> 13.5.9). Josephus calls these groups “sects” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">haireseis<\/span>), a term that sometimes connotes heretical movements, but this is a later meaning of the word. Luke uses the very same term for Pharisees (Acts 15:5; 26:5), Sadducees (5:17), and Christians (24:5, 14; 28:22).<\/p>\n<p>The Maccabean revolt began in 167 <span>BC<\/span>. The background of the uprising had been a struggle between the Seleucid Greeks and the Ptolemaic Greeks, with Palestine as the object of the struggle. The Seleucids won in 198 <span>BC<\/span>, but there were pro-Syrian and pro-Egyptian parties in Judea. Moreover, Hellenism, which was strongly promoted by the Seleucids, had taken a deep hold on many Jews. In order to participate in the athletic games, some Jews even resorted to operations to obliterate the sign of circumcision (1 Macc 1:15). In 168 the Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes sold the Jewish high priesthood to the highest bidder, Menelaus. When this was rejected by the Jewish populace, violent persecution broke out. Somewhere along the line a group of pious Jews came into existence, and they joined the Maccabees in the revolt. We know them as the Hasidim (or Hasideans, Assideans, “pious ones”; cf. 1 Macc 2:42).<\/p>\n<p>Because of numerous similarities in doctrine, it is generally accepted that the Pharisees are either the direct descendants of the Hasidim or one of two or more groups of descendants. It is further generally accepted that the Essenes are a group that split either from the Pharisees or from the Hasidim. Qumran (the community of the Dead Sea Scrolls) is looked upon either as a branch of the Essenes or as another closely related group of separatists whose origin was at approximately the same point in time.<\/p>\n<p>Josephus speaks of only three Jewish sects: Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 18.1.2). Therefore, it is often concluded that these were the only Jewish sects at that time. This is a false conclusion. We know of at least seven Jewish sects, and perhaps as many as twelve. There is probably some overlap, and it is not always clear whether a particular group should be described as a religious party (e.g., the Zealots). But we can argue against Josephus’s number of sects by other data he supplies. According to Josephus, there were 6,000 Pharisees (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 17.2.4) and 4,000 Essenes (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 18.1.5; cf. Philo’s <em>Every Good Man<\/em> 76), and the Sadducees were fewer in number than the Pharisees (cf. <em>Wars<\/em> 2.8.14). This would account for, at most, 16,000 persons, and the population of Judea was well beyond that figure. Moreover, Josephus himself speaks of a “fourth philosophy” (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 18.1.6), which some scholars identify with the Zealots, although Josephus never does so. We can only conclude that in Josephus’s view there were three principal sects or groups of Jews.<\/p>\n<p>The Essenes left the cities of Palestine and lived in the towns and villages. Pliny locates them west of the Dead Sea and says, “Below them was En-gedi” (<em>Natural History<\/em> 5.15.73), a statement that could mean either that En-gedi was at a lower elevation or that it was to the south. Scholars are not unanimous in the interpretation of this statement.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AdmissiontotheSect\">Admission to the Sect<\/p>\n<p>Admission to the Essenes was a long, complicated process, consisting of one year as a postulant and two additional years of limited participation in the community. The novice took solemn oaths, which included his relationship to God and to his fellow members. He swore to hate the wicked and to love truth, to conceal nothing from the community and to reveal nothing to outsiders, and to transmit doctrines exactly as he received them. Until he took these oaths, he could not touch the food of the community.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CommunityLife\">Community Life<\/p>\n<p>When a new member joined the Essenes, he turned over all property to the community. The individual members were without goods, property, or homes. They lived frugally, having only what was necessary for life. They despised riches, had no slaves, and did not engage in commerce. They worked in fields or at crafts that contributed to peace, and would not make instruments of war. They dwelt in brotherhoods, ate together, held property in common, had a common purse and a common store of clothing. They always wore white clothing.<\/p>\n<p>Evidence is somewhat confusing about their views on marriage. They either banned it entirely or disdained it, counting continence as one of their virtues. There were Essenes who did marry, but these looked upon the marriage relationship as existing only for the purpose of raising children so that the race might continue.<\/p>\n<p>There is also mixed evidence concerning children. According to Philo, they had no children, no adolescents, not even young men. Josephus, on the other hand, tells us that they adopted children, and the Essenes who married raised children of their own.<\/p>\n<p>The Essenes were divided into four lots or ranks and would do nothing unless ordered by superiors, except for works of mercy. They obeyed their elders. Justice was dispensed at an assembly of 100 members or more. For serious offenses the penalty was expulsion from the community, and the expelled member usually starved to death because of the tremendous oaths he had taken.<\/p>\n<h5>A Typical Day<\/h5>\n<p>Josephus describes a typical day in the life of the Essenes. They rose before dawn and recited prayers to the rising sun (which probably is not to be interpreted as sun worship). Then each man worked at his craft until the fifth hour (11 <span>am<\/span>). At that time the community assembled, put on linen loincloths, bathed in cold water, and then went to the building that was restricted to members, to a dining hall that was further restricted to those who were pure. Each Essene received bread and one bowlful of food. The priest said a prayer before anyone was permitted to touch the food, and another prayer after the meal. Then the members laid aside their sacred garments and resumed their work until evening. The evening meal was in the same manner as the noon meal. They ate quietly and spoke only in turn, eating and drinking only what they needed to satisfy them.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ReligiousBeliefs\">Religious Beliefs<\/p>\n<p>It is somewhat risky to attempt to reconstruct Essene theology from Josephus and Philo, for both of these writers thought in philosophical rather than theological forms.<\/p>\n<p>The Essenes were not concerned with logic or natural philosophy, but rather devoted themselves to ethics. Josephus likens them to the Greek Pythagoreans (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 15.10.4), but he does not explain this further. The Essenes were concerned with purity and holy minds. They rejected oaths (apparently excepting the tremendous oath they took upon entering the sect), and considered their word sufficient. They observed the seventh day, going to synagogues and sitting according to age. One would read and another explain, making use of symbols and the triple use of definitions (which may be a reference to the rabbinic method of exegesis). They would do no work on the Sabbath. There is confusion concerning the matter of sacrifices; either they did not offer sacrifices (Philo’s <em>Every Good Man<\/em>) or they sacrificed among themselves and did not send sacrifices to the temple (Josephus’s <em>Antiquities<\/em> 18.1.5). They did send offerings to the temple, according to this same passage in Josephus. The name of the lawgiver (Moses? or God himself?) was an object of great veneration.<\/p>\n<p>The Essenes studied holy books and were skilled at predicting the future. Josephus tells of one Essene, Menahem, who foretold that Herod would be king (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 15.10.5). They also studied the works of the ancients (which appears to mean works other than the Scriptures), and became proficient in the knowledge of healing, of roots, and of stones. The Essenes believed that their souls were immortal; however, as Josephus seems to have understood this doctrine, the body was “corruptible and its constituent matter impermament” (<em>War<\/em> 2.8.11), which may imply a denial of the resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>The material available to us is hardly satisfactory for reconstructing Essene theology. It is clear, however, that they were Jews, devoted to the law, but with certain emphases or aberrations that set them apart from both the Pharisees and the Sadducees. They were ascetic, although some of them married, and they were pacifists, although Josephus tells of an Essene named John who was a general in the army (<em>War<\/em> 2.20.4). Above all, they were exclusivistic, withdrawing from other Jews and living a communal or communistic type of life.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheEssenesandtheQumranCommunity\">The Essenes and the Qumran Community<\/p>\n<p>There are many similarities between the Essenes and the people of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Both were Jewish sects. Both were communal groups that had withdrawn from the common stream of Judaism. Both were located west of the Dead Sea. Both had long and rigid processes for admission of new members. Both had an oath of admission. Both hated the wicked and loved the members of the community. Both required the handing over of all property to the sect. Both kept their secrets within their own group. The daily life—prayers, ritual bathing, common meals, the study and interpretation of the Bible, and concern with purity—is markedly similar. Scrupulous observance of the Sabbath, the division into ranks or lots, and the authority of elders and superiors are features of each group. Both had a minimum group of ten required for assembly. Both had laws of expulsion for serious offenses.<\/p>\n<p>The differences are also noteworthy and not as often pointed out. Obviously the Qumran community could not have constituted all of the Essenes but were at most a small fraction (perhaps 200) of the 4,000 Essenes. Moreover, they were at best only one of the towns and villages of the Essenes. If Qumranians worked at crafts, we know nothing of it either from their texts or from the archaeology of Qumran. Similarly, we know nothing of their attitude toward war or the implements of war. But we do know from the War Scroll (1QM) that they had an elaborate concept of the final war, with an army, weapons, maneuvers, and the like, and they do not sound like pacifists (cf. 1QS 9:16, 22-23; 10:18; 1QSa 1:19-21). It appears that the Qumranians did engage in commerce (CD 13:14-15). We have no information about any common store of clothing at Qumran. From the Dead Sea literature we know that there were provisions for marriage, for young children, adolescents, and young men. Of course, the Qumranians may have been the marrying Essenes to whom Josephus refers. Admission to the Qumran group was a two-year process; to the Essenes, it was three years.<\/p>\n<p>We know nothing of Qumran prayers to the sun or of daily bathing, although some of the “cisterns” were probably immersion pools. Unlike the Essenes, the Qumranians did use oaths, and there are extended sections on oaths in their literature (CD 9:8-12; 15:1-10; 16:6-18). The Qumran attitude toward sacrifices is not entirely clear, but there is provision for sending sacrifices to the temple. We know of no aversion to oil among the Qumranians, such as is described for the Essenes.<\/p>\n\n<p>There is no evidence that the Qumranians used triple definitions in their biblical interpretation. There is a minimum use of symbols in their writings. There is no evidence that they studied the knowledge of healing, roots, or stones. If they were experts at predicting the future, we have no record of it.<\/p>\n<p>The seating arrangement at Qumran was by rank and not by age, as among the Essenes. Rank was altered by an annual examination at Qumran. There is no indication that justice at Qumran was handled by 100 men; rather, it seems to have been administered by a council of 15 (1QS 8:1) or 10 (CD 9:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>In view of the similarities, we must conclude that there was some kind of relationship between the Essenes and the Qumran community. In view of the differences, we are forced to the conclusion that they were not exactly the same. There are several possible explanations: (1) The Essenes and the Qumranians may have started out as the same split-off from the Hasidim, and then later split again. In fact, the Dead Sea Scrolls, particularly the Damascus Document (CD), hint at some kind of split in the earlier period of the group. (2) The Essenes of Josephus and Philo are about a century later than the literature of the Qumranians, and may have altered somewhat during that period of time. (3) The Essenes were located in a number of towns and villages and they may have developed significant local variations, so that Josephus may have drawn his description from one location, Philo and Pliny from others, while the Qumran group represents yet another local variant form. There is little to guide a preference for any one of these explanations.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dead Sea Scrolls; Judaism; Pharisees; Qumran.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ESSENES*<\/h3>\n<p>Jewish sect or community in Palestine in the last century <span>BC<\/span> and the first century <span>AD<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Name<\/p>\n<p>• Sources of Information<\/p>\n<p>• Origin and History<\/p>\n<p>• Admission to the Sect<\/p>\n<p>• Community Life<\/p>\n<p>• Religious Beliefs<\/p>\n<p>• The Essenes and the Qumran Community<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheName\">The Name<\/p>\n<p>The sect is called <em>Esseni, Osseni, Ossaei, Essaeans,<\/em> and other variations; sometimes two different forms are found in the same author. No satisfactory explanation of the name has been given, but a number of scholars tend to prefer “healers,” which hardly seems likely since the term describes the Therapeutae (“Healers”), a sect that was only distantly related to the Essenes, if at all.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SourcesofInformation\">Sources of Information<\/p>\n<p>The principal sources of information about the Essenes are (1) Philo of Alexandria, a Jew who lived in Egypt from about 30 <span>BC<\/span> to sometime after <span>AD<\/span> 40, in his works <em>Let Every Good Man Be Free<\/em> and <em>Apology for the Jews;<\/em> (2) Flavius Josephus, a Jew of Palestine and later of Rome, who lived from <span>AD<\/span> 37 to about <span>AD<\/span> 100, in his works <em>War of the Jews<\/em> and <em>Jewish Antiquities<\/em>—our most extensive sources; (3) Pliny the Elder, a Roman who died in <span>AD<\/span> 79 and who may have been in Palestine with Titus during the Jewish War, in his <em>Natural History;<\/em> and (4) Hippolytus of Rome, in his work <em>A Refutation of All Heresies,<\/em> written about <span>AD<\/span> 230 and largely dependent on Josephus.<\/p>\n<p>Josephus tells us that he determined to know the three Jewish “sects” intimately, so he joined the Essenes when he was 16. But since he was a Pharisee by the time he was 19, and since it took at least three years for the initiatory rites of the Essenes, we must conclude that he did not have time or opportunity to learn much about the inner life of the Essenes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginandHistory\">Origin and History<\/p>\n<p>The first mention of the Essenes, as well as that of the Pharisees and the Sadducees, is in the time of Jonathan (160–143 <span>BC<\/span>), successor of Judas Maccabeus (see Josephus’s <em>Antiquities<\/em> 13.5.9). Josephus calls these groups “sects” (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">haireseis<\/span>), a term that sometimes connotes heretical movements, but this is a later meaning of the word. Luke uses the very same term for Pharisees (Acts 15:5; 26:5), Sadducees (5:17), and Christians (24:5, 14; 28:22).<\/p>\n<p>The Maccabean revolt began in 167 <span>BC<\/span>. The background of the uprising had been a struggle between the Seleucid Greeks and the Ptolemaic Greeks, with Palestine as the object of the struggle. The Seleucids won in 198 <span>BC<\/span>, but there were pro-Syrian and pro-Egyptian parties in Judea. Moreover, Hellenism, which was strongly promoted by the Seleucids, had taken a deep hold on many Jews. In order to participate in the athletic games, some Jews even resorted to operations to obliterate the sign of circumcision (1 Macc 1:15). In 168 the Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes sold the Jewish high priesthood to the highest bidder, Menelaus. When this was rejected by the Jewish populace, violent persecution broke out. Somewhere along the line a group of pious Jews came into existence, and they joined the Maccabees in the revolt. We know them as the Hasidim (or Hasideans, Assideans, “pious ones”; cf. 1 Macc 2:42).<\/p>\n<p>Because of numerous similarities in doctrine, it is generally accepted that the Pharisees are either the direct descendants of the Hasidim or one of two or more groups of descendants. It is further generally accepted that the Essenes are a group that split either from the Pharisees or from the Hasidim. Qumran (the community of the Dead Sea Scrolls) is looked upon either as a branch of the Essenes or as another closely related group of separatists whose origin was at approximately the same point in time.<\/p>\n<p>Josephus speaks of only three Jewish sects: Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 18.1.2). Therefore, it is often concluded that these were the only Jewish sects at that time. This is a false conclusion. We know of at least seven Jewish sects, and perhaps as many as twelve. There is probably some overlap, and it is not always clear whether a particular group should be described as a religious party (e.g., the Zealots). But we can argue against Josephus’s number of sects by other data he supplies. According to Josephus, there were 6,000 Pharisees (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 17.2.4) and 4,000 Essenes (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 18.1.5; cf. Philo’s <em>Every Good Man<\/em> 76), and the Sadducees were fewer in number than the Pharisees (cf. <em>Wars<\/em> 2.8.14). This would account for, at most, 16,000 persons, and the population of Judea was well beyond that figure. Moreover, Josephus himself speaks of a “fourth philosophy” (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 18.1.6), which some scholars identify with the Zealots, although Josephus never does so. We can only conclude that in Josephus’s view there were three principal sects or groups of Jews.<\/p>\n<p>The Essenes left the cities of Palestine and lived in the towns and villages. Pliny locates them west of the Dead Sea and says, “Below them was En-gedi” (<em>Natural History<\/em> 5.15.73), a statement that could mean either that En-gedi was at a lower elevation or that it was to the south. Scholars are not unanimous in the interpretation of this statement.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AdmissiontotheSect\">Admission to the Sect<\/p>\n<p>Admission to the Essenes was a long, complicated process, consisting of one year as a postulant and two additional years of limited participation in the community. The novice took solemn oaths, which included his relationship to God and to his fellow members. He swore to hate the wicked and to love truth, to conceal nothing from the community and to reveal nothing to outsiders, and to transmit doctrines exactly as he received them. Until he took these oaths, he could not touch the food of the community.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CommunityLife\">Community Life<\/p>\n<p>When a new member joined the Essenes, he turned over all property to the community. The individual members were without goods, property, or homes. They lived frugally, having only what was necessary for life. They despised riches, had no slaves, and did not engage in commerce. They worked in fields or at crafts that contributed to peace, and would not make instruments of war. They dwelt in brotherhoods, ate together, held property in common, had a common purse and a common store of clothing. They always wore white clothing.<\/p>\n<p>Evidence is somewhat confusing about their views on marriage. They either banned it entirely or disdained it, counting continence as one of their virtues. There were Essenes who did marry, but these looked upon the marriage relationship as existing only for the purpose of raising children so that the race might continue.<\/p>\n<p>There is also mixed evidence concerning children. According to Philo, they had no children, no adolescents, not even young men. Josephus, on the other hand, tells us that they adopted children, and the Essenes who married raised children of their own.<\/p>\n<p>The Essenes were divided into four lots or ranks and would do nothing unless ordered by superiors, except for works of mercy. They obeyed their elders. Justice was dispensed at an assembly of 100 members or more. For serious offenses the penalty was expulsion from the community, and the expelled member usually starved to death because of the tremendous oaths he had taken.<\/p>\n<h5>A Typical Day<\/h5>\n<p>Josephus describes a typical day in the life of the Essenes. They rose before dawn and recited prayers to the rising sun (which probably is not to be interpreted as sun worship). Then each man worked at his craft until the fifth hour (11 <span>am<\/span>). At that time the community assembled, put on linen loincloths, bathed in cold water, and then went to the building that was restricted to members, to a dining hall that was further restricted to those who were pure. Each Essene received bread and one bowlful of food. The priest said a prayer before anyone was permitted to touch the food, and another prayer after the meal. Then the members laid aside their sacred garments and resumed their work until evening. The evening meal was in the same manner as the noon meal. They ate quietly and spoke only in turn, eating and drinking only what they needed to satisfy them.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ReligiousBeliefs\">Religious Beliefs<\/p>\n<p>It is somewhat risky to attempt to reconstruct Essene theology from Josephus and Philo, for both of these writers thought in philosophical rather than theological forms.<\/p>\n<p>The Essenes were not concerned with logic or natural philosophy, but rather devoted themselves to ethics. Josephus likens them to the Greek Pythagoreans (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 15.10.4), but he does not explain this further. The Essenes were concerned with purity and holy minds. They rejected oaths (apparently excepting the tremendous oath they took upon entering the sect), and considered their word sufficient. They observed the seventh day, going to synagogues and sitting according to age. One would read and another explain, making use of symbols and the triple use of definitions (which may be a reference to the rabbinic method of exegesis). They would do no work on the Sabbath. There is confusion concerning the matter of sacrifices; either they did not offer sacrifices (Philo’s <em>Every Good Man<\/em>) or they sacrificed among themselves and did not send sacrifices to the temple (Josephus’s <em>Antiquities<\/em> 18.1.5). They did send offerings to the temple, according to this same passage in Josephus. The name of the lawgiver (Moses? or God himself?) was an object of great veneration.<\/p>\n<p>The Essenes studied holy books and were skilled at predicting the future. Josephus tells of one Essene, Menahem, who foretold that Herod would be king (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 15.10.5). They also studied the works of the ancients (which appears to mean works other than the Scriptures), and became proficient in the knowledge of healing, of roots, and of stones. The Essenes believed that their souls were immortal; however, as Josephus seems to have understood this doctrine, the body was “corruptible and its constituent matter impermament” (<em>War<\/em> 2.8.11), which may imply a denial of the resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>The material available to us is hardly satisfactory for reconstructing Essene theology. It is clear, however, that they were Jews, devoted to the law, but with certain emphases or aberrations that set them apart from both the Pharisees and the Sadducees. They were ascetic, although some of them married, and they were pacifists, although Josephus tells of an Essene named John who was a general in the army (<em>War<\/em> 2.20.4). Above all, they were exclusivistic, withdrawing from other Jews and living a communal or communistic type of life.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheEssenesandtheQumranCommunity\">The Essenes and the Qumran Community<\/p>\n<p>There are many similarities between the Essenes and the people of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Both were Jewish sects. Both were communal groups that had withdrawn from the common stream of Judaism. Both were located west of the Dead Sea. Both had long and rigid processes for admission of new members. Both had an oath of admission. Both hated the wicked and loved the members of the community. Both required the handing over of all property to the sect. Both kept their secrets within their own group. The daily life—prayers, ritual bathing, common meals, the study and interpretation of the Bible, and concern with purity—is markedly similar. Scrupulous observance of the Sabbath, the division into ranks or lots, and the authority of elders and superiors are features of each group. Both had a minimum group of ten required for assembly. Both had laws of expulsion for serious offenses.<\/p>\n<p>The differences are also noteworthy and not as often pointed out. Obviously the Qumran community could not have constituted all of the Essenes but were at most a small fraction (perhaps 200) of the 4,000 Essenes. Moreover, they were at best only one of the towns and villages of the Essenes. If Qumranians worked at crafts, we know nothing of it either from their texts or from the archaeology of Qumran. Similarly, we know nothing of their attitude toward war or the implements of war. But we do know from the War Scroll (1QM) that they had an elaborate concept of the final war, with an army, weapons, maneuvers, and the like, and they do not sound like pacifists (cf. 1QS 9:16, 22-23; 10:18; 1QSa 1:19-21). It appears that the Qumranians did engage in commerce (CD 13:14-15). We have no information about any common store of clothing at Qumran. From the Dead Sea literature we know that there were provisions for marriage, for young children, adolescents, and young men. Of course, the Qumranians may have been the marrying Essenes to whom Josephus refers. Admission to the Qumran group was a two-year process; to the Essenes, it was three years.<\/p>\n<p>We know nothing of Qumran prayers to the sun or of daily bathing, although some of the “cisterns” were probably immersion pools. Unlike the Essenes, the Qumranians did use oaths, and there are extended sections on oaths in their literature (CD 9:8-12; 15:1-10; 16:6-18). The Qumran attitude toward sacrifices is not entirely clear, but there is provision for sending sacrifices to the temple. We know of no aversion to oil among the Qumranians, such as is described for the Essenes.<\/p>\n\n<p>There is no evidence that the Qumranians used triple definitions in their biblical interpretation. There is a minimum use of symbols in their writings. There is no evidence that they studied the knowledge of healing, roots, or stones. If they were experts at predicting the future, we have no record of it.<\/p>\n<p>The seating arrangement at Qumran was by rank and not by age, as among the Essenes. Rank was altered by an annual examination at Qumran. There is no indication that justice at Qumran was handled by 100 men; rather, it seems to have been administered by a council of 15 (1QS 8:1) or 10 (CD 9:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>In view of the similarities, we must conclude that there was some kind of relationship between the Essenes and the Qumran community. In view of the differences, we are forced to the conclusion that they were not exactly the same. There are several possible explanations: (1) The Essenes and the Qumranians may have started out as the same split-off from the Hasidim, and then later split again. In fact, the Dead Sea Scrolls, particularly the Damascus Document (CD), hint at some kind of split in the earlier period of the group. (2) The Essenes of Josephus and Philo are about a century later than the literature of the Qumranians, and may have altered somewhat during that period of time. (3) The Essenes were located in a number of towns and villages and they may have developed significant local variations, so that Josephus may have drawn his description from one location, Philo and Pliny from others, while the Qumran group represents yet another local variant form. There is little to guide a preference for any one of these explanations.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dead Sea Scrolls; Judaism; Pharisees; Qumran.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ESSENES* Jewish sect or community in Palestine in the last century BC and the first century AD. Preview • The Name • Sources of Information • Origin and History • Admission to the Sect • Community Life • Religious Beliefs • The Essenes and the Qumran Community The Name The sect is called Esseni, Osseni, Ossaei, Essaeans, and other variations; sometimes two different forms are found in the same author. No satisfactory explanation of the name has been given, but a number of scholars tend to pre...","summary_en":"ESSENES* Jewish sect or community in Palestine in the last century BC and the first century AD. Preview • The Name • Sources of Information • Origin and History • Admission to the Sect • Community Life • Religious Beliefs • The Essenes and the Qumran Community The Name The sect is called Esseni, Osseni, Ossaei, Essaeans, and other variations; sometimes two different forms are found in the same author. No satisfactory explanation of the name has been given, but a number of scholars tend to pre...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"23":[{"id":5917,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Household*, Caesar’s","title_en":"Household*, Caesar’s","content_ro":"<h3>CAESAR’S HOUSEHOLD*<\/h3>\n<p>Term referring to imperial servants, both slave and free, in Rome and in the provinces of the Roman Empire. The apostle Paul closed his letter to the Philippian Christians with greetings from those “of Caesar’s household” (4:22, <span>rsv<\/span>). The imperial household staff numbered in the hundreds, and the positions carried a certain amount of social importance.<\/p>\n<p>According to the Martyrdom of Paul, written in the second century, when Paul arrived at Rome, he was greeted by people “from Caesar’s household.” He put himself in communication with the local Jewish leaders and preached and taught unhindered (Acts 28:17, 31). Some men and women were convinced and believed (Acts 28:23-24), no doubt including some in Caesar’s household. The message even spread to the whole Praetorian Guard (Phil 1:13). Some scholars trace certain believers mentioned in Romans 16 to members of the imperial household.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Caesars, The.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CAESAR’S HOUSEHOLD*<\/h3>\n<p>Term referring to imperial servants, both slave and free, in Rome and in the provinces of the Roman Empire. The apostle Paul closed his letter to the Philippian Christians with greetings from those “of Caesar’s household” (4:22, <span>rsv<\/span>). The imperial household staff numbered in the hundreds, and the positions carried a certain amount of social importance.<\/p>\n<p>According to the Martyrdom of Paul, written in the second century, when Paul arrived at Rome, he was greeted by people “from Caesar’s household.” He put himself in communication with the local Jewish leaders and preached and taught unhindered (Acts 28:17, 31). Some men and women were convinced and believed (Acts 28:23-24), no doubt including some in Caesar’s household. The message even spread to the whole Praetorian Guard (Phil 1:13). Some scholars trace certain believers mentioned in Romans 16 to members of the imperial household.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Caesars, The.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CAESAR’S HOUSEHOLD* Term referring to imperial servants, both slave and free, in Rome and in the provinces of the Roman Empire. The apostle Paul closed his letter to the Philippian Christians with greetings from those “of Caesar’s household” (4:22, rsv). The imperial household staff numbered in the hundreds, and the positions carried a certain amount of social importance. According to the Martyrdom of Paul, written in the second century, when Paul arrived at Rome, he was greeted by people “fr...","summary_en":"CAESAR’S HOUSEHOLD* Term referring to imperial servants, both slave and free, in Rome and in the provinces of the Roman Empire. The apostle Paul closed his letter to the Philippian Christians with greetings from those “of Caesar’s household” (4:22, rsv). The imperial household staff numbered in the hundreds, and the positions carried a certain amount of social importance. According to the Martyrdom of Paul, written in the second century, when Paul arrived at Rome, he was greeted by people “fr...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":6328,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Christ","title_en":"Christ","content_ro":"<h3>CHRIST<\/h3>\n<p>Official title given to Jesus in the NT. It signifies his office as anointed Savior and alludes to his spiritual qualifications for the task of saving his people. The word derives from Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Christos<\/span><em>,<\/em> which translates Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Messiah<\/span> (Jn 1:41). Both terms come from verbs meaning “to anoint with sacred oil”; hence, as titles they mean “the Anointed One.” Applied to Jesus, they express the conviction that he had divine appointment for his office and function.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT the title is used in combination with the given name, as “Jesus Christ” (Mt 1:1; Mk 1:1; Rom 1:4), “Christ Jesus” (<span>niv<\/span> Rom 1:1; 1 Cor 1:1), with the article “the” (Rom 7:4), or with another title “Lord” (Rom 16:18). It is also used alone as the one favored substitute name or title for Jesus (Jn 20:31; Rom 15:3; Heb 3:6; 5:5; 1 Pt 1:11, 19).<\/p>\n<p>The Gospels portray Jesus as modestly accepting the title and role of the Messiah. His baptism should be understood as his anointing to the threefold office of prophet, priest, and king. At his baptism by John (the new Elijah, Mt 11:14), Jesus received the outpouring of the Spirit and God’s mandate to begin his ministry (Mt 3:16–4:17). John himself denied being the anointed one but tacitly identified Jesus as the Christ (Jn 1:20; Lk 3:14-17). Jesus’ first disciples followed him because they knew he was the Messiah (Jn 1:41). The demons recognized him as “the Holy One [anointed] of God” (Mk 1:24; cf. Mt 8:29). The crowds followed him as the Prophet, the new Moses (Jn 6:14, 32), but deserted him when they understood that his kingdom was a spiritual, not a political realm (v 66). The Twelve remained loyal, saying, “We believe . . . you are the Holy One of God” (Jn 6:69, <span>niv<\/span>). The confession of the disciples voiced by Peter and approved by Jesus as a divine revelation is “You are the Christ, the Son of the living God” (Mt 16:16, <span>niv<\/span>). At his trials the decisive factor in Jesus’ condemnation was his claim to be the Christ (Mt 26:63-64, 68; 27:11, 17, 22, 37).<\/p>\n<p>An important feature in the earliest Christian preaching was the proclamation that Jesus is the Christ (Acts 2:36; 3:18-20; 9:22; 28:23, 31). This remains the earliest (Mt 16:16) and most basic article of Christian confession (1 Cor 1:23; 1 Jn 5:1), affirming that Jesus perfectly fulfilled the role of anointed prophet, priest, and king as the servant of God for his people (Lk 7:16; 1 Cor 15:25; Heb 7:22-28; Rv 19:16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Messiah.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CHRIST<\/h3>\n<p>Official title given to Jesus in the NT. It signifies his office as anointed Savior and alludes to his spiritual qualifications for the task of saving his people. The word derives from Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Christos<\/span><em>,<\/em> which translates Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Messiah<\/span> (Jn 1:41). Both terms come from verbs meaning “to anoint with sacred oil”; hence, as titles they mean “the Anointed One.” Applied to Jesus, they express the conviction that he had divine appointment for his office and function.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT the title is used in combination with the given name, as “Jesus Christ” (Mt 1:1; Mk 1:1; Rom 1:4), “Christ Jesus” (<span>niv<\/span> Rom 1:1; 1 Cor 1:1), with the article “the” (Rom 7:4), or with another title “Lord” (Rom 16:18). It is also used alone as the one favored substitute name or title for Jesus (Jn 20:31; Rom 15:3; Heb 3:6; 5:5; 1 Pt 1:11, 19).<\/p>\n<p>The Gospels portray Jesus as modestly accepting the title and role of the Messiah. His baptism should be understood as his anointing to the threefold office of prophet, priest, and king. At his baptism by John (the new Elijah, Mt 11:14), Jesus received the outpouring of the Spirit and God’s mandate to begin his ministry (Mt 3:16–4:17). John himself denied being the anointed one but tacitly identified Jesus as the Christ (Jn 1:20; Lk 3:14-17). Jesus’ first disciples followed him because they knew he was the Messiah (Jn 1:41). The demons recognized him as “the Holy One [anointed] of God” (Mk 1:24; cf. Mt 8:29). The crowds followed him as the Prophet, the new Moses (Jn 6:14, 32), but deserted him when they understood that his kingdom was a spiritual, not a political realm (v 66). The Twelve remained loyal, saying, “We believe . . . you are the Holy One of God” (Jn 6:69, <span>niv<\/span>). The confession of the disciples voiced by Peter and approved by Jesus as a divine revelation is “You are the Christ, the Son of the living God” (Mt 16:16, <span>niv<\/span>). At his trials the decisive factor in Jesus’ condemnation was his claim to be the Christ (Mt 26:63-64, 68; 27:11, 17, 22, 37).<\/p>\n<p>An important feature in the earliest Christian preaching was the proclamation that Jesus is the Christ (Acts 2:36; 3:18-20; 9:22; 28:23, 31). This remains the earliest (Mt 16:16) and most basic article of Christian confession (1 Cor 1:23; 1 Jn 5:1), affirming that Jesus perfectly fulfilled the role of anointed prophet, priest, and king as the servant of God for his people (Lk 7:16; 1 Cor 15:25; Heb 7:22-28; Rv 19:16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Messiah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CHRIST Official title given to Jesus in the NT. It signifies his office as anointed Savior and alludes to his spiritual qualifications for the task of saving his people. The word derives from Greek Christos, which translates Hebrew Messiah (Jn 1:41). Both terms come from verbs meaning “to anoint with sacred oil”; hence, as titles they mean “the Anointed One.” Applied to Jesus, they express the conviction that he had divine appointment for his office and function. In the NT the title is used i...","summary_en":"CHRIST Official title given to Jesus in the NT. It signifies his office as anointed Savior and alludes to his spiritual qualifications for the task of saving his people. The word derives from Greek Christos, which translates Hebrew Messiah (Jn 1:41). Both terms come from verbs meaning “to anoint with sacred oil”; hence, as titles they mean “the Anointed One.” Applied to Jesus, they express the conviction that he had divine appointment for his office and function. In the NT the title is used i...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21921,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kingdom of Heaven Kingdom of God","title_en":"Kingdom of Heaven Kingdom of God","content_ro":"<h3>KINGDOM OF GOD, KINGDOM OF HEAVEN<\/h3>\n<p>The sovereign rule of God, initiated by Christ’s earthly ministry and consummated when the kingdom of the world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Introduction<\/p>\n<p>• Old Testament Background<\/p>\n<p>• In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/p>\n<p>According to the testimony of the first three Gospels, the proclamation of the kingdom of God was Jesus’ central message. Matthew summarizes the Galilean ministry with the words “Jesus traveled throughout Galilee teaching in the synagogues, preaching everywhere the Good News about the Kingdom” (Mt 4:23, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Sermon on the Mount is concerned with the righteousness that qualifies people to enter the kingdom of God (5:20). The collection of parables in Matthew 13 and Mark 4 illustrate the “mystery” of the kingdom of God (Mt 13:11; Mk 4:11). The establishment of the Lord’s Supper looks forward to the establishment of the kingdom of God (Mt 26:29; Mk 14:25).<\/p>\n<p>The NT reports two different forms of the expression: “the kingdom of God” and “the kingdom of the heavens.” The latter is found only in Matthew, but Matthew also has “the kingdom of God” four times (Mt 12:28; 19:24; 21:31, 43). “The kingdom of heaven” is a Semitic phrase that would have been meaningful to Jews but not to Greeks. The Jews, out of reverence for God, avoided uttering the divine name, and contemporary literature gives examples of substituting the word “heaven” for God (1 Macc 3:18, 50; 4:10; see Lk 15:18).<\/p>\n<p>The key to an understanding of the kingdom of God is that the basic meaning of the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span><em>,<\/em> as also of the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span><em>,<\/em> is rule, reign, dominion. We frequently find in the OT the expression “in the year of the kingdom of . . . ,” meaning in the year of the reign of a given king (e.g., 1 Chr 26:31; 2 Chr 3:2; 15:10; Ezr 7:1; 8:1; Est 2:16; Jer 10:7; 52:31). When we read that Solomon’s kingdom was firmly established (1 Kgs 2:12), we are to understand that his authority to reign was settled. To “turn the kingdom of Saul over to [David]” (1 Chr 12:23, <span>kjv<\/span>) indicates that the authority that had been Saul’s was given to David. As a result of having received legal authority, David became king. This abstract idea of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span> is evident when it is found in parallelisms with such ideas as power, might, glory, and dominion (Dn 4:34; 7:14).<\/p>\n<p>When <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span> is used of God, it almost always refers to his authority or to his rule as the heavenly King. “They will talk together about the glory of your kingdom; they will celebrate examples of your power. . . . For your kingdom is an everlasting kingdom. You rule generation after generation” (Ps 145:11, 13, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Further, if a king rules, there must be a realm or sphere over which he reigns. This is also called <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span><em>.<\/em> “So the realm of Jehoshaphat was quiet, for his God gave him rest round about” (2 Chr 20:30, <span>rsv<\/span>; see Est 3:6; Jer 10:7; Dn 9:1; 11:9).<\/p>\n<p>This same twofold use of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> is found in the NT. In fact, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> could be translated by the expression “kingly power” in Luke 23:42 (<span>niv<\/span> mg) and by “kingship” in John 18:36. When a nobleman went into a far country to get a “kingdom” (Luke 19:12, <span>nasb<\/span>) he went to the governing authority to get an appointment as king. When Jesus said, “My kingship is not of this world” (Jn 18:36, <span>rsv<\/span>), he did not mean to say that his rule has nothing to do with the world but rather that his kingship—his dominion—does not come from man but from God. Therefore, he rejects the use of worldly fighting to gain his ends.<\/p>\n<p>This central meaning of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> makes it easy to understand many sayings in the Gospels. In the Lord’s Prayer the petition “Thy kingdom come” (Mt 6:10) is a prayer for God to manifest his reign so that his will may be done on earth as it is in heaven. When we read that we are to “receive the kingdom of God like a child” (Mk 10:15, <span>rsv<\/span>), we must open our hearts and lives to the rule of God.<\/p>\n<p>Also in the NT are sayings about being <em>in<\/em> the kingdom or of <em>entering<\/em> the kingdom (Mt 8:11; Mk 9:47; 10:23-25; Lk 13:28). There is no philological or theological objection to understanding “the kingdom of God” first as the divine reign or rule and second as the sphere of blessing in which that reign is experienced.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentBackground\">Old Testament Background<\/p>\n<p>The expression “the kingdom of God” is not found in the OT, but the idea appears throughout the prophets. God is frequently spoken of as the King, both of Israel (Ex 15:18; Nm 23:21; Dt 33:5; Is 43:15) and of all the earth (2 Kgs 19:15; Pss 29:10; 47:2; 93:1-2; 96:10; 97:1-9; 99:1-4; 145:11-13; Is 6:5; Jer 46:18). Although God is not the earthly King of Israel, other references speak of a day when God shall become King and shall rule over his people (Is 24:23; 33:22; 52:7; Ob 1:21; Zep 3:15; Zec 14:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>This brief summary of God’s kingship provides the outline for the entire OT concept. While God is King over all the earth, he is in a special way King over his people, Israel. God’s rule is therefore something realized in Israel’s history. However, it is only partially and imperfectly realized. Israel again and again rebelled against the divine sovereignty. Furthermore, Israel was constantly plagued by wars with its pagan neighbors in which it was not always victorious. Again, there are evils in nature and the physical world that often bring suffering to God’s people. Therefore, the prophets look forward to a day when God’s rule will be fully experienced, not by Israel alone, but by all the world. The main emphasis of the prophets is on hope, the establishing of God’s perfect rule in the world.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets describe the final establishment of God’s kingdom in terms of a theophany—a divine visitation (Mi 1:3-4). Zechariah foresees a “Day of the Lord” when all nations will be gathered in battle against Jerusalem, when the Lord will go forth and fight against those nations (Zec 14:3, 5). Israel will be visited by the Lord (Is 29:6) and delivered from its enemies (35:4; 59:20). God’s coming will also mean judgment (2:21; 26:21). This final coming of God will mean the salvation of the Gentiles as well as of Israel (Zec 2:10-11; cf. Is 66:18-24).<\/p>\n<p>Behind this language is a distinct theology of “the God who comes.” It is a fact widely recognized in contemporary OT theology that the God of the OT is not a nature god, like the gods of other peoples, but a God of history—a God who visits his people in history to bless or to judge them. God visited Israel in Egypt to deliver them from bondage and to constitute them as his people. The rescue from Egypt was not merely an act of deliverance; it was an act through which God made himself known and through which Israel was to know and serve him.<\/p>\n<p>Because God has visited his people again and again in their history, he must finally come to them in the future to judge wickedness and to establish his kingdom. Israel’s hope is thus rooted in history, or rather in the God who works in history. God will finally break into history in a glorious theophany to establish his rule in all the earth. The source of the kingdom is not history itself but God.<\/p>\n<p>While the prophets visualize the kingdom as coming from God, the kingdom is always on earth. The divine irruption into the natural order is not designed to accomplish its destruction but to make way for a new, perfect order arising out of the old, imperfect one. The prophets do not present a single consistent picture of the new order. Sometimes the new order is described very much in this-worldly terms. “The terraced vineyards on the hills of Israel will drip with sweet wine” (Am 9:13, <span>nlt<\/span>). On the other hand, God will create new heavens and a new earth (Is 65:17; 66:22), where there will be untroubled joy, prosperity, peace, and righteousness. The final visitation of God will mean the redemption of the world, for a redeemed earth is the scene of the kingdom of God. The prophets look forward again and again to the deliverance of creation “from the bondage to decay.” The description is often couched in simple physical terms. The wilderness will become fruitful (32:15); the desert will blossom (35:2); sorrow and sighing will flee away (v 10). The burning sands will be cooled and the dry places become springs of water (v 7); peace will return to the animal world so that all injury and destruction are done away with (11:6). All this results because the earth becomes full of the knowledge of God (v 9).<\/p>\n<p>Such language is not mere poetry but reflects a profound theology of creation. Humans as creatures were made to dwell on the earth, and the earth shares in human destiny. The main point is that creation as such is good and not a hindrance to true spirituality, as was often true in Greek thought. Redemption always includes redemption of the earth, which then becomes the blessed environment God intended it to be. Salvation does not mean deliverance from creaturehood, for this is not an evil thing but an essential and permanent element of true, human existence. Salvation does not mean escape from bodily creaturely existence, as in some Greek thought. On the contrary, ultimate redemption will mean the redemption of the whole person. The emergence of the doctrine of bodily resurrection is a reflection of this theology of creaturehood. The corollary of this is that creation in its entirety must share in the blessing of redemption.<\/p>\n<p>A distinctive element in prophetic eschatology is the tension between history and eschatology. That is, as the prophets looked into the future, they saw an immediate historical judgment as well as a more remote eschatological visitation. For Amos, the Day of the Lord is both the immediate judgment of Israel by the Assyrians and a final eschatological salvation. Joel sees an imminent historical visitation of drought and locusts, but beyond this he sees the eschatological Day of the Lord. Zephaniah sees an imminent Day of the Lord in some undesignated historical visitation (Zep 1:2-18), but beyond it he sees the salvation of the Gentiles (3:9). The same God who acts in history to bless and judge his people will act at the end of history in an eschatological act of judgment and salvation. The prophets do not sharply distinguish between these two days, for it is one and the same God who is concerned to judge and save his people.<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological hope of the prophets is always an ethical hope. That is to say, the prophets are not interested in the future for its own sake but for the impact of the future on the present. The prophetic predictions were given that, in light of future judgment and salvation, Israel might be confronted in the present by the will of God. “Prepare to meet your God as he comes in judgment, you people of Israel” (Am 4:12, <span>nlt<\/span>) might well be taken as the keynote of all the prophets.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>The Synoptic Gospels<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus’ teachings about the kingdom of God embodied the same contrast between the present order and the future age as that of the prophets, and he expressed it in the idiom “this age and the age to come.” This fact is obscured in the <span>kjv<\/span>, which translates the word for “age” by “world.” These are, however, two different concepts. A rich man asked Jesus what he must do to inherit eternal life (Mk 10:17). The context makes it clear that he was asking about eschatological life—the life of the resurrection (Dn 12:2). Jesus speaks of the difficulty of entering the kingdom of God. (The parallel passage in Matthew 19:23-24 has both “kingdom of God” and “kingdom of heaven,” proving that they are interchangeable terms.) In their reaction the disciples ask, “Then who can be saved?” Jesus’ answer contrasts the lot of his disciples “in this time” with the “age to come” (Mk 10:29-30) when they would inherit eternal life. It is clear from this passage that in some sense the kingdom of God, the kingdom of heaven, salvation, and eternal life all belong to the age to come. So far as this saying is concerned, God’s people will not experience eternal life until they do so in the new age.<\/p>\n<p>Matthew alone records the expression “the close of the age.” This age will be terminated by the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 24:3) and by the judgment of humanity (13:39-42). Then the righteous will be separated from the wicked (v 49). The same expression occurs in the promise of the risen Jesus assuring his disciples of his presence until the consummation of the age (28:20). It follows that if this age is to come to its consummation, it must be followed by another age—the age to come.<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological kingdom will be inaugurated by an apocalyptic event—the glorious coming of the Son of Man. This is made clear by two of the parables about the kingdom of God. In the parable of the tares, “the Son of man will send his angels, and they will gather out of his kingdom all causes of sin and all evildoers, and throw them into the furnace of fire” (Mt 13:41-42, <span>rsv<\/span>). The parable of the sheep and goats reflects the same eschatology. When the Son of Man comes in his glory, he will sit on his glorious throne to judge the nations, separating the sheep from the goats. The righteous—the sheep—are to “inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world”; and entrance into the kingdom is synonymous with entrance into life (25:31-46, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological character of the kingdom of God is seen also in the other two parables of Matthew 25. “The kingdom of heaven shall be compared to ten maidens who took their lamps and went to meet the bridegroom” (v 1, <span>rsv<\/span>). However, five of them were foolish and did not provide an adequate supply of oil for their lamps. Thus they were late for the wedding and were excluded from the wedding feast—a symbol of the eschatological kingdom—while those properly prepared entered the kingdom. In the same way the two faithful servants who had been “faithful over a little” were granted to “enter into the joy of your master” (vv 21, 23), while the unfaithful servant was excluded from the kingdom and cast into outer darkness.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus almost never showed any interest in descriptions of the eschatological kingdom, but it is clear that its coming was constantly in his thoughts. The pure in heart will see God (Mt 5:8). The harvest will take place and the grain will be gathered into the barn (13:30, 39; Mk 4:29). Jesus frequently used the metaphor of a feast or table fellowship to describe life in the eschatological kingdom. He will drink wine again with his disciples in the kingdom of God. They will eat and drink at Jesus’ table in the kingdom (Lk 22:30). People will be gathered from all corners of the earth to sit at a table with the OT saints (Mt 8:11-12; Lk 13:29). The consummation is likened to a wedding feast (Mt 22:1-14) and a banquet (Lk 14:16-24). All of these metaphors picture the restoration of communion between God and people, a union that had been broken by sin.<\/p>\n<p>In most of the sayings cited to illustrate the future character of the kingdom, “kingdom” refers to the eschatological order—the eschaton, the age to come. However, when Jesus taught his disciples to pray “Thy kingdom come” (Mt 6:10), he was not referring to the new eschatological order; he was referring to the kingdom as God’s kingly rule, his reign. It is a prayer that God will effectively establish his sovereign rule in the world.<\/p>\n<p>In his teaching about the kingdom of God as the apocalyptic consummation, Jesus does not differ essentially from the OT prophets. The most distinctive element in Jesus’ teaching—indeed, the fact that characterizes his entire mission and message—is the fact that in some real sense of the word, the kingdom of God has come in history in an utterly unexpected way. This sets Jesus’ teaching apart from all contemporary Jewish thought.<\/p>\n<p>This is seen first of all in his repeated teaching that his mission is a fulfillment of the OT messianic prophets. Mark summarizes Jesus’ message with the words “The Kingdom of God is near! Turn from your sins and believe this Good News!” (Mk 1:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). This saying can have one of two meanings. It may refer to the imminent coming of the apocalyptic kingdom. Matthew summarizes the message of John the Baptist with nearly the same words: “Turn from your sins and turn to God, because the Kingdom of Heaven is near” (Mt 3:2, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Baptist expounds what he means by the approach of the kingdom of God: “He is ready to separate the chaff from the grain with his winnowing fork. Then he will clean up the threshing area, storing the grain in his barn but burning the chaff with never-ending fire” (v 12, <span>nlt<\/span>). John proclaimed an apocalyptic act; “unquenchable fire” can mean no strictly historical event but only an apocalyptic judgment. John expected Jesus to be the one in whom the cosmic event expected by the prophets would be carried out.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that this was also Jesus’ meaning. However, another interpretation is possible that is better supported by the actual course of his mission: “The time is fulfilled.” The messianic promises of the prophets were not only about to be fulfilled; they were actually in process of fulfillment in his mission. In Jesus, God was visiting his people. The hope of the prophets in some real sense was being realized.<\/p>\n<p>The meaning of this can be seen in Luke’s introduction of Jesus’ ministry. Luke selects an event that occurred in Nazareth later in Jesus’ ministry (Lk 4:16-21) and places it at the beginning of his Gospel in order to sound this note of fulfillment. Jesus read from Isaiah a promise that looked forward to the messianic salvation: “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, for he has appointed me to preach Good News to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim that captives will be released, that the blind will see, that the downtrodden will be freed from their oppressors, and that the time of the Lord’s favor has come” (vv 18-19, <span>nlt<\/span>). Then Jesus astonished his audience by the assertion “This Scripture has come true today before your very eyes!” (v 21, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Here was an amazing claim. John the Baptist had announced an apocalyptic visitation of God that would mean the fulfillment of the eschatological hope and the consummation of the messianic age. Jesus proclaimed that the messianic promise was actually being fulfilled in his person. This is no apocalyptic kingdom but a present salvation. In these words Jesus did not proclaim the imminence of the apocalyptic kingdom. Rather, he boldly announced that the kingdom of God had come. The presence of the kingdom was a happening, an event, the gracious action of God. This was no new theology or new idea or new promise; it was a new event in history.<\/p>\n<p>The note of fulfillment is again sounded in Jesus’ answer to the question about fasting. “Do wedding guests fast while celebrating with the groom? Of course not. They can’t fast while they are with the groom” (Mk 2:19, <span>nlt<\/span>). The marriage feast had become a metaphor in Judaism for the messianic consummation. In these words Jesus announced the presence of the messianic time of salvation. It would be a contradiction in terms for the disciples to fast when they were enjoying the blessings of the messianic age. The time of fulfillment had come.<\/p>\n<p>A saying found in different contexts in Matthew and Luke touches this central note of the fulfillment in history of the OT hope: “Blessed are the eyes which see what you see! For I tell you that many prophets and kings desired to see what you see, and did not see it, and to hear what you hear, and did not hear it” (Lk 10:23-24, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. Mt 13:16-17). Both Matthew and Luke associate this saying with the kingdom of God, and both agree that the hope of former generations has become an object of experience. Many prophets and kings looked forward to something, but they looked in vain, for it did not come to them. What they longed for has now come, and this can be nothing less than the promised messianic salvation.<\/p>\n<p>Fulfillment in history is again asserted in Jesus’ answer to John’s question about the one who is to come (Mt 11:2-3). “The deeds of the Christ” (Messiah) were not the deeds John had announced. Wicked rulers like Herod were not being judged in fire. Instead, Jesus was helping people, not bringing an apocalyptic kingdom. Jesus replied in words that echo the promise of the messianic salvation in Isaiah 35:5-6: “Go and tell John what you hear and see: the blind receive their sight and the lame walk, lepers are cleansed and the deaf hear, and the dead are raised up, and the poor have the gospel preached to them” (Mt 11:4-5, <span>rsv<\/span>). In these words Jesus claimed that the blessings of the messianic salvation are present. There was indeed reason for John’s perplexity, for the fulfillment was not taking place along expected lines. The apocalyptic consummation did not appear to be on the horizon. The point of Jesus’ answer was that fulfillment was taking place without the eschatological consummation. Therefore, Jesus pronounced a special blessing upon those who were not offended by the character of the messianic fulfillment (v 6). The fulfillment was indeed taking place, but not the apocalyptic consummation.<\/p>\n<p>The most unambiguous statement of the presence of the kingdom is found in the words about the binding of Satan. One of Jesus’ most characteristic acts was the exorcism of demons—deliverance from satanic power. The Pharisees admitted his power but attributed it to Satan. Jesus replied, “If Satan casts out Satan, he is divided against himself; how then will his kingdom stand? . . . But if it is by the Spirit of God that I cast out demons, then the kingdom of God is come upon you” (Mt 12:26, 28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Here the verb has the clear meaning “to come, to arrive” (cf. Rom 9:30; 2 Cor 10:14; Phil 3:16). Here is a clear affirmation that the kingdom of God has come among men.<\/p>\n<p>In explanation Jesus said, “Or how can one enter a strong man’s house and plunder his goods, unless he first binds the strong man? Then indeed he may plunder his house” (Mt 12:29, <span>rsv<\/span>). The strong man is Satan; this “present evil age” (Gal 1:4) is his “house”; his “goods” are demon-possessed men and women. Jesus has invaded the strong man’s house to snatch away from him men and women whom he has in his power, and this is the work of the kingdom of God. The kingly reign of God has come into history in the person of Jesus before the apocalyptic consummation when Satan will be destroyed, to render Satan a preliminary defeat. Jesus has already “bound” Satan (i.e., curbed his power). This has been accomplished by the presence of the kingdom of God in the mission of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>A similar saying is found in Luke 10:18. Jesus had sent a band of his disciples on a preaching mission. Like Jesus, they were to proclaim the nearness of the kingdom of God (Lk 10:9). They, too, were to exorcize demons. When they returned to Jesus to report their success, Jesus said, “I saw Satan fall like lightning from heaven” (v 18, <span>rsv<\/span>). This again is metaphorical language that asserts that in the mission of Jesus’ disciples, as well as in Jesus himself, Satan has fallen from his place of power. Both “binding” and “falling” are metaphors that describe the same truth: the victory of the kingdom of God over Satan.<\/p>\n<p>Here is the element that sets Jesus apart from the OT and from all of contemporary Judaism. The prophets conceived of the kingdom being established by a heavenly supernatural being (Dn 7) or ruled by a powerful Davidic messianic king (Is 9, 11). The fulfillment of the messianic hope is everywhere in the prophets an eschatological hope. The same is true of the Jewish writers who despaired of history and cast all hope into the future.<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to all that had gone before him, Jesus proclaimed the kingdom of God as an event taking place in his own person and mission. God had again assumed the initiative; God was acting. No first-century Jew had any idea of the kingdom of God coming into history in the person of an ordinary man—a teacher who was meek and lowly.<\/p>\n<p>The presence of the kingdom is further seen in the fact that the rule of God, present in Jesus, is a gift to be received. This is also true of the kingdom in its eschatological consummation, where the kingdom is freely inherited by the righteous (Mt 25:34). In answer to the young man’s question about inheriting eternal life (Mk 10:17), Jesus spoke of entering the kingdom (vv 23-24) and receiving the gift of eternal life (v 30) as though they were synonymous. The kingdom is a gift that the Father is pleased to bestow upon the little flock of Jesus’ disciples (Lk 12:32).<\/p>\n<p>If God’s eschatological rule brings to his people the blessings of that kingdom, and if God’s kingdom is his rule invading history before the eschatological consummation, then we may expect God’s rule in the present to bring a preliminary blessing to his people. This fact is reflected in numerous sayings. The kingdom is something to be sought here and now (Mt 6:33) and to be received as children receive a gift (Mk 10:15; Lk 18:16-17). Although it is present in an unexpected form, the kingdom of God in Jesus’ person is like a hidden treasure or a pearl of great price whose possession outranks all other goods (Mt 13:44-46). The gift of the kingdom is also seen in that the deaf hear, the blind see, lepers are cleansed, and the poor have good news preached to them (11:5).<\/p>\n<h5>John’s Gospel<\/h5>\n<p>In the Gospel of John the concept of eternal life takes the place of the kingdom of God in Jesus’ teaching. The kingdom of God is mentioned twice (Jn 3:3, 5), and it is placed in connection with eternal life. The kingdom of God is here the eschatological kingdom, and eternal life is the life of the kingdom. Thus, as the kingdom of God in the synoptic Gospels is both future and present, so eternal life is both the life of the age to come (12:25) and also a present blessing (3:16, etc.).<\/p>\n<h5>Acts<\/h5>\n<p>In Acts it seems the earliest disciples generally failed to understand Jesus’ message about the kingdom of God as a present spiritual blessing. They gathered together to await the coming of the eschatological kingdom to Israel (Acts 1:6). Acts relates that the disciples continued to preach the kingdom of God, but usually it is an eschatological blessing (8:12; 14:22; 19:8; 20:25; 28:23, 31). However, the last two references make the kingdom of God synonymous with the gospel about Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>One important theme in Acts is linked to that of the kingdom of God. On the Day of Pentecost, Peter announces that God has seated Jesus at his right hand in fulfillment of Psalm 110:1 (Acts 2:33-35). In the Psalms this is a prophecy of the enthronement of the Davidic king in Jerusalem. Peter asserts that this prophecy is now fulfilled in the heavenly reign of Jesus. Therefore, he has been made both Lord and Christ (Messiah). These are interchangeable terms, “Lord” meaning absolute sovereign, “Christ” meaning the messianic king.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Writings<\/h5>\n<p>Paul carried further this theme of the heavenly rule of Christ, the anointed King. The kingdom is both an eschatological inheritance (1 Cor 6:9; 15:50; Gal 5:21; Eph 5:5; 1 Thes 2:12; 2 Thes 1:5; 2 Tm 4:1, 18) and a present blessing into which believers now enter (Rom 14:17; Col 1:13). The key to this is the interchangeable character of lordship and messianic kingship. Jesus is now exalted as Lord over all (Phil 2:11), and even as his lordship is invisible, it will become manifest to all at his second coming. In the same way, he has been enthroned as messianic King by virtue of his resurrection and heavenly session, and he must reign as King until he has put all his enemies under his feet (1 Cor 15:25; Eph 1:22). The last enemy to be destroyed is death.<\/p>\n<h5>Revelation<\/h5>\n<p>The central message of the Revelation to John is the consummation of God’s redemptive purpose, when the kingdom of this world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15). Revelation pictures the plight of a persecuted church in a hostile world, but it assures the church that Christ has already won a victory over the powers of evil (5:5), by virtue of which he can finally destroy them (19:11–20:14). Again, the last enemy to be destroyed is death (20:13-14). Revelation closes with a highly symbolic picture of the kingdom of God (chs 21–22) when God comes to dwell among his people, and “they shall see his face” (22:4). Thus the NT ends: divine order is restored to a disordered world. This is the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jesus Christ, Teachings of; King; Parable.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KINGDOM OF GOD, KINGDOM OF HEAVEN<\/h3>\n<p>The sovereign rule of God, initiated by Christ’s earthly ministry and consummated when the kingdom of the world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Introduction<\/p>\n<p>• Old Testament Background<\/p>\n<p>• In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/p>\n<p>According to the testimony of the first three Gospels, the proclamation of the kingdom of God was Jesus’ central message. Matthew summarizes the Galilean ministry with the words “Jesus traveled throughout Galilee teaching in the synagogues, preaching everywhere the Good News about the Kingdom” (Mt 4:23, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Sermon on the Mount is concerned with the righteousness that qualifies people to enter the kingdom of God (5:20). The collection of parables in Matthew 13 and Mark 4 illustrate the “mystery” of the kingdom of God (Mt 13:11; Mk 4:11). The establishment of the Lord’s Supper looks forward to the establishment of the kingdom of God (Mt 26:29; Mk 14:25).<\/p>\n<p>The NT reports two different forms of the expression: “the kingdom of God” and “the kingdom of the heavens.” The latter is found only in Matthew, but Matthew also has “the kingdom of God” four times (Mt 12:28; 19:24; 21:31, 43). “The kingdom of heaven” is a Semitic phrase that would have been meaningful to Jews but not to Greeks. The Jews, out of reverence for God, avoided uttering the divine name, and contemporary literature gives examples of substituting the word “heaven” for God (1 Macc 3:18, 50; 4:10; see Lk 15:18).<\/p>\n<p>The key to an understanding of the kingdom of God is that the basic meaning of the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span><em>,<\/em> as also of the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span><em>,<\/em> is rule, reign, dominion. We frequently find in the OT the expression “in the year of the kingdom of . . . ,” meaning in the year of the reign of a given king (e.g., 1 Chr 26:31; 2 Chr 3:2; 15:10; Ezr 7:1; 8:1; Est 2:16; Jer 10:7; 52:31). When we read that Solomon’s kingdom was firmly established (1 Kgs 2:12), we are to understand that his authority to reign was settled. To “turn the kingdom of Saul over to [David]” (1 Chr 12:23, <span>kjv<\/span>) indicates that the authority that had been Saul’s was given to David. As a result of having received legal authority, David became king. This abstract idea of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span> is evident when it is found in parallelisms with such ideas as power, might, glory, and dominion (Dn 4:34; 7:14).<\/p>\n<p>When <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span> is used of God, it almost always refers to his authority or to his rule as the heavenly King. “They will talk together about the glory of your kingdom; they will celebrate examples of your power. . . . For your kingdom is an everlasting kingdom. You rule generation after generation” (Ps 145:11, 13, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Further, if a king rules, there must be a realm or sphere over which he reigns. This is also called <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span><em>.<\/em> “So the realm of Jehoshaphat was quiet, for his God gave him rest round about” (2 Chr 20:30, <span>rsv<\/span>; see Est 3:6; Jer 10:7; Dn 9:1; 11:9).<\/p>\n<p>This same twofold use of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> is found in the NT. In fact, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> could be translated by the expression “kingly power” in Luke 23:42 (<span>niv<\/span> mg) and by “kingship” in John 18:36. When a nobleman went into a far country to get a “kingdom” (Luke 19:12, <span>nasb<\/span>) he went to the governing authority to get an appointment as king. When Jesus said, “My kingship is not of this world” (Jn 18:36, <span>rsv<\/span>), he did not mean to say that his rule has nothing to do with the world but rather that his kingship—his dominion—does not come from man but from God. Therefore, he rejects the use of worldly fighting to gain his ends.<\/p>\n<p>This central meaning of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> makes it easy to understand many sayings in the Gospels. In the Lord’s Prayer the petition “Thy kingdom come” (Mt 6:10) is a prayer for God to manifest his reign so that his will may be done on earth as it is in heaven. When we read that we are to “receive the kingdom of God like a child” (Mk 10:15, <span>rsv<\/span>), we must open our hearts and lives to the rule of God.<\/p>\n<p>Also in the NT are sayings about being <em>in<\/em> the kingdom or of <em>entering<\/em> the kingdom (Mt 8:11; Mk 9:47; 10:23-25; Lk 13:28). There is no philological or theological objection to understanding “the kingdom of God” first as the divine reign or rule and second as the sphere of blessing in which that reign is experienced.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentBackground\">Old Testament Background<\/p>\n<p>The expression “the kingdom of God” is not found in the OT, but the idea appears throughout the prophets. God is frequently spoken of as the King, both of Israel (Ex 15:18; Nm 23:21; Dt 33:5; Is 43:15) and of all the earth (2 Kgs 19:15; Pss 29:10; 47:2; 93:1-2; 96:10; 97:1-9; 99:1-4; 145:11-13; Is 6:5; Jer 46:18). Although God is not the earthly King of Israel, other references speak of a day when God shall become King and shall rule over his people (Is 24:23; 33:22; 52:7; Ob 1:21; Zep 3:15; Zec 14:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>This brief summary of God’s kingship provides the outline for the entire OT concept. While God is King over all the earth, he is in a special way King over his people, Israel. God’s rule is therefore something realized in Israel’s history. However, it is only partially and imperfectly realized. Israel again and again rebelled against the divine sovereignty. Furthermore, Israel was constantly plagued by wars with its pagan neighbors in which it was not always victorious. Again, there are evils in nature and the physical world that often bring suffering to God’s people. Therefore, the prophets look forward to a day when God’s rule will be fully experienced, not by Israel alone, but by all the world. The main emphasis of the prophets is on hope, the establishing of God’s perfect rule in the world.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets describe the final establishment of God’s kingdom in terms of a theophany—a divine visitation (Mi 1:3-4). Zechariah foresees a “Day of the Lord” when all nations will be gathered in battle against Jerusalem, when the Lord will go forth and fight against those nations (Zec 14:3, 5). Israel will be visited by the Lord (Is 29:6) and delivered from its enemies (35:4; 59:20). God’s coming will also mean judgment (2:21; 26:21). This final coming of God will mean the salvation of the Gentiles as well as of Israel (Zec 2:10-11; cf. Is 66:18-24).<\/p>\n<p>Behind this language is a distinct theology of “the God who comes.” It is a fact widely recognized in contemporary OT theology that the God of the OT is not a nature god, like the gods of other peoples, but a God of history—a God who visits his people in history to bless or to judge them. God visited Israel in Egypt to deliver them from bondage and to constitute them as his people. The rescue from Egypt was not merely an act of deliverance; it was an act through which God made himself known and through which Israel was to know and serve him.<\/p>\n<p>Because God has visited his people again and again in their history, he must finally come to them in the future to judge wickedness and to establish his kingdom. Israel’s hope is thus rooted in history, or rather in the God who works in history. God will finally break into history in a glorious theophany to establish his rule in all the earth. The source of the kingdom is not history itself but God.<\/p>\n<p>While the prophets visualize the kingdom as coming from God, the kingdom is always on earth. The divine irruption into the natural order is not designed to accomplish its destruction but to make way for a new, perfect order arising out of the old, imperfect one. The prophets do not present a single consistent picture of the new order. Sometimes the new order is described very much in this-worldly terms. “The terraced vineyards on the hills of Israel will drip with sweet wine” (Am 9:13, <span>nlt<\/span>). On the other hand, God will create new heavens and a new earth (Is 65:17; 66:22), where there will be untroubled joy, prosperity, peace, and righteousness. The final visitation of God will mean the redemption of the world, for a redeemed earth is the scene of the kingdom of God. The prophets look forward again and again to the deliverance of creation “from the bondage to decay.” The description is often couched in simple physical terms. The wilderness will become fruitful (32:15); the desert will blossom (35:2); sorrow and sighing will flee away (v 10). The burning sands will be cooled and the dry places become springs of water (v 7); peace will return to the animal world so that all injury and destruction are done away with (11:6). All this results because the earth becomes full of the knowledge of God (v 9).<\/p>\n<p>Such language is not mere poetry but reflects a profound theology of creation. Humans as creatures were made to dwell on the earth, and the earth shares in human destiny. The main point is that creation as such is good and not a hindrance to true spirituality, as was often true in Greek thought. Redemption always includes redemption of the earth, which then becomes the blessed environment God intended it to be. Salvation does not mean deliverance from creaturehood, for this is not an evil thing but an essential and permanent element of true, human existence. Salvation does not mean escape from bodily creaturely existence, as in some Greek thought. On the contrary, ultimate redemption will mean the redemption of the whole person. The emergence of the doctrine of bodily resurrection is a reflection of this theology of creaturehood. The corollary of this is that creation in its entirety must share in the blessing of redemption.<\/p>\n<p>A distinctive element in prophetic eschatology is the tension between history and eschatology. That is, as the prophets looked into the future, they saw an immediate historical judgment as well as a more remote eschatological visitation. For Amos, the Day of the Lord is both the immediate judgment of Israel by the Assyrians and a final eschatological salvation. Joel sees an imminent historical visitation of drought and locusts, but beyond this he sees the eschatological Day of the Lord. Zephaniah sees an imminent Day of the Lord in some undesignated historical visitation (Zep 1:2-18), but beyond it he sees the salvation of the Gentiles (3:9). The same God who acts in history to bless and judge his people will act at the end of history in an eschatological act of judgment and salvation. The prophets do not sharply distinguish between these two days, for it is one and the same God who is concerned to judge and save his people.<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological hope of the prophets is always an ethical hope. That is to say, the prophets are not interested in the future for its own sake but for the impact of the future on the present. The prophetic predictions were given that, in light of future judgment and salvation, Israel might be confronted in the present by the will of God. “Prepare to meet your God as he comes in judgment, you people of Israel” (Am 4:12, <span>nlt<\/span>) might well be taken as the keynote of all the prophets.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>The Synoptic Gospels<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus’ teachings about the kingdom of God embodied the same contrast between the present order and the future age as that of the prophets, and he expressed it in the idiom “this age and the age to come.” This fact is obscured in the <span>kjv<\/span>, which translates the word for “age” by “world.” These are, however, two different concepts. A rich man asked Jesus what he must do to inherit eternal life (Mk 10:17). The context makes it clear that he was asking about eschatological life—the life of the resurrection (Dn 12:2). Jesus speaks of the difficulty of entering the kingdom of God. (The parallel passage in Matthew 19:23-24 has both “kingdom of God” and “kingdom of heaven,” proving that they are interchangeable terms.) In their reaction the disciples ask, “Then who can be saved?” Jesus’ answer contrasts the lot of his disciples “in this time” with the “age to come” (Mk 10:29-30) when they would inherit eternal life. It is clear from this passage that in some sense the kingdom of God, the kingdom of heaven, salvation, and eternal life all belong to the age to come. So far as this saying is concerned, God’s people will not experience eternal life until they do so in the new age.<\/p>\n<p>Matthew alone records the expression “the close of the age.” This age will be terminated by the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 24:3) and by the judgment of humanity (13:39-42). Then the righteous will be separated from the wicked (v 49). The same expression occurs in the promise of the risen Jesus assuring his disciples of his presence until the consummation of the age (28:20). It follows that if this age is to come to its consummation, it must be followed by another age—the age to come.<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological kingdom will be inaugurated by an apocalyptic event—the glorious coming of the Son of Man. This is made clear by two of the parables about the kingdom of God. In the parable of the tares, “the Son of man will send his angels, and they will gather out of his kingdom all causes of sin and all evildoers, and throw them into the furnace of fire” (Mt 13:41-42, <span>rsv<\/span>). The parable of the sheep and goats reflects the same eschatology. When the Son of Man comes in his glory, he will sit on his glorious throne to judge the nations, separating the sheep from the goats. The righteous—the sheep—are to “inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world”; and entrance into the kingdom is synonymous with entrance into life (25:31-46, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological character of the kingdom of God is seen also in the other two parables of Matthew 25. “The kingdom of heaven shall be compared to ten maidens who took their lamps and went to meet the bridegroom” (v 1, <span>rsv<\/span>). However, five of them were foolish and did not provide an adequate supply of oil for their lamps. Thus they were late for the wedding and were excluded from the wedding feast—a symbol of the eschatological kingdom—while those properly prepared entered the kingdom. In the same way the two faithful servants who had been “faithful over a little” were granted to “enter into the joy of your master” (vv 21, 23), while the unfaithful servant was excluded from the kingdom and cast into outer darkness.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus almost never showed any interest in descriptions of the eschatological kingdom, but it is clear that its coming was constantly in his thoughts. The pure in heart will see God (Mt 5:8). The harvest will take place and the grain will be gathered into the barn (13:30, 39; Mk 4:29). Jesus frequently used the metaphor of a feast or table fellowship to describe life in the eschatological kingdom. He will drink wine again with his disciples in the kingdom of God. They will eat and drink at Jesus’ table in the kingdom (Lk 22:30). People will be gathered from all corners of the earth to sit at a table with the OT saints (Mt 8:11-12; Lk 13:29). The consummation is likened to a wedding feast (Mt 22:1-14) and a banquet (Lk 14:16-24). All of these metaphors picture the restoration of communion between God and people, a union that had been broken by sin.<\/p>\n<p>In most of the sayings cited to illustrate the future character of the kingdom, “kingdom” refers to the eschatological order—the eschaton, the age to come. However, when Jesus taught his disciples to pray “Thy kingdom come” (Mt 6:10), he was not referring to the new eschatological order; he was referring to the kingdom as God’s kingly rule, his reign. It is a prayer that God will effectively establish his sovereign rule in the world.<\/p>\n<p>In his teaching about the kingdom of God as the apocalyptic consummation, Jesus does not differ essentially from the OT prophets. The most distinctive element in Jesus’ teaching—indeed, the fact that characterizes his entire mission and message—is the fact that in some real sense of the word, the kingdom of God has come in history in an utterly unexpected way. This sets Jesus’ teaching apart from all contemporary Jewish thought.<\/p>\n<p>This is seen first of all in his repeated teaching that his mission is a fulfillment of the OT messianic prophets. Mark summarizes Jesus’ message with the words “The Kingdom of God is near! Turn from your sins and believe this Good News!” (Mk 1:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). This saying can have one of two meanings. It may refer to the imminent coming of the apocalyptic kingdom. Matthew summarizes the message of John the Baptist with nearly the same words: “Turn from your sins and turn to God, because the Kingdom of Heaven is near” (Mt 3:2, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Baptist expounds what he means by the approach of the kingdom of God: “He is ready to separate the chaff from the grain with his winnowing fork. Then he will clean up the threshing area, storing the grain in his barn but burning the chaff with never-ending fire” (v 12, <span>nlt<\/span>). John proclaimed an apocalyptic act; “unquenchable fire” can mean no strictly historical event but only an apocalyptic judgment. John expected Jesus to be the one in whom the cosmic event expected by the prophets would be carried out.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that this was also Jesus’ meaning. However, another interpretation is possible that is better supported by the actual course of his mission: “The time is fulfilled.” The messianic promises of the prophets were not only about to be fulfilled; they were actually in process of fulfillment in his mission. In Jesus, God was visiting his people. The hope of the prophets in some real sense was being realized.<\/p>\n<p>The meaning of this can be seen in Luke’s introduction of Jesus’ ministry. Luke selects an event that occurred in Nazareth later in Jesus’ ministry (Lk 4:16-21) and places it at the beginning of his Gospel in order to sound this note of fulfillment. Jesus read from Isaiah a promise that looked forward to the messianic salvation: “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, for he has appointed me to preach Good News to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim that captives will be released, that the blind will see, that the downtrodden will be freed from their oppressors, and that the time of the Lord’s favor has come” (vv 18-19, <span>nlt<\/span>). Then Jesus astonished his audience by the assertion “This Scripture has come true today before your very eyes!” (v 21, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Here was an amazing claim. John the Baptist had announced an apocalyptic visitation of God that would mean the fulfillment of the eschatological hope and the consummation of the messianic age. Jesus proclaimed that the messianic promise was actually being fulfilled in his person. This is no apocalyptic kingdom but a present salvation. In these words Jesus did not proclaim the imminence of the apocalyptic kingdom. Rather, he boldly announced that the kingdom of God had come. The presence of the kingdom was a happening, an event, the gracious action of God. This was no new theology or new idea or new promise; it was a new event in history.<\/p>\n<p>The note of fulfillment is again sounded in Jesus’ answer to the question about fasting. “Do wedding guests fast while celebrating with the groom? Of course not. They can’t fast while they are with the groom” (Mk 2:19, <span>nlt<\/span>). The marriage feast had become a metaphor in Judaism for the messianic consummation. In these words Jesus announced the presence of the messianic time of salvation. It would be a contradiction in terms for the disciples to fast when they were enjoying the blessings of the messianic age. The time of fulfillment had come.<\/p>\n<p>A saying found in different contexts in Matthew and Luke touches this central note of the fulfillment in history of the OT hope: “Blessed are the eyes which see what you see! For I tell you that many prophets and kings desired to see what you see, and did not see it, and to hear what you hear, and did not hear it” (Lk 10:23-24, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. Mt 13:16-17). Both Matthew and Luke associate this saying with the kingdom of God, and both agree that the hope of former generations has become an object of experience. Many prophets and kings looked forward to something, but they looked in vain, for it did not come to them. What they longed for has now come, and this can be nothing less than the promised messianic salvation.<\/p>\n<p>Fulfillment in history is again asserted in Jesus’ answer to John’s question about the one who is to come (Mt 11:2-3). “The deeds of the Christ” (Messiah) were not the deeds John had announced. Wicked rulers like Herod were not being judged in fire. Instead, Jesus was helping people, not bringing an apocalyptic kingdom. Jesus replied in words that echo the promise of the messianic salvation in Isaiah 35:5-6: “Go and tell John what you hear and see: the blind receive their sight and the lame walk, lepers are cleansed and the deaf hear, and the dead are raised up, and the poor have the gospel preached to them” (Mt 11:4-5, <span>rsv<\/span>). In these words Jesus claimed that the blessings of the messianic salvation are present. There was indeed reason for John’s perplexity, for the fulfillment was not taking place along expected lines. The apocalyptic consummation did not appear to be on the horizon. The point of Jesus’ answer was that fulfillment was taking place without the eschatological consummation. Therefore, Jesus pronounced a special blessing upon those who were not offended by the character of the messianic fulfillment (v 6). The fulfillment was indeed taking place, but not the apocalyptic consummation.<\/p>\n<p>The most unambiguous statement of the presence of the kingdom is found in the words about the binding of Satan. One of Jesus’ most characteristic acts was the exorcism of demons—deliverance from satanic power. The Pharisees admitted his power but attributed it to Satan. Jesus replied, “If Satan casts out Satan, he is divided against himself; how then will his kingdom stand? . . . But if it is by the Spirit of God that I cast out demons, then the kingdom of God is come upon you” (Mt 12:26, 28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Here the verb has the clear meaning “to come, to arrive” (cf. Rom 9:30; 2 Cor 10:14; Phil 3:16). Here is a clear affirmation that the kingdom of God has come among men.<\/p>\n<p>In explanation Jesus said, “Or how can one enter a strong man’s house and plunder his goods, unless he first binds the strong man? Then indeed he may plunder his house” (Mt 12:29, <span>rsv<\/span>). The strong man is Satan; this “present evil age” (Gal 1:4) is his “house”; his “goods” are demon-possessed men and women. Jesus has invaded the strong man’s house to snatch away from him men and women whom he has in his power, and this is the work of the kingdom of God. The kingly reign of God has come into history in the person of Jesus before the apocalyptic consummation when Satan will be destroyed, to render Satan a preliminary defeat. Jesus has already “bound” Satan (i.e., curbed his power). This has been accomplished by the presence of the kingdom of God in the mission of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>A similar saying is found in Luke 10:18. Jesus had sent a band of his disciples on a preaching mission. Like Jesus, they were to proclaim the nearness of the kingdom of God (Lk 10:9). They, too, were to exorcize demons. When they returned to Jesus to report their success, Jesus said, “I saw Satan fall like lightning from heaven” (v 18, <span>rsv<\/span>). This again is metaphorical language that asserts that in the mission of Jesus’ disciples, as well as in Jesus himself, Satan has fallen from his place of power. Both “binding” and “falling” are metaphors that describe the same truth: the victory of the kingdom of God over Satan.<\/p>\n<p>Here is the element that sets Jesus apart from the OT and from all of contemporary Judaism. The prophets conceived of the kingdom being established by a heavenly supernatural being (Dn 7) or ruled by a powerful Davidic messianic king (Is 9, 11). The fulfillment of the messianic hope is everywhere in the prophets an eschatological hope. The same is true of the Jewish writers who despaired of history and cast all hope into the future.<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to all that had gone before him, Jesus proclaimed the kingdom of God as an event taking place in his own person and mission. God had again assumed the initiative; God was acting. No first-century Jew had any idea of the kingdom of God coming into history in the person of an ordinary man—a teacher who was meek and lowly.<\/p>\n<p>The presence of the kingdom is further seen in the fact that the rule of God, present in Jesus, is a gift to be received. This is also true of the kingdom in its eschatological consummation, where the kingdom is freely inherited by the righteous (Mt 25:34). In answer to the young man’s question about inheriting eternal life (Mk 10:17), Jesus spoke of entering the kingdom (vv 23-24) and receiving the gift of eternal life (v 30) as though they were synonymous. The kingdom is a gift that the Father is pleased to bestow upon the little flock of Jesus’ disciples (Lk 12:32).<\/p>\n<p>If God’s eschatological rule brings to his people the blessings of that kingdom, and if God’s kingdom is his rule invading history before the eschatological consummation, then we may expect God’s rule in the present to bring a preliminary blessing to his people. This fact is reflected in numerous sayings. The kingdom is something to be sought here and now (Mt 6:33) and to be received as children receive a gift (Mk 10:15; Lk 18:16-17). Although it is present in an unexpected form, the kingdom of God in Jesus’ person is like a hidden treasure or a pearl of great price whose possession outranks all other goods (Mt 13:44-46). The gift of the kingdom is also seen in that the deaf hear, the blind see, lepers are cleansed, and the poor have good news preached to them (11:5).<\/p>\n<h5>John’s Gospel<\/h5>\n<p>In the Gospel of John the concept of eternal life takes the place of the kingdom of God in Jesus’ teaching. The kingdom of God is mentioned twice (Jn 3:3, 5), and it is placed in connection with eternal life. The kingdom of God is here the eschatological kingdom, and eternal life is the life of the kingdom. Thus, as the kingdom of God in the synoptic Gospels is both future and present, so eternal life is both the life of the age to come (12:25) and also a present blessing (3:16, etc.).<\/p>\n<h5>Acts<\/h5>\n<p>In Acts it seems the earliest disciples generally failed to understand Jesus’ message about the kingdom of God as a present spiritual blessing. They gathered together to await the coming of the eschatological kingdom to Israel (Acts 1:6). Acts relates that the disciples continued to preach the kingdom of God, but usually it is an eschatological blessing (8:12; 14:22; 19:8; 20:25; 28:23, 31). However, the last two references make the kingdom of God synonymous with the gospel about Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>One important theme in Acts is linked to that of the kingdom of God. On the Day of Pentecost, Peter announces that God has seated Jesus at his right hand in fulfillment of Psalm 110:1 (Acts 2:33-35). In the Psalms this is a prophecy of the enthronement of the Davidic king in Jerusalem. Peter asserts that this prophecy is now fulfilled in the heavenly reign of Jesus. Therefore, he has been made both Lord and Christ (Messiah). These are interchangeable terms, “Lord” meaning absolute sovereign, “Christ” meaning the messianic king.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Writings<\/h5>\n<p>Paul carried further this theme of the heavenly rule of Christ, the anointed King. The kingdom is both an eschatological inheritance (1 Cor 6:9; 15:50; Gal 5:21; Eph 5:5; 1 Thes 2:12; 2 Thes 1:5; 2 Tm 4:1, 18) and a present blessing into which believers now enter (Rom 14:17; Col 1:13). The key to this is the interchangeable character of lordship and messianic kingship. Jesus is now exalted as Lord over all (Phil 2:11), and even as his lordship is invisible, it will become manifest to all at his second coming. In the same way, he has been enthroned as messianic King by virtue of his resurrection and heavenly session, and he must reign as King until he has put all his enemies under his feet (1 Cor 15:25; Eph 1:22). The last enemy to be destroyed is death.<\/p>\n<h5>Revelation<\/h5>\n<p>The central message of the Revelation to John is the consummation of God’s redemptive purpose, when the kingdom of this world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15). Revelation pictures the plight of a persecuted church in a hostile world, but it assures the church that Christ has already won a victory over the powers of evil (5:5), by virtue of which he can finally destroy them (19:11–20:14). Again, the last enemy to be destroyed is death (20:13-14). Revelation closes with a highly symbolic picture of the kingdom of God (chs 21–22) when God comes to dwell among his people, and “they shall see his face” (22:4). Thus the NT ends: divine order is restored to a disordered world. This is the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jesus Christ, Teachings of; King; Parable.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KINGDOM OF GOD, KINGDOM OF HEAVEN The sovereign rule of God, initiated by Christ’s earthly ministry and consummated when the kingdom of the world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15). Preview • Introduction • Old Testament Background • In the New Testament Introduction According to the testimony of the first three Gospels, the proclamation of the kingdom of God was Jesus’ central message. Matthew summarizes the Galilean ministry with the words “Jesus traveled throughou...","summary_en":"KINGDOM OF GOD, KINGDOM OF HEAVEN The sovereign rule of God, initiated by Christ’s earthly ministry and consummated when the kingdom of the world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15). Preview • Introduction • Old Testament Background • In the New Testament Introduction According to the testimony of the first three Gospels, the proclamation of the kingdom of God was Jesus’ central message. Matthew summarizes the Galilean ministry with the words “Jesus traveled throughou...","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27757,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Numbers","title_en":"Book of Numbers","content_ro":"<h3>NUMBERS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Fourth book of the English Bible. Its title is the English translation of the Latin Vulgate title, <em>Numeri.<\/em> The book takes this name from the fact that several rosters of various kinds are recorded in the book, specifically, the two army musters in chapters 1 and 26, the tribal camp and march arrangements in chapter 2, and the Levitical censuses in chapters 3 and 4.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The question of the authorship of Numbers is part of the larger question of the authorship of the Pentateuch. Until the appearance of the higher-critical documentary theories of the 19th century, the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch was almost universally held by both Jews and Christians alike. This time-honored tradition is supported by the Pentateuch itself (e.g., Ex 17:14; 24:4; 34:27; Nm 33:2; Dt 31:9, 24), the rest of the OT (e.g., Jos 23:6; Jgs 3:4; Mal 4:4), as well as Jesus’ teaching (e.g., Jn 5:46-47), and the rest of the NT (e.g., Acts 28:23; Rom 10:19; 1 Cor 9:9). Although discrepancies in the Pentateuch were widely and openly acknowledged, nevertheless Moses, the 15th-century <span>BC<\/span> lawgiver, was affirmed as the primary author of the Pentateuchal literature.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<h5>Sinai Peninsula<\/h5>\n<p>The historical background of Numbers begins primarily in the geographical region of the Sinai Peninsula of the mid-second millennium <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai Peninsula is in the shape of an inverted triangle with the base on the north. It is approximately 240 miles (386.2 kilometers) long from north to south and 175 miles (281.6 kilometers) wide at the northern base, with an area of approximately 22,000 square miles (56,980 square kilometers). It is bounded on the north by the Mediterranean Sea and the southern border of Canaan, on the west by the Bitter Lakes and the Gulf of Suez, and on the east by the Arabah and the Gulf of Aqaba. Beginning in the north at the Mediterranean coast and moving south, for about 15 miles (24.1 kilometers) the soil is sandy. South of this coastal plain is a high plateau (Et-Tih) of gravel and limestone (about 2,500 feet, or 762 meters, above sea level), stretching south into the peninsula for approximately 150 miles (241.4 kilometers). Rising above the plateau at this point is a granite mountain formation with peaks up to 8,000 feet (2,438.4 meters) above sea level. In this mountainous region at the apex of the peninsular triangle, Jebel Musa (7,363 feet, or 2,244.2 meters, high), the traditional site where Israel camped before Mt Sinai and Moses received the law, rises above the plain.<\/p>\n<p>The peninsula itself is comprised of five wilderness areas. In the north and immediately east of the land of Goshen is the approximately 40-mile- or 64.4-kilometer-wide wilderness of Shur, which runs past the River of Egypt (Wadi el-Arish) to the region of Kadesh-barnea and northeast to Beersheba. East of this region is the wilderness of Zin, extending east from the wilderness of Shur to the southern tip of the Dead Sea. Kadesh-barnea is located on its southern border (Nm 20:1; 33:36). South of the wilderness of Shur is the wilderness of Etham, and east of this wilderness in the east-central region of Sinai is the great wilderness of Paran (Dt 1:19). Kadesh-barnea is on the northern border of this territory (Nm 13:26). In this area the Israelites spent 38 of their 40 years of wandering. Southwest of the wilderness of Paran, on the western slopes of the peninsula, not far from the granite mountains standing in the southern apex of the triangle, is the wilderness of Sin.<\/p>\n<p>While the region is generally desolate and barren, it is not impassable or incapable of sustaining travelers. Wells and springs dot both the western and eastern borders at reasonable distances from each other. The water table is fairly close to ground level, making the digging of wells possible (Nm 20:17; 21:16-18). The limestone rocks are also capable of holding great amounts of water (20:11). Vegetation is sparse except around the more permanent streams where vegetation and date palms flourish. The rainy season in winter is approximately 20 days. Quail (11:31-32) are known to migrate across the peninsula to Europe in the spring.<\/p>\n\n<h5>The Peoples Israel Confronted<\/h5>\n<h6>Amalekites and Canaanites (14:25, 43-45; 24:20)<\/h6>\n<p>The Amalekites were descendants of Amalek, son of Eliphaz and grandson of Esau (Gn 36:12, 16). They were generally a nomadic people. In the Sinai Peninsula they were the first to war against Israel at Rephidim (cf. Nm 24:20), perhaps the Wadi Refayid in southwest Sinai (Ex 17:8-16), before Israel reached Horeb. A year later, the Amalekites settled in the hills and valleys north of Kadesh-barnea. In league with the Canaanites, the inhabitants of Palestine, they blocked the effort of Israel to invade the land of promise from the south (Nm 14:45). Israel’s will to wage war appears to have been completely broken for years to come.<\/p>\n<h6>Edomites (20:14-21; 21:4, 10-11)<\/h6>\n<p>Edom, or Seir (24:18), is the territory south of the Dead Sea occupied by Esau’s descendants. Stretching from its northern border at the Wadi Zered (21:12), which flowed into the Dead Sea at its southern tip, 100 miles (160.9 kilometers) south to the Gulf of Aqaba, it occupied both sides of the Arabah, with Kadesh-barnea again standing on the edge of its western border (20:16), giving it a land area of approximately 4,000 square miles (10,360 square kilometers). It is a rugged mountain region with peaks rising to 3,500 feet (1,066.8 meters). The “king’s highway,” an ancient trade route from Damascus through the Transjordan to the Gulf of Aqaba, passed through its territory and major cities, Bozrah and Leman. While Edom was not fertile, it did have cultivable areas (20:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>During Israel’s march to the Transjordan region, Edom refused to let Israel journey directly east from Kadesh through its territory but forced Israel to move southeast into and up the Arabah (21:4, 11). In spite of this hostility to God’s people, Israel was forbidden to attack (Dt 2:2-8) or to hate the Edomites (23:7), and so Edom was spared from destruction during the conquest of the land. The area was later conquered by David (2 Sm 8:13-14) according to Balaam’s prophecy (Nm 24:18).<\/p>\n<h6>Arad (21:1-3)<\/h6>\n<p>Arad was a south Canaanite settlement in the Negev. Its king, after fighting against Israel and taking some captives, was later defeated at Hormah.<\/p>\n<h6>Moabites (21:11-15; 22:1–24:25)<\/h6>\n<p>Moab, occupied by the descendants of Lot (Gn 19:37), is the territory east of the Dead Sea lying primarily between the Wadi Arnon (Nm 21:13) and the Wadi Zered with a land area of approximately 1,400 square miles (3,626 square kilometers).<\/p>\n<p>In the late middle Bronze Age, the Moabites had overflowed their main plateau and had extended well to the north of the Arnon all the way to the northern end of the Dead Sea (21:20). At the time of the events recorded in Numbers, however, the Amorites occupied the area from Arnon all the way north to the Wadi Jabbok (vv 13, 21-24), having earlier taken this land from Moab (vv 26-30). The Moabite kingdom was highly organized, with agriculture and livestock, splendid buildings, distinctive pottery, and strong fortifications around her borders. Its god was Chemosh (v 29).<\/p>\n<p>Balak, king of Moab during the period of the conquest, in league with Midian, hired Balaam to curse Israel (chs 22–24). When this failed, the two heathen powers sought to neutralize Israel by luring the people of God into the worship of Chemosh and into idolatry (25:1-2). In the war that ensued, Israel defeated Midian (31:1-18), but by God’s express command (Dt 2:9-13) spared Moab. But as Balaam had prophesied earlier (Nm 24:17), David in the 11th century warred against and defeated Moab (2 Sm 8:2, 13-14).<\/p>\n<h6>Amorites (21:21-35)<\/h6>\n<p>The Amorites, the people who had occupied northern Moabite territory (Nm 21:25-30), were descendants of Canaan (Gn 10:16) who had scattered throughout the hill country on both sides of the Jordan River. Heshbon was their capital city. Both Sihon of Heshbon and Og of Bashan were Amorite kings (Dt 3:8).<\/p>\n<p>As for Bashan (Nm 21:33-35; cf. Dt 1:4; 3:1-12), it is the fertile grazing region (Nm 32:1-5) east of the Sea of Kinnereth (Galilee), whose northern border extended to Mt Hermon and whose southern border, while normally the river Yarmuk, in the Mosaic age was the Wadi Jabbok (Jos 12:4-5). Its land area covered approximately 5,000 square miles (12,950 square kilometers). Its major cities were Ashtaroth, Edrei, and Golan. After the conquest of the land, this territory fell to the half-tribe of Manasseh, with Gad occupying southern Gilead, and Reuben the region south to the Wadi Arnon.<\/p>\n<h6>Midianites (25:16-18; 31:1-54)<\/h6>\n<p>The Midianites, descendants of Abraham through the concubine Keturah (Gn 25:2), were desert dwellers in Transjordan from Moab to the region south of Edom. The elders of Moab and Midian cooperated in hiring Balaam to curse Israel (Nm 22:4-7). Later, when that effort proved fruitless, the Midianites, again with Moab, led Israel into idolatry and immorality (25:1-6, 14-15). Cozbi, the Midianite woman who was executed for her wickedness (25:8), was the daughter of Zur, one of the five Midianite kings confederate with the Amorite king Sihon (Jos 13:21) who were later killed in Israel’s holy war against Midian (Nm 31:8). This war with Midian apparently broke the back of any remaining Amorite resistance, for Joshua 13:15-23 clearly intimates that as a result the tribe of Reuben occupied this territory.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Numbers serves a twofold purpose. First, as a historical book, it contains the account of Israel’s fortunes from Mt Sinai to the plains of Moab on the eve of the conquest of Canaan—that almost-40-year period spent in the wilderness of Sinai and in Transjordan (1447–1407 <span>BC<\/span>). While recounting Israel’s many failures and God’s many faithful acts, it depicts Moses, Israel’s leader, in all of his greatness and in all of his weakness. The two army rolls (chs 2 and 26) introduce the “acts” of the main drama of its history: the first in preparation for entering the land, which failed due to Israel’s unbelief; the second, after the death of the entire generation that left Egypt, in preparation for the successful invasion of Canaan under Joshua’s leadership.<\/p>\n<p>Second, in line with Paul’s general belief that “whatever was written in former days was written for our instruction, that by steadfastness and by the encouragement of the scriptures we might have hope” (Rom 15:4, <span>rsv<\/span>), and in keeping with his specific teaching that “these things [that befell Israel in the wilderness] happened to them as a warning, but they were written down for our instruction, upon whom the end of the ages has come” (1 Cor 10:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), Numbers serves a doctrinal, typical, and hortatory purpose (cf. v 12). Historical events are divinely invested with spiritual truths, thereby becoming object lessons for the Christian.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 1<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord commanded Moses to register (Nm 1:18) the men able to go to war (vv 2-3). The total number of soldiers in Israel was 603,550 (v 46). The Levites were not numbered in this roll (vv 47-54), since they were to be set apart for special service pertaining to the tabernacle.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 2<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord instructed Moses concerning the arrangement of the tribes while encamped and on the march. With the tabernacle in the center of the camp, Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun, totaling 186,400 (v 9), were to camp on the east; Reuben, Simeon, and Gad, totaling 151,450 (v 16), were to camp on the south; Ephraim, Manasseh, and Benjamin, totaling 108,100 (v 24), were to camp on the west; and Dan, Asher, and Naphtali, totaling 157,600 (v 31), were to camp on the north.<\/p>\n<p>On the march, Judah’s east group (v 9) was to set out first, followed by Reuben’s south group (v 16). The Levites with the tabernacle were to follow (v 17). Then Ephraim’s west group (v 24) was to follow the Levites, with Dan’s north group (v 31) bringing up the rear. This means that the Levites were flanked by two groups, before and behind.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 3<\/h5>\n<p>Aaron, the great-grandson of Levi through Kohath (Ex 6:16-20), and his descendants were designated to serve as priests at the tabernacle (Nm 3:2-3). The remaining descendants of Levi, from the families of Gershon, Kohath, and Merari, were to serve the Aaronic line at the tabernacle (vv 5-10). The Gershonites were responsible for the tabernacle coverings, hangings, and screens (vv 25-26); the Kohathites were responsible for the “furniture” in the tabernacle (v 31); and the Merarites were responsible for the frames, bars, and foundations for the tabernacle (vv 36-37).<\/p>\n<p>God instructed Moses to number the three Levitical families. Gershon’s descendants, totaling 7,500 (v 22), were to camp on the west, between the western group of tribes and the tabernacle. Kohath’s descendants, totaling 8,600 (v 28), were to camp on the south, between the southern group of tribes and the tabernacle. Merari’s descendants, totaling 6,200 (v 34), were to camp on the north, between the northern group of tribes and the tabernacle. Moses and the Aaronic family were to camp on the east, between the eastern group of tribes and the tabernacle (v 38). Both in camp and on the march, then, the tabernacle was in the midst of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The census of Israel’s firstborn males disclosed 273 more male babies than Levites (vv 40-46), and since the Levites were a ransom for Israelite males on a one-to-one basis, the 273 additional male children had to be ransomed by atonement money (vv 46-51).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 4<\/h5>\n<p>God instructed Moses that only Levites between the ages of 30 and 50 were to serve at the tabernacle. A census disclosed that there were 2,750 Kohathites (v 36), 2,630 Gershonites (v 40), and 3,200 Merarites (v 44), making a total of 8,580 (v 48) who were eligible to serve the Aaronic priests.<\/p>\n<p>God further ordered the Aaronic priests, when the tabernacle was being dismantled for the march, to cover all the tabernacle “furniture” before the Kohathites even looked at them (v 20) lest the Kohathites, either looking at or touching them (v 15), should die (vv 15, 20).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 5<\/h5>\n<p>For ceremonial purposes, God demanded that lepers, those with a bodily discharge, and those who had touched the dead, must be put outside the camp until they were purified (vv 1-4). Furthermore, God instructed those making restitution for a wrongdoing, if the wronged person was no longer alive, to give the restitution price to a priest (vv 5-10).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, if a woman was suspected by her husband of infidelity but there was no evidence of such, the woman was to undergo a trial by water ordeal to relieve the man of his suspicions. The priest was to give her holy water with dust from the floor of the tabernacle in it to drink. If she was guilty, the water by divine direction would cause her pain, make her abdomen swell, and her thigh waste away (vv 11-31).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 6<\/h5>\n<p>Laws pertaining to the Nazirite were given next. A Nazirite was a person who determined to take a vow to separate himself wholly to the Lord. To dramatize this separation, the Nazirite was to drink no intoxicating beverage, let the hair grow long, and touch no dead body (vv 3-6). Should he defile himself, he was to follow prescribed rules for ceremonial cleansing (vv 9-12). When his vow had run its course, he was to follow prescribed rules for terminating his vow (vv 13-21). Finally, God instructed the Aaronic priesthood concerning the blessing they were to pronounce upon the Israelite worshiper (vv 22-27).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 7<\/h5>\n<p>The leaders in Israel brought six wagons and twelve oxen for use in the transfer of the tabernacle (7:3). Moses gave two wagons and four oxen to the Gershonites (v 7), and four wagons and eight oxen to the Merarites (v 8). (The Kohathites were to carry the “furniture” of the tabernacle on their shoulders, v 9.) For twelve consecutive days, to consecrate the altar after it was anointed (vv 10, 88), the tribal leaders, in the order of march (cf. ch 2), brought similar offerings. God demonstrated his pleasure with this gesture by speaking to Moses from the mercy seat (v 89).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 8<\/h5>\n<p>God granted the prerogative to light the seven-branched lampstand to the Aaronic priests (vv 1-4). Following divine instructions, Moses and Aaron consecrated the Levites to the service of the tabernacle by means of a purification ceremony (vv 5-22).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 9:1–10:10<\/h5>\n<p>For the benefit of the worshiper who was ceremonially unclean or away on a journey at the time of the Passover, God granted permission to observe the Passover a month later (vv 6-12; see also ch 27).<\/p>\n<p>God gave final instructions to the people before their departure from Sinai. They were to prepare for marching when they saw the cloud ascending from the tabernacle, and they were to stop at the place where the cloud settled down (9:15-23). The people were to assemble at the tabernacle if two silver trumpets were blown; only the leaders were to come if one was blown; and at the blast of a military alarm, the several groups of tribes were to prepare for an immediate march (10:1-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 10:11–14:45<\/h5>\n<p>The next section recounts the march from Sinai to Kadesh-barnea, a period of time approximately one and a half to two months in length (cf. 10:11; 13:20). Almost immediately the people began to complain as they passed through the terrible wilderness of Paran (Dt 1:19), angering the Lord at Taberah (Nm 11:1-3) and at Kibroth-hattaavah (Nm 11:4-35; Pss 78:26-31; 106:13-15). Miriam and Aaron challenged Moses’ sole right to speak for God to the people, which resulted in temporary leprosy as punishment for Miriam (doubtless the leader in the provocation). Through Moses’ intercession, the two were forgiven (Nm 12). Out of this event, however, came the remarkable description of Moses’ relationship to God as a unique means of revelation (vv 6-8).<\/p>\n<p>From Paran (Kadesh-barnea) Moses dispatched the spies to survey the land (ch 13). Deuteronomy 1:22 suggests that the plan to spy out the land originated with the people, with Moses (at God’s behest) acquiescing. At the end of 40 days, they returned. Only Caleb and Joshua urged the people to advance to the conquest; the other 10 spies spoke of foes too formidable for them to defeat. The people, greatly discouraged, attempted to stone Caleb and Joshua (Nm 14:10), and were prevented from doing so only by the sudden appearance of the glory cloud at the tabernacle. God swore in his wrath (Nm 14:21; cf. Heb 3:7–4:10) that, with the exception of Caleb and Joshua, none of that generation would enter the land of promise (Nm 14:21-35). He then struck down the 10 unbelieving spies (v 37). Presumptuously, and in spite of God’s express command to the contrary (Dt 1:42), Israel attempted to advance on the land, leaving Moses and the ark of the covenant in the camp. They were challenged by the Amalekites and Canaanites.<\/p>\n<p>Israel remained in this general area with tribal families fanning out over the wilderness and settling around springs and oases (Dt 1:46). Numbers 15:1–21:20 relates the account of the 38 years of wilderness wandering. Much of this time was probably spent around Kadesh-barnea (Dt 1:46).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 15<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation was given (Nm 15:1-21). Also, the procedure to be followed when an Israelite committed a sin deliberately and defiantly was spelled out in terms of excommunication: there was no atonement for such an attitude (vv 22-31). A Sabbath violator was executed (vv 32-36), perhaps as an illustration of the foregoing legislation. Finally, to assist them in obeying God’s laws, the Israelites were instructed to tie blue tassels to their outer garments as reminders (vv 37-41).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 16<\/h5>\n<p>Korah challenged Aaron’s high priesthood, and Dathan, Abiram, and On challenged Moses’ leadership (vv 1-14). God, at Moses’ word, opened up the earth and swallowed the offenders (Nm 16:32; cf. Dt 9:6; Ps 106:16-18). Korah is regarded in the NT (Jude 1:11) as a classic example of a rebellious malcontent.<\/p>\n<p>Numbers 26:11 states that Korah’s young children did not perish with him. Perhaps they became the ancestors of the “sons of Korah,” the sacred musicians of the temple who composed 12 Korahite psalms (Pss 42–49, 84–85, 87–88).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 17<\/h5>\n<p>God then instructed the leaders of each tribe to bring rods, 12 in all, to write the names of the tribes upon them (with Aaron’s name on Levi’s rod), and to deposit them in the tabernacle. The following day, Aaron’s rod had sprouted with blossoms and ripe almonds, thus vindicating Aaron’s special high-priestly status.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 18–19<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation was given. In 18:1-7, the full responsibility for the priestly service was given to the Aaronic priests—a very natural consequence of the preceding chapter. The Levites were to assist the Aaronic order (v 6). Since the tribe of Levi received no land inheritance, they were to be supported from the offerings of the people (vv 8-20).<\/p>\n<p>In 19:1-22 instructions concerning ceremonial impurity were given. When an Israelite became ceremonially unclean through contact with death (vv 11-16), God required that he be purified from his sin (vv 9, 17) by the sprinkling of specially prepared water upon him.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 20<\/h5>\n<p>With Israel once again at Kadesh on the southern border of the wilderness of Zin in the first month of the 40th year of wandering, Miriam died and was buried (v 1). According to the encampment list in chapter 33, 18 encampments may have occurred for Israel since the nation had last been at this site (cf. 33:18-36).<\/p>\n<p>At this time the nation complained once again because there was little water (20:2). Moses, at God’s instruction, brought forth water from a rock (vv 8-11), but because of a gross infraction by Moses and Aaron on this occasion, God announced that they would not be permitted to lead Israel in the conquest of the land (vv 12, 23-24).<\/p>\n<p>The chapter closes with Edom refusing Israel passage across its territory (vv 14-21) and Aaron dying on Mt Hor on the border of Edom (vv 22-29) in the fifth month of the 40th year (33:38). Eleazar, Aaron’s son, assumed the office of high priest.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 21<\/h5>\n<p>After a quick victory over Arad (vv 1-3), Israel started south to encircle Edom. Becoming impatient with God and with Moses, the people expressed their disgust with God’s provision of manna. The Lord sent poisonous snakes to the camp, causing many to die. But at God’s command Moses fashioned a snake out of bronze and placed it atop a standard. All who looked to the bronze snake survived (vv 4-10). The bronze snake was preserved and later was destroyed by Hezekiah, the symbol having become by his time an idol (2 Kgs 18:4). Later still, Jesus drew an analogy between these wicked sinners looking to the bronze snake and being delivered and men looking to him by faith and being saved (Jn 3:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>Leaving that fateful place, Israel journeyed into and up the Arabah, crossed the Wadi Zered in an eastern swing around Moab, finally crossing the Arnon into Amorite territory. Journeying north, they camped at Pisgah (Nm 21:10-20).<\/p>\n<p>At this point the conquest of the Transjordan begins. In quick succession Israel defeated Sihon of Heshbon (vv 21-31) and Og of Bashan (vv 33-35) and settled in the plains of Moab (22:1). This encampment was the scene for the remainder of the activities of Numbers, Deuteronomy, and Joshua 1–3. In a real sense, one can say the wilderness wanderings were now over.<\/p>\n<p>Here is the place, then, to summarize the spiritual condition of Israel on the eve of the conquest of Canaan. Numbers makes it quite evident that the entire generation that left Egypt, with the exception of Joshua and Caleb, was to die in the wilderness because of its apostasy (cf. Am 5:25), unbelief, and general failure to keep covenant with God. None of the generation of male children born in the wilderness had been circumcised (Jos 5:2-9). Psalm 90 underscores Israel as the recipient of God’s wrath in the wilderness. It is in this pitiable spiritual condition that Israel arrived on the plains of Moab.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 22–24<\/h5>\n<p>Balak, king of Moab, frightened by Israel’s presence, joined with Midian to hire Balaam, the false prophet, to curse Israel. For gain, Balaam agreed (2 Pt 2:15; Jude 1:11), but God prevented him, causing him rather to bless Israel in his four oracular utterances (Nm 23:7-10, 18-24; 24:3-9, 15-19) and to predict the destruction of Moab, Edom, Amalek (24:20), the Kenites (24:21), and Asshur (24:24). With that, Balak and Balaam separated. Balaam, in collusion with Midian, agreed to counsel Israel to commit idolatry and immorality (31:16). And so, where Balak failed to turn the Lord against Israel, Balaam succeeded (ch 25).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 25<\/h5>\n<p>Israel sinned against God by idolatrous and immoral acts with the people of Moab (vv 1-3). In carrying out the command of God to destroy the reprobate Israelites, Phinehas killed Zimri and Cozbi, the latter being a daughter of one of the five kings of Midian (vv 4-14). This event provided the occasion for God to declare a holy war against Midian (vv 16-18; cf. ch 31).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 26<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord commanded Moses to take a roll of the men of the second generation who were capable of warring against Israel’s enemies. The total number came to 601,730 (v 51), a reduction of 1,820 men from the first count. With a smaller force than the first generation, Israel conquered Canaan, clearly indicating that Israel could have spared itself the years of wandering if only the nation had obeyed God 38 years before Kadesh. The Levites totaled 23,000 males a month old and upward (vv 57-62).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 27<\/h5>\n<p>At the request of the daughters of Zelophehad (cf. 26:33) that they be granted the right to inherit their father’s possessions since he had no sons, the Lord agreed that they could, using the occasion to give further laws of inheritance (vv 1-11).<\/p>\n<p>Reminded that he would soon die in Abarim, Moses requested that God appoint his successor. God selected Joshua, and Moses commissioned him (vv 12-23).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 28–30<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation regarding offerings for various occasions was given. God also instructed Moses to inform the people concerning vows. When a man made a vow, it was inviolable (30:2), but if a woman made a vow, the man (father, husband) responsible for her could nullify it if he felt that it was rash (vv 1-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 31<\/h5>\n<p>The account of the holy war declared against Midian in 25:16-18 is given. With Phinehas accompanying 12,000 warriors, Israel defeated Midian, killing Balaam along with the five kings and many male adults of Midian (31:1-8). The Midianite women and children were taken captive, but Moses commanded that all the male children and the nonvirgin women be killed (vv 9-18). One must not conclude that this war meant the end of Midian as such, for Midian later proved a formidable foe of Israel in the time of the judges (Jgs 6).<\/p>\n<p>After the battle, the warriors were instructed to purify themselves, their clothing, and the booty from the war before coming into the camp (Nm 31:19-24). Furthermore, they were instructed to divide the booty in half and to contribute one-fifth of one percent of their half to the high priest (“the Lord’s tribute”). The other half was divided among the people who had remained in camp, after the Levites received a two percent contribution (vv 25-31).<\/p>\n<p>Verses 32-47 give the tally of the booty after its division into two parts and the amount that was given from each part to Eleazar and the Levites. The tally is said by some to be too high to be authentic, but there is no evidence that disputes the recorded figures.<\/p>\n<p>In thanksgiving to God because no Israelite had been killed in the war (v 49) and to make atonement for themselves (v 50), the army officers brought a special offering of gold trinkets to Moses and Eleazar, which was placed in the tabernacle as a memorial (vv 48-54).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 32<\/h5>\n<p>At their request and on the condition that they aid the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan, Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh were allotted the Transjordan region. Moses earnestly besought the Lord to change his mind about not permitting him to enter the land of promise (Dt 3:23-27). But God would not let him.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 33–34<\/h5>\n<p>At God’s command, Moses kept a written record of Israel’s itinerary from Egypt to the plains of Moab. Here is biblical evidence of the Mosaic authorship of Numbers.<\/p>\n<p>The boundaries of the Promised Land were now given. The southern boundary would run from the southern tip of the Dead Sea, south of Kadesh-barnea up to the River of Egypt (Wadi el-Arish), and on to the Mediterranean Sea (34:3-5). The western boundary would be the coastline of the Mediterranean Sea itself (v 6). The northern boundary, not realized until the times of David and Solomon (2 Sm 8:3-12; 1 Kgs 8:65), was to extend from the Mediterranean Sea east to Hamath, at the head of the Orontes River (Nm 34:7-9). The eastern boundary was to be practically on a vertical line, with the Jordan Valley running north to the northern boundary (vv 10-12). The nine and a half tribes were to divide this area among themselves (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord then selected the men who were to bear the responsibility of dividing the land of Canaan among the western tribes after the conquest (vv 16-29).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 35<\/h5>\n<p>God instructed Israel to give 48 cities throughout the land on both sides of the Jordan to the Levites for a permanent possession (vv 1-8), since that tribe was not included in the land allotments to the other tribes. The number of cities each tribe was to give was to be determined by its size (v 8). Six of the Levitical cities, three on each side of the Jordan, were to be designated “cities of refuge” for the manslayer (v 6; cf. Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>Legislation concerning the manslayer follows (vv 9-34). If the slayer committed murder, the kinsman avenger had the right to fulfill his role as executioner (vv 16-21). If, however, the killing was unintentional, the manslayer was to flee to the nearest city of refuge for a trial. If found innocent of murder, he was assigned to remain within the city of refuge until the death of the high priest. If he left the city before then, the kinsman avenger was permitted to execute him (vv 22-34).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 36<\/h5>\n<p>Basing their question on the earlier law established in chapter 27, the leaders from Manasseh asked whether an heiress should be allowed to marry outside her tribe, with the accompanying transfer of property from one tribe to another that would ensue. God directed that an heiress would have to marry within her tribe (vv 1-12).<\/p>\n<p>The last verse of the book refers to all the laws given in the plains of Moab (26:1–36:12; cf. Lv 27:34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalTeaching\">Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Numbers God is revealed as the unchangingly faithful God of the covenant (Nm 23:19). This faithfulness to his covenant required that he both guide and care for his people and punish their sins against him. But no impediment was so great that God’s design to bring his people to the land of promise was thwarted (11:23).<\/p>\n<p>Both by his wrathful reaction to Israel’s sin and by the numerous priestly laws, God highlights his awesome holiness. The legislation expressly teaches that the person who approaches God must be clean. Even to look with unholy eyes upon the holiness of God meant death (4:20).<\/p>\n<p>His sovereignty over all of life is evident from the attention he displays over even the minutest aspects of life. The phrase “And the Lord said unto Moses” occurs over 50 times, and the words that follow in each case deal with all kinds of matters.<\/p>\n<p>As the God of the covenant, God’s “christological” character is also apparent. God’s blessing and faithfulness reflect the christological motif. Finally, Moses’ prophetic leadership (Acts 7:37-38) and intercessory ministry (e.g., Nm 11:2; 12:13; 14:19), in the Aaronic priesthood (e.g., ch 16), in the animal sacrifices (cf. 19:9; Heb 9:13), and in the symbols (the manna, the water, the bronze snake) foreshadow the future Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In Israel’s responses to God, the people depict all of human sinfulness and faithlessness. Israel’s wanderings illustrate the results of unbelief. The punishments of Israel prove the maxim of Numbers 32:23: “But if you fail to keep your word, then you will have sinned against the <span>Lord<\/span>, and you may be sure that your sin will find you out” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Numbers forcefully teaches that safety and blessing are to be found only in trust in the Lord. Only he is capable of bringing men and women to the place of rest (Heb 4:9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Deuteronomy, Book of; Exodus, Book of; Genesis, Book of; Leviticus, Book of; Moses; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NUMBERS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Fourth book of the English Bible. Its title is the English translation of the Latin Vulgate title, <em>Numeri.<\/em> The book takes this name from the fact that several rosters of various kinds are recorded in the book, specifically, the two army musters in chapters 1 and 26, the tribal camp and march arrangements in chapter 2, and the Levitical censuses in chapters 3 and 4.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The question of the authorship of Numbers is part of the larger question of the authorship of the Pentateuch. Until the appearance of the higher-critical documentary theories of the 19th century, the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch was almost universally held by both Jews and Christians alike. This time-honored tradition is supported by the Pentateuch itself (e.g., Ex 17:14; 24:4; 34:27; Nm 33:2; Dt 31:9, 24), the rest of the OT (e.g., Jos 23:6; Jgs 3:4; Mal 4:4), as well as Jesus’ teaching (e.g., Jn 5:46-47), and the rest of the NT (e.g., Acts 28:23; Rom 10:19; 1 Cor 9:9). Although discrepancies in the Pentateuch were widely and openly acknowledged, nevertheless Moses, the 15th-century <span>BC<\/span> lawgiver, was affirmed as the primary author of the Pentateuchal literature.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<h5>Sinai Peninsula<\/h5>\n<p>The historical background of Numbers begins primarily in the geographical region of the Sinai Peninsula of the mid-second millennium <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai Peninsula is in the shape of an inverted triangle with the base on the north. It is approximately 240 miles (386.2 kilometers) long from north to south and 175 miles (281.6 kilometers) wide at the northern base, with an area of approximately 22,000 square miles (56,980 square kilometers). It is bounded on the north by the Mediterranean Sea and the southern border of Canaan, on the west by the Bitter Lakes and the Gulf of Suez, and on the east by the Arabah and the Gulf of Aqaba. Beginning in the north at the Mediterranean coast and moving south, for about 15 miles (24.1 kilometers) the soil is sandy. South of this coastal plain is a high plateau (Et-Tih) of gravel and limestone (about 2,500 feet, or 762 meters, above sea level), stretching south into the peninsula for approximately 150 miles (241.4 kilometers). Rising above the plateau at this point is a granite mountain formation with peaks up to 8,000 feet (2,438.4 meters) above sea level. In this mountainous region at the apex of the peninsular triangle, Jebel Musa (7,363 feet, or 2,244.2 meters, high), the traditional site where Israel camped before Mt Sinai and Moses received the law, rises above the plain.<\/p>\n<p>The peninsula itself is comprised of five wilderness areas. In the north and immediately east of the land of Goshen is the approximately 40-mile- or 64.4-kilometer-wide wilderness of Shur, which runs past the River of Egypt (Wadi el-Arish) to the region of Kadesh-barnea and northeast to Beersheba. East of this region is the wilderness of Zin, extending east from the wilderness of Shur to the southern tip of the Dead Sea. Kadesh-barnea is located on its southern border (Nm 20:1; 33:36). South of the wilderness of Shur is the wilderness of Etham, and east of this wilderness in the east-central region of Sinai is the great wilderness of Paran (Dt 1:19). Kadesh-barnea is on the northern border of this territory (Nm 13:26). In this area the Israelites spent 38 of their 40 years of wandering. Southwest of the wilderness of Paran, on the western slopes of the peninsula, not far from the granite mountains standing in the southern apex of the triangle, is the wilderness of Sin.<\/p>\n<p>While the region is generally desolate and barren, it is not impassable or incapable of sustaining travelers. Wells and springs dot both the western and eastern borders at reasonable distances from each other. The water table is fairly close to ground level, making the digging of wells possible (Nm 20:17; 21:16-18). The limestone rocks are also capable of holding great amounts of water (20:11). Vegetation is sparse except around the more permanent streams where vegetation and date palms flourish. The rainy season in winter is approximately 20 days. Quail (11:31-32) are known to migrate across the peninsula to Europe in the spring.<\/p>\n\n<h5>The Peoples Israel Confronted<\/h5>\n<h6>Amalekites and Canaanites (14:25, 43-45; 24:20)<\/h6>\n<p>The Amalekites were descendants of Amalek, son of Eliphaz and grandson of Esau (Gn 36:12, 16). They were generally a nomadic people. In the Sinai Peninsula they were the first to war against Israel at Rephidim (cf. Nm 24:20), perhaps the Wadi Refayid in southwest Sinai (Ex 17:8-16), before Israel reached Horeb. A year later, the Amalekites settled in the hills and valleys north of Kadesh-barnea. In league with the Canaanites, the inhabitants of Palestine, they blocked the effort of Israel to invade the land of promise from the south (Nm 14:45). Israel’s will to wage war appears to have been completely broken for years to come.<\/p>\n<h6>Edomites (20:14-21; 21:4, 10-11)<\/h6>\n<p>Edom, or Seir (24:18), is the territory south of the Dead Sea occupied by Esau’s descendants. Stretching from its northern border at the Wadi Zered (21:12), which flowed into the Dead Sea at its southern tip, 100 miles (160.9 kilometers) south to the Gulf of Aqaba, it occupied both sides of the Arabah, with Kadesh-barnea again standing on the edge of its western border (20:16), giving it a land area of approximately 4,000 square miles (10,360 square kilometers). It is a rugged mountain region with peaks rising to 3,500 feet (1,066.8 meters). The “king’s highway,” an ancient trade route from Damascus through the Transjordan to the Gulf of Aqaba, passed through its territory and major cities, Bozrah and Leman. While Edom was not fertile, it did have cultivable areas (20:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>During Israel’s march to the Transjordan region, Edom refused to let Israel journey directly east from Kadesh through its territory but forced Israel to move southeast into and up the Arabah (21:4, 11). In spite of this hostility to God’s people, Israel was forbidden to attack (Dt 2:2-8) or to hate the Edomites (23:7), and so Edom was spared from destruction during the conquest of the land. The area was later conquered by David (2 Sm 8:13-14) according to Balaam’s prophecy (Nm 24:18).<\/p>\n<h6>Arad (21:1-3)<\/h6>\n<p>Arad was a south Canaanite settlement in the Negev. Its king, after fighting against Israel and taking some captives, was later defeated at Hormah.<\/p>\n<h6>Moabites (21:11-15; 22:1–24:25)<\/h6>\n<p>Moab, occupied by the descendants of Lot (Gn 19:37), is the territory east of the Dead Sea lying primarily between the Wadi Arnon (Nm 21:13) and the Wadi Zered with a land area of approximately 1,400 square miles (3,626 square kilometers).<\/p>\n<p>In the late middle Bronze Age, the Moabites had overflowed their main plateau and had extended well to the north of the Arnon all the way to the northern end of the Dead Sea (21:20). At the time of the events recorded in Numbers, however, the Amorites occupied the area from Arnon all the way north to the Wadi Jabbok (vv 13, 21-24), having earlier taken this land from Moab (vv 26-30). The Moabite kingdom was highly organized, with agriculture and livestock, splendid buildings, distinctive pottery, and strong fortifications around her borders. Its god was Chemosh (v 29).<\/p>\n<p>Balak, king of Moab during the period of the conquest, in league with Midian, hired Balaam to curse Israel (chs 22–24). When this failed, the two heathen powers sought to neutralize Israel by luring the people of God into the worship of Chemosh and into idolatry (25:1-2). In the war that ensued, Israel defeated Midian (31:1-18), but by God’s express command (Dt 2:9-13) spared Moab. But as Balaam had prophesied earlier (Nm 24:17), David in the 11th century warred against and defeated Moab (2 Sm 8:2, 13-14).<\/p>\n<h6>Amorites (21:21-35)<\/h6>\n<p>The Amorites, the people who had occupied northern Moabite territory (Nm 21:25-30), were descendants of Canaan (Gn 10:16) who had scattered throughout the hill country on both sides of the Jordan River. Heshbon was their capital city. Both Sihon of Heshbon and Og of Bashan were Amorite kings (Dt 3:8).<\/p>\n<p>As for Bashan (Nm 21:33-35; cf. Dt 1:4; 3:1-12), it is the fertile grazing region (Nm 32:1-5) east of the Sea of Kinnereth (Galilee), whose northern border extended to Mt Hermon and whose southern border, while normally the river Yarmuk, in the Mosaic age was the Wadi Jabbok (Jos 12:4-5). Its land area covered approximately 5,000 square miles (12,950 square kilometers). Its major cities were Ashtaroth, Edrei, and Golan. After the conquest of the land, this territory fell to the half-tribe of Manasseh, with Gad occupying southern Gilead, and Reuben the region south to the Wadi Arnon.<\/p>\n<h6>Midianites (25:16-18; 31:1-54)<\/h6>\n<p>The Midianites, descendants of Abraham through the concubine Keturah (Gn 25:2), were desert dwellers in Transjordan from Moab to the region south of Edom. The elders of Moab and Midian cooperated in hiring Balaam to curse Israel (Nm 22:4-7). Later, when that effort proved fruitless, the Midianites, again with Moab, led Israel into idolatry and immorality (25:1-6, 14-15). Cozbi, the Midianite woman who was executed for her wickedness (25:8), was the daughter of Zur, one of the five Midianite kings confederate with the Amorite king Sihon (Jos 13:21) who were later killed in Israel’s holy war against Midian (Nm 31:8). This war with Midian apparently broke the back of any remaining Amorite resistance, for Joshua 13:15-23 clearly intimates that as a result the tribe of Reuben occupied this territory.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Numbers serves a twofold purpose. First, as a historical book, it contains the account of Israel’s fortunes from Mt Sinai to the plains of Moab on the eve of the conquest of Canaan—that almost-40-year period spent in the wilderness of Sinai and in Transjordan (1447–1407 <span>BC<\/span>). While recounting Israel’s many failures and God’s many faithful acts, it depicts Moses, Israel’s leader, in all of his greatness and in all of his weakness. The two army rolls (chs 2 and 26) introduce the “acts” of the main drama of its history: the first in preparation for entering the land, which failed due to Israel’s unbelief; the second, after the death of the entire generation that left Egypt, in preparation for the successful invasion of Canaan under Joshua’s leadership.<\/p>\n<p>Second, in line with Paul’s general belief that “whatever was written in former days was written for our instruction, that by steadfastness and by the encouragement of the scriptures we might have hope” (Rom 15:4, <span>rsv<\/span>), and in keeping with his specific teaching that “these things [that befell Israel in the wilderness] happened to them as a warning, but they were written down for our instruction, upon whom the end of the ages has come” (1 Cor 10:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), Numbers serves a doctrinal, typical, and hortatory purpose (cf. v 12). Historical events are divinely invested with spiritual truths, thereby becoming object lessons for the Christian.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 1<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord commanded Moses to register (Nm 1:18) the men able to go to war (vv 2-3). The total number of soldiers in Israel was 603,550 (v 46). The Levites were not numbered in this roll (vv 47-54), since they were to be set apart for special service pertaining to the tabernacle.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 2<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord instructed Moses concerning the arrangement of the tribes while encamped and on the march. With the tabernacle in the center of the camp, Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun, totaling 186,400 (v 9), were to camp on the east; Reuben, Simeon, and Gad, totaling 151,450 (v 16), were to camp on the south; Ephraim, Manasseh, and Benjamin, totaling 108,100 (v 24), were to camp on the west; and Dan, Asher, and Naphtali, totaling 157,600 (v 31), were to camp on the north.<\/p>\n<p>On the march, Judah’s east group (v 9) was to set out first, followed by Reuben’s south group (v 16). The Levites with the tabernacle were to follow (v 17). Then Ephraim’s west group (v 24) was to follow the Levites, with Dan’s north group (v 31) bringing up the rear. This means that the Levites were flanked by two groups, before and behind.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 3<\/h5>\n<p>Aaron, the great-grandson of Levi through Kohath (Ex 6:16-20), and his descendants were designated to serve as priests at the tabernacle (Nm 3:2-3). The remaining descendants of Levi, from the families of Gershon, Kohath, and Merari, were to serve the Aaronic line at the tabernacle (vv 5-10). The Gershonites were responsible for the tabernacle coverings, hangings, and screens (vv 25-26); the Kohathites were responsible for the “furniture” in the tabernacle (v 31); and the Merarites were responsible for the frames, bars, and foundations for the tabernacle (vv 36-37).<\/p>\n<p>God instructed Moses to number the three Levitical families. Gershon’s descendants, totaling 7,500 (v 22), were to camp on the west, between the western group of tribes and the tabernacle. Kohath’s descendants, totaling 8,600 (v 28), were to camp on the south, between the southern group of tribes and the tabernacle. Merari’s descendants, totaling 6,200 (v 34), were to camp on the north, between the northern group of tribes and the tabernacle. Moses and the Aaronic family were to camp on the east, between the eastern group of tribes and the tabernacle (v 38). Both in camp and on the march, then, the tabernacle was in the midst of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The census of Israel’s firstborn males disclosed 273 more male babies than Levites (vv 40-46), and since the Levites were a ransom for Israelite males on a one-to-one basis, the 273 additional male children had to be ransomed by atonement money (vv 46-51).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 4<\/h5>\n<p>God instructed Moses that only Levites between the ages of 30 and 50 were to serve at the tabernacle. A census disclosed that there were 2,750 Kohathites (v 36), 2,630 Gershonites (v 40), and 3,200 Merarites (v 44), making a total of 8,580 (v 48) who were eligible to serve the Aaronic priests.<\/p>\n<p>God further ordered the Aaronic priests, when the tabernacle was being dismantled for the march, to cover all the tabernacle “furniture” before the Kohathites even looked at them (v 20) lest the Kohathites, either looking at or touching them (v 15), should die (vv 15, 20).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 5<\/h5>\n<p>For ceremonial purposes, God demanded that lepers, those with a bodily discharge, and those who had touched the dead, must be put outside the camp until they were purified (vv 1-4). Furthermore, God instructed those making restitution for a wrongdoing, if the wronged person was no longer alive, to give the restitution price to a priest (vv 5-10).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, if a woman was suspected by her husband of infidelity but there was no evidence of such, the woman was to undergo a trial by water ordeal to relieve the man of his suspicions. The priest was to give her holy water with dust from the floor of the tabernacle in it to drink. If she was guilty, the water by divine direction would cause her pain, make her abdomen swell, and her thigh waste away (vv 11-31).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 6<\/h5>\n<p>Laws pertaining to the Nazirite were given next. A Nazirite was a person who determined to take a vow to separate himself wholly to the Lord. To dramatize this separation, the Nazirite was to drink no intoxicating beverage, let the hair grow long, and touch no dead body (vv 3-6). Should he defile himself, he was to follow prescribed rules for ceremonial cleansing (vv 9-12). When his vow had run its course, he was to follow prescribed rules for terminating his vow (vv 13-21). Finally, God instructed the Aaronic priesthood concerning the blessing they were to pronounce upon the Israelite worshiper (vv 22-27).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 7<\/h5>\n<p>The leaders in Israel brought six wagons and twelve oxen for use in the transfer of the tabernacle (7:3). Moses gave two wagons and four oxen to the Gershonites (v 7), and four wagons and eight oxen to the Merarites (v 8). (The Kohathites were to carry the “furniture” of the tabernacle on their shoulders, v 9.) For twelve consecutive days, to consecrate the altar after it was anointed (vv 10, 88), the tribal leaders, in the order of march (cf. ch 2), brought similar offerings. God demonstrated his pleasure with this gesture by speaking to Moses from the mercy seat (v 89).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 8<\/h5>\n<p>God granted the prerogative to light the seven-branched lampstand to the Aaronic priests (vv 1-4). Following divine instructions, Moses and Aaron consecrated the Levites to the service of the tabernacle by means of a purification ceremony (vv 5-22).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 9:1–10:10<\/h5>\n<p>For the benefit of the worshiper who was ceremonially unclean or away on a journey at the time of the Passover, God granted permission to observe the Passover a month later (vv 6-12; see also ch 27).<\/p>\n<p>God gave final instructions to the people before their departure from Sinai. They were to prepare for marching when they saw the cloud ascending from the tabernacle, and they were to stop at the place where the cloud settled down (9:15-23). The people were to assemble at the tabernacle if two silver trumpets were blown; only the leaders were to come if one was blown; and at the blast of a military alarm, the several groups of tribes were to prepare for an immediate march (10:1-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 10:11–14:45<\/h5>\n<p>The next section recounts the march from Sinai to Kadesh-barnea, a period of time approximately one and a half to two months in length (cf. 10:11; 13:20). Almost immediately the people began to complain as they passed through the terrible wilderness of Paran (Dt 1:19), angering the Lord at Taberah (Nm 11:1-3) and at Kibroth-hattaavah (Nm 11:4-35; Pss 78:26-31; 106:13-15). Miriam and Aaron challenged Moses’ sole right to speak for God to the people, which resulted in temporary leprosy as punishment for Miriam (doubtless the leader in the provocation). Through Moses’ intercession, the two were forgiven (Nm 12). Out of this event, however, came the remarkable description of Moses’ relationship to God as a unique means of revelation (vv 6-8).<\/p>\n<p>From Paran (Kadesh-barnea) Moses dispatched the spies to survey the land (ch 13). Deuteronomy 1:22 suggests that the plan to spy out the land originated with the people, with Moses (at God’s behest) acquiescing. At the end of 40 days, they returned. Only Caleb and Joshua urged the people to advance to the conquest; the other 10 spies spoke of foes too formidable for them to defeat. The people, greatly discouraged, attempted to stone Caleb and Joshua (Nm 14:10), and were prevented from doing so only by the sudden appearance of the glory cloud at the tabernacle. God swore in his wrath (Nm 14:21; cf. Heb 3:7–4:10) that, with the exception of Caleb and Joshua, none of that generation would enter the land of promise (Nm 14:21-35). He then struck down the 10 unbelieving spies (v 37). Presumptuously, and in spite of God’s express command to the contrary (Dt 1:42), Israel attempted to advance on the land, leaving Moses and the ark of the covenant in the camp. They were challenged by the Amalekites and Canaanites.<\/p>\n<p>Israel remained in this general area with tribal families fanning out over the wilderness and settling around springs and oases (Dt 1:46). Numbers 15:1–21:20 relates the account of the 38 years of wilderness wandering. Much of this time was probably spent around Kadesh-barnea (Dt 1:46).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 15<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation was given (Nm 15:1-21). Also, the procedure to be followed when an Israelite committed a sin deliberately and defiantly was spelled out in terms of excommunication: there was no atonement for such an attitude (vv 22-31). A Sabbath violator was executed (vv 32-36), perhaps as an illustration of the foregoing legislation. Finally, to assist them in obeying God’s laws, the Israelites were instructed to tie blue tassels to their outer garments as reminders (vv 37-41).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 16<\/h5>\n<p>Korah challenged Aaron’s high priesthood, and Dathan, Abiram, and On challenged Moses’ leadership (vv 1-14). God, at Moses’ word, opened up the earth and swallowed the offenders (Nm 16:32; cf. Dt 9:6; Ps 106:16-18). Korah is regarded in the NT (Jude 1:11) as a classic example of a rebellious malcontent.<\/p>\n<p>Numbers 26:11 states that Korah’s young children did not perish with him. Perhaps they became the ancestors of the “sons of Korah,” the sacred musicians of the temple who composed 12 Korahite psalms (Pss 42–49, 84–85, 87–88).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 17<\/h5>\n<p>God then instructed the leaders of each tribe to bring rods, 12 in all, to write the names of the tribes upon them (with Aaron’s name on Levi’s rod), and to deposit them in the tabernacle. The following day, Aaron’s rod had sprouted with blossoms and ripe almonds, thus vindicating Aaron’s special high-priestly status.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 18–19<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation was given. In 18:1-7, the full responsibility for the priestly service was given to the Aaronic priests—a very natural consequence of the preceding chapter. The Levites were to assist the Aaronic order (v 6). Since the tribe of Levi received no land inheritance, they were to be supported from the offerings of the people (vv 8-20).<\/p>\n<p>In 19:1-22 instructions concerning ceremonial impurity were given. When an Israelite became ceremonially unclean through contact with death (vv 11-16), God required that he be purified from his sin (vv 9, 17) by the sprinkling of specially prepared water upon him.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 20<\/h5>\n<p>With Israel once again at Kadesh on the southern border of the wilderness of Zin in the first month of the 40th year of wandering, Miriam died and was buried (v 1). According to the encampment list in chapter 33, 18 encampments may have occurred for Israel since the nation had last been at this site (cf. 33:18-36).<\/p>\n<p>At this time the nation complained once again because there was little water (20:2). Moses, at God’s instruction, brought forth water from a rock (vv 8-11), but because of a gross infraction by Moses and Aaron on this occasion, God announced that they would not be permitted to lead Israel in the conquest of the land (vv 12, 23-24).<\/p>\n<p>The chapter closes with Edom refusing Israel passage across its territory (vv 14-21) and Aaron dying on Mt Hor on the border of Edom (vv 22-29) in the fifth month of the 40th year (33:38). Eleazar, Aaron’s son, assumed the office of high priest.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 21<\/h5>\n<p>After a quick victory over Arad (vv 1-3), Israel started south to encircle Edom. Becoming impatient with God and with Moses, the people expressed their disgust with God’s provision of manna. The Lord sent poisonous snakes to the camp, causing many to die. But at God’s command Moses fashioned a snake out of bronze and placed it atop a standard. All who looked to the bronze snake survived (vv 4-10). The bronze snake was preserved and later was destroyed by Hezekiah, the symbol having become by his time an idol (2 Kgs 18:4). Later still, Jesus drew an analogy between these wicked sinners looking to the bronze snake and being delivered and men looking to him by faith and being saved (Jn 3:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>Leaving that fateful place, Israel journeyed into and up the Arabah, crossed the Wadi Zered in an eastern swing around Moab, finally crossing the Arnon into Amorite territory. Journeying north, they camped at Pisgah (Nm 21:10-20).<\/p>\n<p>At this point the conquest of the Transjordan begins. In quick succession Israel defeated Sihon of Heshbon (vv 21-31) and Og of Bashan (vv 33-35) and settled in the plains of Moab (22:1). This encampment was the scene for the remainder of the activities of Numbers, Deuteronomy, and Joshua 1–3. In a real sense, one can say the wilderness wanderings were now over.<\/p>\n<p>Here is the place, then, to summarize the spiritual condition of Israel on the eve of the conquest of Canaan. Numbers makes it quite evident that the entire generation that left Egypt, with the exception of Joshua and Caleb, was to die in the wilderness because of its apostasy (cf. Am 5:25), unbelief, and general failure to keep covenant with God. None of the generation of male children born in the wilderness had been circumcised (Jos 5:2-9). Psalm 90 underscores Israel as the recipient of God’s wrath in the wilderness. It is in this pitiable spiritual condition that Israel arrived on the plains of Moab.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 22–24<\/h5>\n<p>Balak, king of Moab, frightened by Israel’s presence, joined with Midian to hire Balaam, the false prophet, to curse Israel. For gain, Balaam agreed (2 Pt 2:15; Jude 1:11), but God prevented him, causing him rather to bless Israel in his four oracular utterances (Nm 23:7-10, 18-24; 24:3-9, 15-19) and to predict the destruction of Moab, Edom, Amalek (24:20), the Kenites (24:21), and Asshur (24:24). With that, Balak and Balaam separated. Balaam, in collusion with Midian, agreed to counsel Israel to commit idolatry and immorality (31:16). And so, where Balak failed to turn the Lord against Israel, Balaam succeeded (ch 25).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 25<\/h5>\n<p>Israel sinned against God by idolatrous and immoral acts with the people of Moab (vv 1-3). In carrying out the command of God to destroy the reprobate Israelites, Phinehas killed Zimri and Cozbi, the latter being a daughter of one of the five kings of Midian (vv 4-14). This event provided the occasion for God to declare a holy war against Midian (vv 16-18; cf. ch 31).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 26<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord commanded Moses to take a roll of the men of the second generation who were capable of warring against Israel’s enemies. The total number came to 601,730 (v 51), a reduction of 1,820 men from the first count. With a smaller force than the first generation, Israel conquered Canaan, clearly indicating that Israel could have spared itself the years of wandering if only the nation had obeyed God 38 years before Kadesh. The Levites totaled 23,000 males a month old and upward (vv 57-62).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 27<\/h5>\n<p>At the request of the daughters of Zelophehad (cf. 26:33) that they be granted the right to inherit their father’s possessions since he had no sons, the Lord agreed that they could, using the occasion to give further laws of inheritance (vv 1-11).<\/p>\n<p>Reminded that he would soon die in Abarim, Moses requested that God appoint his successor. God selected Joshua, and Moses commissioned him (vv 12-23).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 28–30<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation regarding offerings for various occasions was given. God also instructed Moses to inform the people concerning vows. When a man made a vow, it was inviolable (30:2), but if a woman made a vow, the man (father, husband) responsible for her could nullify it if he felt that it was rash (vv 1-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 31<\/h5>\n<p>The account of the holy war declared against Midian in 25:16-18 is given. With Phinehas accompanying 12,000 warriors, Israel defeated Midian, killing Balaam along with the five kings and many male adults of Midian (31:1-8). The Midianite women and children were taken captive, but Moses commanded that all the male children and the nonvirgin women be killed (vv 9-18). One must not conclude that this war meant the end of Midian as such, for Midian later proved a formidable foe of Israel in the time of the judges (Jgs 6).<\/p>\n<p>After the battle, the warriors were instructed to purify themselves, their clothing, and the booty from the war before coming into the camp (Nm 31:19-24). Furthermore, they were instructed to divide the booty in half and to contribute one-fifth of one percent of their half to the high priest (“the Lord’s tribute”). The other half was divided among the people who had remained in camp, after the Levites received a two percent contribution (vv 25-31).<\/p>\n<p>Verses 32-47 give the tally of the booty after its division into two parts and the amount that was given from each part to Eleazar and the Levites. The tally is said by some to be too high to be authentic, but there is no evidence that disputes the recorded figures.<\/p>\n<p>In thanksgiving to God because no Israelite had been killed in the war (v 49) and to make atonement for themselves (v 50), the army officers brought a special offering of gold trinkets to Moses and Eleazar, which was placed in the tabernacle as a memorial (vv 48-54).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 32<\/h5>\n<p>At their request and on the condition that they aid the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan, Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh were allotted the Transjordan region. Moses earnestly besought the Lord to change his mind about not permitting him to enter the land of promise (Dt 3:23-27). But God would not let him.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 33–34<\/h5>\n<p>At God’s command, Moses kept a written record of Israel’s itinerary from Egypt to the plains of Moab. Here is biblical evidence of the Mosaic authorship of Numbers.<\/p>\n<p>The boundaries of the Promised Land were now given. The southern boundary would run from the southern tip of the Dead Sea, south of Kadesh-barnea up to the River of Egypt (Wadi el-Arish), and on to the Mediterranean Sea (34:3-5). The western boundary would be the coastline of the Mediterranean Sea itself (v 6). The northern boundary, not realized until the times of David and Solomon (2 Sm 8:3-12; 1 Kgs 8:65), was to extend from the Mediterranean Sea east to Hamath, at the head of the Orontes River (Nm 34:7-9). The eastern boundary was to be practically on a vertical line, with the Jordan Valley running north to the northern boundary (vv 10-12). The nine and a half tribes were to divide this area among themselves (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord then selected the men who were to bear the responsibility of dividing the land of Canaan among the western tribes after the conquest (vv 16-29).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 35<\/h5>\n<p>God instructed Israel to give 48 cities throughout the land on both sides of the Jordan to the Levites for a permanent possession (vv 1-8), since that tribe was not included in the land allotments to the other tribes. The number of cities each tribe was to give was to be determined by its size (v 8). Six of the Levitical cities, three on each side of the Jordan, were to be designated “cities of refuge” for the manslayer (v 6; cf. Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>Legislation concerning the manslayer follows (vv 9-34). If the slayer committed murder, the kinsman avenger had the right to fulfill his role as executioner (vv 16-21). If, however, the killing was unintentional, the manslayer was to flee to the nearest city of refuge for a trial. If found innocent of murder, he was assigned to remain within the city of refuge until the death of the high priest. If he left the city before then, the kinsman avenger was permitted to execute him (vv 22-34).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 36<\/h5>\n<p>Basing their question on the earlier law established in chapter 27, the leaders from Manasseh asked whether an heiress should be allowed to marry outside her tribe, with the accompanying transfer of property from one tribe to another that would ensue. God directed that an heiress would have to marry within her tribe (vv 1-12).<\/p>\n<p>The last verse of the book refers to all the laws given in the plains of Moab (26:1–36:12; cf. Lv 27:34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalTeaching\">Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Numbers God is revealed as the unchangingly faithful God of the covenant (Nm 23:19). This faithfulness to his covenant required that he both guide and care for his people and punish their sins against him. But no impediment was so great that God’s design to bring his people to the land of promise was thwarted (11:23).<\/p>\n<p>Both by his wrathful reaction to Israel’s sin and by the numerous priestly laws, God highlights his awesome holiness. The legislation expressly teaches that the person who approaches God must be clean. Even to look with unholy eyes upon the holiness of God meant death (4:20).<\/p>\n<p>His sovereignty over all of life is evident from the attention he displays over even the minutest aspects of life. The phrase “And the Lord said unto Moses” occurs over 50 times, and the words that follow in each case deal with all kinds of matters.<\/p>\n<p>As the God of the covenant, God’s “christological” character is also apparent. God’s blessing and faithfulness reflect the christological motif. Finally, Moses’ prophetic leadership (Acts 7:37-38) and intercessory ministry (e.g., Nm 11:2; 12:13; 14:19), in the Aaronic priesthood (e.g., ch 16), in the animal sacrifices (cf. 19:9; Heb 9:13), and in the symbols (the manna, the water, the bronze snake) foreshadow the future Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In Israel’s responses to God, the people depict all of human sinfulness and faithlessness. Israel’s wanderings illustrate the results of unbelief. The punishments of Israel prove the maxim of Numbers 32:23: “But if you fail to keep your word, then you will have sinned against the <span>Lord<\/span>, and you may be sure that your sin will find you out” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Numbers forcefully teaches that safety and blessing are to be found only in trust in the Lord. Only he is capable of bringing men and women to the place of rest (Heb 4:9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Deuteronomy, Book of; Exodus, Book of; Genesis, Book of; Leviticus, Book of; Moses; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NUMBERS, Book of Fourth book of the English Bible. Its title is the English translation of the Latin Vulgate title, Numeri. The book takes this name from the fact that several rosters of various kinds are recorded in the book, specifically, the two army musters in chapters 1 and 26, the tribal camp and march arrangements in chapter 2, and the Levitical censuses in chapters 3 and 4. Preview • Author • Background • Purpose • Content • Theological Teaching Author The question of the authorship o...","summary_en":"NUMBERS, Book of Fourth book of the English Bible. Its title is the English translation of the Latin Vulgate title, Numeri. The book takes this name from the fact that several rosters of various kinds are recorded in the book, specifically, the two army musters in chapters 1 and 26, the tribal camp and march arrangements in chapter 2, and the Levitical censuses in chapters 3 and 4. Preview • Author • Background • Purpose • Content • Theological Teaching Author The question of the authorship o...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57185,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:23","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:23<\/strong> Paul <em>explained<\/em> how <em>Jesus<\/em> fulfilled the Old Testament hopes for <em>the Kingdom of God<\/em><em>,<\/em> the master theme of Jesus’ own preaching (Mark 1:14-15; see Matt 4:12-17; Luke 4:14-21, 43). Referring to <em>the Scriptures<\/em><em>,<\/em> Paul presented the case for Jesus as the promised Messiah.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:23<\/strong> Paul <em>explained<\/em> how <em>Jesus<\/em> fulfilled the Old Testament hopes for <em>the Kingdom of God<\/em><em>,<\/em> the master theme of Jesus’ own preaching (Mark 1:14-15; see Matt 4:12-17; Luke 4:14-21, 43). Referring to <em>the Scriptures<\/em><em>,<\/em> Paul presented the case for Jesus as the promised Messiah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:23 Paul explained how Jesus fulfilled the Old Testament hopes for the Kingdom of God, the master theme of Jesus’ own preaching (Mark 1:14-15; see Matt 4:12-17; Luke 4:14-21, 43). Referring to the Scriptures, Paul presented the case for Jesus as the promised Messiah.","summary_en":"28:23 Paul explained how Jesus fulfilled the Old Testament hopes for the Kingdom of God, the master theme of Jesus’ own preaching (Mark 1:14-15; see Matt 4:12-17; Luke 4:14-21, 43). Referring to the Scriptures, Paul presented the case for Jesus as the promised Messiah.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84811,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:23","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:23<\/strong> Paul <em>explained<\/em> how <em>Jesus<\/em> fulfilled the Old Testament hopes for <em>the Kingdom of God<\/em><em>,<\/em> the master theme of Jesus’ own preaching (Mark 1:14-15; see Matt 4:12-17; Luke 4:14-21, 43). Referring to <em>the Scriptures<\/em><em>,<\/em> Paul presented the case for Jesus as the promised Messiah.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:23<\/strong> Paul <em>explained<\/em> how <em>Jesus<\/em> fulfilled the Old Testament hopes for <em>the Kingdom of God<\/em><em>,<\/em> the master theme of Jesus’ own preaching (Mark 1:14-15; see Matt 4:12-17; Luke 4:14-21, 43). Referring to <em>the Scriptures<\/em><em>,<\/em> Paul presented the case for Jesus as the promised Messiah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:23 Paul explained how Jesus fulfilled the Old Testament hopes for the Kingdom of God, the master theme of Jesus’ own preaching (Mark 1:14-15; see Matt 4:12-17; Luke 4:14-21, 43). Referring to the Scriptures, Paul presented the case for Jesus as the promised Messiah.","summary_en":"28:23 Paul explained how Jesus fulfilled the Old Testament hopes for the Kingdom of God, the master theme of Jesus’ own preaching (Mark 1:14-15; see Matt 4:12-17; Luke 4:14-21, 43). Referring to the Scriptures, Paul presented the case for Jesus as the promised Messiah.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112437,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:23","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:23<\/strong> Paul <em>explained<\/em> how <em>Jesus<\/em> fulfilled the Old Testament hopes for <em>the Kingdom of God<\/em><em>,<\/em> the master theme of Jesus’ own preaching (Mark 1:14-15; see Matt 4:12-17; Luke 4:14-21, 43). Referring to <em>the Scriptures<\/em><em>,<\/em> Paul presented the case for Jesus as the promised Messiah.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:23<\/strong> Paul <em>explained<\/em> how <em>Jesus<\/em> fulfilled the Old Testament hopes for <em>the Kingdom of God<\/em><em>,<\/em> the master theme of Jesus’ own preaching (Mark 1:14-15; see Matt 4:12-17; Luke 4:14-21, 43). Referring to <em>the Scriptures<\/em><em>,<\/em> Paul presented the case for Jesus as the promised Messiah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:23 Paul explained how Jesus fulfilled the Old Testament hopes for the Kingdom of God, the master theme of Jesus’ own preaching (Mark 1:14-15; see Matt 4:12-17; Luke 4:14-21, 43). Referring to the Scriptures, Paul presented the case for Jesus as the promised Messiah.","summary_en":"28:23 Paul explained how Jesus fulfilled the Old Testament hopes for the Kingdom of God, the master theme of Jesus’ own preaching (Mark 1:14-15; see Matt 4:12-17; Luke 4:14-21, 43). Referring to the Scriptures, Paul presented the case for Jesus as the promised Messiah.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140063,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:23","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:23<\/strong> Paul <em>explained<\/em> how <em>Jesus<\/em> fulfilled the Old Testament hopes for <em>the Kingdom of God<\/em><em>,<\/em> the master theme of Jesus’ own preaching (Mark 1:14-15; see Matt 4:12-17; Luke 4:14-21, 43). Referring to <em>the Scriptures<\/em><em>,<\/em> Paul presented the case for Jesus as the promised Messiah.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:23<\/strong> Paul <em>explained<\/em> how <em>Jesus<\/em> fulfilled the Old Testament hopes for <em>the Kingdom of God<\/em><em>,<\/em> the master theme of Jesus’ own preaching (Mark 1:14-15; see Matt 4:12-17; Luke 4:14-21, 43). Referring to <em>the Scriptures<\/em><em>,<\/em> Paul presented the case for Jesus as the promised Messiah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:23 Paul explained how Jesus fulfilled the Old Testament hopes for the Kingdom of God, the master theme of Jesus’ own preaching (Mark 1:14-15; see Matt 4:12-17; Luke 4:14-21, 43). Referring to the Scriptures, Paul presented the case for Jesus as the promised Messiah.","summary_en":"28:23 Paul explained how Jesus fulfilled the Old Testament hopes for the Kingdom of God, the master theme of Jesus’ own preaching (Mark 1:14-15; see Matt 4:12-17; Luke 4:14-21, 43). Referring to the Scriptures, Paul presented the case for Jesus as the promised Messiah.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":60224,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hardened Hearts","title_en":"Hardened Hearts","content_ro":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\n<p>Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\n<p>Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\n<p>This interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\n<p>The emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “<span>I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the <span>Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\n<p>Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\n<p>Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\n<p>This interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\n<p>The emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “<span>I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the <span>Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","summary_en":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64941,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Citizenship in the Kingdom","title_en":"Citizenship in the Kingdom","content_ro":"<h3>Citizenship in the Kingdom<\/h3>\n<p>First-century Jews were looking for a king like David or Judas Maccabeus who would overthrow their oppressors. Jesus’ vision of the Kingdom of God was radically different from these expectations (5:43-48).<\/p>\n<p>Matthew presents Jesus as a teacher unlike any other, and the Sermon on the Mount is his longest and most famous sermon. More than simply a collection of Jesus’ ethical or moral teachings, it is a manifesto of citizenship in the Kingdom of Heaven.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus framed the Kingdom of Heaven primarily in terms of (1) an upward relationship with God, (2) an inward change of heart, and (3) outward relationships with other people. This new message of the Kingdom was compelling to Jesus’ hearers (7:28-29).<\/p>\n<p>The tendency is to make hard distinctions between these three areas, but all three are always present. For example, Jesus’ instruction to humility (5:5) at first seems simply inward, but it is also about attitude toward God and others. The command not to resist an evil person (5:39) seems outward-focused, but often requires active faith in God and internal fortitude. Jesus’ instruction on prayer (6:5-15) is primarily about our relationship with God, but prayer requires an internal recognition of need and is often about relationships with others.<\/p>\n<p>Citizenship in the Kingdom of Heaven has a central requirement: Those who wish to follow Jesus and enter the Kingdom of Heaven must stop living self-centered lives and instead live God-centered ones. Those who try to achieve righteousness on their own still have self at the center and are still living in darkness. The call of Jesus is to live a life of true righteousness – the righteousness of God himself (5:20, 48). This is not a righteousness that can be attained. Instead, Jesus gives it to those who follow him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 7:24-29; 13:1-52; Mark 10:14-16; Luke 8:1-3; 9:1-6; John 3:1-21; Acts 8:12; 28:23-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Citizenship in the Kingdom<\/h3>\n<p>First-century Jews were looking for a king like David or Judas Maccabeus who would overthrow their oppressors. Jesus’ vision of the Kingdom of God was radically different from these expectations (5:43-48).<\/p>\n<p>Matthew presents Jesus as a teacher unlike any other, and the Sermon on the Mount is his longest and most famous sermon. More than simply a collection of Jesus’ ethical or moral teachings, it is a manifesto of citizenship in the Kingdom of Heaven.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus framed the Kingdom of Heaven primarily in terms of (1) an upward relationship with God, (2) an inward change of heart, and (3) outward relationships with other people. This new message of the Kingdom was compelling to Jesus’ hearers (7:28-29).<\/p>\n<p>The tendency is to make hard distinctions between these three areas, but all three are always present. For example, Jesus’ instruction to humility (5:5) at first seems simply inward, but it is also about attitude toward God and others. The command not to resist an evil person (5:39) seems outward-focused, but often requires active faith in God and internal fortitude. Jesus’ instruction on prayer (6:5-15) is primarily about our relationship with God, but prayer requires an internal recognition of need and is often about relationships with others.<\/p>\n<p>Citizenship in the Kingdom of Heaven has a central requirement: Those who wish to follow Jesus and enter the Kingdom of Heaven must stop living self-centered lives and instead live God-centered ones. Those who try to achieve righteousness on their own still have self at the center and are still living in darkness. The call of Jesus is to live a life of true righteousness – the righteousness of God himself (5:20, 48). This is not a righteousness that can be attained. Instead, Jesus gives it to those who follow him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 7:24-29; 13:1-52; Mark 10:14-16; Luke 8:1-3; 9:1-6; John 3:1-21; Acts 8:12; 28:23-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Citizenship in the Kingdom First-century Jews were looking for a king like David or Judas Maccabeus who would overthrow their oppressors. Jesus’ vision of the Kingdom of God was radically different from these expectations (5:43-48). Matthew presents Jesus as a teacher unlike any other, and the Sermon on the Mount is his longest and most famous sermon. More than simply a collection of Jesus’ ethical or moral teachings, it is a manifesto of citizenship in the Kingdom of Heaven. Jesus framed the...","summary_en":"Citizenship in the Kingdom First-century Jews were looking for a king like David or Judas Maccabeus who would overthrow their oppressors. Jesus’ vision of the Kingdom of God was radically different from these expectations (5:43-48). Matthew presents Jesus as a teacher unlike any other, and the Sermon on the Mount is his longest and most famous sermon. More than simply a collection of Jesus’ ethical or moral teachings, it is a manifesto of citizenship in the Kingdom of Heaven. Jesus framed the...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66877,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Jews and Gentiles","title_en":"Jews and Gentiles","content_ro":"<h3>Jews and Gentiles<\/h3>\n<p>One of the key themes of the New Testament is that God has incorporated Gentiles into the people of God while remaining faithful to his promises to Israel. In Romans 11:11-32, Paul describes God’s plan to save all nations in four distinct stages:<\/p>\n<p><strong>1. The Good News is proclaimed to the Jews, who respond (mostly) with unbelief.<\/strong> Using the metaphor of an olive tree, Paul says that “some of these branches from Abraham’s tree . . . have been broken off” (11:17). This stage was already a matter of history and personal experience for Paul—although he shared the Good News with Jews in synagogues all over the eastern Mediterranean basin, many Jews rejected the message (see Acts 13:42-49; 18:4-6; 28:23-28).<\/p>\n<p><strong>2. Many Gentiles respond to the message with faith.<\/strong> As the natural branches were broken off, “branches from a wild olive tree have been grafted in” (Rom 11:17). After being resisted in the synagogues, Paul and the other apostles offered salvation to the Gentiles, and many responded affirmatively (see Acts 13:48-49; 26:15-18). By the time Paul wrote Romans, the church in Rome was largely a Gentile community.<\/p>\n<p><strong>3. Many Jews respond to the Good News with faith.<\/strong> The natural branches are able to be “grafted in again” (Rom 11:23). Paul argues that the Jews are not “beyond recovery” and are capable of turning to Christ (11:11). Paul’s hope is that, as Gentiles enjoy the blessings of salvation, Jews would become jealous and respond to the Good News (11:11-15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>4. God pours out great blessing on the world, including the resurrection from the dead.<\/strong> Paul indicates that when the Jews turn to the Lord in greater numbers, it will be a tremendous blessing for the world (11:12, 15). Those who accept God’s offer of salvation—both Jew and Gentile—experience new life (see 11:15) and in the future will experience the resurrection from the dead (see 1 Cor 15:20-26). The end of history will see a great community of both Jews and Gentiles praising God for his mercy. Then all people will see and understand the great wisdom and love of God (Rom 11:33-36).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 7:7-8; 32:19-21; Isa 9:1-3; 49:6; Matt 4:15-16; 8:10-12; 15:21-28; Luke 21:20-24; Acts 2:38-39; 10:45-46; 11:12-18; 13:42-49; 18:4-6; 26:15-18; 28:23-28; Rom 1:5-6, 16-17; 2:9-10, 24-27; 3:9, 29-30; 9:25-33; 10:11-13; 11:11-36; 15:7-13, 27; 1 Cor 12:13; Gal 2:8-21; 3:8-9, 26-29; Eph 2:11-22; 3:6; Col 3:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jews and Gentiles<\/h3>\n<p>One of the key themes of the New Testament is that God has incorporated Gentiles into the people of God while remaining faithful to his promises to Israel. In Romans 11:11-32, Paul describes God’s plan to save all nations in four distinct stages:<\/p>\n<p><strong>1. The Good News is proclaimed to the Jews, who respond (mostly) with unbelief.<\/strong> Using the metaphor of an olive tree, Paul says that “some of these branches from Abraham’s tree . . . have been broken off” (11:17). This stage was already a matter of history and personal experience for Paul—although he shared the Good News with Jews in synagogues all over the eastern Mediterranean basin, many Jews rejected the message (see Acts 13:42-49; 18:4-6; 28:23-28).<\/p>\n<p><strong>2. Many Gentiles respond to the message with faith.<\/strong> As the natural branches were broken off, “branches from a wild olive tree have been grafted in” (Rom 11:17). After being resisted in the synagogues, Paul and the other apostles offered salvation to the Gentiles, and many responded affirmatively (see Acts 13:48-49; 26:15-18). By the time Paul wrote Romans, the church in Rome was largely a Gentile community.<\/p>\n<p><strong>3. Many Jews respond to the Good News with faith.<\/strong> The natural branches are able to be “grafted in again” (Rom 11:23). Paul argues that the Jews are not “beyond recovery” and are capable of turning to Christ (11:11). Paul’s hope is that, as Gentiles enjoy the blessings of salvation, Jews would become jealous and respond to the Good News (11:11-15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>4. God pours out great blessing on the world, including the resurrection from the dead.<\/strong> Paul indicates that when the Jews turn to the Lord in greater numbers, it will be a tremendous blessing for the world (11:12, 15). Those who accept God’s offer of salvation—both Jew and Gentile—experience new life (see 11:15) and in the future will experience the resurrection from the dead (see 1 Cor 15:20-26). The end of history will see a great community of both Jews and Gentiles praising God for his mercy. Then all people will see and understand the great wisdom and love of God (Rom 11:33-36).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 7:7-8; 32:19-21; Isa 9:1-3; 49:6; Matt 4:15-16; 8:10-12; 15:21-28; Luke 21:20-24; Acts 2:38-39; 10:45-46; 11:12-18; 13:42-49; 18:4-6; 26:15-18; 28:23-28; Rom 1:5-6, 16-17; 2:9-10, 24-27; 3:9, 29-30; 9:25-33; 10:11-13; 11:11-36; 15:7-13, 27; 1 Cor 12:13; Gal 2:8-21; 3:8-9, 26-29; Eph 2:11-22; 3:6; Col 3:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jews and Gentiles One of the key themes of the New Testament is that God has incorporated Gentiles into the people of God while remaining faithful to his promises to Israel. In Romans 11:11-32, Paul describes God’s plan to save all nations in four distinct stages: 1. The Good News is proclaimed to the Jews, who respond (mostly) with unbelief. Using the metaphor of an olive tree, Paul says that “some of these branches from Abraham’s tree . . . have been broken off” (11:17). This stage was alre...","summary_en":"Jews and Gentiles One of the key themes of the New Testament is that God has incorporated Gentiles into the people of God while remaining faithful to his promises to Israel. In Romans 11:11-32, Paul describes God’s plan to save all nations in four distinct stages: 1. The Good News is proclaimed to the Jews, who respond (mostly) with unbelief. Using the metaphor of an olive tree, Paul says that “some of these branches from Abraham’s tree . . . have been broken off” (11:17). This stage was alre...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87850,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hardened Hearts","title_en":"Hardened Hearts","content_ro":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\n<p>Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\n<p>Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\n<p>This interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\n<p>The emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “<span>I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the <span>Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\n<p>Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\n<p>Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\n<p>This interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\n<p>The emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “<span>I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the <span>Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","summary_en":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":92567,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Citizenship in the Kingdom","title_en":"Citizenship in the Kingdom","content_ro":"<h3>Citizenship in the Kingdom<\/h3>\n<p>First-century Jews were looking for a king like David or Judas Maccabeus who would overthrow their oppressors. Jesus’ vision of the Kingdom of God was radically different from these expectations (5:43-48).<\/p>\n<p>Matthew presents Jesus as a teacher unlike any other, and the Sermon on the Mount is his longest and most famous sermon. More than simply a collection of Jesus’ ethical or moral teachings, it is a manifesto of citizenship in the Kingdom of Heaven.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus framed the Kingdom of Heaven primarily in terms of (1) an upward relationship with God, (2) an inward change of heart, and (3) outward relationships with other people. This new message of the Kingdom was compelling to Jesus’ hearers (7:28-29).<\/p>\n<p>The tendency is to make hard distinctions between these three areas, but all three are always present. For example, Jesus’ instruction to humility (5:5) at first seems simply inward, but it is also about attitude toward God and others. The command not to resist an evil person (5:39) seems outward-focused, but often requires active faith in God and internal fortitude. Jesus’ instruction on prayer (6:5-15) is primarily about our relationship with God, but prayer requires an internal recognition of need and is often about relationships with others.<\/p>\n<p>Citizenship in the Kingdom of Heaven has a central requirement: Those who wish to follow Jesus and enter the Kingdom of Heaven must stop living self-centered lives and instead live God-centered ones. Those who try to achieve righteousness on their own still have self at the center and are still living in darkness. The call of Jesus is to live a life of true righteousness – the righteousness of God himself (5:20, 48). This is not a righteousness that can be attained. Instead, Jesus gives it to those who follow him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 7:24-29; 13:1-52; Mark 10:14-16; Luke 8:1-3; 9:1-6; John 3:1-21; Acts 8:12; 28:23-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Citizenship in the Kingdom<\/h3>\n<p>First-century Jews were looking for a king like David or Judas Maccabeus who would overthrow their oppressors. Jesus’ vision of the Kingdom of God was radically different from these expectations (5:43-48).<\/p>\n<p>Matthew presents Jesus as a teacher unlike any other, and the Sermon on the Mount is his longest and most famous sermon. More than simply a collection of Jesus’ ethical or moral teachings, it is a manifesto of citizenship in the Kingdom of Heaven.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus framed the Kingdom of Heaven primarily in terms of (1) an upward relationship with God, (2) an inward change of heart, and (3) outward relationships with other people. This new message of the Kingdom was compelling to Jesus’ hearers (7:28-29).<\/p>\n<p>The tendency is to make hard distinctions between these three areas, but all three are always present. For example, Jesus’ instruction to humility (5:5) at first seems simply inward, but it is also about attitude toward God and others. The command not to resist an evil person (5:39) seems outward-focused, but often requires active faith in God and internal fortitude. Jesus’ instruction on prayer (6:5-15) is primarily about our relationship with God, but prayer requires an internal recognition of need and is often about relationships with others.<\/p>\n<p>Citizenship in the Kingdom of Heaven has a central requirement: Those who wish to follow Jesus and enter the Kingdom of Heaven must stop living self-centered lives and instead live God-centered ones. Those who try to achieve righteousness on their own still have self at the center and are still living in darkness. The call of Jesus is to live a life of true righteousness – the righteousness of God himself (5:20, 48). This is not a righteousness that can be attained. Instead, Jesus gives it to those who follow him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 7:24-29; 13:1-52; Mark 10:14-16; Luke 8:1-3; 9:1-6; John 3:1-21; Acts 8:12; 28:23-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Citizenship in the Kingdom First-century Jews were looking for a king like David or Judas Maccabeus who would overthrow their oppressors. Jesus’ vision of the Kingdom of God was radically different from these expectations (5:43-48). Matthew presents Jesus as a teacher unlike any other, and the Sermon on the Mount is his longest and most famous sermon. More than simply a collection of Jesus’ ethical or moral teachings, it is a manifesto of citizenship in the Kingdom of Heaven. Jesus framed the...","summary_en":"Citizenship in the Kingdom First-century Jews were looking for a king like David or Judas Maccabeus who would overthrow their oppressors. Jesus’ vision of the Kingdom of God was radically different from these expectations (5:43-48). Matthew presents Jesus as a teacher unlike any other, and the Sermon on the Mount is his longest and most famous sermon. More than simply a collection of Jesus’ ethical or moral teachings, it is a manifesto of citizenship in the Kingdom of Heaven. Jesus framed the...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":94503,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Jews and Gentiles","title_en":"Jews and Gentiles","content_ro":"<h3>Jews and Gentiles<\/h3>\n<p>One of the key themes of the New Testament is that God has incorporated Gentiles into the people of God while remaining faithful to his promises to Israel. In Romans 11:11-32, Paul describes God’s plan to save all nations in four distinct stages:<\/p>\n<p><strong>1. The Good News is proclaimed to the Jews, who respond (mostly) with unbelief.<\/strong> Using the metaphor of an olive tree, Paul says that “some of these branches from Abraham’s tree . . . have been broken off” (11:17). This stage was already a matter of history and personal experience for Paul—although he shared the Good News with Jews in synagogues all over the eastern Mediterranean basin, many Jews rejected the message (see Acts 13:42-49; 18:4-6; 28:23-28).<\/p>\n<p><strong>2. Many Gentiles respond to the message with faith.<\/strong> As the natural branches were broken off, “branches from a wild olive tree have been grafted in” (Rom 11:17). After being resisted in the synagogues, Paul and the other apostles offered salvation to the Gentiles, and many responded affirmatively (see Acts 13:48-49; 26:15-18). By the time Paul wrote Romans, the church in Rome was largely a Gentile community.<\/p>\n<p><strong>3. Many Jews respond to the Good News with faith.<\/strong> The natural branches are able to be “grafted in again” (Rom 11:23). Paul argues that the Jews are not “beyond recovery” and are capable of turning to Christ (11:11). Paul’s hope is that, as Gentiles enjoy the blessings of salvation, Jews would become jealous and respond to the Good News (11:11-15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>4. God pours out great blessing on the world, including the resurrection from the dead.<\/strong> Paul indicates that when the Jews turn to the Lord in greater numbers, it will be a tremendous blessing for the world (11:12, 15). Those who accept God’s offer of salvation—both Jew and Gentile—experience new life (see 11:15) and in the future will experience the resurrection from the dead (see 1 Cor 15:20-26). The end of history will see a great community of both Jews and Gentiles praising God for his mercy. Then all people will see and understand the great wisdom and love of God (Rom 11:33-36).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 7:7-8; 32:19-21; Isa 9:1-3; 49:6; Matt 4:15-16; 8:10-12; 15:21-28; Luke 21:20-24; Acts 2:38-39; 10:45-46; 11:12-18; 13:42-49; 18:4-6; 26:15-18; 28:23-28; Rom 1:5-6, 16-17; 2:9-10, 24-27; 3:9, 29-30; 9:25-33; 10:11-13; 11:11-36; 15:7-13, 27; 1 Cor 12:13; Gal 2:8-21; 3:8-9, 26-29; Eph 2:11-22; 3:6; Col 3:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jews and Gentiles<\/h3>\n<p>One of the key themes of the New Testament is that God has incorporated Gentiles into the people of God while remaining faithful to his promises to Israel. In Romans 11:11-32, Paul describes God’s plan to save all nations in four distinct stages:<\/p>\n<p><strong>1. The Good News is proclaimed to the Jews, who respond (mostly) with unbelief.<\/strong> Using the metaphor of an olive tree, Paul says that “some of these branches from Abraham’s tree . . . have been broken off” (11:17). This stage was already a matter of history and personal experience for Paul—although he shared the Good News with Jews in synagogues all over the eastern Mediterranean basin, many Jews rejected the message (see Acts 13:42-49; 18:4-6; 28:23-28).<\/p>\n<p><strong>2. Many Gentiles respond to the message with faith.<\/strong> As the natural branches were broken off, “branches from a wild olive tree have been grafted in” (Rom 11:17). After being resisted in the synagogues, Paul and the other apostles offered salvation to the Gentiles, and many responded affirmatively (see Acts 13:48-49; 26:15-18). By the time Paul wrote Romans, the church in Rome was largely a Gentile community.<\/p>\n<p><strong>3. Many Jews respond to the Good News with faith.<\/strong> The natural branches are able to be “grafted in again” (Rom 11:23). Paul argues that the Jews are not “beyond recovery” and are capable of turning to Christ (11:11). Paul’s hope is that, as Gentiles enjoy the blessings of salvation, Jews would become jealous and respond to the Good News (11:11-15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>4. God pours out great blessing on the world, including the resurrection from the dead.<\/strong> Paul indicates that when the Jews turn to the Lord in greater numbers, it will be a tremendous blessing for the world (11:12, 15). Those who accept God’s offer of salvation—both Jew and Gentile—experience new life (see 11:15) and in the future will experience the resurrection from the dead (see 1 Cor 15:20-26). The end of history will see a great community of both Jews and Gentiles praising God for his mercy. Then all people will see and understand the great wisdom and love of God (Rom 11:33-36).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 7:7-8; 32:19-21; Isa 9:1-3; 49:6; Matt 4:15-16; 8:10-12; 15:21-28; Luke 21:20-24; Acts 2:38-39; 10:45-46; 11:12-18; 13:42-49; 18:4-6; 26:15-18; 28:23-28; Rom 1:5-6, 16-17; 2:9-10, 24-27; 3:9, 29-30; 9:25-33; 10:11-13; 11:11-36; 15:7-13, 27; 1 Cor 12:13; Gal 2:8-21; 3:8-9, 26-29; Eph 2:11-22; 3:6; Col 3:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jews and Gentiles One of the key themes of the New Testament is that God has incorporated Gentiles into the people of God while remaining faithful to his promises to Israel. In Romans 11:11-32, Paul describes God’s plan to save all nations in four distinct stages: 1. The Good News is proclaimed to the Jews, who respond (mostly) with unbelief. Using the metaphor of an olive tree, Paul says that “some of these branches from Abraham’s tree . . . have been broken off” (11:17). This stage was alre...","summary_en":"Jews and Gentiles One of the key themes of the New Testament is that God has incorporated Gentiles into the people of God while remaining faithful to his promises to Israel. In Romans 11:11-32, Paul describes God’s plan to save all nations in four distinct stages: 1. The Good News is proclaimed to the Jews, who respond (mostly) with unbelief. Using the metaphor of an olive tree, Paul says that “some of these branches from Abraham’s tree . . . have been broken off” (11:17). This stage was alre...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115476,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hardened Hearts","title_en":"Hardened Hearts","content_ro":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\n<p>Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\n<p>Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\n<p>This interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\n<p>The emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “<span>I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the <span>Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\n<p>Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\n<p>Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\n<p>This interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\n<p>The emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “<span>I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the <span>Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","summary_en":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":120193,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Citizenship in the Kingdom","title_en":"Citizenship in the Kingdom","content_ro":"<h3>Citizenship in the Kingdom<\/h3>\n<p>First-century Jews were looking for a king like David or Judas Maccabeus who would overthrow their oppressors. Jesus’ vision of the Kingdom of God was radically different from these expectations (5:43-48).<\/p>\n<p>Matthew presents Jesus as a teacher unlike any other, and the Sermon on the Mount is his longest and most famous sermon. More than simply a collection of Jesus’ ethical or moral teachings, it is a manifesto of citizenship in the Kingdom of Heaven.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus framed the Kingdom of Heaven primarily in terms of (1) an upward relationship with God, (2) an inward change of heart, and (3) outward relationships with other people. This new message of the Kingdom was compelling to Jesus’ hearers (7:28-29).<\/p>\n<p>The tendency is to make hard distinctions between these three areas, but all three are always present. For example, Jesus’ instruction to humility (5:5) at first seems simply inward, but it is also about attitude toward God and others. The command not to resist an evil person (5:39) seems outward-focused, but often requires active faith in God and internal fortitude. Jesus’ instruction on prayer (6:5-15) is primarily about our relationship with God, but prayer requires an internal recognition of need and is often about relationships with others.<\/p>\n<p>Citizenship in the Kingdom of Heaven has a central requirement: Those who wish to follow Jesus and enter the Kingdom of Heaven must stop living self-centered lives and instead live God-centered ones. Those who try to achieve righteousness on their own still have self at the center and are still living in darkness. The call of Jesus is to live a life of true righteousness – the righteousness of God himself (5:20, 48). This is not a righteousness that can be attained. Instead, Jesus gives it to those who follow him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 7:24-29; 13:1-52; Mark 10:14-16; Luke 8:1-3; 9:1-6; John 3:1-21; Acts 8:12; 28:23-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Citizenship in the Kingdom<\/h3>\n<p>First-century Jews were looking for a king like David or Judas Maccabeus who would overthrow their oppressors. Jesus’ vision of the Kingdom of God was radically different from these expectations (5:43-48).<\/p>\n<p>Matthew presents Jesus as a teacher unlike any other, and the Sermon on the Mount is his longest and most famous sermon. More than simply a collection of Jesus’ ethical or moral teachings, it is a manifesto of citizenship in the Kingdom of Heaven.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus framed the Kingdom of Heaven primarily in terms of (1) an upward relationship with God, (2) an inward change of heart, and (3) outward relationships with other people. This new message of the Kingdom was compelling to Jesus’ hearers (7:28-29).<\/p>\n<p>The tendency is to make hard distinctions between these three areas, but all three are always present. For example, Jesus’ instruction to humility (5:5) at first seems simply inward, but it is also about attitude toward God and others. The command not to resist an evil person (5:39) seems outward-focused, but often requires active faith in God and internal fortitude. Jesus’ instruction on prayer (6:5-15) is primarily about our relationship with God, but prayer requires an internal recognition of need and is often about relationships with others.<\/p>\n<p>Citizenship in the Kingdom of Heaven has a central requirement: Those who wish to follow Jesus and enter the Kingdom of Heaven must stop living self-centered lives and instead live God-centered ones. Those who try to achieve righteousness on their own still have self at the center and are still living in darkness. The call of Jesus is to live a life of true righteousness – the righteousness of God himself (5:20, 48). This is not a righteousness that can be attained. Instead, Jesus gives it to those who follow him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 7:24-29; 13:1-52; Mark 10:14-16; Luke 8:1-3; 9:1-6; John 3:1-21; Acts 8:12; 28:23-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Citizenship in the Kingdom First-century Jews were looking for a king like David or Judas Maccabeus who would overthrow their oppressors. Jesus’ vision of the Kingdom of God was radically different from these expectations (5:43-48). Matthew presents Jesus as a teacher unlike any other, and the Sermon on the Mount is his longest and most famous sermon. More than simply a collection of Jesus’ ethical or moral teachings, it is a manifesto of citizenship in the Kingdom of Heaven. Jesus framed the...","summary_en":"Citizenship in the Kingdom First-century Jews were looking for a king like David or Judas Maccabeus who would overthrow their oppressors. Jesus’ vision of the Kingdom of God was radically different from these expectations (5:43-48). Matthew presents Jesus as a teacher unlike any other, and the Sermon on the Mount is his longest and most famous sermon. More than simply a collection of Jesus’ ethical or moral teachings, it is a manifesto of citizenship in the Kingdom of Heaven. Jesus framed the...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":122129,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Jews and Gentiles","title_en":"Jews and Gentiles","content_ro":"<h3>Jews and Gentiles<\/h3>\n<p>One of the key themes of the New Testament is that God has incorporated Gentiles into the people of God while remaining faithful to his promises to Israel. In Romans 11:11-32, Paul describes God’s plan to save all nations in four distinct stages:<\/p>\n<p><strong>1. The Good News is proclaimed to the Jews, who respond (mostly) with unbelief.<\/strong> Using the metaphor of an olive tree, Paul says that “some of these branches from Abraham’s tree . . . have been broken off” (11:17). This stage was already a matter of history and personal experience for Paul—although he shared the Good News with Jews in synagogues all over the eastern Mediterranean basin, many Jews rejected the message (see Acts 13:42-49; 18:4-6; 28:23-28).<\/p>\n<p><strong>2. Many Gentiles respond to the message with faith.<\/strong> As the natural branches were broken off, “branches from a wild olive tree have been grafted in” (Rom 11:17). After being resisted in the synagogues, Paul and the other apostles offered salvation to the Gentiles, and many responded affirmatively (see Acts 13:48-49; 26:15-18). By the time Paul wrote Romans, the church in Rome was largely a Gentile community.<\/p>\n<p><strong>3. Many Jews respond to the Good News with faith.<\/strong> The natural branches are able to be “grafted in again” (Rom 11:23). Paul argues that the Jews are not “beyond recovery” and are capable of turning to Christ (11:11). Paul’s hope is that, as Gentiles enjoy the blessings of salvation, Jews would become jealous and respond to the Good News (11:11-15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>4. God pours out great blessing on the world, including the resurrection from the dead.<\/strong> Paul indicates that when the Jews turn to the Lord in greater numbers, it will be a tremendous blessing for the world (11:12, 15). Those who accept God’s offer of salvation—both Jew and Gentile—experience new life (see 11:15) and in the future will experience the resurrection from the dead (see 1 Cor 15:20-26). The end of history will see a great community of both Jews and Gentiles praising God for his mercy. Then all people will see and understand the great wisdom and love of God (Rom 11:33-36).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 7:7-8; 32:19-21; Isa 9:1-3; 49:6; Matt 4:15-16; 8:10-12; 15:21-28; Luke 21:20-24; Acts 2:38-39; 10:45-46; 11:12-18; 13:42-49; 18:4-6; 26:15-18; 28:23-28; Rom 1:5-6, 16-17; 2:9-10, 24-27; 3:9, 29-30; 9:25-33; 10:11-13; 11:11-36; 15:7-13, 27; 1 Cor 12:13; Gal 2:8-21; 3:8-9, 26-29; Eph 2:11-22; 3:6; Col 3:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jews and Gentiles<\/h3>\n<p>One of the key themes of the New Testament is that God has incorporated Gentiles into the people of God while remaining faithful to his promises to Israel. In Romans 11:11-32, Paul describes God’s plan to save all nations in four distinct stages:<\/p>\n<p><strong>1. The Good News is proclaimed to the Jews, who respond (mostly) with unbelief.<\/strong> Using the metaphor of an olive tree, Paul says that “some of these branches from Abraham’s tree . . . have been broken off” (11:17). This stage was already a matter of history and personal experience for Paul—although he shared the Good News with Jews in synagogues all over the eastern Mediterranean basin, many Jews rejected the message (see Acts 13:42-49; 18:4-6; 28:23-28).<\/p>\n<p><strong>2. Many Gentiles respond to the message with faith.<\/strong> As the natural branches were broken off, “branches from a wild olive tree have been grafted in” (Rom 11:17). After being resisted in the synagogues, Paul and the other apostles offered salvation to the Gentiles, and many responded affirmatively (see Acts 13:48-49; 26:15-18). By the time Paul wrote Romans, the church in Rome was largely a Gentile community.<\/p>\n<p><strong>3. Many Jews respond to the Good News with faith.<\/strong> The natural branches are able to be “grafted in again” (Rom 11:23). Paul argues that the Jews are not “beyond recovery” and are capable of turning to Christ (11:11). Paul’s hope is that, as Gentiles enjoy the blessings of salvation, Jews would become jealous and respond to the Good News (11:11-15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>4. God pours out great blessing on the world, including the resurrection from the dead.<\/strong> Paul indicates that when the Jews turn to the Lord in greater numbers, it will be a tremendous blessing for the world (11:12, 15). Those who accept God’s offer of salvation—both Jew and Gentile—experience new life (see 11:15) and in the future will experience the resurrection from the dead (see 1 Cor 15:20-26). The end of history will see a great community of both Jews and Gentiles praising God for his mercy. Then all people will see and understand the great wisdom and love of God (Rom 11:33-36).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 7:7-8; 32:19-21; Isa 9:1-3; 49:6; Matt 4:15-16; 8:10-12; 15:21-28; Luke 21:20-24; Acts 2:38-39; 10:45-46; 11:12-18; 13:42-49; 18:4-6; 26:15-18; 28:23-28; Rom 1:5-6, 16-17; 2:9-10, 24-27; 3:9, 29-30; 9:25-33; 10:11-13; 11:11-36; 15:7-13, 27; 1 Cor 12:13; Gal 2:8-21; 3:8-9, 26-29; Eph 2:11-22; 3:6; Col 3:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jews and Gentiles One of the key themes of the New Testament is that God has incorporated Gentiles into the people of God while remaining faithful to his promises to Israel. In Romans 11:11-32, Paul describes God’s plan to save all nations in four distinct stages: 1. The Good News is proclaimed to the Jews, who respond (mostly) with unbelief. Using the metaphor of an olive tree, Paul says that “some of these branches from Abraham’s tree . . . have been broken off” (11:17). This stage was alre...","summary_en":"Jews and Gentiles One of the key themes of the New Testament is that God has incorporated Gentiles into the people of God while remaining faithful to his promises to Israel. In Romans 11:11-32, Paul describes God’s plan to save all nations in four distinct stages: 1. The Good News is proclaimed to the Jews, who respond (mostly) with unbelief. Using the metaphor of an olive tree, Paul says that “some of these branches from Abraham’s tree . . . have been broken off” (11:17). This stage was alre...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143102,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hardened Hearts","title_en":"Hardened Hearts","content_ro":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\n<p>Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\n<p>Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\n<p>This interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\n<p>The emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “<span>I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the <span>Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\n<p>Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\n<p>Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\n<p>This interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\n<p>The emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “<span>I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the <span>Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","summary_en":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":147819,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Citizenship in the Kingdom","title_en":"Citizenship in the Kingdom","content_ro":"<h3>Citizenship in the Kingdom<\/h3>\n<p>First-century Jews were looking for a king like David or Judas Maccabeus who would overthrow their oppressors. Jesus’ vision of the Kingdom of God was radically different from these expectations (5:43-48).<\/p>\n<p>Matthew presents Jesus as a teacher unlike any other, and the Sermon on the Mount is his longest and most famous sermon. More than simply a collection of Jesus’ ethical or moral teachings, it is a manifesto of citizenship in the Kingdom of Heaven.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus framed the Kingdom of Heaven primarily in terms of (1) an upward relationship with God, (2) an inward change of heart, and (3) outward relationships with other people. This new message of the Kingdom was compelling to Jesus’ hearers (7:28-29).<\/p>\n<p>The tendency is to make hard distinctions between these three areas, but all three are always present. For example, Jesus’ instruction to humility (5:5) at first seems simply inward, but it is also about attitude toward God and others. The command not to resist an evil person (5:39) seems outward-focused, but often requires active faith in God and internal fortitude. Jesus’ instruction on prayer (6:5-15) is primarily about our relationship with God, but prayer requires an internal recognition of need and is often about relationships with others.<\/p>\n<p>Citizenship in the Kingdom of Heaven has a central requirement: Those who wish to follow Jesus and enter the Kingdom of Heaven must stop living self-centered lives and instead live God-centered ones. Those who try to achieve righteousness on their own still have self at the center and are still living in darkness. The call of Jesus is to live a life of true righteousness – the righteousness of God himself (5:20, 48). This is not a righteousness that can be attained. Instead, Jesus gives it to those who follow him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 7:24-29; 13:1-52; Mark 10:14-16; Luke 8:1-3; 9:1-6; John 3:1-21; Acts 8:12; 28:23-31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Citizenship in the Kingdom<\/h3>\n<p>First-century Jews were looking for a king like David or Judas Maccabeus who would overthrow their oppressors. Jesus’ vision of the Kingdom of God was radically different from these expectations (5:43-48).<\/p>\n<p>Matthew presents Jesus as a teacher unlike any other, and the Sermon on the Mount is his longest and most famous sermon. More than simply a collection of Jesus’ ethical or moral teachings, it is a manifesto of citizenship in the Kingdom of Heaven.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus framed the Kingdom of Heaven primarily in terms of (1) an upward relationship with God, (2) an inward change of heart, and (3) outward relationships with other people. This new message of the Kingdom was compelling to Jesus’ hearers (7:28-29).<\/p>\n<p>The tendency is to make hard distinctions between these three areas, but all three are always present. For example, Jesus’ instruction to humility (5:5) at first seems simply inward, but it is also about attitude toward God and others. The command not to resist an evil person (5:39) seems outward-focused, but often requires active faith in God and internal fortitude. Jesus’ instruction on prayer (6:5-15) is primarily about our relationship with God, but prayer requires an internal recognition of need and is often about relationships with others.<\/p>\n<p>Citizenship in the Kingdom of Heaven has a central requirement: Those who wish to follow Jesus and enter the Kingdom of Heaven must stop living self-centered lives and instead live God-centered ones. Those who try to achieve righteousness on their own still have self at the center and are still living in darkness. The call of Jesus is to live a life of true righteousness – the righteousness of God himself (5:20, 48). This is not a righteousness that can be attained. Instead, Jesus gives it to those who follow him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 7:24-29; 13:1-52; Mark 10:14-16; Luke 8:1-3; 9:1-6; John 3:1-21; Acts 8:12; 28:23-31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Citizenship in the Kingdom First-century Jews were looking for a king like David or Judas Maccabeus who would overthrow their oppressors. Jesus’ vision of the Kingdom of God was radically different from these expectations (5:43-48). Matthew presents Jesus as a teacher unlike any other, and the Sermon on the Mount is his longest and most famous sermon. More than simply a collection of Jesus’ ethical or moral teachings, it is a manifesto of citizenship in the Kingdom of Heaven. Jesus framed the...","summary_en":"Citizenship in the Kingdom First-century Jews were looking for a king like David or Judas Maccabeus who would overthrow their oppressors. Jesus’ vision of the Kingdom of God was radically different from these expectations (5:43-48). Matthew presents Jesus as a teacher unlike any other, and the Sermon on the Mount is his longest and most famous sermon. More than simply a collection of Jesus’ ethical or moral teachings, it is a manifesto of citizenship in the Kingdom of Heaven. Jesus framed the...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149755,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Jews and Gentiles","title_en":"Jews and Gentiles","content_ro":"<h3>Jews and Gentiles<\/h3>\n<p>One of the key themes of the New Testament is that God has incorporated Gentiles into the people of God while remaining faithful to his promises to Israel. In Romans 11:11-32, Paul describes God’s plan to save all nations in four distinct stages:<\/p>\n<p><strong>1. The Good News is proclaimed to the Jews, who respond (mostly) with unbelief.<\/strong> Using the metaphor of an olive tree, Paul says that “some of these branches from Abraham’s tree . . . have been broken off” (11:17). This stage was already a matter of history and personal experience for Paul—although he shared the Good News with Jews in synagogues all over the eastern Mediterranean basin, many Jews rejected the message (see Acts 13:42-49; 18:4-6; 28:23-28).<\/p>\n<p><strong>2. Many Gentiles respond to the message with faith.<\/strong> As the natural branches were broken off, “branches from a wild olive tree have been grafted in” (Rom 11:17). After being resisted in the synagogues, Paul and the other apostles offered salvation to the Gentiles, and many responded affirmatively (see Acts 13:48-49; 26:15-18). By the time Paul wrote Romans, the church in Rome was largely a Gentile community.<\/p>\n<p><strong>3. Many Jews respond to the Good News with faith.<\/strong> The natural branches are able to be “grafted in again” (Rom 11:23). Paul argues that the Jews are not “beyond recovery” and are capable of turning to Christ (11:11). Paul’s hope is that, as Gentiles enjoy the blessings of salvation, Jews would become jealous and respond to the Good News (11:11-15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>4. God pours out great blessing on the world, including the resurrection from the dead.<\/strong> Paul indicates that when the Jews turn to the Lord in greater numbers, it will be a tremendous blessing for the world (11:12, 15). Those who accept God’s offer of salvation—both Jew and Gentile—experience new life (see 11:15) and in the future will experience the resurrection from the dead (see 1 Cor 15:20-26). The end of history will see a great community of both Jews and Gentiles praising God for his mercy. Then all people will see and understand the great wisdom and love of God (Rom 11:33-36).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 7:7-8; 32:19-21; Isa 9:1-3; 49:6; Matt 4:15-16; 8:10-12; 15:21-28; Luke 21:20-24; Acts 2:38-39; 10:45-46; 11:12-18; 13:42-49; 18:4-6; 26:15-18; 28:23-28; Rom 1:5-6, 16-17; 2:9-10, 24-27; 3:9, 29-30; 9:25-33; 10:11-13; 11:11-36; 15:7-13, 27; 1 Cor 12:13; Gal 2:8-21; 3:8-9, 26-29; Eph 2:11-22; 3:6; Col 3:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jews and Gentiles<\/h3>\n<p>One of the key themes of the New Testament is that God has incorporated Gentiles into the people of God while remaining faithful to his promises to Israel. In Romans 11:11-32, Paul describes God’s plan to save all nations in four distinct stages:<\/p>\n<p><strong>1. The Good News is proclaimed to the Jews, who respond (mostly) with unbelief.<\/strong> Using the metaphor of an olive tree, Paul says that “some of these branches from Abraham’s tree . . . have been broken off” (11:17). This stage was already a matter of history and personal experience for Paul—although he shared the Good News with Jews in synagogues all over the eastern Mediterranean basin, many Jews rejected the message (see Acts 13:42-49; 18:4-6; 28:23-28).<\/p>\n<p><strong>2. Many Gentiles respond to the message with faith.<\/strong> As the natural branches were broken off, “branches from a wild olive tree have been grafted in” (Rom 11:17). After being resisted in the synagogues, Paul and the other apostles offered salvation to the Gentiles, and many responded affirmatively (see Acts 13:48-49; 26:15-18). By the time Paul wrote Romans, the church in Rome was largely a Gentile community.<\/p>\n<p><strong>3. Many Jews respond to the Good News with faith.<\/strong> The natural branches are able to be “grafted in again” (Rom 11:23). Paul argues that the Jews are not “beyond recovery” and are capable of turning to Christ (11:11). Paul’s hope is that, as Gentiles enjoy the blessings of salvation, Jews would become jealous and respond to the Good News (11:11-15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>4. God pours out great blessing on the world, including the resurrection from the dead.<\/strong> Paul indicates that when the Jews turn to the Lord in greater numbers, it will be a tremendous blessing for the world (11:12, 15). Those who accept God’s offer of salvation—both Jew and Gentile—experience new life (see 11:15) and in the future will experience the resurrection from the dead (see 1 Cor 15:20-26). The end of history will see a great community of both Jews and Gentiles praising God for his mercy. Then all people will see and understand the great wisdom and love of God (Rom 11:33-36).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 7:7-8; 32:19-21; Isa 9:1-3; 49:6; Matt 4:15-16; 8:10-12; 15:21-28; Luke 21:20-24; Acts 2:38-39; 10:45-46; 11:12-18; 13:42-49; 18:4-6; 26:15-18; 28:23-28; Rom 1:5-6, 16-17; 2:9-10, 24-27; 3:9, 29-30; 9:25-33; 10:11-13; 11:11-36; 15:7-13, 27; 1 Cor 12:13; Gal 2:8-21; 3:8-9, 26-29; Eph 2:11-22; 3:6; Col 3:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jews and Gentiles One of the key themes of the New Testament is that God has incorporated Gentiles into the people of God while remaining faithful to his promises to Israel. In Romans 11:11-32, Paul describes God’s plan to save all nations in four distinct stages: 1. The Good News is proclaimed to the Jews, who respond (mostly) with unbelief. Using the metaphor of an olive tree, Paul says that “some of these branches from Abraham’s tree . . . have been broken off” (11:17). This stage was alre...","summary_en":"Jews and Gentiles One of the key themes of the New Testament is that God has incorporated Gentiles into the people of God while remaining faithful to his promises to Israel. In Romans 11:11-32, Paul describes God’s plan to save all nations in four distinct stages: 1. The Good News is proclaimed to the Jews, who respond (mostly) with unbelief. Using the metaphor of an olive tree, Paul says that “some of these branches from Abraham’s tree . . . have been broken off” (11:17). This stage was alre...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"24":[{"id":57186,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:24","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:24<\/strong> Paul’s all-day message met a mixed response, as it had in other quarters (e.g., 13:40-51; 17:11-14).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:24<\/strong> Paul’s all-day message met a mixed response, as it had in other quarters (e.g., 13:40-51; 17:11-14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:24 Paul’s all-day message met a mixed response, as it had in other quarters (e.g., 13:40-51; 17:11-14).","summary_en":"28:24 Paul’s all-day message met a mixed response, as it had in other quarters (e.g., 13:40-51; 17:11-14).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84812,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:24","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:24<\/strong> Paul’s all-day message met a mixed response, as it had in other quarters (e.g., 13:40-51; 17:11-14).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:24<\/strong> Paul’s all-day message met a mixed response, as it had in other quarters (e.g., 13:40-51; 17:11-14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:24 Paul’s all-day message met a mixed response, as it had in other quarters (e.g., 13:40-51; 17:11-14).","summary_en":"28:24 Paul’s all-day message met a mixed response, as it had in other quarters (e.g., 13:40-51; 17:11-14).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112438,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:24","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:24<\/strong> Paul’s all-day message met a mixed response, as it had in other quarters (e.g., 13:40-51; 17:11-14).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:24<\/strong> Paul’s all-day message met a mixed response, as it had in other quarters (e.g., 13:40-51; 17:11-14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:24 Paul’s all-day message met a mixed response, as it had in other quarters (e.g., 13:40-51; 17:11-14).","summary_en":"28:24 Paul’s all-day message met a mixed response, as it had in other quarters (e.g., 13:40-51; 17:11-14).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140064,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:24","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:24<\/strong> Paul’s all-day message met a mixed response, as it had in other quarters (e.g., 13:40-51; 17:11-14).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:24<\/strong> Paul’s all-day message met a mixed response, as it had in other quarters (e.g., 13:40-51; 17:11-14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:24 Paul’s all-day message met a mixed response, as it had in other quarters (e.g., 13:40-51; 17:11-14).","summary_en":"28:24 Paul’s all-day message met a mixed response, as it had in other quarters (e.g., 13:40-51; 17:11-14).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"25":[{"id":41893,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaiah","title_en":"Isaiah","content_ro":"<h3>Isaiah<\/h3>\n<p>Isaiah was a Judean prophet during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. He was the son of Amoz (Isa 1:1) and was possibly related to King Amaziah. He lived in Jerusalem, was well educated, and had deep insight into human nature. He had a long ministry (about 740~685 BC); as Judah’s political and religious counselor, he had access to kings and was apparently the court historian (2 Chr 26:22; 32:32). Isaiah’s wife was called a “prophetess” (see Study Note on Isa 8:3); their sons were Shear-jashub (7:3) and Maher-shalal-hash-baz (8:3).<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah opposed social and political evil at all levels. He censured fortune-tellers. He rebuked kings for their willfulness and indifference. He denounced wealthy, influential people who ignored their responsibilities. And he exhorted everyone to obey God’s covenant. Isaiah opposed Canaanite idolatry and insincere religious observances (1:10-17; 29:13), proclaiming judgment and declaring that only a righteous remnant would survive (6:11-13). He foretold the coming Messiah, the peaceful prince of God’s kingdom (9:6-7; 11:1-11) who was also an obedient, suffering servant (53:3-12). The book of Isaiah has more overtones of the New Testament than any other Old Testament book and is frequently cited by New Testament authors.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 19:1–20:19; 2 Chr 26:22; 32:20, 32; Isa 1:1–66:24; Matt 3:3; 4:14-16; 8:17; 12:17-21; 13:14-15; 15:7-9; Mark 1:2-3; 7:6-7; Luke 3:4-6; 4:17-19; John 1:23; 12:38-41; Acts 8:28-34; 28:25-27; Rom 9:27-29; 10:15-16, 20-21; 15:12; Gal 4:27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaiah<\/h3>\n<p>Isaiah was a Judean prophet during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. He was the son of Amoz (Isa 1:1) and was possibly related to King Amaziah. He lived in Jerusalem, was well educated, and had deep insight into human nature. He had a long ministry (about 740~685 BC); as Judah’s political and religious counselor, he had access to kings and was apparently the court historian (2 Chr 26:22; 32:32). Isaiah’s wife was called a “prophetess” (see Study Note on Isa 8:3); their sons were Shear-jashub (7:3) and Maher-shalal-hash-baz (8:3).<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah opposed social and political evil at all levels. He censured fortune-tellers. He rebuked kings for their willfulness and indifference. He denounced wealthy, influential people who ignored their responsibilities. And he exhorted everyone to obey God’s covenant. Isaiah opposed Canaanite idolatry and insincere religious observances (1:10-17; 29:13), proclaiming judgment and declaring that only a righteous remnant would survive (6:11-13). He foretold the coming Messiah, the peaceful prince of God’s kingdom (9:6-7; 11:1-11) who was also an obedient, suffering servant (53:3-12). The book of Isaiah has more overtones of the New Testament than any other Old Testament book and is frequently cited by New Testament authors.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 19:1–20:19; 2 Chr 26:22; 32:20, 32; Isa 1:1–66:24; Matt 3:3; 4:14-16; 8:17; 12:17-21; 13:14-15; 15:7-9; Mark 1:2-3; 7:6-7; Luke 3:4-6; 4:17-19; John 1:23; 12:38-41; Acts 8:28-34; 28:25-27; Rom 9:27-29; 10:15-16, 20-21; 15:12; Gal 4:27<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaiah Isaiah was a Judean prophet during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. He was the son of Amoz (Isa 1:1) and was possibly related to King Amaziah. He lived in Jerusalem, was well educated, and had deep insight into human nature. He had a long ministry (about 740~685 BC); as Judah’s political and religious counselor, he had access to kings and was apparently the court historian (2 Chr 26:22; 32:32). Isaiah’s wife was called a “prophetess” (see Study Note on Isa 8:3); their ...","summary_en":"Isaiah Isaiah was a Judean prophet during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. He was the son of Amoz (Isa 1:1) and was possibly related to King Amaziah. He lived in Jerusalem, was well educated, and had deep insight into human nature. He had a long ministry (about 740~685 BC); as Judah’s political and religious counselor, he had access to kings and was apparently the court historian (2 Chr 26:22; 32:32). Isaiah’s wife was called a “prophetess” (see Study Note on Isa 8:3); their ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":69519,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaiah","title_en":"Isaiah","content_ro":"<h3>Isaiah<\/h3>\n<p>Isaiah was a Judean prophet during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. He was the son of Amoz (Isa 1:1) and was possibly related to King Amaziah. He lived in Jerusalem, was well educated, and had deep insight into human nature. He had a long ministry (about 740~685 BC); as Judah’s political and religious counselor, he had access to kings and was apparently the court historian (2 Chr 26:22; 32:32). Isaiah’s wife was called a “prophetess” (see Study Note on Isa 8:3); their sons were Shear-jashub (7:3) and Maher-shalal-hash-baz (8:3).<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah opposed social and political evil at all levels. He censured fortune-tellers. He rebuked kings for their willfulness and indifference. He denounced wealthy, influential people who ignored their responsibilities. And he exhorted everyone to obey God’s covenant. Isaiah opposed Canaanite idolatry and insincere religious observances (1:10-17; 29:13), proclaiming judgment and declaring that only a righteous remnant would survive (6:11-13). He foretold the coming Messiah, the peaceful prince of God’s kingdom (9:6-7; 11:1-11) who was also an obedient, suffering servant (53:3-12). The book of Isaiah has more overtones of the New Testament than any other Old Testament book and is frequently cited by New Testament authors.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 19:1–20:19; 2 Chr 26:22; 32:20, 32; Isa 1:1–66:24; Matt 3:3; 4:14-16; 8:17; 12:17-21; 13:14-15; 15:7-9; Mark 1:2-3; 7:6-7; Luke 3:4-6; 4:17-19; John 1:23; 12:38-41; Acts 8:28-34; 28:25-27; Rom 9:27-29; 10:15-16, 20-21; 15:12; Gal 4:27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaiah<\/h3>\n<p>Isaiah was a Judean prophet during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. He was the son of Amoz (Isa 1:1) and was possibly related to King Amaziah. He lived in Jerusalem, was well educated, and had deep insight into human nature. He had a long ministry (about 740~685 BC); as Judah’s political and religious counselor, he had access to kings and was apparently the court historian (2 Chr 26:22; 32:32). Isaiah’s wife was called a “prophetess” (see Study Note on Isa 8:3); their sons were Shear-jashub (7:3) and Maher-shalal-hash-baz (8:3).<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah opposed social and political evil at all levels. He censured fortune-tellers. He rebuked kings for their willfulness and indifference. He denounced wealthy, influential people who ignored their responsibilities. And he exhorted everyone to obey God’s covenant. Isaiah opposed Canaanite idolatry and insincere religious observances (1:10-17; 29:13), proclaiming judgment and declaring that only a righteous remnant would survive (6:11-13). He foretold the coming Messiah, the peaceful prince of God’s kingdom (9:6-7; 11:1-11) who was also an obedient, suffering servant (53:3-12). The book of Isaiah has more overtones of the New Testament than any other Old Testament book and is frequently cited by New Testament authors.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 19:1–20:19; 2 Chr 26:22; 32:20, 32; Isa 1:1–66:24; Matt 3:3; 4:14-16; 8:17; 12:17-21; 13:14-15; 15:7-9; Mark 1:2-3; 7:6-7; Luke 3:4-6; 4:17-19; John 1:23; 12:38-41; Acts 8:28-34; 28:25-27; Rom 9:27-29; 10:15-16, 20-21; 15:12; Gal 4:27<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaiah Isaiah was a Judean prophet during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. He was the son of Amoz (Isa 1:1) and was possibly related to King Amaziah. He lived in Jerusalem, was well educated, and had deep insight into human nature. He had a long ministry (about 740~685 BC); as Judah’s political and religious counselor, he had access to kings and was apparently the court historian (2 Chr 26:22; 32:32). Isaiah’s wife was called a “prophetess” (see Study Note on Isa 8:3); their ...","summary_en":"Isaiah Isaiah was a Judean prophet during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. He was the son of Amoz (Isa 1:1) and was possibly related to King Amaziah. He lived in Jerusalem, was well educated, and had deep insight into human nature. He had a long ministry (about 740~685 BC); as Judah’s political and religious counselor, he had access to kings and was apparently the court historian (2 Chr 26:22; 32:32). Isaiah’s wife was called a “prophetess” (see Study Note on Isa 8:3); their ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97145,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaiah","title_en":"Isaiah","content_ro":"<h3>Isaiah<\/h3>\n<p>Isaiah was a Judean prophet during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. He was the son of Amoz (Isa 1:1) and was possibly related to King Amaziah. He lived in Jerusalem, was well educated, and had deep insight into human nature. He had a long ministry (about 740~685 BC); as Judah’s political and religious counselor, he had access to kings and was apparently the court historian (2 Chr 26:22; 32:32). Isaiah’s wife was called a “prophetess” (see Study Note on Isa 8:3); their sons were Shear-jashub (7:3) and Maher-shalal-hash-baz (8:3).<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah opposed social and political evil at all levels. He censured fortune-tellers. He rebuked kings for their willfulness and indifference. He denounced wealthy, influential people who ignored their responsibilities. And he exhorted everyone to obey God’s covenant. Isaiah opposed Canaanite idolatry and insincere religious observances (1:10-17; 29:13), proclaiming judgment and declaring that only a righteous remnant would survive (6:11-13). He foretold the coming Messiah, the peaceful prince of God’s kingdom (9:6-7; 11:1-11) who was also an obedient, suffering servant (53:3-12). The book of Isaiah has more overtones of the New Testament than any other Old Testament book and is frequently cited by New Testament authors.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 19:1–20:19; 2 Chr 26:22; 32:20, 32; Isa 1:1–66:24; Matt 3:3; 4:14-16; 8:17; 12:17-21; 13:14-15; 15:7-9; Mark 1:2-3; 7:6-7; Luke 3:4-6; 4:17-19; John 1:23; 12:38-41; Acts 8:28-34; 28:25-27; Rom 9:27-29; 10:15-16, 20-21; 15:12; Gal 4:27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaiah<\/h3>\n<p>Isaiah was a Judean prophet during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. He was the son of Amoz (Isa 1:1) and was possibly related to King Amaziah. He lived in Jerusalem, was well educated, and had deep insight into human nature. He had a long ministry (about 740~685 BC); as Judah’s political and religious counselor, he had access to kings and was apparently the court historian (2 Chr 26:22; 32:32). Isaiah’s wife was called a “prophetess” (see Study Note on Isa 8:3); their sons were Shear-jashub (7:3) and Maher-shalal-hash-baz (8:3).<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah opposed social and political evil at all levels. He censured fortune-tellers. He rebuked kings for their willfulness and indifference. He denounced wealthy, influential people who ignored their responsibilities. And he exhorted everyone to obey God’s covenant. Isaiah opposed Canaanite idolatry and insincere religious observances (1:10-17; 29:13), proclaiming judgment and declaring that only a righteous remnant would survive (6:11-13). He foretold the coming Messiah, the peaceful prince of God’s kingdom (9:6-7; 11:1-11) who was also an obedient, suffering servant (53:3-12). The book of Isaiah has more overtones of the New Testament than any other Old Testament book and is frequently cited by New Testament authors.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 19:1–20:19; 2 Chr 26:22; 32:20, 32; Isa 1:1–66:24; Matt 3:3; 4:14-16; 8:17; 12:17-21; 13:14-15; 15:7-9; Mark 1:2-3; 7:6-7; Luke 3:4-6; 4:17-19; John 1:23; 12:38-41; Acts 8:28-34; 28:25-27; Rom 9:27-29; 10:15-16, 20-21; 15:12; Gal 4:27<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaiah Isaiah was a Judean prophet during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. He was the son of Amoz (Isa 1:1) and was possibly related to King Amaziah. He lived in Jerusalem, was well educated, and had deep insight into human nature. He had a long ministry (about 740~685 BC); as Judah’s political and religious counselor, he had access to kings and was apparently the court historian (2 Chr 26:22; 32:32). Isaiah’s wife was called a “prophetess” (see Study Note on Isa 8:3); their ...","summary_en":"Isaiah Isaiah was a Judean prophet during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. He was the son of Amoz (Isa 1:1) and was possibly related to King Amaziah. He lived in Jerusalem, was well educated, and had deep insight into human nature. He had a long ministry (about 740~685 BC); as Judah’s political and religious counselor, he had access to kings and was apparently the court historian (2 Chr 26:22; 32:32). Isaiah’s wife was called a “prophetess” (see Study Note on Isa 8:3); their ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124771,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Isaiah","title_en":"Isaiah","content_ro":"<h3>Isaiah<\/h3>\n<p>Isaiah was a Judean prophet during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. He was the son of Amoz (Isa 1:1) and was possibly related to King Amaziah. He lived in Jerusalem, was well educated, and had deep insight into human nature. He had a long ministry (about 740~685 BC); as Judah’s political and religious counselor, he had access to kings and was apparently the court historian (2 Chr 26:22; 32:32). Isaiah’s wife was called a “prophetess” (see Study Note on Isa 8:3); their sons were Shear-jashub (7:3) and Maher-shalal-hash-baz (8:3).<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah opposed social and political evil at all levels. He censured fortune-tellers. He rebuked kings for their willfulness and indifference. He denounced wealthy, influential people who ignored their responsibilities. And he exhorted everyone to obey God’s covenant. Isaiah opposed Canaanite idolatry and insincere religious observances (1:10-17; 29:13), proclaiming judgment and declaring that only a righteous remnant would survive (6:11-13). He foretold the coming Messiah, the peaceful prince of God’s kingdom (9:6-7; 11:1-11) who was also an obedient, suffering servant (53:3-12). The book of Isaiah has more overtones of the New Testament than any other Old Testament book and is frequently cited by New Testament authors.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 19:1–20:19; 2 Chr 26:22; 32:20, 32; Isa 1:1–66:24; Matt 3:3; 4:14-16; 8:17; 12:17-21; 13:14-15; 15:7-9; Mark 1:2-3; 7:6-7; Luke 3:4-6; 4:17-19; John 1:23; 12:38-41; Acts 8:28-34; 28:25-27; Rom 9:27-29; 10:15-16, 20-21; 15:12; Gal 4:27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Isaiah<\/h3>\n<p>Isaiah was a Judean prophet during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. He was the son of Amoz (Isa 1:1) and was possibly related to King Amaziah. He lived in Jerusalem, was well educated, and had deep insight into human nature. He had a long ministry (about 740~685 BC); as Judah’s political and religious counselor, he had access to kings and was apparently the court historian (2 Chr 26:22; 32:32). Isaiah’s wife was called a “prophetess” (see Study Note on Isa 8:3); their sons were Shear-jashub (7:3) and Maher-shalal-hash-baz (8:3).<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah opposed social and political evil at all levels. He censured fortune-tellers. He rebuked kings for their willfulness and indifference. He denounced wealthy, influential people who ignored their responsibilities. And he exhorted everyone to obey God’s covenant. Isaiah opposed Canaanite idolatry and insincere religious observances (1:10-17; 29:13), proclaiming judgment and declaring that only a righteous remnant would survive (6:11-13). He foretold the coming Messiah, the peaceful prince of God’s kingdom (9:6-7; 11:1-11) who was also an obedient, suffering servant (53:3-12). The book of Isaiah has more overtones of the New Testament than any other Old Testament book and is frequently cited by New Testament authors.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 19:1–20:19; 2 Chr 26:22; 32:20, 32; Isa 1:1–66:24; Matt 3:3; 4:14-16; 8:17; 12:17-21; 13:14-15; 15:7-9; Mark 1:2-3; 7:6-7; Luke 3:4-6; 4:17-19; John 1:23; 12:38-41; Acts 8:28-34; 28:25-27; Rom 9:27-29; 10:15-16, 20-21; 15:12; Gal 4:27<\/p>","summary_ro":"Isaiah Isaiah was a Judean prophet during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. He was the son of Amoz (Isa 1:1) and was possibly related to King Amaziah. He lived in Jerusalem, was well educated, and had deep insight into human nature. He had a long ministry (about 740~685 BC); as Judah’s political and religious counselor, he had access to kings and was apparently the court historian (2 Chr 26:22; 32:32). Isaiah’s wife was called a “prophetess” (see Study Note on Isa 8:3); their ...","summary_en":"Isaiah Isaiah was a Judean prophet during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. He was the son of Amoz (Isa 1:1) and was possibly related to King Amaziah. He lived in Jerusalem, was well educated, and had deep insight into human nature. He had a long ministry (about 740~685 BC); as Judah’s political and religious counselor, he had access to kings and was apparently the court historian (2 Chr 26:22; 32:32). Isaiah’s wife was called a “prophetess” (see Study Note on Isa 8:3); their ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36093,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Spirit of God","title_en":"Spirit of God","content_ro":"<h3>SPIRIT OF GOD<\/h3>\n<p>Description of God in action, God in motion. The word “spirit” (Hebrew, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ruach<\/span><em>;<\/em> Greek, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">pneuma<\/span>) is the word used from ancient times to describe and explain the experience of divine power working in, upon, and around people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>There are three basic meanings evident in the use of “spirit” from the earliest Hebrew writings: It was a wind from God, it was the breath of life, and it was a spirit of ecstasy.<\/p>\n<p>First, it was a wind from God (the same Hebrew word translated “Spirit” in Gn 1:2) that caused the waters of the Flood to subside (8:1). A wind from God blew locusts over Egypt (Ex 10:13) and quail over the camp of Israel. The blast of his nostrils separated the waters of the Red Sea at the exodus (14:21).<\/p>\n<p>Second, it was the breath of God that made man a living being (Gn 2:7). It is one of the earliest perceptions of Hebrew faith that humans live only because of the stirring of the divine breath or spirit within them (Gn 6:3; Jb 33:4; 34:14-15; Ps 104:29-30). Later, a clearer distinction was drawn between divine Spirit and human spirit, and between spirit and soul, but at the earliest stage these were all more or less perceived to be synonymous manifestations of the same divine power, the source of all life—animal as well as human (Gn 7:15, 22; see Eccl 3:19-21).<\/p>\n<p>Third, there were occasions when this divine power seemed to overtake and possess an individual fully, so that his or her words or actions far transcended those of normal behavior. Such a person was clearly marked as an agent of God’s purpose and given respect. This was apparently how leaders were recognized in the premonarchy period—Othniel (Jgs 3:10), Gideon (6:34), Jephthah (11:29), and the first king, Saul (1 Sm 11:6), as well. So, too, the earliest prophets were those whose inspiration came in ecstasy (1 Sm 19:20-24).<\/p>\n<p>In the earlier stages of Hebrew thought, ecstatic experience was seen as the direct effect of divine power. This was true even when the ecstasy was recognized as evil in character, as in the case of Saul’s seizure by the Spirit (1 Sm 16:14-16). A spirit from God could be for evil as well as for good (see Jgs 9:23; 1 Kgs 22:19-23).<\/p>\n<h5>In the Writings of the Prophets<\/h5>\n<p>For Isaiah, the spirit was that which characterized God and distinguished him and his actions from human affairs (Is 31:3). Later, the adjective “holy” appeared as that which distinguished the Spirit of God from any other spirit, human or divine (Ps 51:11; Is 63:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>The problem of false prophecy emphasized the danger of assuming that every message delivered in ecstasy was the word of the Lord. Thus, tests of prophecy evaluated the content of the message delivered or the character of the prophet’s life, not the degree or quality of inspiration (see Dt 13:1-5; 18:22; Jer 23:14; Mi 3:5). This sense of a need to discriminate between true and false inspiration and to distinguish the word of God from the merely ecstatic oracle may help to explain the otherwise puzzling reluctance of the major eighth- and seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> prophets to attribute their inspiration to the Spirit.<\/p>\n<h5>In the Exilic and Postexilic Writings<\/h5>\n<p>In exilic and postexilic literature, the role of the Spirit is narrowed to two major functions: that of the prophetic Spirit and that of the Spirit of the age to come.<\/p>\n<p>The later prophets again spoke of the Spirit in explicit terms as the inspirer of prophecy (see Ez 3:1-4, 22-24; Hg 2:5; Zec 4:6). As they looked back to the preexilic period, these prophets freely attributed the inspiration of “the former prophets” to the Spirit as well (Zec 7:12).<\/p>\n<p>This tendency to exalt the Spirit’s role as the inspirer of prophecy became steadily stronger in the period between the OT and NT, until in rabbinic Judaism the Spirit was almost exclusively the inspirer of the prophetic writings now regarded as Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>The other understanding of the Spirit’s role during exilic and postexilic times was that the Spirit would be the manifestation of the power of God in the age to come. That eschatological hope of divine power effecting a final cleansing and a renewed creation is rooted principally in Isaiah’s prophecies (Is 4:4; 32:15; 44:3-4). Isaiah speaks of one anointed by the Spirit to accomplish complete and final salvation (11:2; 42:1; 61:1). Elsewhere, the same longing is expressed in terms of the Spirit being freely dispensed to all Israel (Ez 39:29; Jl 2:28-29; Zec 12:10) in the new covenant (Jer 31:31-34; Ez 36:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>In the period prior to Jesus, the understanding of the Spirit as the Spirit of prophecy and as the Spirit of the age to come had developed into the widespread dogma that the Spirit was no longer to be experienced in the present. The Spirit had been known in the past as the inspirer of prophetic writings, but after Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, the Spirit had withdrawn (1 Macc 4:44-46; 9:27; 2 Bar 85:1-3; see also Ps 74:9; Zec 13:2-6). The Spirit would be known again in the age of the Messiah, but in the interim the Spirit was absent from Israel. Even the great Hillel (learned Jewish leader and teacher, 60? <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 20?), a near contemporary of Jesus, had not received the Spirit—though if anyone was worthy of the Spirit, it was he. There is a tradition that at a meeting of Hillel and other wise men, a voice from heaven said, “Among those here present is one who would have deserved the Holy Spirit to rest upon him, if his time had been worthy of it.” The wise men all looked at Hillel.<\/p>\n<p>The consequence of this accepted dearth of the Spirit was that the Spirit in effect became subordinated to the law. The Spirit was the inspirer of the law, but since the Spirit could no longer be experienced directly, the law became the sole voice of the Spirit. It was this increasing dominance of the law and its authoritative interpreters that provided the background for the mission of Jesus and the initial spread of Christianity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>If we are to understand the NT’s teaching on the Spirit, we must recognize both its continuity and discontinuity with the OT. At many points NT usage cannot be fully understood except against the background of OT concepts or passages. For example, the ambiguity of John 3:8 (“wind,” “Spirit”), 2 Thessalonians 2:8 (“breath”), and Revelation 11:11 (“breath of life”) takes us back to the basic Hebrew meanings of “spirit.” Acts 8:39 and Revelation 17:3 and 21:10 reflect the same conception of the Spirit that we find in 1 Kings 18:12, 2 Kings 2:16, and Ezekiel 3:14. The NT writers generally share the rabbinic view that Scripture has the authority of the Spirit behind it (see Mk 12:36; Acts 28:25; Heb 3:7; 2 Pt 1:21). The principal continuity is that the NT brings the fulfillment of what the OT writers looked forward to. At the same time, Christianity is not simply fulfilled Judaism. Jesus’ coming and his giving of his Spirit to live within his believers marks off the new faith as something new and distinct.<\/p>\n<h5>The Spirit of the New Age<\/h5>\n<p>The most striking feature of Jesus’ ministry and of the message of the earliest Christians was their conviction and proclamation that the blessings of the new age were already present, that the eschatological Spirit had already been poured out. With the exception of the Essenes at Qumran, no other group or individual within the Jewish religion of that time had dared to make such a bold claim. The prophets and the rabbis looked for a messianic age yet to come, and the apocalyptic writers warned of its imminent arrival, but none thought of it as already present. Even John the Baptist spoke only of one about to come and of the Spirit’s operation in the imminent future (Mk 1:8). But for Jesus and first-century Christians, the longed for hope was a living reality, and the claim carried with it the exciting sense of being in “the last days.” Without some recognition of that eschatological dimension of the Christians’ faith and life, we cannot understand this teaching on, and experience of, the Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus clearly thought of his teachings and healings as fulfillment of the prophetic hope (Mt 12:41-42; 13:16-17; Lk 17:20-21). In particular, he saw himself as the one anointed by the Spirit to provide salvation (Mt 5:3-6; 11:5; Lk 4:17-19). So, too, Jesus understood his exorcisms as the effect of the power of God and as manifestations of the end-time rule of God (Mt 12:27-28; Mk 3:22-26). The Gospel writers, especially Luke, emphasize the eschatological character of Jesus’ life and ministry by stressing the role of the Spirit in his birth (Mt 1:18; Lk 1:35, 41, 67; 2:25-27), his baptism (Mk 1:9-10; Acts 10:38), and his ministry (Mt 4:1; 12:18; Mk 1:12; Lk 4:1, 14; 10:21; Jn 3:34).<\/p>\n<p>The Christian church began with the in-breathing of the Holy Spirit on the day of Christ’s resurrection (Jn 20:22), followed by the outpouring of the Spirit at Pentecost “in the last days.” The overwhelming experience of vision and inspired utterance was taken as proof positive that the new age prophesied by Joel had now arrived (Acts 2:2-5, 17-18). Similarly, in Hebrews the gift of the Spirit is spoken of as “the powers of the age to come” (Heb 6:4-5). More striking still is Paul’s understanding of the Spirit as the guarantee of God’s complete salvation (2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Eph 1:13-14), and as the first installment of the believer’s inheritance of God’s kingdom (Rom 8:15-17; 1 Cor 6:9-11; 15:42-50; Gal 4:6-7; 5:16-18, 21-23; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit is here again thought of as the power of the age to come, as that power (which will characterize God’s rule at the end of time) already shaping and transforming the lives of believers.<\/p>\n<p>For Paul, this means also that the gift of the Spirit is but the beginning of a lifelong process that will not end until the believer’s whole person is brought under the Spirit’s power (Rom 8:11, 23; 1 Cor 15:44-49; 2 Cor 3:18; 5:1-5). It also means that the present experience of faith is one of lifelong tension between what God has already begun to bring about in the believer’s life and what has not yet been brought under God’s grace (Phil 1:6). It is this tension between life “in the Spirit” and life “in the flesh” (see Gal 2:20) that comes to poignant expression in Romans 7:24 and 2 Corinthians 5:2-4.<\/p>\n<h5>The Spirit of New Life<\/h5>\n<p>Since the Spirit is the mark of the new age, it is not surprising that the NT writers understood the gift of the Spirit to be that which brings an individual into the new age. John the Baptist described the way the coming one would baptize with the Holy Spirit and with fire (Mt 3:11). According to Acts 1:5 and 11:16, this imagery was taken up by Jesus, and the promise is seen as fulfilled at Pentecost—the outpouring of the Spirit here being understood as the risen Christ’s action in drawing his disciples into the new age (Acts 2:17, 33).<\/p>\n<p>It seems to be one of Luke’s aims in the book of Acts to highlight the central importance of the gift of the Spirit in conversion-initiation—it is that decisive “gift of the Holy Spirit” that makes one a Christian (Acts 2:38-39). People could have been followers of Jesus on earth, but it was only when they received the gift of the Spirit that they could be said to have “believed in the Lord Jesus Christ” (11:16-17). When the Spirit’s presence was manifested in and upon a person’s life, that was recognized by Peter as proof enough that God had accepted that person, even though he or she had not yet made any formal profession of faith or been baptized (10:44-48; 11:15-18; 15:7-9). So too Apollos, already aglow with the Spirit (18:25), even though his knowledge of “the way of God” was slightly defective (vv 24-26), apparently was not required to supplement his “baptism of John” with Christian baptism. However, the 12 so-called disciples at Ephesus proved by their very ignorance of the Spirit that they were not yet disciples of the Lord Jesus (19:1-6). Paul asked these 12 men, “Did you receive the Holy Spirit when you believed?” (19:2).<\/p>\n<p>This accords with Paul’s emphasis in his letters. Belief and reception of the Spirit go together: to receive the Spirit is to begin the Christian life (Gal 3:2-3); to be baptized in the Spirit is to become a member of the body of Christ (1 Cor 12:13); to “have the Spirit of Christ” is to belong to Christ (Rom 8:9-11); to receive the Spirit is tantamount to becoming a child of God (Rom 8:14-17; Gal 4:6-7). The Spirit so characterizes the new age and the life of the new age that only the gift of the Spirit can bring a person into the new age to experience the life of the new age. For the Spirit is distinctively and peculiarly the life-giver; the Spirit indeed <em>is<\/em> the life of the new age (Rom 8:2, 6, 10; 1 Cor 15:45; 2 Cor 3:6; Gal 5:25).<\/p>\n<p>In just the same way in John’s writings, the Spirit is characteristically the life-giving Spirit (Jn 6:63), the power from above, the seed of divine life that brings about the new birth (Jn 3:3-8; 1 Jn 3:9), and a river of living water that brings life when one believes in Christ (Jn 7:37-39; so also 4:10, 14). Or again, reception of the Spirit in John 20:22 is depicted as a new creation analogous to Genesis 2:7. Consequently, in 1 John 3:24 and 4:13, possession and experience of the Spirit count as one of the “tests of life” listed in that letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Manifestations of the Spirit<\/h5>\n<p>It will be clear from what has already been said that when the first Christians, like the ancient Hebrews, spoke of the Spirit, they were thinking of experiences of divine power. In the NT, as in the OT, “Spirit” is the word used to explain the experience of new life and vitality (see above), of liberation from legalism (e.g., Rom 8:2; 2 Cor 3:17), of spiritual refreshing and renewal (cf. e.g., Is 32:15; Ez 39:29 with Jn 7:37-39; Rom 5:5; 1 Cor 12:13; 1 Tm 3:5-6). It is important to realize how wide a range of experiences were attributed to the Spirit: ecstatic experiences (Acts 2:24; 10:43-47; 19:6; cf. 10:10; 22:17—“in ecstasy”; 2 Cor 12:1-4; Rv 1:10), emotional experiences (e.g., love—Rom 5:5; joy—Acts 13:52; 1 Thes 1:6; see also Gal 5:22; Phil 2:1-2), experiences of illumination (2 Cor 3:14-17; Eph 1:17-18; Heb 6:4-5; 1 Jn 2:20-21), and experiences issuing in moral transformation (1 Cor 6:9-11). Likewise, when Paul speaks of spiritual gifts, called <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">charismata<\/span> (acts or words that bring divine grace to concrete expression), he evidently has a wide range of actual events in mind: inspired speech (1 Cor 12:8-10; 1 Thes 1:5), miracles and healings (1 Cor 12:9; Gal 3:5; cf. Heb 2:4), and various acts of service and help, of counsel and administration, and of aid and mercy (Rom 12:7-8; 1 Cor 12:28).<\/p>\n<p>In talking thus of the Spirit in terms of experience, we should not overemphasize particular experiences or manifestations, as though earliest Christianity consisted of a sequence of mountaintop experiences or spiritual highs. There clearly were such experiences, indeed a wide range of experiences, but no one experience is singled out to be sought by all (except prophecy). There is no distinctively second (or third) experience of the Spirit in the NT, and Paul warned against overvaluing particular manifestations of the Spirit (1 Cor 14:6-19; 2 Cor 12:1-10; cf. Mk 8:11-13). Where particular experiences are valued, it is as manifestations of a more sustained experience, particular expressions of an underlying relationship (cf. Acts 6:3-5; 11:24—“full of the Spirit”; Eph 5:18). What we are in touch with here is the vigor of the experiential dimension of earliest Christianity. If the Spirit is the breath of the new life in Christ (cf. Ez 37:9-10, 14; Jn 20:22; 1 Cor 15:45), then presumably the analogy extends further, and the experience of the Spirit is like the experience of breathing: one is not conscious of it all the time, but if one is not conscious of it, at least sometimes, something is wrong.<\/p>\n<h5>The Fellowship of the Spirit<\/h5>\n<p>It was out of this shared experience of the Spirit that the earliest Christian community grew and developed, for this is what “the fellowship [<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">koinonia<\/span>] of the Spirit” properly means: common participation in the same Spirit (Phil 2:1; cf. Acts 2:42; 1 Cor 1:4-9). It was the gift of the Spirit that brought those in Samaria, Caesarea, and elsewhere effectively into the community of the Spirit (Act 8, 10). So also, it was the experience of the one Spirit that provided the unifying bond in the churches of Paul’s mission (1 Cor 12:13; Eph 4:3-4; Phil 2:1-2). Here we see the real importance of the divine manifestations of the Spirit for Paul: it is out of the diversity of these particular manifestations that the body of Christ grows in unity (Rom 12:4-8; 1 Cor 12:12-17; Eph 4:4-16).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SPIRIT OF GOD<\/h3>\n<p>Description of God in action, God in motion. The word “spirit” (Hebrew, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ruach<\/span><em>;<\/em> Greek, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">pneuma<\/span>) is the word used from ancient times to describe and explain the experience of divine power working in, upon, and around people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>There are three basic meanings evident in the use of “spirit” from the earliest Hebrew writings: It was a wind from God, it was the breath of life, and it was a spirit of ecstasy.<\/p>\n<p>First, it was a wind from God (the same Hebrew word translated “Spirit” in Gn 1:2) that caused the waters of the Flood to subside (8:1). A wind from God blew locusts over Egypt (Ex 10:13) and quail over the camp of Israel. The blast of his nostrils separated the waters of the Red Sea at the exodus (14:21).<\/p>\n<p>Second, it was the breath of God that made man a living being (Gn 2:7). It is one of the earliest perceptions of Hebrew faith that humans live only because of the stirring of the divine breath or spirit within them (Gn 6:3; Jb 33:4; 34:14-15; Ps 104:29-30). Later, a clearer distinction was drawn between divine Spirit and human spirit, and between spirit and soul, but at the earliest stage these were all more or less perceived to be synonymous manifestations of the same divine power, the source of all life—animal as well as human (Gn 7:15, 22; see Eccl 3:19-21).<\/p>\n<p>Third, there were occasions when this divine power seemed to overtake and possess an individual fully, so that his or her words or actions far transcended those of normal behavior. Such a person was clearly marked as an agent of God’s purpose and given respect. This was apparently how leaders were recognized in the premonarchy period—Othniel (Jgs 3:10), Gideon (6:34), Jephthah (11:29), and the first king, Saul (1 Sm 11:6), as well. So, too, the earliest prophets were those whose inspiration came in ecstasy (1 Sm 19:20-24).<\/p>\n<p>In the earlier stages of Hebrew thought, ecstatic experience was seen as the direct effect of divine power. This was true even when the ecstasy was recognized as evil in character, as in the case of Saul’s seizure by the Spirit (1 Sm 16:14-16). A spirit from God could be for evil as well as for good (see Jgs 9:23; 1 Kgs 22:19-23).<\/p>\n<h5>In the Writings of the Prophets<\/h5>\n<p>For Isaiah, the spirit was that which characterized God and distinguished him and his actions from human affairs (Is 31:3). Later, the adjective “holy” appeared as that which distinguished the Spirit of God from any other spirit, human or divine (Ps 51:11; Is 63:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>The problem of false prophecy emphasized the danger of assuming that every message delivered in ecstasy was the word of the Lord. Thus, tests of prophecy evaluated the content of the message delivered or the character of the prophet’s life, not the degree or quality of inspiration (see Dt 13:1-5; 18:22; Jer 23:14; Mi 3:5). This sense of a need to discriminate between true and false inspiration and to distinguish the word of God from the merely ecstatic oracle may help to explain the otherwise puzzling reluctance of the major eighth- and seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> prophets to attribute their inspiration to the Spirit.<\/p>\n<h5>In the Exilic and Postexilic Writings<\/h5>\n<p>In exilic and postexilic literature, the role of the Spirit is narrowed to two major functions: that of the prophetic Spirit and that of the Spirit of the age to come.<\/p>\n<p>The later prophets again spoke of the Spirit in explicit terms as the inspirer of prophecy (see Ez 3:1-4, 22-24; Hg 2:5; Zec 4:6). As they looked back to the preexilic period, these prophets freely attributed the inspiration of “the former prophets” to the Spirit as well (Zec 7:12).<\/p>\n<p>This tendency to exalt the Spirit’s role as the inspirer of prophecy became steadily stronger in the period between the OT and NT, until in rabbinic Judaism the Spirit was almost exclusively the inspirer of the prophetic writings now regarded as Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>The other understanding of the Spirit’s role during exilic and postexilic times was that the Spirit would be the manifestation of the power of God in the age to come. That eschatological hope of divine power effecting a final cleansing and a renewed creation is rooted principally in Isaiah’s prophecies (Is 4:4; 32:15; 44:3-4). Isaiah speaks of one anointed by the Spirit to accomplish complete and final salvation (11:2; 42:1; 61:1). Elsewhere, the same longing is expressed in terms of the Spirit being freely dispensed to all Israel (Ez 39:29; Jl 2:28-29; Zec 12:10) in the new covenant (Jer 31:31-34; Ez 36:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>In the period prior to Jesus, the understanding of the Spirit as the Spirit of prophecy and as the Spirit of the age to come had developed into the widespread dogma that the Spirit was no longer to be experienced in the present. The Spirit had been known in the past as the inspirer of prophetic writings, but after Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, the Spirit had withdrawn (1 Macc 4:44-46; 9:27; 2 Bar 85:1-3; see also Ps 74:9; Zec 13:2-6). The Spirit would be known again in the age of the Messiah, but in the interim the Spirit was absent from Israel. Even the great Hillel (learned Jewish leader and teacher, 60? <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 20?), a near contemporary of Jesus, had not received the Spirit—though if anyone was worthy of the Spirit, it was he. There is a tradition that at a meeting of Hillel and other wise men, a voice from heaven said, “Among those here present is one who would have deserved the Holy Spirit to rest upon him, if his time had been worthy of it.” The wise men all looked at Hillel.<\/p>\n<p>The consequence of this accepted dearth of the Spirit was that the Spirit in effect became subordinated to the law. The Spirit was the inspirer of the law, but since the Spirit could no longer be experienced directly, the law became the sole voice of the Spirit. It was this increasing dominance of the law and its authoritative interpreters that provided the background for the mission of Jesus and the initial spread of Christianity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>If we are to understand the NT’s teaching on the Spirit, we must recognize both its continuity and discontinuity with the OT. At many points NT usage cannot be fully understood except against the background of OT concepts or passages. For example, the ambiguity of John 3:8 (“wind,” “Spirit”), 2 Thessalonians 2:8 (“breath”), and Revelation 11:11 (“breath of life”) takes us back to the basic Hebrew meanings of “spirit.” Acts 8:39 and Revelation 17:3 and 21:10 reflect the same conception of the Spirit that we find in 1 Kings 18:12, 2 Kings 2:16, and Ezekiel 3:14. The NT writers generally share the rabbinic view that Scripture has the authority of the Spirit behind it (see Mk 12:36; Acts 28:25; Heb 3:7; 2 Pt 1:21). The principal continuity is that the NT brings the fulfillment of what the OT writers looked forward to. At the same time, Christianity is not simply fulfilled Judaism. Jesus’ coming and his giving of his Spirit to live within his believers marks off the new faith as something new and distinct.<\/p>\n<h5>The Spirit of the New Age<\/h5>\n<p>The most striking feature of Jesus’ ministry and of the message of the earliest Christians was their conviction and proclamation that the blessings of the new age were already present, that the eschatological Spirit had already been poured out. With the exception of the Essenes at Qumran, no other group or individual within the Jewish religion of that time had dared to make such a bold claim. The prophets and the rabbis looked for a messianic age yet to come, and the apocalyptic writers warned of its imminent arrival, but none thought of it as already present. Even John the Baptist spoke only of one about to come and of the Spirit’s operation in the imminent future (Mk 1:8). But for Jesus and first-century Christians, the longed for hope was a living reality, and the claim carried with it the exciting sense of being in “the last days.” Without some recognition of that eschatological dimension of the Christians’ faith and life, we cannot understand this teaching on, and experience of, the Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus clearly thought of his teachings and healings as fulfillment of the prophetic hope (Mt 12:41-42; 13:16-17; Lk 17:20-21). In particular, he saw himself as the one anointed by the Spirit to provide salvation (Mt 5:3-6; 11:5; Lk 4:17-19). So, too, Jesus understood his exorcisms as the effect of the power of God and as manifestations of the end-time rule of God (Mt 12:27-28; Mk 3:22-26). The Gospel writers, especially Luke, emphasize the eschatological character of Jesus’ life and ministry by stressing the role of the Spirit in his birth (Mt 1:18; Lk 1:35, 41, 67; 2:25-27), his baptism (Mk 1:9-10; Acts 10:38), and his ministry (Mt 4:1; 12:18; Mk 1:12; Lk 4:1, 14; 10:21; Jn 3:34).<\/p>\n<p>The Christian church began with the in-breathing of the Holy Spirit on the day of Christ’s resurrection (Jn 20:22), followed by the outpouring of the Spirit at Pentecost “in the last days.” The overwhelming experience of vision and inspired utterance was taken as proof positive that the new age prophesied by Joel had now arrived (Acts 2:2-5, 17-18). Similarly, in Hebrews the gift of the Spirit is spoken of as “the powers of the age to come” (Heb 6:4-5). More striking still is Paul’s understanding of the Spirit as the guarantee of God’s complete salvation (2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Eph 1:13-14), and as the first installment of the believer’s inheritance of God’s kingdom (Rom 8:15-17; 1 Cor 6:9-11; 15:42-50; Gal 4:6-7; 5:16-18, 21-23; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit is here again thought of as the power of the age to come, as that power (which will characterize God’s rule at the end of time) already shaping and transforming the lives of believers.<\/p>\n<p>For Paul, this means also that the gift of the Spirit is but the beginning of a lifelong process that will not end until the believer’s whole person is brought under the Spirit’s power (Rom 8:11, 23; 1 Cor 15:44-49; 2 Cor 3:18; 5:1-5). It also means that the present experience of faith is one of lifelong tension between what God has already begun to bring about in the believer’s life and what has not yet been brought under God’s grace (Phil 1:6). It is this tension between life “in the Spirit” and life “in the flesh” (see Gal 2:20) that comes to poignant expression in Romans 7:24 and 2 Corinthians 5:2-4.<\/p>\n<h5>The Spirit of New Life<\/h5>\n<p>Since the Spirit is the mark of the new age, it is not surprising that the NT writers understood the gift of the Spirit to be that which brings an individual into the new age. John the Baptist described the way the coming one would baptize with the Holy Spirit and with fire (Mt 3:11). According to Acts 1:5 and 11:16, this imagery was taken up by Jesus, and the promise is seen as fulfilled at Pentecost—the outpouring of the Spirit here being understood as the risen Christ’s action in drawing his disciples into the new age (Acts 2:17, 33).<\/p>\n<p>It seems to be one of Luke’s aims in the book of Acts to highlight the central importance of the gift of the Spirit in conversion-initiation—it is that decisive “gift of the Holy Spirit” that makes one a Christian (Acts 2:38-39). People could have been followers of Jesus on earth, but it was only when they received the gift of the Spirit that they could be said to have “believed in the Lord Jesus Christ” (11:16-17). When the Spirit’s presence was manifested in and upon a person’s life, that was recognized by Peter as proof enough that God had accepted that person, even though he or she had not yet made any formal profession of faith or been baptized (10:44-48; 11:15-18; 15:7-9). So too Apollos, already aglow with the Spirit (18:25), even though his knowledge of “the way of God” was slightly defective (vv 24-26), apparently was not required to supplement his “baptism of John” with Christian baptism. However, the 12 so-called disciples at Ephesus proved by their very ignorance of the Spirit that they were not yet disciples of the Lord Jesus (19:1-6). Paul asked these 12 men, “Did you receive the Holy Spirit when you believed?” (19:2).<\/p>\n<p>This accords with Paul’s emphasis in his letters. Belief and reception of the Spirit go together: to receive the Spirit is to begin the Christian life (Gal 3:2-3); to be baptized in the Spirit is to become a member of the body of Christ (1 Cor 12:13); to “have the Spirit of Christ” is to belong to Christ (Rom 8:9-11); to receive the Spirit is tantamount to becoming a child of God (Rom 8:14-17; Gal 4:6-7). The Spirit so characterizes the new age and the life of the new age that only the gift of the Spirit can bring a person into the new age to experience the life of the new age. For the Spirit is distinctively and peculiarly the life-giver; the Spirit indeed <em>is<\/em> the life of the new age (Rom 8:2, 6, 10; 1 Cor 15:45; 2 Cor 3:6; Gal 5:25).<\/p>\n<p>In just the same way in John’s writings, the Spirit is characteristically the life-giving Spirit (Jn 6:63), the power from above, the seed of divine life that brings about the new birth (Jn 3:3-8; 1 Jn 3:9), and a river of living water that brings life when one believes in Christ (Jn 7:37-39; so also 4:10, 14). Or again, reception of the Spirit in John 20:22 is depicted as a new creation analogous to Genesis 2:7. Consequently, in 1 John 3:24 and 4:13, possession and experience of the Spirit count as one of the “tests of life” listed in that letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Manifestations of the Spirit<\/h5>\n<p>It will be clear from what has already been said that when the first Christians, like the ancient Hebrews, spoke of the Spirit, they were thinking of experiences of divine power. In the NT, as in the OT, “Spirit” is the word used to explain the experience of new life and vitality (see above), of liberation from legalism (e.g., Rom 8:2; 2 Cor 3:17), of spiritual refreshing and renewal (cf. e.g., Is 32:15; Ez 39:29 with Jn 7:37-39; Rom 5:5; 1 Cor 12:13; 1 Tm 3:5-6). It is important to realize how wide a range of experiences were attributed to the Spirit: ecstatic experiences (Acts 2:24; 10:43-47; 19:6; cf. 10:10; 22:17—“in ecstasy”; 2 Cor 12:1-4; Rv 1:10), emotional experiences (e.g., love—Rom 5:5; joy—Acts 13:52; 1 Thes 1:6; see also Gal 5:22; Phil 2:1-2), experiences of illumination (2 Cor 3:14-17; Eph 1:17-18; Heb 6:4-5; 1 Jn 2:20-21), and experiences issuing in moral transformation (1 Cor 6:9-11). Likewise, when Paul speaks of spiritual gifts, called <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">charismata<\/span> (acts or words that bring divine grace to concrete expression), he evidently has a wide range of actual events in mind: inspired speech (1 Cor 12:8-10; 1 Thes 1:5), miracles and healings (1 Cor 12:9; Gal 3:5; cf. Heb 2:4), and various acts of service and help, of counsel and administration, and of aid and mercy (Rom 12:7-8; 1 Cor 12:28).<\/p>\n<p>In talking thus of the Spirit in terms of experience, we should not overemphasize particular experiences or manifestations, as though earliest Christianity consisted of a sequence of mountaintop experiences or spiritual highs. There clearly were such experiences, indeed a wide range of experiences, but no one experience is singled out to be sought by all (except prophecy). There is no distinctively second (or third) experience of the Spirit in the NT, and Paul warned against overvaluing particular manifestations of the Spirit (1 Cor 14:6-19; 2 Cor 12:1-10; cf. Mk 8:11-13). Where particular experiences are valued, it is as manifestations of a more sustained experience, particular expressions of an underlying relationship (cf. Acts 6:3-5; 11:24—“full of the Spirit”; Eph 5:18). What we are in touch with here is the vigor of the experiential dimension of earliest Christianity. If the Spirit is the breath of the new life in Christ (cf. Ez 37:9-10, 14; Jn 20:22; 1 Cor 15:45), then presumably the analogy extends further, and the experience of the Spirit is like the experience of breathing: one is not conscious of it all the time, but if one is not conscious of it, at least sometimes, something is wrong.<\/p>\n<h5>The Fellowship of the Spirit<\/h5>\n<p>It was out of this shared experience of the Spirit that the earliest Christian community grew and developed, for this is what “the fellowship [<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">koinonia<\/span>] of the Spirit” properly means: common participation in the same Spirit (Phil 2:1; cf. Acts 2:42; 1 Cor 1:4-9). It was the gift of the Spirit that brought those in Samaria, Caesarea, and elsewhere effectively into the community of the Spirit (Act 8, 10). So also, it was the experience of the one Spirit that provided the unifying bond in the churches of Paul’s mission (1 Cor 12:13; Eph 4:3-4; Phil 2:1-2). Here we see the real importance of the divine manifestations of the Spirit for Paul: it is out of the diversity of these particular manifestations that the body of Christ grows in unity (Rom 12:4-8; 1 Cor 12:12-17; Eph 4:4-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"SPIRIT OF GOD Description of God in action, God in motion. The word “spirit” (Hebrew, ruach; Greek, pneuma) is the word used from ancient times to describe and explain the experience of divine power working in, upon, and around people. In the Old Testament There are three basic meanings evident in the use of “spirit” from the earliest Hebrew writings: It was a wind from God, it was the breath of life, and it was a spirit of ecstasy. First, it was a wind from God (the same Hebrew word translat...","summary_en":"SPIRIT OF GOD Description of God in action, God in motion. The word “spirit” (Hebrew, ruach; Greek, pneuma) is the word used from ancient times to describe and explain the experience of divine power working in, upon, and around people. In the Old Testament There are three basic meanings evident in the use of “spirit” from the earliest Hebrew writings: It was a wind from God, it was the breath of life, and it was a spirit of ecstasy. First, it was a wind from God (the same Hebrew word translat...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57187,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:25","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:25","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:25-28<\/strong> Paul parted with scriptural words of warning that are often used in the New Testament to explain the Jewish rejection of the gospel (cp. Matt 13:14-15; Mark 4:12; Luke 8:10; John 12:38-40; see Rom 11:1-12, 25-32).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:25-28<\/strong> Paul parted with scriptural words of warning that are often used in the New Testament to explain the Jewish rejection of the gospel (cp. Matt 13:14-15; Mark 4:12; Luke 8:10; John 12:38-40; see Rom 11:1-12, 25-32).<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:25-28 Paul parted with scriptural words of warning that are often used in the New Testament to explain the Jewish rejection of the gospel (cp. Matt 13:14-15; Mark 4:12; Luke 8:10; John 12:38-40; see Rom 11:1-12, 25-32).","summary_en":"28:25-28 Paul parted with scriptural words of warning that are often used in the New Testament to explain the Jewish rejection of the gospel (cp. Matt 13:14-15; Mark 4:12; Luke 8:10; John 12:38-40; see Rom 11:1-12, 25-32).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84813,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:25","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:25","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:25-28<\/strong> Paul parted with scriptural words of warning that are often used in the New Testament to explain the Jewish rejection of the gospel (cp. Matt 13:14-15; Mark 4:12; Luke 8:10; John 12:38-40; see Rom 11:1-12, 25-32).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:25-28<\/strong> Paul parted with scriptural words of warning that are often used in the New Testament to explain the Jewish rejection of the gospel (cp. Matt 13:14-15; Mark 4:12; Luke 8:10; John 12:38-40; see Rom 11:1-12, 25-32).<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:25-28 Paul parted with scriptural words of warning that are often used in the New Testament to explain the Jewish rejection of the gospel (cp. Matt 13:14-15; Mark 4:12; Luke 8:10; John 12:38-40; see Rom 11:1-12, 25-32).","summary_en":"28:25-28 Paul parted with scriptural words of warning that are often used in the New Testament to explain the Jewish rejection of the gospel (cp. Matt 13:14-15; Mark 4:12; Luke 8:10; John 12:38-40; see Rom 11:1-12, 25-32).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112439,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:25","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:25","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:25-28<\/strong> Paul parted with scriptural words of warning that are often used in the New Testament to explain the Jewish rejection of the gospel (cp. Matt 13:14-15; Mark 4:12; Luke 8:10; John 12:38-40; see Rom 11:1-12, 25-32).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:25-28<\/strong> Paul parted with scriptural words of warning that are often used in the New Testament to explain the Jewish rejection of the gospel (cp. Matt 13:14-15; Mark 4:12; Luke 8:10; John 12:38-40; see Rom 11:1-12, 25-32).<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:25-28 Paul parted with scriptural words of warning that are often used in the New Testament to explain the Jewish rejection of the gospel (cp. Matt 13:14-15; Mark 4:12; Luke 8:10; John 12:38-40; see Rom 11:1-12, 25-32).","summary_en":"28:25-28 Paul parted with scriptural words of warning that are often used in the New Testament to explain the Jewish rejection of the gospel (cp. Matt 13:14-15; Mark 4:12; Luke 8:10; John 12:38-40; see Rom 11:1-12, 25-32).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140065,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:25","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:25","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:25-28<\/strong> Paul parted with scriptural words of warning that are often used in the New Testament to explain the Jewish rejection of the gospel (cp. Matt 13:14-15; Mark 4:12; Luke 8:10; John 12:38-40; see Rom 11:1-12, 25-32).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:25-28<\/strong> Paul parted with scriptural words of warning that are often used in the New Testament to explain the Jewish rejection of the gospel (cp. Matt 13:14-15; Mark 4:12; Luke 8:10; John 12:38-40; see Rom 11:1-12, 25-32).<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:25-28 Paul parted with scriptural words of warning that are often used in the New Testament to explain the Jewish rejection of the gospel (cp. Matt 13:14-15; Mark 4:12; Luke 8:10; John 12:38-40; see Rom 11:1-12, 25-32).","summary_en":"28:25-28 Paul parted with scriptural words of warning that are often used in the New Testament to explain the Jewish rejection of the gospel (cp. Matt 13:14-15; Mark 4:12; Luke 8:10; John 12:38-40; see Rom 11:1-12, 25-32).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"27":[{"id":60206,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hardened Hearts","title_en":"Hardened Hearts","content_ro":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\n<p>Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\n<p>Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\n<p>This interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\n<p>The emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “<span>I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the <span>Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\n<p>Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\n<p>Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\n<p>This interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\n<p>The emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “<span>I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the <span>Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","summary_en":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87832,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hardened Hearts","title_en":"Hardened Hearts","content_ro":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\n<p>Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\n<p>Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\n<p>This interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\n<p>The emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “<span>I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the <span>Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\n<p>Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\n<p>Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\n<p>This interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\n<p>The emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “<span>I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the <span>Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","summary_en":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115458,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hardened Hearts","title_en":"Hardened Hearts","content_ro":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\n<p>Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\n<p>Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\n<p>This interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\n<p>The emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “<span>I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the <span>Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\n<p>Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\n<p>Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\n<p>This interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\n<p>The emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “<span>I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the <span>Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","summary_en":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143084,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hardened Hearts","title_en":"Hardened Hearts","content_ro":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\n<p>Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\n<p>Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\n<p>This interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\n<p>The emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “<span>I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the <span>Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\n<p>Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\n<p>Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\n<p>This interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\n<p>The emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “<span>I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the <span>Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","summary_en":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"28":[{"id":25482,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Messiah","title_en":"Messiah","content_ro":"<h3>MESSIAH<\/h3>\n<p>Title derived from the Hebrew, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mashiach<\/span><em>,<\/em> a verbal adjective meaning “anointed one.” Along with its NT equivalent, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">christos<\/span> (Christ), it refers to an act of consecration whereby an individual is set apart to serve God and then anointed with oil. The verbal root <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mashach<\/span><em>)<\/em> conveys this idea as well.<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s practice of ceremonially anointing with oil is present in several contexts. Priests were regularly anointed prior to their divinely given service at the altar of sacrifice (Lv 4:3). While there is evidence for a literal anointing of prophets (1 Kgs 19:16), this does not appear to have been a standard practice. The anointing of Saul and David by Samuel established the act as a significant prerequisite for Hebrew kings before they assumed their positions of royal leadership. The king was especially considered to be the Lord’s anointed and as such was viewed to hold a secure position before men (1 Sm 12:14; 2 Sm 19:21) and God (Pss 2:2; 20:6). Along with numerous messianic prophecies, these proceedings helped inform the Jews of the Anointed One, par excellence, who would eventually come to bring salvation to Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Concluding the 13 articles of Hebraic faith attributed to Moses Maimonides (13th century <span>AD<\/span>) is the statement still found in many Hebrew prayer books: “I believe with a perfect heart that the Messiah will come; and although his coming be delayed, I will still wait patiently for his speedy appearance.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MessiahintheOldTestament\">Messiah in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Jewish hope for the advent of the Messiah developed dynamically from the period of David’s reign, when it was prophesied that his kingdom would endure to the end of time (2 Sm 7:16). Israel was told that, through David’s descendants, his throne would exert a never-ending dominion over all the earth (2 Sm 22:48-51; Jer 33). It is with this aspect of messianic salvation that Jewish minds have traditionally been preoccupied (cf. Acts 1:6).<\/p>\n<p>Among Orthodox rabbis there has never been a lack of conjecture respecting the details of the Messiah’s ministry. At one time the rabbis applied no less than 456 passages of Scripture to his person and salvation. Preoccupation with the Messiah is evident in the tractate <em>Sanhedrin<\/em> (Babylonian Talmud), where passages state that the world was created for him and that all the prophets prophesied of his days (<em>Sanhedrin<\/em> 98b, 99a). By and large, Orthodoxy still retains its time-worn belief in the Messiah’s reign in Jerusalem, the rebuilding of the temple, and the reestablishment of both priesthood and sacrifice.<\/p>\n<p>While later Judaism looked for the Messiah as an eschatological figure who will reign at the end of time, modern Jewish thought has largely jettisoned the traditional notion of a personal Messiah in favor of belief in a messianic age. Prevalent liberal Judaism envisions the world ultimately perfected through the influence of the twin Judaic ideals of justice and compassion. Such conviction, ignoring the plight of fallen humans and the teaching of Scripture, substitutes humanistic thinking for miraculous heavenly intervention.<\/p>\n<p>While the Messiah’s origin is linked firmly to the house of David (2 Sm 7:14; Hos 3:5), the promise for a Messiah was given long before David lived. In fact, the hope for the Messiah is implicit in the first promise of the establishment of the kingdom of God. Addressed to Satan, Genesis 3:15 declares that God will place hostility between the serpent and the woman until, in the fullness of time, the “seed” of the woman inflicts a fatal blow to the head of the serpent.<\/p>\n<p>The nature of messianic prophecy is progressive; each prophecy casts more light on the subject. This occurs, for example, respecting the concept of the “seed”: Messiah is to be born of a woman (Gn 3:15), through the line of Shem (9:26) and specifically through Abraham (22:18). Yet even as late as Genesis 22:18, the “seed” is not clearly presented as a person, since <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">zerah<\/span> (seed) may indicate a singular or plural object. Still less apparent in these early stages of messianic prophecy is the nature of the “bruising” that is to occur. Yet the idea of the Messiah being crushed for sin is implicit in the Genesis pronouncement, as is the violence associated with that act. Chief among the messianic prophets, Isaiah gives full range to the axiom that the Anointed One must endure extensive suffering (Is 53:1). Under the figure “the Servant of the Lord,” four “servant songs” delineate the mission of the future deliverer (Is 42:1-7; 49:1-9; 50:4-11; 52:13–53:12). While it is true that Isaiah does not explicitly link the title Messiah with the Servant of the Lord, identifying both figures as one and the same person is justifiable. Both figures are uniquely anointed (61:1); each brings light to the Gentiles (55:4; cf. 49:6); neither is pretentious in his first appearance (7:14-15; 11:1; cf. 42:3; 53:1); and the title of Davidic “branch” rests upon them both (11:1-4). Equally significant are the dual facts of their humiliation and exaltation (49:7; 52:13-15). Jewish scholars of the early Christian era in the Aramaic Targum on the prophets paraphrase Isaiah 42:1, “Behold my Servant Messiah” and begin Isaiah 53, “Behold my Servant Messiah will prosper.” While Cyrus may be spoken of as “anointed,” no final salvific work is attributed to him (45:1-5). Israel, although elect and loved by God (41:8), is ill-equipped as God’s servant to bring his redeeming work to mankind (42:18). The collapse of David’s dynasty points eloquently to Israel’s need for an anointed monarch who will heal the apostasy and disobedience (Ex 33:5; Hos 4:1). More and more, OT history presents Israel’s comprehensive moral failure. Her problem, which she shares with mankind, can only be solved by the making of a covenant whose surety and focal point is both a personal Savior and sovereign Lord (Jer 31:31-34). The advent of such a champion lives in the recorded promise of a shoot from the stump of Jesse’s fallen tree, who will bring the light of life to God’s benighted people (Is 9:2; 11:1).<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to get away from the idea that the concept of servanthood and lowliness belongs within the sphere of royalty (Zec 9:9). The concept of the Messiah filling the complementary offices of priest and king is incontrovertible (Ps 110:1-4); a suffering priest-king is far less obvious. Some among the Talmudic writers apparently recognized the likelihood that the Messiah would have to suffer. In the Babylonian Talmud, tractate <em>Sanhedrin<\/em> 98b, the Messiah is said to bear sicknesses and pain. Among the prayers for the Day of Atonement may be found the words of Eleazar ben Qalir (perhaps as late as <span>AD<\/span> 1000): “Our righteous Messiah has departed from us; we are horror-stricken, and there is none to justify us. Our iniquities and the yoke of our transgressions he carries, and is wounded for our transgressions. He bears on his shoulders our sins to find pardon for our iniquities. May we be healed by his stripes.” In a similar vein Rabbi Eliyya de Vidas writes, “The meaning of ‘He was wounded for our transgressions, bruised for our iniquities,’ is that since the Messiah bears our iniquities, which produce the effect of His being bruised, it follows that whosoever will not admit that the Messiah thus suffers for our iniquities must endure and suffer for them himself.” For all this, it is highly doubtful that anyone imagined the Messiah would accomplish his salvational work by means of his own death (cf. Is 53:12). When rabbinic speculation failed to satisfactorily harmonize the paradoxical facts of humiliation and exaltation, some hypothesized that God would send a Messiah to suffer as well as a Messiah to reign. Biblically, it is evident that the Anointed One’s terrible ordeal of suffering is but the necessary prelude to infinite glory. He is pictured not only as a great king (52:13; 53:12) but also as humble (53:2), humiliated (52:14), rejected (53:3), and bearing the consequences of mankind’s rebellion (vv 5-6). Yet he is raised up to intercede for, and richly bless, his people (v 12). The Messiah, having accomplished that full obedience that Adam and Israel failed to achieve, will bring Israel and the nations back to God (42:18-19; 49:3, 6).<\/p>\n<p>The writings of Daniel contain important messianic data. Daniel is unique in that he boldly speaks of “Messiah the Prince” (Dn 9:25), identifies him as the “Son of Man” (7:13), and says he suffers (“cut off,” 9:26). This statement of the cutting off (i.e., death) of the Messiah makes possible his work of atonement (9:24). The doctrine of a vicarious substitutionary atonement is the only doctrine of atonement found in the Bible (cf. Lv 17:11). Israel understood that to bear sin meant enduring the consequences, or penalty, for sin (cf. Nm 14:33). The same penal substitution is evident in the working principle of the Messiah’s atoning sacrifice. He is the victim’s substitute to whom is transferred the suffering due the sinner. The penalty having been thus borne vicariously, the suppliant is fully pardoned.<\/p>\n<p>Psalm 22:1 records the plaintive cry of the Messiah bearing man’s penalty for sin (cf. Mt 27:46) as he becomes sin on behalf of his people (2 Cor 5:21). Yet his cry, “My God,” indicates an intimate relationship that cannot be radically severed. Once again the motif of messianic humiliation prior to great exaltation is in view (Ps 22:27). In the so-called “royal psalms” (e.g., 2; 72; 110) it is the priestly intercessor who is also ordained to function as monarch and judge.<\/p>\n<p>Jeremiah brings the portrait a step further. The one who will enable humans to enter into a salvational covenant with God conveys God’s imputed righteousness: the Messiah, God’s righteous branch, becomes “the Lord our Righteousness.” Paradoxically, under the law no one could be crucified who was not guilty of sin (Dt 21:22). But it is Christ the righteous one who was crucified, thereby forever undermining any supposed legalistic confidence (Dt 21:23; Gal 3:13). More than forgiven, believers are deemed righteous in him (Jer 23:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>While the birthplace of the Messiah was well established (Mi 5:2), his deity was a hotly contested matter. Although few in ancient Israel disputed the belief in a superhuman Messiah, it is doubtful that anyone imagined him to be “God with us” in the fullest sense of the expression (cf. Heb 1:3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MessiahintheNewTestament\">Messiah in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The NT writers present the picture that he who was the child of supernatural origins (Is 7:14; Mi 5:2) carried the full weight of divinity (Is 9:6; Phil 2:6; Col 1:19). He is the Son of God, worthy to receive the worship of all people (Ps 45:6-7; cf. Heb 1:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Jews of first-century Palestine knew that the messianic promise would be fulfilled in the coming of one like Moses (Dt 18:18). Parallels between Jesus and Moses are abundant. As mediators, innovators, and propagators of new phases of spiritual life for the people, they are unexcelled. Specifically, both are miraculously spared in infancy (Ex 2; Mt 2:13-23); both renounce a royal court for the sake of serving the people of God (Phil 2:5-8; Heb 11:24-28); both exhibit intense compassion for others (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36); both commune “face to face” with God (Ex 34:29-30; 2 Cor 3:7); and each mediates a covenant of redemption (Dt 29:1; Heb 8:6-7). But, as Luther observes, “Christ is no Moses.” In the final analysis Moses is but a household servant; the Messiah is the maker and master of all things (Heb 3:3-6; cf. Jn 1:1-2, 18).<\/p>\n<p>Family genealogies are important in Scripture. Rabbis agreed upon the absolute necessity of the Messiah’s Davidic lineage based on Hosea 3:5 and Jeremiah 30:9. The angelic announcement immediately establishes the correct lineage for Jesus (Lk 1:32-33; cf. 2:4), as does Matthew’s (Mt 1:1-17). The Lukan list, like that of Matthew, sets forth the exclusive kingly descent verifying Jesus as Messiah (Lk 3:23-38). Although variations occur between the two genealogies, there is a firm solidarity emphasizing an ancestry within the unique messianic stock. Fully aware of the messianic focus of Scripture (Jn 5:46; 8:56), Jesus acknowledged himself to be the Christ on numerous occasions. He accepted the title from blind Bartimaeus (Mk 10:46-48); from the crowds when he entered Jerusalem (Mt 21:9); from the children at the temple (v 15); and in other contexts as well (Mt 16:16-18; Mk 14:61-62; Lk 4:21; Jn 4:25-26). Nonetheless, he warned his disciples not to broadcast his mighty acts as Messiah prior to his resurrection (Mt 17:9; cf. Lk 9:20-21). Owing to the commonly held (but false) notion that the Messiah’s role was primarily that of a political liberator, Jesus actually avoided use of that term and preferred to identify himself as “the Son of Man.” It was by no means assumed that both designations referred to the same person (cf. Mk 14:61-62). Borrowing essentially from Daniel’s vision of a heavenly conqueror (Dn 7:13-14), Jesus consistently employed this less-known title and filled it with the true character and scope of messianic salvation. Jesus’ teaching in this regard enabled his disciples to correct their erroneous views concerning his mission (Mt 16:21-23). In the fullness of time they would come to see him not only as Messiah but also as the theme of the entire OT (Mt 5:17; Lk 24:27, 44; Jn 5:39; cf. Heb 10:7). When Jesus expounded the Scriptures beginning with the Torah (Lk 24:27), he did so as the living exegesis of God, the Word made flesh (Jn 1:14, 18). Legitimate messianic exposition is found in a host of texts, such as Psalms 2; 16; 22; 40; 110; Isaiah 7:14; 9:6; 11:1; 40:10-11; 50:6; 52:13–53:12; 61:1; 63:1-6; Jeremiah 23:5-6; 33:14-16; Ezekiel 34:23; 37:25; Daniel 9:24-27; Hosea 11:1; Micah 5:2; Zechariah 9:9; 11:13; 12:10; 13:7; Malachi 3:1; 4:2.<\/p>\n<p>The messiahship of Jesus is firmly proclaimed by all four evangelists (Mt 1:1; Mk 1:1; Lk 24:26; Jn 20:31). Peter on Pentecost, Philip before the Ethiopian eunuch, and Apollos in open debate all argue convincingly that Jesus is the Messiah (Acts 2:36; 8:35; 28:28). Peter says he was “made” both Lord and Christ (2:36), signifying that the resurrection rightfully confirms him as such. Similarly, the apostle Paul speaks of Jesus’ resurrection as a patent declaration of his inalienable right to the title (Rom 1:4). For the ex-Pharisee and former persecutor of the church, “Jesus the Christ” is the very heart and soul of Paul’s preaching. Nothing is worthy to be compared to the glory of the Messiah; everything pales by comparison (Phil 3:5-10). The apostle’s all-consuming passion is for others to know the fullness of God in the person of his only Son (Eph 3:14-19).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit in Scripture speaks of Jesus with wide-ranging appellatives—Holy One, Judge, Righteous One, King, Son of God, and Lord—but these are not exhaustive. In him all the lines of messianic prediction converge; he is the touchstone whereby their validity is firmly established. The Lord Jesus Christ is himself the heart and substance of that covenant through which sinful people may be reconciled to a holy God (Is 42:6; Jn 14:6). That Jesus is the Messiah of Israel, God incarnate, exhaustively fulfills prophecy, type, and symbol—all shadows of his coming. Therefore, all should trust in him, the source of all grace, the only abiding treasure (Mt 12:21; Jn 1:16-17; Col 2:3). Anointed as prophet, he leads us into all truth (Jn 6:14; 7:16); as priest he intercedes for us (Heb 7:21); and as king he reigns over us (Phil 2:9-10).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Atonement; Branch; Christology; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Redeemer, Redemption; Son of God; Son of Man.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MESSIAH<\/h3>\n<p>Title derived from the Hebrew, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mashiach<\/span><em>,<\/em> a verbal adjective meaning “anointed one.” Along with its NT equivalent, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">christos<\/span> (Christ), it refers to an act of consecration whereby an individual is set apart to serve God and then anointed with oil. The verbal root <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mashach<\/span><em>)<\/em> conveys this idea as well.<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s practice of ceremonially anointing with oil is present in several contexts. Priests were regularly anointed prior to their divinely given service at the altar of sacrifice (Lv 4:3). While there is evidence for a literal anointing of prophets (1 Kgs 19:16), this does not appear to have been a standard practice. The anointing of Saul and David by Samuel established the act as a significant prerequisite for Hebrew kings before they assumed their positions of royal leadership. The king was especially considered to be the Lord’s anointed and as such was viewed to hold a secure position before men (1 Sm 12:14; 2 Sm 19:21) and God (Pss 2:2; 20:6). Along with numerous messianic prophecies, these proceedings helped inform the Jews of the Anointed One, par excellence, who would eventually come to bring salvation to Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Concluding the 13 articles of Hebraic faith attributed to Moses Maimonides (13th century <span>AD<\/span>) is the statement still found in many Hebrew prayer books: “I believe with a perfect heart that the Messiah will come; and although his coming be delayed, I will still wait patiently for his speedy appearance.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MessiahintheOldTestament\">Messiah in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Jewish hope for the advent of the Messiah developed dynamically from the period of David’s reign, when it was prophesied that his kingdom would endure to the end of time (2 Sm 7:16). Israel was told that, through David’s descendants, his throne would exert a never-ending dominion over all the earth (2 Sm 22:48-51; Jer 33). It is with this aspect of messianic salvation that Jewish minds have traditionally been preoccupied (cf. Acts 1:6).<\/p>\n<p>Among Orthodox rabbis there has never been a lack of conjecture respecting the details of the Messiah’s ministry. At one time the rabbis applied no less than 456 passages of Scripture to his person and salvation. Preoccupation with the Messiah is evident in the tractate <em>Sanhedrin<\/em> (Babylonian Talmud), where passages state that the world was created for him and that all the prophets prophesied of his days (<em>Sanhedrin<\/em> 98b, 99a). By and large, Orthodoxy still retains its time-worn belief in the Messiah’s reign in Jerusalem, the rebuilding of the temple, and the reestablishment of both priesthood and sacrifice.<\/p>\n<p>While later Judaism looked for the Messiah as an eschatological figure who will reign at the end of time, modern Jewish thought has largely jettisoned the traditional notion of a personal Messiah in favor of belief in a messianic age. Prevalent liberal Judaism envisions the world ultimately perfected through the influence of the twin Judaic ideals of justice and compassion. Such conviction, ignoring the plight of fallen humans and the teaching of Scripture, substitutes humanistic thinking for miraculous heavenly intervention.<\/p>\n<p>While the Messiah’s origin is linked firmly to the house of David (2 Sm 7:14; Hos 3:5), the promise for a Messiah was given long before David lived. In fact, the hope for the Messiah is implicit in the first promise of the establishment of the kingdom of God. Addressed to Satan, Genesis 3:15 declares that God will place hostility between the serpent and the woman until, in the fullness of time, the “seed” of the woman inflicts a fatal blow to the head of the serpent.<\/p>\n<p>The nature of messianic prophecy is progressive; each prophecy casts more light on the subject. This occurs, for example, respecting the concept of the “seed”: Messiah is to be born of a woman (Gn 3:15), through the line of Shem (9:26) and specifically through Abraham (22:18). Yet even as late as Genesis 22:18, the “seed” is not clearly presented as a person, since <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">zerah<\/span> (seed) may indicate a singular or plural object. Still less apparent in these early stages of messianic prophecy is the nature of the “bruising” that is to occur. Yet the idea of the Messiah being crushed for sin is implicit in the Genesis pronouncement, as is the violence associated with that act. Chief among the messianic prophets, Isaiah gives full range to the axiom that the Anointed One must endure extensive suffering (Is 53:1). Under the figure “the Servant of the Lord,” four “servant songs” delineate the mission of the future deliverer (Is 42:1-7; 49:1-9; 50:4-11; 52:13–53:12). While it is true that Isaiah does not explicitly link the title Messiah with the Servant of the Lord, identifying both figures as one and the same person is justifiable. Both figures are uniquely anointed (61:1); each brings light to the Gentiles (55:4; cf. 49:6); neither is pretentious in his first appearance (7:14-15; 11:1; cf. 42:3; 53:1); and the title of Davidic “branch” rests upon them both (11:1-4). Equally significant are the dual facts of their humiliation and exaltation (49:7; 52:13-15). Jewish scholars of the early Christian era in the Aramaic Targum on the prophets paraphrase Isaiah 42:1, “Behold my Servant Messiah” and begin Isaiah 53, “Behold my Servant Messiah will prosper.” While Cyrus may be spoken of as “anointed,” no final salvific work is attributed to him (45:1-5). Israel, although elect and loved by God (41:8), is ill-equipped as God’s servant to bring his redeeming work to mankind (42:18). The collapse of David’s dynasty points eloquently to Israel’s need for an anointed monarch who will heal the apostasy and disobedience (Ex 33:5; Hos 4:1). More and more, OT history presents Israel’s comprehensive moral failure. Her problem, which she shares with mankind, can only be solved by the making of a covenant whose surety and focal point is both a personal Savior and sovereign Lord (Jer 31:31-34). The advent of such a champion lives in the recorded promise of a shoot from the stump of Jesse’s fallen tree, who will bring the light of life to God’s benighted people (Is 9:2; 11:1).<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to get away from the idea that the concept of servanthood and lowliness belongs within the sphere of royalty (Zec 9:9). The concept of the Messiah filling the complementary offices of priest and king is incontrovertible (Ps 110:1-4); a suffering priest-king is far less obvious. Some among the Talmudic writers apparently recognized the likelihood that the Messiah would have to suffer. In the Babylonian Talmud, tractate <em>Sanhedrin<\/em> 98b, the Messiah is said to bear sicknesses and pain. Among the prayers for the Day of Atonement may be found the words of Eleazar ben Qalir (perhaps as late as <span>AD<\/span> 1000): “Our righteous Messiah has departed from us; we are horror-stricken, and there is none to justify us. Our iniquities and the yoke of our transgressions he carries, and is wounded for our transgressions. He bears on his shoulders our sins to find pardon for our iniquities. May we be healed by his stripes.” In a similar vein Rabbi Eliyya de Vidas writes, “The meaning of ‘He was wounded for our transgressions, bruised for our iniquities,’ is that since the Messiah bears our iniquities, which produce the effect of His being bruised, it follows that whosoever will not admit that the Messiah thus suffers for our iniquities must endure and suffer for them himself.” For all this, it is highly doubtful that anyone imagined the Messiah would accomplish his salvational work by means of his own death (cf. Is 53:12). When rabbinic speculation failed to satisfactorily harmonize the paradoxical facts of humiliation and exaltation, some hypothesized that God would send a Messiah to suffer as well as a Messiah to reign. Biblically, it is evident that the Anointed One’s terrible ordeal of suffering is but the necessary prelude to infinite glory. He is pictured not only as a great king (52:13; 53:12) but also as humble (53:2), humiliated (52:14), rejected (53:3), and bearing the consequences of mankind’s rebellion (vv 5-6). Yet he is raised up to intercede for, and richly bless, his people (v 12). The Messiah, having accomplished that full obedience that Adam and Israel failed to achieve, will bring Israel and the nations back to God (42:18-19; 49:3, 6).<\/p>\n<p>The writings of Daniel contain important messianic data. Daniel is unique in that he boldly speaks of “Messiah the Prince” (Dn 9:25), identifies him as the “Son of Man” (7:13), and says he suffers (“cut off,” 9:26). This statement of the cutting off (i.e., death) of the Messiah makes possible his work of atonement (9:24). The doctrine of a vicarious substitutionary atonement is the only doctrine of atonement found in the Bible (cf. Lv 17:11). Israel understood that to bear sin meant enduring the consequences, or penalty, for sin (cf. Nm 14:33). The same penal substitution is evident in the working principle of the Messiah’s atoning sacrifice. He is the victim’s substitute to whom is transferred the suffering due the sinner. The penalty having been thus borne vicariously, the suppliant is fully pardoned.<\/p>\n<p>Psalm 22:1 records the plaintive cry of the Messiah bearing man’s penalty for sin (cf. Mt 27:46) as he becomes sin on behalf of his people (2 Cor 5:21). Yet his cry, “My God,” indicates an intimate relationship that cannot be radically severed. Once again the motif of messianic humiliation prior to great exaltation is in view (Ps 22:27). In the so-called “royal psalms” (e.g., 2; 72; 110) it is the priestly intercessor who is also ordained to function as monarch and judge.<\/p>\n<p>Jeremiah brings the portrait a step further. The one who will enable humans to enter into a salvational covenant with God conveys God’s imputed righteousness: the Messiah, God’s righteous branch, becomes “the Lord our Righteousness.” Paradoxically, under the law no one could be crucified who was not guilty of sin (Dt 21:22). But it is Christ the righteous one who was crucified, thereby forever undermining any supposed legalistic confidence (Dt 21:23; Gal 3:13). More than forgiven, believers are deemed righteous in him (Jer 23:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>While the birthplace of the Messiah was well established (Mi 5:2), his deity was a hotly contested matter. Although few in ancient Israel disputed the belief in a superhuman Messiah, it is doubtful that anyone imagined him to be “God with us” in the fullest sense of the expression (cf. Heb 1:3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MessiahintheNewTestament\">Messiah in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The NT writers present the picture that he who was the child of supernatural origins (Is 7:14; Mi 5:2) carried the full weight of divinity (Is 9:6; Phil 2:6; Col 1:19). He is the Son of God, worthy to receive the worship of all people (Ps 45:6-7; cf. Heb 1:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Jews of first-century Palestine knew that the messianic promise would be fulfilled in the coming of one like Moses (Dt 18:18). Parallels between Jesus and Moses are abundant. As mediators, innovators, and propagators of new phases of spiritual life for the people, they are unexcelled. Specifically, both are miraculously spared in infancy (Ex 2; Mt 2:13-23); both renounce a royal court for the sake of serving the people of God (Phil 2:5-8; Heb 11:24-28); both exhibit intense compassion for others (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36); both commune “face to face” with God (Ex 34:29-30; 2 Cor 3:7); and each mediates a covenant of redemption (Dt 29:1; Heb 8:6-7). But, as Luther observes, “Christ is no Moses.” In the final analysis Moses is but a household servant; the Messiah is the maker and master of all things (Heb 3:3-6; cf. Jn 1:1-2, 18).<\/p>\n<p>Family genealogies are important in Scripture. Rabbis agreed upon the absolute necessity of the Messiah’s Davidic lineage based on Hosea 3:5 and Jeremiah 30:9. The angelic announcement immediately establishes the correct lineage for Jesus (Lk 1:32-33; cf. 2:4), as does Matthew’s (Mt 1:1-17). The Lukan list, like that of Matthew, sets forth the exclusive kingly descent verifying Jesus as Messiah (Lk 3:23-38). Although variations occur between the two genealogies, there is a firm solidarity emphasizing an ancestry within the unique messianic stock. Fully aware of the messianic focus of Scripture (Jn 5:46; 8:56), Jesus acknowledged himself to be the Christ on numerous occasions. He accepted the title from blind Bartimaeus (Mk 10:46-48); from the crowds when he entered Jerusalem (Mt 21:9); from the children at the temple (v 15); and in other contexts as well (Mt 16:16-18; Mk 14:61-62; Lk 4:21; Jn 4:25-26). Nonetheless, he warned his disciples not to broadcast his mighty acts as Messiah prior to his resurrection (Mt 17:9; cf. Lk 9:20-21). Owing to the commonly held (but false) notion that the Messiah’s role was primarily that of a political liberator, Jesus actually avoided use of that term and preferred to identify himself as “the Son of Man.” It was by no means assumed that both designations referred to the same person (cf. Mk 14:61-62). Borrowing essentially from Daniel’s vision of a heavenly conqueror (Dn 7:13-14), Jesus consistently employed this less-known title and filled it with the true character and scope of messianic salvation. Jesus’ teaching in this regard enabled his disciples to correct their erroneous views concerning his mission (Mt 16:21-23). In the fullness of time they would come to see him not only as Messiah but also as the theme of the entire OT (Mt 5:17; Lk 24:27, 44; Jn 5:39; cf. Heb 10:7). When Jesus expounded the Scriptures beginning with the Torah (Lk 24:27), he did so as the living exegesis of God, the Word made flesh (Jn 1:14, 18). Legitimate messianic exposition is found in a host of texts, such as Psalms 2; 16; 22; 40; 110; Isaiah 7:14; 9:6; 11:1; 40:10-11; 50:6; 52:13–53:12; 61:1; 63:1-6; Jeremiah 23:5-6; 33:14-16; Ezekiel 34:23; 37:25; Daniel 9:24-27; Hosea 11:1; Micah 5:2; Zechariah 9:9; 11:13; 12:10; 13:7; Malachi 3:1; 4:2.<\/p>\n<p>The messiahship of Jesus is firmly proclaimed by all four evangelists (Mt 1:1; Mk 1:1; Lk 24:26; Jn 20:31). Peter on Pentecost, Philip before the Ethiopian eunuch, and Apollos in open debate all argue convincingly that Jesus is the Messiah (Acts 2:36; 8:35; 28:28). Peter says he was “made” both Lord and Christ (2:36), signifying that the resurrection rightfully confirms him as such. Similarly, the apostle Paul speaks of Jesus’ resurrection as a patent declaration of his inalienable right to the title (Rom 1:4). For the ex-Pharisee and former persecutor of the church, “Jesus the Christ” is the very heart and soul of Paul’s preaching. Nothing is worthy to be compared to the glory of the Messiah; everything pales by comparison (Phil 3:5-10). The apostle’s all-consuming passion is for others to know the fullness of God in the person of his only Son (Eph 3:14-19).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit in Scripture speaks of Jesus with wide-ranging appellatives—Holy One, Judge, Righteous One, King, Son of God, and Lord—but these are not exhaustive. In him all the lines of messianic prediction converge; he is the touchstone whereby their validity is firmly established. The Lord Jesus Christ is himself the heart and substance of that covenant through which sinful people may be reconciled to a holy God (Is 42:6; Jn 14:6). That Jesus is the Messiah of Israel, God incarnate, exhaustively fulfills prophecy, type, and symbol—all shadows of his coming. Therefore, all should trust in him, the source of all grace, the only abiding treasure (Mt 12:21; Jn 1:16-17; Col 2:3). Anointed as prophet, he leads us into all truth (Jn 6:14; 7:16); as priest he intercedes for us (Heb 7:21); and as king he reigns over us (Phil 2:9-10).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Atonement; Branch; Christology; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Redeemer, Redemption; Son of God; Son of Man.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MESSIAH Title derived from the Hebrew, mashiach, a verbal adjective meaning “anointed one.” Along with its NT equivalent, christos (Christ), it refers to an act of consecration whereby an individual is set apart to serve God and then anointed with oil. The verbal root (mashach) conveys this idea as well. Israel’s practice of ceremonially anointing with oil is present in several contexts. Priests were regularly anointed prior to their divinely given service at the altar of sacrifice (Lv 4:3). ...","summary_en":"MESSIAH Title derived from the Hebrew, mashiach, a verbal adjective meaning “anointed one.” Along with its NT equivalent, christos (Christ), it refers to an act of consecration whereby an individual is set apart to serve God and then anointed with oil. The verbal root (mashach) conveys this idea as well. Israel’s practice of ceremonially anointing with oil is present in several contexts. Priests were regularly anointed prior to their divinely given service at the altar of sacrifice (Lv 4:3). ...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57188,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:28","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:28","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:28<\/strong> Since Jews everywhere had been given an opportunity to accept the faith (13:46; see Rom 1:16), it was now time for <em>the Gentiles<\/em> to be offered <em>this salvation<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:28<\/strong> Since Jews everywhere had been given an opportunity to accept the faith (13:46; see Rom 1:16), it was now time for <em>the Gentiles<\/em> to be offered <em>this salvation<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:28 Since Jews everywhere had been given an opportunity to accept the faith (13:46; see Rom 1:16), it was now time for the Gentiles to be offered this salvation.","summary_en":"28:28 Since Jews everywhere had been given an opportunity to accept the faith (13:46; see Rom 1:16), it was now time for the Gentiles to be offered this salvation.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84814,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:28","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:28","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:28<\/strong> Since Jews everywhere had been given an opportunity to accept the faith (13:46; see Rom 1:16), it was now time for <em>the Gentiles<\/em> to be offered <em>this salvation<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:28<\/strong> Since Jews everywhere had been given an opportunity to accept the faith (13:46; see Rom 1:16), it was now time for <em>the Gentiles<\/em> to be offered <em>this salvation<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:28 Since Jews everywhere had been given an opportunity to accept the faith (13:46; see Rom 1:16), it was now time for the Gentiles to be offered this salvation.","summary_en":"28:28 Since Jews everywhere had been given an opportunity to accept the faith (13:46; see Rom 1:16), it was now time for the Gentiles to be offered this salvation.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112440,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:28","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:28","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:28<\/strong> Since Jews everywhere had been given an opportunity to accept the faith (13:46; see Rom 1:16), it was now time for <em>the Gentiles<\/em> to be offered <em>this salvation<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:28<\/strong> Since Jews everywhere had been given an opportunity to accept the faith (13:46; see Rom 1:16), it was now time for <em>the Gentiles<\/em> to be offered <em>this salvation<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:28 Since Jews everywhere had been given an opportunity to accept the faith (13:46; see Rom 1:16), it was now time for the Gentiles to be offered this salvation.","summary_en":"28:28 Since Jews everywhere had been given an opportunity to accept the faith (13:46; see Rom 1:16), it was now time for the Gentiles to be offered this salvation.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140066,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:28","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:28","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:28<\/strong> Since Jews everywhere had been given an opportunity to accept the faith (13:46; see Rom 1:16), it was now time for <em>the Gentiles<\/em> to be offered <em>this salvation<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:28<\/strong> Since Jews everywhere had been given an opportunity to accept the faith (13:46; see Rom 1:16), it was now time for <em>the Gentiles<\/em> to be offered <em>this salvation<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:28 Since Jews everywhere had been given an opportunity to accept the faith (13:46; see Rom 1:16), it was now time for the Gentiles to be offered this salvation.","summary_en":"28:28 Since Jews everywhere had been given an opportunity to accept the faith (13:46; see Rom 1:16), it was now time for the Gentiles to be offered this salvation.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"30":[{"id":42673,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Luke","title_en":"Luke","content_ro":"<h3>Luke<\/h3>\n<p>Luke, a Gentile medical doctor who became a convert and trusted assistant of Paul in his missionary work, wrote both the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles—roughly one-quarter of the New Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Though we know very little about Luke’s background, he seems to have first encountered Paul and his preaching in western Asia Minor, where he became a convert. Leaving his home, he devoted his life to the service of Christ and the Good News as a dedicated assistant of Paul. Paul speaks of him warmly as “the beloved doctor” and one of his faithful “coworkers” (Col 4:14; Phlm 1:24). Luke is the only Christian who faithfully remained with Paul when Paul was awaiting execution in Rome (2 Tim 4:11). And he is the only Gentile to have his writings included in the New Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Accompanying Paul on his last trip to Jerusalem, Luke probably acquired the information for his Gospel and the early part of the book of Acts from people he interviewed in Judea while Paul was imprisoned there for two years. Having talked extensively with people who heard and saw Jesus, and having carefully studied what others had written about him, Luke then wrote his own careful account of Jesus’ life and teachings (see Luke 1:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>When Paul was sent by ship to Rome to have his case tried there, Luke accompanied him. While Paul was under house arrest, awaiting his trial, Luke might have used the time to write the book of Acts. The first fifteen chapters provide a chronological account of the earliest missionary work as told to him by the early followers of Christ—and probably by Paul himself. But beginning at Acts 16:10—the point at which Luke joined Paul’s team—he provides a direct eyewitness account. In Acts, Luke emphasizes the way the Holy Spirit empowered and guided the early missionaries in their witness (see Acts 1:4-5, 8). The book ends with Paul still under house arrest in Rome (28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p>We are indebted to Luke for many unique passages including his account of Jesus’ birth, descriptions of Jesus’ ministry to women, many words about Jesus caring for the poor, and the only comprehensive account of the first thirty years of Christian missionary activity—all carefully documented. Through Luke’s writings we gain a much deeper appreciation of the crucial work of the Holy Spirit in the ministry of Jesus and the early missionaries.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Luke 1:3; Acts 1:1; 16:10; Col 4:14; 2 Tim 4:11; Phlm 1:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Luke<\/h3>\n<p>Luke, a Gentile medical doctor who became a convert and trusted assistant of Paul in his missionary work, wrote both the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles—roughly one-quarter of the New Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Though we know very little about Luke’s background, he seems to have first encountered Paul and his preaching in western Asia Minor, where he became a convert. Leaving his home, he devoted his life to the service of Christ and the Good News as a dedicated assistant of Paul. Paul speaks of him warmly as “the beloved doctor” and one of his faithful “coworkers” (Col 4:14; Phlm 1:24). Luke is the only Christian who faithfully remained with Paul when Paul was awaiting execution in Rome (2 Tim 4:11). And he is the only Gentile to have his writings included in the New Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Accompanying Paul on his last trip to Jerusalem, Luke probably acquired the information for his Gospel and the early part of the book of Acts from people he interviewed in Judea while Paul was imprisoned there for two years. Having talked extensively with people who heard and saw Jesus, and having carefully studied what others had written about him, Luke then wrote his own careful account of Jesus’ life and teachings (see Luke 1:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>When Paul was sent by ship to Rome to have his case tried there, Luke accompanied him. While Paul was under house arrest, awaiting his trial, Luke might have used the time to write the book of Acts. The first fifteen chapters provide a chronological account of the earliest missionary work as told to him by the early followers of Christ—and probably by Paul himself. But beginning at Acts 16:10—the point at which Luke joined Paul’s team—he provides a direct eyewitness account. In Acts, Luke emphasizes the way the Holy Spirit empowered and guided the early missionaries in their witness (see Acts 1:4-5, 8). The book ends with Paul still under house arrest in Rome (28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p>We are indebted to Luke for many unique passages including his account of Jesus’ birth, descriptions of Jesus’ ministry to women, many words about Jesus caring for the poor, and the only comprehensive account of the first thirty years of Christian missionary activity—all carefully documented. Through Luke’s writings we gain a much deeper appreciation of the crucial work of the Holy Spirit in the ministry of Jesus and the early missionaries.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Luke 1:3; Acts 1:1; 16:10; Col 4:14; 2 Tim 4:11; Phlm 1:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"Luke Luke, a Gentile medical doctor who became a convert and trusted assistant of Paul in his missionary work, wrote both the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles—roughly one-quarter of the New Testament. Though we know very little about Luke’s background, he seems to have first encountered Paul and his preaching in western Asia Minor, where he became a convert. Leaving his home, he devoted his life to the service of Christ and the Good News as a dedicated assistant of Paul. Paul speak...","summary_en":"Luke Luke, a Gentile medical doctor who became a convert and trusted assistant of Paul in his missionary work, wrote both the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles—roughly one-quarter of the New Testament. Though we know very little about Luke’s background, he seems to have first encountered Paul and his preaching in western Asia Minor, where he became a convert. Leaving his home, he devoted his life to the service of Christ and the Good News as a dedicated assistant of Paul. Paul speak...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":42718,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"The Roman Church","title_en":"The Roman Church","content_ro":"<h3>The Roman Church<\/h3>\n<p>The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Peter founded the Roman church or that he was present in Rome by the time Paul wrote to the Roman Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 57; otherwise, Paul would certainly have greeted him. Consequently, Paul wrote this letter to help ensure that the Roman church had apostolic involvement in their faith. He never wrote to the churches of Judea, founded by the other apostles, but only to churches that either he had founded (e.g., Corinth, Galatia) or to those that had no direct apostolic involvement (e.g., Colosse, Rome).<\/p>\n<p>In time, the Jewish Christians in Rome would have been pushed out of the synagogues by the non-Christian Jews, as happened elsewhere. By the time Paul wrote to the Roman church, they were meeting as separate house churches in private homes (Rom 16:5, 10-11, 15). There were no centralized edifices, and it is uncertain whether the whole body of believers in Rome met together.<\/p>\n<p>When Claudius expelled the Jews from Rome (around <span>AD<\/span> 49), the Jewish Christians were also forced to leave, among whom were Priscilla and Aquila (Acts 18:2). In the absence of the Jews, the Roman church would have become Gentile in character. When the Jews returned (probably shortly after the death of Claudius in <span>AD<\/span> 54), there were no doubt questions—if not conflicts—among the Jewish and Gentile Christians. Paul may have written Romans to settle such controversies among this mixed group of Jews and Gentiles worshiping Christ in the same city.<\/p>\n<p>As is evident from Romans 16, Paul already had many friends in the Roman church. In the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 60, roughly two years after writing Romans, Paul had the opportunity to go to Rome—a desire he had repeatedly expressed (Acts 19:21; Rom 1:13-15). He spent two years there under house arrest awaiting his first trial before Nero, “boldly proclaiming the Kingdom of God and teaching about the Lord Jesus Christ” (Acts 28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 28:15-31; Rom 1:13-15; 16:1-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Roman Church<\/h3>\n<p>The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Peter founded the Roman church or that he was present in Rome by the time Paul wrote to the Roman Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 57; otherwise, Paul would certainly have greeted him. Consequently, Paul wrote this letter to help ensure that the Roman church had apostolic involvement in their faith. He never wrote to the churches of Judea, founded by the other apostles, but only to churches that either he had founded (e.g., Corinth, Galatia) or to those that had no direct apostolic involvement (e.g., Colosse, Rome).<\/p>\n<p>In time, the Jewish Christians in Rome would have been pushed out of the synagogues by the non-Christian Jews, as happened elsewhere. By the time Paul wrote to the Roman church, they were meeting as separate house churches in private homes (Rom 16:5, 10-11, 15). There were no centralized edifices, and it is uncertain whether the whole body of believers in Rome met together.<\/p>\n<p>When Claudius expelled the Jews from Rome (around <span>AD<\/span> 49), the Jewish Christians were also forced to leave, among whom were Priscilla and Aquila (Acts 18:2). In the absence of the Jews, the Roman church would have become Gentile in character. When the Jews returned (probably shortly after the death of Claudius in <span>AD<\/span> 54), there were no doubt questions—if not conflicts—among the Jewish and Gentile Christians. Paul may have written Romans to settle such controversies among this mixed group of Jews and Gentiles worshiping Christ in the same city.<\/p>\n<p>As is evident from Romans 16, Paul already had many friends in the Roman church. In the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 60, roughly two years after writing Romans, Paul had the opportunity to go to Rome—a desire he had repeatedly expressed (Acts 19:21; Rom 1:13-15). He spent two years there under house arrest awaiting his first trial before Nero, “boldly proclaiming the Kingdom of God and teaching about the Lord Jesus Christ” (Acts 28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 28:15-31; Rom 1:13-15; 16:1-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Roman Church The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Pete...","summary_en":"The Roman Church The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Pete...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70299,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Luke","title_en":"Luke","content_ro":"<h3>Luke<\/h3>\n<p>Luke, a Gentile medical doctor who became a convert and trusted assistant of Paul in his missionary work, wrote both the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles—roughly one-quarter of the New Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Though we know very little about Luke’s background, he seems to have first encountered Paul and his preaching in western Asia Minor, where he became a convert. Leaving his home, he devoted his life to the service of Christ and the Good News as a dedicated assistant of Paul. Paul speaks of him warmly as “the beloved doctor” and one of his faithful “coworkers” (Col 4:14; Phlm 1:24). Luke is the only Christian who faithfully remained with Paul when Paul was awaiting execution in Rome (2 Tim 4:11). And he is the only Gentile to have his writings included in the New Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Accompanying Paul on his last trip to Jerusalem, Luke probably acquired the information for his Gospel and the early part of the book of Acts from people he interviewed in Judea while Paul was imprisoned there for two years. Having talked extensively with people who heard and saw Jesus, and having carefully studied what others had written about him, Luke then wrote his own careful account of Jesus’ life and teachings (see Luke 1:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>When Paul was sent by ship to Rome to have his case tried there, Luke accompanied him. While Paul was under house arrest, awaiting his trial, Luke might have used the time to write the book of Acts. The first fifteen chapters provide a chronological account of the earliest missionary work as told to him by the early followers of Christ—and probably by Paul himself. But beginning at Acts 16:10—the point at which Luke joined Paul’s team—he provides a direct eyewitness account. In Acts, Luke emphasizes the way the Holy Spirit empowered and guided the early missionaries in their witness (see Acts 1:4-5, 8). The book ends with Paul still under house arrest in Rome (28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p>We are indebted to Luke for many unique passages including his account of Jesus’ birth, descriptions of Jesus’ ministry to women, many words about Jesus caring for the poor, and the only comprehensive account of the first thirty years of Christian missionary activity—all carefully documented. Through Luke’s writings we gain a much deeper appreciation of the crucial work of the Holy Spirit in the ministry of Jesus and the early missionaries.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Luke 1:3; Acts 1:1; 16:10; Col 4:14; 2 Tim 4:11; Phlm 1:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Luke<\/h3>\n<p>Luke, a Gentile medical doctor who became a convert and trusted assistant of Paul in his missionary work, wrote both the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles—roughly one-quarter of the New Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Though we know very little about Luke’s background, he seems to have first encountered Paul and his preaching in western Asia Minor, where he became a convert. Leaving his home, he devoted his life to the service of Christ and the Good News as a dedicated assistant of Paul. Paul speaks of him warmly as “the beloved doctor” and one of his faithful “coworkers” (Col 4:14; Phlm 1:24). Luke is the only Christian who faithfully remained with Paul when Paul was awaiting execution in Rome (2 Tim 4:11). And he is the only Gentile to have his writings included in the New Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Accompanying Paul on his last trip to Jerusalem, Luke probably acquired the information for his Gospel and the early part of the book of Acts from people he interviewed in Judea while Paul was imprisoned there for two years. Having talked extensively with people who heard and saw Jesus, and having carefully studied what others had written about him, Luke then wrote his own careful account of Jesus’ life and teachings (see Luke 1:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>When Paul was sent by ship to Rome to have his case tried there, Luke accompanied him. While Paul was under house arrest, awaiting his trial, Luke might have used the time to write the book of Acts. The first fifteen chapters provide a chronological account of the earliest missionary work as told to him by the early followers of Christ—and probably by Paul himself. But beginning at Acts 16:10—the point at which Luke joined Paul’s team—he provides a direct eyewitness account. In Acts, Luke emphasizes the way the Holy Spirit empowered and guided the early missionaries in their witness (see Acts 1:4-5, 8). The book ends with Paul still under house arrest in Rome (28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p>We are indebted to Luke for many unique passages including his account of Jesus’ birth, descriptions of Jesus’ ministry to women, many words about Jesus caring for the poor, and the only comprehensive account of the first thirty years of Christian missionary activity—all carefully documented. Through Luke’s writings we gain a much deeper appreciation of the crucial work of the Holy Spirit in the ministry of Jesus and the early missionaries.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Luke 1:3; Acts 1:1; 16:10; Col 4:14; 2 Tim 4:11; Phlm 1:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"Luke Luke, a Gentile medical doctor who became a convert and trusted assistant of Paul in his missionary work, wrote both the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles—roughly one-quarter of the New Testament. Though we know very little about Luke’s background, he seems to have first encountered Paul and his preaching in western Asia Minor, where he became a convert. Leaving his home, he devoted his life to the service of Christ and the Good News as a dedicated assistant of Paul. Paul speak...","summary_en":"Luke Luke, a Gentile medical doctor who became a convert and trusted assistant of Paul in his missionary work, wrote both the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles—roughly one-quarter of the New Testament. Though we know very little about Luke’s background, he seems to have first encountered Paul and his preaching in western Asia Minor, where he became a convert. Leaving his home, he devoted his life to the service of Christ and the Good News as a dedicated assistant of Paul. Paul speak...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70344,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"The Roman Church","title_en":"The Roman Church","content_ro":"<h3>The Roman Church<\/h3>\n<p>The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Peter founded the Roman church or that he was present in Rome by the time Paul wrote to the Roman Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 57; otherwise, Paul would certainly have greeted him. Consequently, Paul wrote this letter to help ensure that the Roman church had apostolic involvement in their faith. He never wrote to the churches of Judea, founded by the other apostles, but only to churches that either he had founded (e.g., Corinth, Galatia) or to those that had no direct apostolic involvement (e.g., Colosse, Rome).<\/p>\n<p>In time, the Jewish Christians in Rome would have been pushed out of the synagogues by the non-Christian Jews, as happened elsewhere. By the time Paul wrote to the Roman church, they were meeting as separate house churches in private homes (Rom 16:5, 10-11, 15). There were no centralized edifices, and it is uncertain whether the whole body of believers in Rome met together.<\/p>\n<p>When Claudius expelled the Jews from Rome (around <span>AD<\/span> 49), the Jewish Christians were also forced to leave, among whom were Priscilla and Aquila (Acts 18:2). In the absence of the Jews, the Roman church would have become Gentile in character. When the Jews returned (probably shortly after the death of Claudius in <span>AD<\/span> 54), there were no doubt questions—if not conflicts—among the Jewish and Gentile Christians. Paul may have written Romans to settle such controversies among this mixed group of Jews and Gentiles worshiping Christ in the same city.<\/p>\n<p>As is evident from Romans 16, Paul already had many friends in the Roman church. In the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 60, roughly two years after writing Romans, Paul had the opportunity to go to Rome—a desire he had repeatedly expressed (Acts 19:21; Rom 1:13-15). He spent two years there under house arrest awaiting his first trial before Nero, “boldly proclaiming the Kingdom of God and teaching about the Lord Jesus Christ” (Acts 28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 28:15-31; Rom 1:13-15; 16:1-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Roman Church<\/h3>\n<p>The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Peter founded the Roman church or that he was present in Rome by the time Paul wrote to the Roman Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 57; otherwise, Paul would certainly have greeted him. Consequently, Paul wrote this letter to help ensure that the Roman church had apostolic involvement in their faith. He never wrote to the churches of Judea, founded by the other apostles, but only to churches that either he had founded (e.g., Corinth, Galatia) or to those that had no direct apostolic involvement (e.g., Colosse, Rome).<\/p>\n<p>In time, the Jewish Christians in Rome would have been pushed out of the synagogues by the non-Christian Jews, as happened elsewhere. By the time Paul wrote to the Roman church, they were meeting as separate house churches in private homes (Rom 16:5, 10-11, 15). There were no centralized edifices, and it is uncertain whether the whole body of believers in Rome met together.<\/p>\n<p>When Claudius expelled the Jews from Rome (around <span>AD<\/span> 49), the Jewish Christians were also forced to leave, among whom were Priscilla and Aquila (Acts 18:2). In the absence of the Jews, the Roman church would have become Gentile in character. When the Jews returned (probably shortly after the death of Claudius in <span>AD<\/span> 54), there were no doubt questions—if not conflicts—among the Jewish and Gentile Christians. Paul may have written Romans to settle such controversies among this mixed group of Jews and Gentiles worshiping Christ in the same city.<\/p>\n<p>As is evident from Romans 16, Paul already had many friends in the Roman church. In the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 60, roughly two years after writing Romans, Paul had the opportunity to go to Rome—a desire he had repeatedly expressed (Acts 19:21; Rom 1:13-15). He spent two years there under house arrest awaiting his first trial before Nero, “boldly proclaiming the Kingdom of God and teaching about the Lord Jesus Christ” (Acts 28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 28:15-31; Rom 1:13-15; 16:1-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Roman Church The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Pete...","summary_en":"The Roman Church The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Pete...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97925,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Luke","title_en":"Luke","content_ro":"<h3>Luke<\/h3>\n<p>Luke, a Gentile medical doctor who became a convert and trusted assistant of Paul in his missionary work, wrote both the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles—roughly one-quarter of the New Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Though we know very little about Luke’s background, he seems to have first encountered Paul and his preaching in western Asia Minor, where he became a convert. Leaving his home, he devoted his life to the service of Christ and the Good News as a dedicated assistant of Paul. Paul speaks of him warmly as “the beloved doctor” and one of his faithful “coworkers” (Col 4:14; Phlm 1:24). Luke is the only Christian who faithfully remained with Paul when Paul was awaiting execution in Rome (2 Tim 4:11). And he is the only Gentile to have his writings included in the New Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Accompanying Paul on his last trip to Jerusalem, Luke probably acquired the information for his Gospel and the early part of the book of Acts from people he interviewed in Judea while Paul was imprisoned there for two years. Having talked extensively with people who heard and saw Jesus, and having carefully studied what others had written about him, Luke then wrote his own careful account of Jesus’ life and teachings (see Luke 1:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>When Paul was sent by ship to Rome to have his case tried there, Luke accompanied him. While Paul was under house arrest, awaiting his trial, Luke might have used the time to write the book of Acts. The first fifteen chapters provide a chronological account of the earliest missionary work as told to him by the early followers of Christ—and probably by Paul himself. But beginning at Acts 16:10—the point at which Luke joined Paul’s team—he provides a direct eyewitness account. In Acts, Luke emphasizes the way the Holy Spirit empowered and guided the early missionaries in their witness (see Acts 1:4-5, 8). The book ends with Paul still under house arrest in Rome (28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p>We are indebted to Luke for many unique passages including his account of Jesus’ birth, descriptions of Jesus’ ministry to women, many words about Jesus caring for the poor, and the only comprehensive account of the first thirty years of Christian missionary activity—all carefully documented. Through Luke’s writings we gain a much deeper appreciation of the crucial work of the Holy Spirit in the ministry of Jesus and the early missionaries.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Luke 1:3; Acts 1:1; 16:10; Col 4:14; 2 Tim 4:11; Phlm 1:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Luke<\/h3>\n<p>Luke, a Gentile medical doctor who became a convert and trusted assistant of Paul in his missionary work, wrote both the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles—roughly one-quarter of the New Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Though we know very little about Luke’s background, he seems to have first encountered Paul and his preaching in western Asia Minor, where he became a convert. Leaving his home, he devoted his life to the service of Christ and the Good News as a dedicated assistant of Paul. Paul speaks of him warmly as “the beloved doctor” and one of his faithful “coworkers” (Col 4:14; Phlm 1:24). Luke is the only Christian who faithfully remained with Paul when Paul was awaiting execution in Rome (2 Tim 4:11). And he is the only Gentile to have his writings included in the New Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Accompanying Paul on his last trip to Jerusalem, Luke probably acquired the information for his Gospel and the early part of the book of Acts from people he interviewed in Judea while Paul was imprisoned there for two years. Having talked extensively with people who heard and saw Jesus, and having carefully studied what others had written about him, Luke then wrote his own careful account of Jesus’ life and teachings (see Luke 1:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>When Paul was sent by ship to Rome to have his case tried there, Luke accompanied him. While Paul was under house arrest, awaiting his trial, Luke might have used the time to write the book of Acts. The first fifteen chapters provide a chronological account of the earliest missionary work as told to him by the early followers of Christ—and probably by Paul himself. But beginning at Acts 16:10—the point at which Luke joined Paul’s team—he provides a direct eyewitness account. In Acts, Luke emphasizes the way the Holy Spirit empowered and guided the early missionaries in their witness (see Acts 1:4-5, 8). The book ends with Paul still under house arrest in Rome (28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p>We are indebted to Luke for many unique passages including his account of Jesus’ birth, descriptions of Jesus’ ministry to women, many words about Jesus caring for the poor, and the only comprehensive account of the first thirty years of Christian missionary activity—all carefully documented. Through Luke’s writings we gain a much deeper appreciation of the crucial work of the Holy Spirit in the ministry of Jesus and the early missionaries.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Luke 1:3; Acts 1:1; 16:10; Col 4:14; 2 Tim 4:11; Phlm 1:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"Luke Luke, a Gentile medical doctor who became a convert and trusted assistant of Paul in his missionary work, wrote both the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles—roughly one-quarter of the New Testament. Though we know very little about Luke’s background, he seems to have first encountered Paul and his preaching in western Asia Minor, where he became a convert. Leaving his home, he devoted his life to the service of Christ and the Good News as a dedicated assistant of Paul. Paul speak...","summary_en":"Luke Luke, a Gentile medical doctor who became a convert and trusted assistant of Paul in his missionary work, wrote both the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles—roughly one-quarter of the New Testament. Though we know very little about Luke’s background, he seems to have first encountered Paul and his preaching in western Asia Minor, where he became a convert. Leaving his home, he devoted his life to the service of Christ and the Good News as a dedicated assistant of Paul. Paul speak...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97970,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"The Roman Church","title_en":"The Roman Church","content_ro":"<h3>The Roman Church<\/h3>\n<p>The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Peter founded the Roman church or that he was present in Rome by the time Paul wrote to the Roman Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 57; otherwise, Paul would certainly have greeted him. Consequently, Paul wrote this letter to help ensure that the Roman church had apostolic involvement in their faith. He never wrote to the churches of Judea, founded by the other apostles, but only to churches that either he had founded (e.g., Corinth, Galatia) or to those that had no direct apostolic involvement (e.g., Colosse, Rome).<\/p>\n<p>In time, the Jewish Christians in Rome would have been pushed out of the synagogues by the non-Christian Jews, as happened elsewhere. By the time Paul wrote to the Roman church, they were meeting as separate house churches in private homes (Rom 16:5, 10-11, 15). There were no centralized edifices, and it is uncertain whether the whole body of believers in Rome met together.<\/p>\n<p>When Claudius expelled the Jews from Rome (around <span>AD<\/span> 49), the Jewish Christians were also forced to leave, among whom were Priscilla and Aquila (Acts 18:2). In the absence of the Jews, the Roman church would have become Gentile in character. When the Jews returned (probably shortly after the death of Claudius in <span>AD<\/span> 54), there were no doubt questions—if not conflicts—among the Jewish and Gentile Christians. Paul may have written Romans to settle such controversies among this mixed group of Jews and Gentiles worshiping Christ in the same city.<\/p>\n<p>As is evident from Romans 16, Paul already had many friends in the Roman church. In the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 60, roughly two years after writing Romans, Paul had the opportunity to go to Rome—a desire he had repeatedly expressed (Acts 19:21; Rom 1:13-15). He spent two years there under house arrest awaiting his first trial before Nero, “boldly proclaiming the Kingdom of God and teaching about the Lord Jesus Christ” (Acts 28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 28:15-31; Rom 1:13-15; 16:1-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Roman Church<\/h3>\n<p>The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Peter founded the Roman church or that he was present in Rome by the time Paul wrote to the Roman Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 57; otherwise, Paul would certainly have greeted him. Consequently, Paul wrote this letter to help ensure that the Roman church had apostolic involvement in their faith. He never wrote to the churches of Judea, founded by the other apostles, but only to churches that either he had founded (e.g., Corinth, Galatia) or to those that had no direct apostolic involvement (e.g., Colosse, Rome).<\/p>\n<p>In time, the Jewish Christians in Rome would have been pushed out of the synagogues by the non-Christian Jews, as happened elsewhere. By the time Paul wrote to the Roman church, they were meeting as separate house churches in private homes (Rom 16:5, 10-11, 15). There were no centralized edifices, and it is uncertain whether the whole body of believers in Rome met together.<\/p>\n<p>When Claudius expelled the Jews from Rome (around <span>AD<\/span> 49), the Jewish Christians were also forced to leave, among whom were Priscilla and Aquila (Acts 18:2). In the absence of the Jews, the Roman church would have become Gentile in character. When the Jews returned (probably shortly after the death of Claudius in <span>AD<\/span> 54), there were no doubt questions—if not conflicts—among the Jewish and Gentile Christians. Paul may have written Romans to settle such controversies among this mixed group of Jews and Gentiles worshiping Christ in the same city.<\/p>\n<p>As is evident from Romans 16, Paul already had many friends in the Roman church. In the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 60, roughly two years after writing Romans, Paul had the opportunity to go to Rome—a desire he had repeatedly expressed (Acts 19:21; Rom 1:13-15). He spent two years there under house arrest awaiting his first trial before Nero, “boldly proclaiming the Kingdom of God and teaching about the Lord Jesus Christ” (Acts 28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 28:15-31; Rom 1:13-15; 16:1-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Roman Church The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Pete...","summary_en":"The Roman Church The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Pete...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":125551,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Luke","title_en":"Luke","content_ro":"<h3>Luke<\/h3>\n<p>Luke, a Gentile medical doctor who became a convert and trusted assistant of Paul in his missionary work, wrote both the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles—roughly one-quarter of the New Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Though we know very little about Luke’s background, he seems to have first encountered Paul and his preaching in western Asia Minor, where he became a convert. Leaving his home, he devoted his life to the service of Christ and the Good News as a dedicated assistant of Paul. Paul speaks of him warmly as “the beloved doctor” and one of his faithful “coworkers” (Col 4:14; Phlm 1:24). Luke is the only Christian who faithfully remained with Paul when Paul was awaiting execution in Rome (2 Tim 4:11). And he is the only Gentile to have his writings included in the New Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Accompanying Paul on his last trip to Jerusalem, Luke probably acquired the information for his Gospel and the early part of the book of Acts from people he interviewed in Judea while Paul was imprisoned there for two years. Having talked extensively with people who heard and saw Jesus, and having carefully studied what others had written about him, Luke then wrote his own careful account of Jesus’ life and teachings (see Luke 1:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>When Paul was sent by ship to Rome to have his case tried there, Luke accompanied him. While Paul was under house arrest, awaiting his trial, Luke might have used the time to write the book of Acts. The first fifteen chapters provide a chronological account of the earliest missionary work as told to him by the early followers of Christ—and probably by Paul himself. But beginning at Acts 16:10—the point at which Luke joined Paul’s team—he provides a direct eyewitness account. In Acts, Luke emphasizes the way the Holy Spirit empowered and guided the early missionaries in their witness (see Acts 1:4-5, 8). The book ends with Paul still under house arrest in Rome (28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p>We are indebted to Luke for many unique passages including his account of Jesus’ birth, descriptions of Jesus’ ministry to women, many words about Jesus caring for the poor, and the only comprehensive account of the first thirty years of Christian missionary activity—all carefully documented. Through Luke’s writings we gain a much deeper appreciation of the crucial work of the Holy Spirit in the ministry of Jesus and the early missionaries.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Luke 1:3; Acts 1:1; 16:10; Col 4:14; 2 Tim 4:11; Phlm 1:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Luke<\/h3>\n<p>Luke, a Gentile medical doctor who became a convert and trusted assistant of Paul in his missionary work, wrote both the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles—roughly one-quarter of the New Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Though we know very little about Luke’s background, he seems to have first encountered Paul and his preaching in western Asia Minor, where he became a convert. Leaving his home, he devoted his life to the service of Christ and the Good News as a dedicated assistant of Paul. Paul speaks of him warmly as “the beloved doctor” and one of his faithful “coworkers” (Col 4:14; Phlm 1:24). Luke is the only Christian who faithfully remained with Paul when Paul was awaiting execution in Rome (2 Tim 4:11). And he is the only Gentile to have his writings included in the New Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Accompanying Paul on his last trip to Jerusalem, Luke probably acquired the information for his Gospel and the early part of the book of Acts from people he interviewed in Judea while Paul was imprisoned there for two years. Having talked extensively with people who heard and saw Jesus, and having carefully studied what others had written about him, Luke then wrote his own careful account of Jesus’ life and teachings (see Luke 1:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>When Paul was sent by ship to Rome to have his case tried there, Luke accompanied him. While Paul was under house arrest, awaiting his trial, Luke might have used the time to write the book of Acts. The first fifteen chapters provide a chronological account of the earliest missionary work as told to him by the early followers of Christ—and probably by Paul himself. But beginning at Acts 16:10—the point at which Luke joined Paul’s team—he provides a direct eyewitness account. In Acts, Luke emphasizes the way the Holy Spirit empowered and guided the early missionaries in their witness (see Acts 1:4-5, 8). The book ends with Paul still under house arrest in Rome (28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p>We are indebted to Luke for many unique passages including his account of Jesus’ birth, descriptions of Jesus’ ministry to women, many words about Jesus caring for the poor, and the only comprehensive account of the first thirty years of Christian missionary activity—all carefully documented. Through Luke’s writings we gain a much deeper appreciation of the crucial work of the Holy Spirit in the ministry of Jesus and the early missionaries.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Luke 1:3; Acts 1:1; 16:10; Col 4:14; 2 Tim 4:11; Phlm 1:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"Luke Luke, a Gentile medical doctor who became a convert and trusted assistant of Paul in his missionary work, wrote both the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles—roughly one-quarter of the New Testament. Though we know very little about Luke’s background, he seems to have first encountered Paul and his preaching in western Asia Minor, where he became a convert. Leaving his home, he devoted his life to the service of Christ and the Good News as a dedicated assistant of Paul. Paul speak...","summary_en":"Luke Luke, a Gentile medical doctor who became a convert and trusted assistant of Paul in his missionary work, wrote both the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles—roughly one-quarter of the New Testament. Though we know very little about Luke’s background, he seems to have first encountered Paul and his preaching in western Asia Minor, where he became a convert. Leaving his home, he devoted his life to the service of Christ and the Good News as a dedicated assistant of Paul. Paul speak...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":125596,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"The Roman Church","title_en":"The Roman Church","content_ro":"<h3>The Roman Church<\/h3>\n<p>The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Peter founded the Roman church or that he was present in Rome by the time Paul wrote to the Roman Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 57; otherwise, Paul would certainly have greeted him. Consequently, Paul wrote this letter to help ensure that the Roman church had apostolic involvement in their faith. He never wrote to the churches of Judea, founded by the other apostles, but only to churches that either he had founded (e.g., Corinth, Galatia) or to those that had no direct apostolic involvement (e.g., Colosse, Rome).<\/p>\n<p>In time, the Jewish Christians in Rome would have been pushed out of the synagogues by the non-Christian Jews, as happened elsewhere. By the time Paul wrote to the Roman church, they were meeting as separate house churches in private homes (Rom 16:5, 10-11, 15). There were no centralized edifices, and it is uncertain whether the whole body of believers in Rome met together.<\/p>\n<p>When Claudius expelled the Jews from Rome (around <span>AD<\/span> 49), the Jewish Christians were also forced to leave, among whom were Priscilla and Aquila (Acts 18:2). In the absence of the Jews, the Roman church would have become Gentile in character. When the Jews returned (probably shortly after the death of Claudius in <span>AD<\/span> 54), there were no doubt questions—if not conflicts—among the Jewish and Gentile Christians. Paul may have written Romans to settle such controversies among this mixed group of Jews and Gentiles worshiping Christ in the same city.<\/p>\n<p>As is evident from Romans 16, Paul already had many friends in the Roman church. In the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 60, roughly two years after writing Romans, Paul had the opportunity to go to Rome—a desire he had repeatedly expressed (Acts 19:21; Rom 1:13-15). He spent two years there under house arrest awaiting his first trial before Nero, “boldly proclaiming the Kingdom of God and teaching about the Lord Jesus Christ” (Acts 28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 28:15-31; Rom 1:13-15; 16:1-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Roman Church<\/h3>\n<p>The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Peter founded the Roman church or that he was present in Rome by the time Paul wrote to the Roman Christians around <span>AD<\/span> 57; otherwise, Paul would certainly have greeted him. Consequently, Paul wrote this letter to help ensure that the Roman church had apostolic involvement in their faith. He never wrote to the churches of Judea, founded by the other apostles, but only to churches that either he had founded (e.g., Corinth, Galatia) or to those that had no direct apostolic involvement (e.g., Colosse, Rome).<\/p>\n<p>In time, the Jewish Christians in Rome would have been pushed out of the synagogues by the non-Christian Jews, as happened elsewhere. By the time Paul wrote to the Roman church, they were meeting as separate house churches in private homes (Rom 16:5, 10-11, 15). There were no centralized edifices, and it is uncertain whether the whole body of believers in Rome met together.<\/p>\n<p>When Claudius expelled the Jews from Rome (around <span>AD<\/span> 49), the Jewish Christians were also forced to leave, among whom were Priscilla and Aquila (Acts 18:2). In the absence of the Jews, the Roman church would have become Gentile in character. When the Jews returned (probably shortly after the death of Claudius in <span>AD<\/span> 54), there were no doubt questions—if not conflicts—among the Jewish and Gentile Christians. Paul may have written Romans to settle such controversies among this mixed group of Jews and Gentiles worshiping Christ in the same city.<\/p>\n<p>As is evident from Romans 16, Paul already had many friends in the Roman church. In the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 60, roughly two years after writing Romans, Paul had the opportunity to go to Rome—a desire he had repeatedly expressed (Acts 19:21; Rom 1:13-15). He spent two years there under house arrest awaiting his first trial before Nero, “boldly proclaiming the Kingdom of God and teaching about the Lord Jesus Christ” (Acts 28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Acts 28:15-31; Rom 1:13-15; 16:1-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Roman Church The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Pete...","summary_en":"The Roman Church The details of the founding of the church in Rome are not known with certainty. There was a large Jewish population in Rome, and some Jews from Rome were present in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost at the birth of the church (Acts 2:10). The most likely explanation, then, is that some of these Jews converted to Christianity and took the Good News about Jesus the Messiah to Rome, where a Christian community was born from within the synagogues of Rome. It is unlikely that Pete...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":418,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of the Acts of the Apostles","title_en":"Book of the Acts of the Apostles","content_ro":"<h3>ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, B<span>ook of the<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>NT book presenting the history of the early church and written as a sequel to the Gospel of Luke. In the arrangement of the NT books, Acts comes after the four Gospels and before the Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background and Content<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts does not state clearly who its writer is, but the general consensus is that Luke was its author.<\/p>\n<p>Early church tradition from the second century states that Acts (as well as the third Gospel) was written by a traveling companion and fellow worker of the apostle Paul. That companion is identified in Colossians 4:14 as “Luke, the beloved physician” (<span>nasb<\/span>) and mentioned among Paul’s coworkers (Col 4:10-17; see also 2 Tm 4:11; Phlm 1:24).<\/p>\n<p>Strong support for the tradition that the author of Acts was a companion of Paul comes from the second half of the book recounting Paul’s ministry. There, several narratives are told in the first person plural:<\/p>\n<p>1. “That night Paul had a vision. He saw a man from Macedonia in northern Greece, pleading with him, ‘Come over here and help us.’ So we decided to leave for Macedonia at once, for we could only conclude that God was calling us to preach the Good News there” (16:9-10, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<li>2. “They went ahead and waited for us at Troas . . . we boarded a ship at Philippi in Macedonia and five days later arrived in Troas, where we stayed a week” (20:5-6, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>3. “When the time came, we set sail for Italy” (27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n<p>These “we” sections (16:9-18; 20:5–21:18; 27:1–28:16) sound like part of a travel narrative or diary written by an eyewitness who accompanied Paul from Troas to Philippi on his second missionary journey; from Philippi to Miletus on the third; from Miletus to Jerusalem; and from Caesarea to Rome. Since the style and vocabulary of these travel narratives resemble those of the rest of the book, it is highly probably that the diarist was also the author of the entire book.<\/p>\n<p>The sophisticated literary style and polished use of the Greek language in the book, as well as the fact that it is addressed to someone called Theophilus (possibly a high-ranking Roman official), provide strong support for the tradition that Luke was a gentile convert to Christianity. His consistent and frequent use of the Greek OT may indicate that he had been a gentile “God-fearer” before conversion to the new faith.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginDestination\">Date, Origin, Destination<\/p>\n\n<p>The question of the date and place of the origin of Acts continues to be debated. There are no clear indications in the book itself. With regard to its destination, however, Luke did not leave any doubt. In the opening verse he addresses a certain Theophilus, to whom he had already written an earlier book about the life of Jesus. There can be no doubt that he was referring to the work we know as the Gospel of Luke. In the preface to that Gospel (Lk 1:1-4), Luke clearly stated his purpose for writing and addressed his account to the “most honorable Theophilus.” It is not clear who that person was. Some interpreters think that Theophilus (which means “dear to God” or “lover of God”) stands for Christian readers in general rather than any specific individual. However, the designation “most honorable” argues against such an assumption. That ascription was a common title of honor, designating a person with official standing in the Roman sociopolitical order (cf. use of the title for Felix, Acts 23:26; 24:2; and for Festus, 26:25). It is thus likely that Luke intended his two-volume work for an official representative of Roman society.<\/p>\n<p>When was Acts written? Some scholars date it in the last quarter of the first century. Since the Gospel was written first, and since Luke based his story of Jesus on eyewitness accounts and written sources (among which was possibly the Gospel of Mark, probably written in the 60s), Acts should not be dated much before <span>AD<\/span> 85. Proponents of such a late date claim support from the theology of Acts, which they see as picturing a Christian church settled into history, adjusted to the prospect of a lengthy period before the Lord’s return. Since expectation of the Lord’s imminent return was fanned into a living flame by the Jewish revolt and the fall of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 70, time must be allowed for that flame to have died down a bit.<\/p>\n<p>Other scholars date Acts around <span>AD<\/span> 70 or shortly thereafter. The Jewish rebellion of <span>AD<\/span> 66–70, which culminated in the destruction of Jerusalem, brought the Jewish faith—legal until then—into disrepute. The Christian movement, which had been accepted as a Jewish sect, became suspect. Christians were increasingly charged with being enemies of Rome. A study of Acts shows that among a number of purposes (see below), Luke seems to have been defending the Christians against the charge of hostility toward the state. He showed how Roman officials repeatedly testified to the complete innocence of Christians and above all else of Paul (16:39; 18:14-17; 19:37; 23:29; 25:25; 26:32). Luke also made it clear that Paul was allowed to carry on his mission with full approval of Roman officials in the very heart of the imperial capital (28:16-31).<\/p>\n<p>A still earlier date, closer to Paul’s Roman imprisonment (early 60s), has been advocated by a number of scholars. There are two compelling reasons: (1) The abrupt ending of Acts, describing Paul carrying on a ministry in Rome before his trial had commenced, may indicate that Luke was writing at that point. It is possible, of course, that Luke ended his story with Paul preaching the gospel in Rome because one of his purposes had been accomplished: namely, showing how the gospel spread from Jerusalem to Rome. But it seems highly unlikely that Luke would close his history without Paul’s defense of the gospel before Caesar himself if that had already happened. (2) The most appropriate period for Luke’s history, with its defense of the Christian movement against all kinds of accusations from both Jews and Gentiles, is the period when Christianity was becoming suspect but was not yet proscribed. That was the time before the start of the persecutions under Nero in <span>AD<\/span> 64. The early date would correspond with the contention that Luke was with Paul during his Roman imprisonment and that he wrote his history in Rome while waiting for Paul’s trial to begin. It is possible that Luke’s work was partially intended to influence the verdict. Luke presented a picture of Christianity and of Paul that he hoped would enable Paul to continue his work among the Gentiles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BackgroundandContent\">Background and Content<\/p>\n<p>Luke grounds his documentary of the rapid expansion of Christianity in the history of the Roman Empire and Palestine during the three decades from <span>AD<\/span> 30 to 60. Some brief historical and geographical considerations will aid in understanding Luke’s history.<\/p>\n<p>Acts 1–12 reports the beginnings of the Christian movement within the imperial province of Syria, which included Judea and Samaria. In the first century <span>AD<\/span>, those regions were generally governed by Roman procurators or puppet kings. At the time of Jesus’ death and resurrection (c. <span>AD<\/span> 30), Pontius Pilate was procurator in Judea and Samaria (<span>AD<\/span> 26–36). Galilee was ruled by King Herod Antipas (4 <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 39). Tiberius was emperor of the Roman Empire (<span>AD<\/span> 14–37). The account of Acts 1–12 took place in the period <span>AD<\/span> 30–44.<\/p>\n<p>The conversion of Saul (Acts 9) is generally dated in <span>AD <\/span>33. After Saul’s conversion and departure to his native Tarsus, the church evidently enjoyed a period of tranquility, consolidating its gains and growing steadily (9:31–11:26). It can be assumed, from Galatians 1:18-21 and the existence of Christian communities that Paul and Silas visited on the second missionary tour (Acts 15:40-41), that Paul was not idle during that decade, but intensely involved in the mission to the Gentiles. (After Acts 13:9, the name “Saul” is dropped from the narrative.)<\/p>\n<p>In <span>AD<\/span> 41, Claudius became emperor of Rome and installed Herod Agrippa I as king of the Jews. (The procurator Pontius Pilate had been removed several years earlier for inept administration of the region.) Agrippa I was grandson of Herod the Great and his Jewish princess Mariamne. Because of his Jewish roots, he was more popular with his subjects than the former Herods. No doubt it was his desire to increase that popularity and gain the support of the Jewish religious authorities that led to a renewed outbreak of violence against the Jerusalem church. Acts 12 recounts the execution of James (the brother of the apostle John) and the imprisonment of Peter. The story of Agrippa I’s death (12:20-23) is paralleled in an account by the Jewish historian Josephus, who dates the event in <span>AD<\/span> 44.<\/p>\n<p>A second event providing a time reference for the unfolding story of the early church is the collection of famine relief in Antioch for Christians in Judea (11:27-29). Luke stated that a severe famine took place (v 28) during the reign of Emperor Claudius (<span>AD<\/span> 41–54). Josephus, writing his <em>Antiquities<\/em> at the end of the first century, spoke of a severe famine in Palestine between the years <span>AD<\/span> 44 and 48. According to Acts 12:25, Barnabas and Paul finished their mission to famine-stricken Christians in Judea after the death of Agrippa I, making it possible to date their mission about <span>AD<\/span> 45.<\/p>\n<p>At that point in the narrative of Acts, Paul is launched officially into his mission to the Gentiles (13:1-3), for which the history and geography of the larger Roman Empire form the backdrop. The official Roman policy toward the various religions in the empire was one of toleration. That policy, plus use of the Greek language throughout the empire and a phenomenal network of roads and sea routes, paved the way for Paul’s far-ranging missionary work.<\/p>\n<p>The first tour (<span>AD<\/span> 46–47) took Paul and Barnabas through the island province of Cyprus in the northeastern tip of the Mediterranean Sea and into the province of Galatia, where churches were established in several cities of southern Galatia (Antioch of Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra, Derbe). Galatia is located in Asia Minor, bordered by the Black Sea, the Aegean Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea on its northern, western, and southern sides. Those cities, important colonial outposts for the Romans, contained mixed populations, including large Jewish communities. It was in the synagogues of those communities that Paul launched his missionary efforts, almost always meeting with considerable opposition (chs 13–14).<\/p>\n<p>The deliberation of the Jerusalem Council about differences between Jewish and gentile Christians (ch 15) can be dated in the year <span>AD<\/span> 48. It was followed by Paul’s second missionary journey, which led him through the already evangelized territory of his native Cilicia, Galatia, and through Troas on the Aegean coast to Macedonia and down into Achaia, the Greek Peninsula (15:40–18:22). Churches were established in the important Macedonian cities of Philippi, Thessalonica, and Beroea.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s one and a half years in Corinth (18:11) can be dated with some certainty in <span>AD<\/span> 51–52. An ancient inscription among the ruins of Delphi, a city in central Greece, states that Gallio became proconsul of Achaia in 51. Acts 18:12-17 tells how Paul was accused by antagonistic Jews before Gallio. The implication is that Paul’s adversaries in Corinth felt that a new proconsul could be persuaded to side with their cause. Thus, Paul’s stay in Corinth can be dated around the beginning of Gallio’s proconsulship.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s account of Paul’s return to Palestine and the beginning of his third missionary tour brings up a fascinating historical question about what happened to the followers of John the Baptist (13:13–19:7). Acts 18:24-28 refers to a learned Jew, Apollos, who was actively teaching about Jesus in the synagogue at Ephesus, but who was apparently not a member of a distinctively Christian community, not having been baptized in the name of Jesus. He was acquainted only with the baptism of repentance practiced by John the Baptist. After Apollos went to Corinth to minister to the young congregation that Paul founded the previous year, Paul went to Ephesus. There he met several disciples of Jesus who, like Apollos, had experienced John’s baptism of repentance, but who had not been baptized as Christians.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s reference to Apollos and those disciples, as well as several passages in the Gospels, indicate that the movement begun by John the Baptist did not simply come to an end when Jesus began his ministry. Evidently John continued to baptize until his death (Jn 3:22-24), and many of his disciples maintained John’s work after his death. Probably both Apollos and the disciples at Ephesus were products of the continuing ministry of John’s disciples. Eventually they were introduced to “the way of the Lord” (18:25). Their lack of knowledge about a distinctive Christian baptism or about the reality of the Holy Spirit (19:2-4) shows how much diversity in both belief and practice existed in early Christianity.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s third missionary tour began with a three-year ministry in Ephesus (19:1–20:1), continued with a visit to churches established on the previous journey (20:2-12), and came to a climax with his arrest in Jerusalem (Acts 21). It took place in the mid-50s (<span>AD<\/span> 53–57). Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem and arraignment before the provincial governor, Felix, in Caesarea (23:23–24:23) must be dated about 57. After Paul had spent two years under house arrest, no doubt prolonged by Felix to gain favor with Jewish subjects, Felix was replaced by Porcius Festus (<span>AD<\/span> 59–60). Josephus noted that Felix was recalled because of an outbreak of civil strife between Jewish and gentile inhabitants of Caesarea and Felix’s unwise handling of the situation.<\/p>\n<p>The new procurator, Festus, was uncertain about what to do with his prisoner. The Jewish leadership sought to seize that opportunity, aware of the desire of new procurators to gain popularity with their subjects (25:1-9). Realizing the threat, Paul appealed his case to the highest court of the empire, presided over by Caesar himself (25:10-12).<\/p>\n<p>Festus was then left with a problem. He had to send with his prisoner a report to the emperor, clearly outlining the charges. Since he did not really comprehend the case (25:25-27), he sought the advice of Herod Agrippa II, who with his sister had come to Caesarea to pay their respects to the new imperial governor of Palestine (25:13). Agrippa II was the son of Herod Agrippa I and, at least in theory, a Jew. He ruled over parts of Palestine from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 100 and had been given the right to appoint the Jewish high priests. His familiarity with Jewish religious traditions and the Law thus put him in a better position to understand Jerusalem’s case against Paul. The outcome of Paul’s appearance before Festus and Agrippa (26:1-29) was recognition of Paul’s innocence (26:31). Yet Paul’s appeal to Rome had to be honored; the law governing such cases had to be followed (26:32).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s relative freedom during the next two-year period (28:30) seems unusual but was a rather common practice in Roman judicial proceedings, especially for Roman citizens who had appealed to the emperor. There is no good reason to believe that Paul was executed at the time when Luke’s narrative ends (c. <span>AD<\/span> 61–62). The great fire of Rome and Nero’s subsequent persecution of Christians were still a few years away (<span>AD<\/span> 64). It is likely that the case against Paul was dismissed, especially in light of the favorable verdict by Festus and King Agrippa. It is also likely that Paul was executed during the later, more general persecution of Christians. Such a sequence would correspond with the tradition cited by Eusebius, a fourth-century church historian, that Paul resumed his ministry and later suffered martyrdom under Nero.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>In the preface to the Gospel, intended to cover the second volume also, Luke told Theophilus (and the audience he represented) that he had set out to write an accurate, orderly account about the beginnings of the Christian movement in the ministry of Jesus of Nazareth (Lk 1:1-4). The opening lines in Acts indicate that the narrative beginning with Jesus of Nazareth (vol 1) is continuing and that Luke’s second volume intends to trace the story from Palestine to Rome (Acts 1:1-8).<\/p>\n<p>While recounting this story, Luke attempted to defend the Christian movement against false charges brought against it. A number of misconceptions attended the birth and growth of the Christian movement. One concerned the relationship between the new faith and Judaism. Many, both within the church and among Roman officials, understood the Christian faith as no more than a particular expression of, or sect within, Judaism. Against that restricted notion, Luke-Acts strikes a universal note. The Gospel proclaims Jesus as Savior of the world (Lk 2:29-32). In Acts, Stephen’s defense before the Jewish council (ch 7), Peter’s experience in Joppa with Cornelius (ch 10), and Paul’s speech at Athens (ch 17) all demonstrate that Christianity is not merely a Jewish sect, some narrow messianic movement, but rather a universal faith. Another problem was popular identification of the new faith with the various religious cults and mystery religions in the Roman Empire. The accounts of the early church’s conflict with Simon the magician (ch 8) and of Paul and Barnabas’s rejection of an attempt to worship them at Lystra (ch 14) undermine the popular charge of superstition. Also, Christianity is not a mystery cult in which esoteric, secret rites bring a worshiper into union with the divine. The Lord worshiped by Christians, said Luke, belongs to real history; he lived his life in Palestine in the then-recent past, openly, for all to observe (see the speeches of Peter and Paul in Acts 2; 10; 13).<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s major purpose, however, was defense of Christianity against the charge that it posed a threat to the order and stability of the Roman Empire. There were, of course, grounds for such suspicions. After all, the founder of the movement had been crucified on a charge of sedition by a Roman procurator, and the movement that claimed his name seemed to evoke tumult, disorder, and riots wherever it spread. Luke’s account met those problems head-on. In the Gospel he presented the trial of Jesus as a serious miscarriage of justice. Pilate had handed Jesus over for crucifixion, but he had found Jesus not guilty. Herod Antipas likewise found no substance in the charges against Jesus (Lk 23:13-16; Acts 13:28). A neutral or even friendly attitude of Roman officials toward leading Christians and the movement as a whole is documented throughout Acts. The Roman proconsul of Cyprus, Sergius Paulus, gladly received Paul and Barnabas and responded positively to their message (Acts 13:7-12). The chief magistrate in Philippi apologized for the illegal beating and imprisonment of Paul and Silas (16:37-39). The proconsul of Achaia, Gallio, found Paul guiltless in the eyes of Roman law (18:12-16). In Ephesus the magistrate intervened in a crowd’s attack on Paul and his companions, rejecting the charges against them (19:35-39). A tribune of the Roman military contingent in Jerusalem arrested Paul, but it turned out that he really saved the apostle from the wrath of a mob; in his letter to the procurator Felix, the tribune acknowledged that Paul was not guilty by Roman law (23:26-29). The same verdict was repeated after Paul’s arraignment before Felix, his successor Festus, and Herod Agrippa II: “This man hasn’t done anything worthy of death or imprisonment” (26:31, <span>nlt<\/span>). Luke climaxed his story by telling how Paul carried on his missionary activity in Rome, the very heart of the empire, and with the permission of the imperial guards (28:30-31). It is clear throughout Luke’s defense that the strife that attended the beginnings and progress of Christianity was not due primarily to anything within the movement, but rather to Jewish opposition and falsification.<\/p>\n<p>Within his lengthy apology for the integrity of Christianity, Luke’s specific theological perspectives can be clearly seen. The two volume work presents a grand scheme of the history of redemption, extending from the <em>time of Israel<\/em> (Lk 1–2) through the <em>time of Jesus,<\/em> and continuing through the <em>time of the church,<\/em> when the good news for Israel is extended to all nations. Paralleling that emphasis is an insistence that God is present in the redemptive story through the Holy Spirit. In the Gospel, Jesus is presented as the Man of the Spirit; the reality of the Spirit empowered him for his work (Lk 3:22; 4:1, 14, 18). In Acts, the fellowship of Jesus’ disciples is presented as the community of the Spirit (1:8; 2:1-8). What Jesus in the power of the Spirit had begun in his own ministry, the church in the power of the Spirit continues to do.<\/p>\n<p>For Luke, the empowering presence of God’s Spirit was a reality that gave the new faith its power, integrity, and perseverance. It enabled faithful witness (1:8) and created genuine community (2:44-47; 4:32-37), something for which the ancient world desperately longed. The Spirit in the new community produced courage and boldness (see Peter’s defenses in chs 2–5), empowered for service (ch 6), overcame prejudice as in the mission in Samaria (ch 8), broke down walls as in the Cornelius episode (chs 10–11), and sent believers out on missions (ch 13).<\/p>\n<p>The entire story is also punctuated by the centrality of Jesus’ resurrection. Luke, like Paul (see 1 Cor 15:12-21), must have been convinced that without the resurrection of Jesus there would be no Christian faith at all. More than that, the resurrection put God’s stamp of approval on Jesus’ life and ministry, authenticating the truth of his claims. Luke announced his interest in that theme at the outset: the ultimate criterion for an apostolic replacement for Judas was that he must have been, with the other disciples, a witness to Jesus’ resurrection. Throughout Acts, from Peter’s Pentecost sermon and defenses before the Sanhedrin to Paul’s speeches before Felix and Agrippa, the church is shown bearing witness to Jesus’ resurrection as a great reversal executed by God (2:22-24, 36; 3:14-15; 5:30-31; 10:39-42).<\/p>\n<p>Acts falls naturally into two parts, chapters 1–12, and 13–28. The first part, roughly speaking, contains the “acts of Peter.” Part two is largely concerned with the “acts of Paul.” In the first 12 chapters, Peter is the central figure who initiates the choosing of a replacement for Judas Iscariot (ch 1); addresses the multitudes at Pentecost (ch 2); interprets the significance of the healing of a lame man to a temple crowd (ch 3); delivers a defense of the Christian proclamation before the supreme Jewish council (ch 4); leads the apostles in a healing ministry and speaks for them (ch 5); stands in the forefront of conflict with a Samaritan magician, “Simon the Great” (ch 8); launches—though somewhat unwillingly—the movement of the gospel to the Gentiles through Cornelius (chs 10–11); and draws the fire of Herod’s campaign against the church but is miraculously delivered from prison (ch 12).<\/p>\n<p>Proclamation of the gospel to the Gentiles through Paul’s ministry is the theme of part two of Acts (chs 13–28). The story primarily concerns three major missionary tours, each of which moved the gospel into yet untouched territory and expanded earlier missionary efforts. The account of Paul’s life and work climaxes in his arrest in Jerusalem (chs 21–22), a lengthy imprisonment in Caesarea (chs 23–26), and a voyage to Rome (chs 27–28).<\/p>\n<p>Another way of getting at the structure and content of Acts is thematic. It has its starting point in Jesus’ statement, “You shall receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you; and you shall be my witnesses in Jerusalem and in all Judea and Samaria and to the ends of the earth” (1:8). Acts can be seen as the story of the fulfillment of that “Great Commission,” unfolding essentially in three stages: (1) witness to Judaism, focused in Jerusalem but also expanding into surrounding Judea and north into Galilee (chs 1–7); (2) witness to Samaria through Philip, Peter, and John (8:1–9:31); (3) witness to the gentile world, first haltingly through Peter (9:32–12:25), and then decisively through Paul (chs 13–28).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Luke (Person); Paul, The Apostle; Simon Peter; Theophilus #1; Chronology of the Bible (New Testament).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, B<span>ook of the<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>NT book presenting the history of the early church and written as a sequel to the Gospel of Luke. In the arrangement of the NT books, Acts comes after the four Gospels and before the Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background and Content<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts does not state clearly who its writer is, but the general consensus is that Luke was its author.<\/p>\n<p>Early church tradition from the second century states that Acts (as well as the third Gospel) was written by a traveling companion and fellow worker of the apostle Paul. That companion is identified in Colossians 4:14 as “Luke, the beloved physician” (<span>nasb<\/span>) and mentioned among Paul’s coworkers (Col 4:10-17; see also 2 Tm 4:11; Phlm 1:24).<\/p>\n<p>Strong support for the tradition that the author of Acts was a companion of Paul comes from the second half of the book recounting Paul’s ministry. There, several narratives are told in the first person plural:<\/p>\n<p>1. “That night Paul had a vision. He saw a man from Macedonia in northern Greece, pleading with him, ‘Come over here and help us.’ So we decided to leave for Macedonia at once, for we could only conclude that God was calling us to preach the Good News there” (16:9-10, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<li>2. “They went ahead and waited for us at Troas . . . we boarded a ship at Philippi in Macedonia and five days later arrived in Troas, where we stayed a week” (20:5-6, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>3. “When the time came, we set sail for Italy” (27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n<p>These “we” sections (16:9-18; 20:5–21:18; 27:1–28:16) sound like part of a travel narrative or diary written by an eyewitness who accompanied Paul from Troas to Philippi on his second missionary journey; from Philippi to Miletus on the third; from Miletus to Jerusalem; and from Caesarea to Rome. Since the style and vocabulary of these travel narratives resemble those of the rest of the book, it is highly probably that the diarist was also the author of the entire book.<\/p>\n<p>The sophisticated literary style and polished use of the Greek language in the book, as well as the fact that it is addressed to someone called Theophilus (possibly a high-ranking Roman official), provide strong support for the tradition that Luke was a gentile convert to Christianity. His consistent and frequent use of the Greek OT may indicate that he had been a gentile “God-fearer” before conversion to the new faith.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginDestination\">Date, Origin, Destination<\/p>\n\n<p>The question of the date and place of the origin of Acts continues to be debated. There are no clear indications in the book itself. With regard to its destination, however, Luke did not leave any doubt. In the opening verse he addresses a certain Theophilus, to whom he had already written an earlier book about the life of Jesus. There can be no doubt that he was referring to the work we know as the Gospel of Luke. In the preface to that Gospel (Lk 1:1-4), Luke clearly stated his purpose for writing and addressed his account to the “most honorable Theophilus.” It is not clear who that person was. Some interpreters think that Theophilus (which means “dear to God” or “lover of God”) stands for Christian readers in general rather than any specific individual. However, the designation “most honorable” argues against such an assumption. That ascription was a common title of honor, designating a person with official standing in the Roman sociopolitical order (cf. use of the title for Felix, Acts 23:26; 24:2; and for Festus, 26:25). It is thus likely that Luke intended his two-volume work for an official representative of Roman society.<\/p>\n<p>When was Acts written? Some scholars date it in the last quarter of the first century. Since the Gospel was written first, and since Luke based his story of Jesus on eyewitness accounts and written sources (among which was possibly the Gospel of Mark, probably written in the 60s), Acts should not be dated much before <span>AD<\/span> 85. Proponents of such a late date claim support from the theology of Acts, which they see as picturing a Christian church settled into history, adjusted to the prospect of a lengthy period before the Lord’s return. Since expectation of the Lord’s imminent return was fanned into a living flame by the Jewish revolt and the fall of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 70, time must be allowed for that flame to have died down a bit.<\/p>\n<p>Other scholars date Acts around <span>AD<\/span> 70 or shortly thereafter. The Jewish rebellion of <span>AD<\/span> 66–70, which culminated in the destruction of Jerusalem, brought the Jewish faith—legal until then—into disrepute. The Christian movement, which had been accepted as a Jewish sect, became suspect. Christians were increasingly charged with being enemies of Rome. A study of Acts shows that among a number of purposes (see below), Luke seems to have been defending the Christians against the charge of hostility toward the state. He showed how Roman officials repeatedly testified to the complete innocence of Christians and above all else of Paul (16:39; 18:14-17; 19:37; 23:29; 25:25; 26:32). Luke also made it clear that Paul was allowed to carry on his mission with full approval of Roman officials in the very heart of the imperial capital (28:16-31).<\/p>\n<p>A still earlier date, closer to Paul’s Roman imprisonment (early 60s), has been advocated by a number of scholars. There are two compelling reasons: (1) The abrupt ending of Acts, describing Paul carrying on a ministry in Rome before his trial had commenced, may indicate that Luke was writing at that point. It is possible, of course, that Luke ended his story with Paul preaching the gospel in Rome because one of his purposes had been accomplished: namely, showing how the gospel spread from Jerusalem to Rome. But it seems highly unlikely that Luke would close his history without Paul’s defense of the gospel before Caesar himself if that had already happened. (2) The most appropriate period for Luke’s history, with its defense of the Christian movement against all kinds of accusations from both Jews and Gentiles, is the period when Christianity was becoming suspect but was not yet proscribed. That was the time before the start of the persecutions under Nero in <span>AD<\/span> 64. The early date would correspond with the contention that Luke was with Paul during his Roman imprisonment and that he wrote his history in Rome while waiting for Paul’s trial to begin. It is possible that Luke’s work was partially intended to influence the verdict. Luke presented a picture of Christianity and of Paul that he hoped would enable Paul to continue his work among the Gentiles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BackgroundandContent\">Background and Content<\/p>\n<p>Luke grounds his documentary of the rapid expansion of Christianity in the history of the Roman Empire and Palestine during the three decades from <span>AD<\/span> 30 to 60. Some brief historical and geographical considerations will aid in understanding Luke’s history.<\/p>\n<p>Acts 1–12 reports the beginnings of the Christian movement within the imperial province of Syria, which included Judea and Samaria. In the first century <span>AD<\/span>, those regions were generally governed by Roman procurators or puppet kings. At the time of Jesus’ death and resurrection (c. <span>AD<\/span> 30), Pontius Pilate was procurator in Judea and Samaria (<span>AD<\/span> 26–36). Galilee was ruled by King Herod Antipas (4 <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 39). Tiberius was emperor of the Roman Empire (<span>AD<\/span> 14–37). The account of Acts 1–12 took place in the period <span>AD<\/span> 30–44.<\/p>\n<p>The conversion of Saul (Acts 9) is generally dated in <span>AD <\/span>33. After Saul’s conversion and departure to his native Tarsus, the church evidently enjoyed a period of tranquility, consolidating its gains and growing steadily (9:31–11:26). It can be assumed, from Galatians 1:18-21 and the existence of Christian communities that Paul and Silas visited on the second missionary tour (Acts 15:40-41), that Paul was not idle during that decade, but intensely involved in the mission to the Gentiles. (After Acts 13:9, the name “Saul” is dropped from the narrative.)<\/p>\n<p>In <span>AD<\/span> 41, Claudius became emperor of Rome and installed Herod Agrippa I as king of the Jews. (The procurator Pontius Pilate had been removed several years earlier for inept administration of the region.) Agrippa I was grandson of Herod the Great and his Jewish princess Mariamne. Because of his Jewish roots, he was more popular with his subjects than the former Herods. No doubt it was his desire to increase that popularity and gain the support of the Jewish religious authorities that led to a renewed outbreak of violence against the Jerusalem church. Acts 12 recounts the execution of James (the brother of the apostle John) and the imprisonment of Peter. The story of Agrippa I’s death (12:20-23) is paralleled in an account by the Jewish historian Josephus, who dates the event in <span>AD<\/span> 44.<\/p>\n<p>A second event providing a time reference for the unfolding story of the early church is the collection of famine relief in Antioch for Christians in Judea (11:27-29). Luke stated that a severe famine took place (v 28) during the reign of Emperor Claudius (<span>AD<\/span> 41–54). Josephus, writing his <em>Antiquities<\/em> at the end of the first century, spoke of a severe famine in Palestine between the years <span>AD<\/span> 44 and 48. According to Acts 12:25, Barnabas and Paul finished their mission to famine-stricken Christians in Judea after the death of Agrippa I, making it possible to date their mission about <span>AD<\/span> 45.<\/p>\n<p>At that point in the narrative of Acts, Paul is launched officially into his mission to the Gentiles (13:1-3), for which the history and geography of the larger Roman Empire form the backdrop. The official Roman policy toward the various religions in the empire was one of toleration. That policy, plus use of the Greek language throughout the empire and a phenomenal network of roads and sea routes, paved the way for Paul’s far-ranging missionary work.<\/p>\n<p>The first tour (<span>AD<\/span> 46–47) took Paul and Barnabas through the island province of Cyprus in the northeastern tip of the Mediterranean Sea and into the province of Galatia, where churches were established in several cities of southern Galatia (Antioch of Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra, Derbe). Galatia is located in Asia Minor, bordered by the Black Sea, the Aegean Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea on its northern, western, and southern sides. Those cities, important colonial outposts for the Romans, contained mixed populations, including large Jewish communities. It was in the synagogues of those communities that Paul launched his missionary efforts, almost always meeting with considerable opposition (chs 13–14).<\/p>\n<p>The deliberation of the Jerusalem Council about differences between Jewish and gentile Christians (ch 15) can be dated in the year <span>AD<\/span> 48. It was followed by Paul’s second missionary journey, which led him through the already evangelized territory of his native Cilicia, Galatia, and through Troas on the Aegean coast to Macedonia and down into Achaia, the Greek Peninsula (15:40–18:22). Churches were established in the important Macedonian cities of Philippi, Thessalonica, and Beroea.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s one and a half years in Corinth (18:11) can be dated with some certainty in <span>AD<\/span> 51–52. An ancient inscription among the ruins of Delphi, a city in central Greece, states that Gallio became proconsul of Achaia in 51. Acts 18:12-17 tells how Paul was accused by antagonistic Jews before Gallio. The implication is that Paul’s adversaries in Corinth felt that a new proconsul could be persuaded to side with their cause. Thus, Paul’s stay in Corinth can be dated around the beginning of Gallio’s proconsulship.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s account of Paul’s return to Palestine and the beginning of his third missionary tour brings up a fascinating historical question about what happened to the followers of John the Baptist (13:13–19:7). Acts 18:24-28 refers to a learned Jew, Apollos, who was actively teaching about Jesus in the synagogue at Ephesus, but who was apparently not a member of a distinctively Christian community, not having been baptized in the name of Jesus. He was acquainted only with the baptism of repentance practiced by John the Baptist. After Apollos went to Corinth to minister to the young congregation that Paul founded the previous year, Paul went to Ephesus. There he met several disciples of Jesus who, like Apollos, had experienced John’s baptism of repentance, but who had not been baptized as Christians.<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s reference to Apollos and those disciples, as well as several passages in the Gospels, indicate that the movement begun by John the Baptist did not simply come to an end when Jesus began his ministry. Evidently John continued to baptize until his death (Jn 3:22-24), and many of his disciples maintained John’s work after his death. Probably both Apollos and the disciples at Ephesus were products of the continuing ministry of John’s disciples. Eventually they were introduced to “the way of the Lord” (18:25). Their lack of knowledge about a distinctive Christian baptism or about the reality of the Holy Spirit (19:2-4) shows how much diversity in both belief and practice existed in early Christianity.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s third missionary tour began with a three-year ministry in Ephesus (19:1–20:1), continued with a visit to churches established on the previous journey (20:2-12), and came to a climax with his arrest in Jerusalem (Acts 21). It took place in the mid-50s (<span>AD<\/span> 53–57). Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem and arraignment before the provincial governor, Felix, in Caesarea (23:23–24:23) must be dated about 57. After Paul had spent two years under house arrest, no doubt prolonged by Felix to gain favor with Jewish subjects, Felix was replaced by Porcius Festus (<span>AD<\/span> 59–60). Josephus noted that Felix was recalled because of an outbreak of civil strife between Jewish and gentile inhabitants of Caesarea and Felix’s unwise handling of the situation.<\/p>\n<p>The new procurator, Festus, was uncertain about what to do with his prisoner. The Jewish leadership sought to seize that opportunity, aware of the desire of new procurators to gain popularity with their subjects (25:1-9). Realizing the threat, Paul appealed his case to the highest court of the empire, presided over by Caesar himself (25:10-12).<\/p>\n<p>Festus was then left with a problem. He had to send with his prisoner a report to the emperor, clearly outlining the charges. Since he did not really comprehend the case (25:25-27), he sought the advice of Herod Agrippa II, who with his sister had come to Caesarea to pay their respects to the new imperial governor of Palestine (25:13). Agrippa II was the son of Herod Agrippa I and, at least in theory, a Jew. He ruled over parts of Palestine from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 100 and had been given the right to appoint the Jewish high priests. His familiarity with Jewish religious traditions and the Law thus put him in a better position to understand Jerusalem’s case against Paul. The outcome of Paul’s appearance before Festus and Agrippa (26:1-29) was recognition of Paul’s innocence (26:31). Yet Paul’s appeal to Rome had to be honored; the law governing such cases had to be followed (26:32).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s relative freedom during the next two-year period (28:30) seems unusual but was a rather common practice in Roman judicial proceedings, especially for Roman citizens who had appealed to the emperor. There is no good reason to believe that Paul was executed at the time when Luke’s narrative ends (c. <span>AD<\/span> 61–62). The great fire of Rome and Nero’s subsequent persecution of Christians were still a few years away (<span>AD<\/span> 64). It is likely that the case against Paul was dismissed, especially in light of the favorable verdict by Festus and King Agrippa. It is also likely that Paul was executed during the later, more general persecution of Christians. Such a sequence would correspond with the tradition cited by Eusebius, a fourth-century church historian, that Paul resumed his ministry and later suffered martyrdom under Nero.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>In the preface to the Gospel, intended to cover the second volume also, Luke told Theophilus (and the audience he represented) that he had set out to write an accurate, orderly account about the beginnings of the Christian movement in the ministry of Jesus of Nazareth (Lk 1:1-4). The opening lines in Acts indicate that the narrative beginning with Jesus of Nazareth (vol 1) is continuing and that Luke’s second volume intends to trace the story from Palestine to Rome (Acts 1:1-8).<\/p>\n<p>While recounting this story, Luke attempted to defend the Christian movement against false charges brought against it. A number of misconceptions attended the birth and growth of the Christian movement. One concerned the relationship between the new faith and Judaism. Many, both within the church and among Roman officials, understood the Christian faith as no more than a particular expression of, or sect within, Judaism. Against that restricted notion, Luke-Acts strikes a universal note. The Gospel proclaims Jesus as Savior of the world (Lk 2:29-32). In Acts, Stephen’s defense before the Jewish council (ch 7), Peter’s experience in Joppa with Cornelius (ch 10), and Paul’s speech at Athens (ch 17) all demonstrate that Christianity is not merely a Jewish sect, some narrow messianic movement, but rather a universal faith. Another problem was popular identification of the new faith with the various religious cults and mystery religions in the Roman Empire. The accounts of the early church’s conflict with Simon the magician (ch 8) and of Paul and Barnabas’s rejection of an attempt to worship them at Lystra (ch 14) undermine the popular charge of superstition. Also, Christianity is not a mystery cult in which esoteric, secret rites bring a worshiper into union with the divine. The Lord worshiped by Christians, said Luke, belongs to real history; he lived his life in Palestine in the then-recent past, openly, for all to observe (see the speeches of Peter and Paul in Acts 2; 10; 13).<\/p>\n<p>Luke’s major purpose, however, was defense of Christianity against the charge that it posed a threat to the order and stability of the Roman Empire. There were, of course, grounds for such suspicions. After all, the founder of the movement had been crucified on a charge of sedition by a Roman procurator, and the movement that claimed his name seemed to evoke tumult, disorder, and riots wherever it spread. Luke’s account met those problems head-on. In the Gospel he presented the trial of Jesus as a serious miscarriage of justice. Pilate had handed Jesus over for crucifixion, but he had found Jesus not guilty. Herod Antipas likewise found no substance in the charges against Jesus (Lk 23:13-16; Acts 13:28). A neutral or even friendly attitude of Roman officials toward leading Christians and the movement as a whole is documented throughout Acts. The Roman proconsul of Cyprus, Sergius Paulus, gladly received Paul and Barnabas and responded positively to their message (Acts 13:7-12). The chief magistrate in Philippi apologized for the illegal beating and imprisonment of Paul and Silas (16:37-39). The proconsul of Achaia, Gallio, found Paul guiltless in the eyes of Roman law (18:12-16). In Ephesus the magistrate intervened in a crowd’s attack on Paul and his companions, rejecting the charges against them (19:35-39). A tribune of the Roman military contingent in Jerusalem arrested Paul, but it turned out that he really saved the apostle from the wrath of a mob; in his letter to the procurator Felix, the tribune acknowledged that Paul was not guilty by Roman law (23:26-29). The same verdict was repeated after Paul’s arraignment before Felix, his successor Festus, and Herod Agrippa II: “This man hasn’t done anything worthy of death or imprisonment” (26:31, <span>nlt<\/span>). Luke climaxed his story by telling how Paul carried on his missionary activity in Rome, the very heart of the empire, and with the permission of the imperial guards (28:30-31). It is clear throughout Luke’s defense that the strife that attended the beginnings and progress of Christianity was not due primarily to anything within the movement, but rather to Jewish opposition and falsification.<\/p>\n<p>Within his lengthy apology for the integrity of Christianity, Luke’s specific theological perspectives can be clearly seen. The two volume work presents a grand scheme of the history of redemption, extending from the <em>time of Israel<\/em> (Lk 1–2) through the <em>time of Jesus,<\/em> and continuing through the <em>time of the church,<\/em> when the good news for Israel is extended to all nations. Paralleling that emphasis is an insistence that God is present in the redemptive story through the Holy Spirit. In the Gospel, Jesus is presented as the Man of the Spirit; the reality of the Spirit empowered him for his work (Lk 3:22; 4:1, 14, 18). In Acts, the fellowship of Jesus’ disciples is presented as the community of the Spirit (1:8; 2:1-8). What Jesus in the power of the Spirit had begun in his own ministry, the church in the power of the Spirit continues to do.<\/p>\n<p>For Luke, the empowering presence of God’s Spirit was a reality that gave the new faith its power, integrity, and perseverance. It enabled faithful witness (1:8) and created genuine community (2:44-47; 4:32-37), something for which the ancient world desperately longed. The Spirit in the new community produced courage and boldness (see Peter’s defenses in chs 2–5), empowered for service (ch 6), overcame prejudice as in the mission in Samaria (ch 8), broke down walls as in the Cornelius episode (chs 10–11), and sent believers out on missions (ch 13).<\/p>\n<p>The entire story is also punctuated by the centrality of Jesus’ resurrection. Luke, like Paul (see 1 Cor 15:12-21), must have been convinced that without the resurrection of Jesus there would be no Christian faith at all. More than that, the resurrection put God’s stamp of approval on Jesus’ life and ministry, authenticating the truth of his claims. Luke announced his interest in that theme at the outset: the ultimate criterion for an apostolic replacement for Judas was that he must have been, with the other disciples, a witness to Jesus’ resurrection. Throughout Acts, from Peter’s Pentecost sermon and defenses before the Sanhedrin to Paul’s speeches before Felix and Agrippa, the church is shown bearing witness to Jesus’ resurrection as a great reversal executed by God (2:22-24, 36; 3:14-15; 5:30-31; 10:39-42).<\/p>\n<p>Acts falls naturally into two parts, chapters 1–12, and 13–28. The first part, roughly speaking, contains the “acts of Peter.” Part two is largely concerned with the “acts of Paul.” In the first 12 chapters, Peter is the central figure who initiates the choosing of a replacement for Judas Iscariot (ch 1); addresses the multitudes at Pentecost (ch 2); interprets the significance of the healing of a lame man to a temple crowd (ch 3); delivers a defense of the Christian proclamation before the supreme Jewish council (ch 4); leads the apostles in a healing ministry and speaks for them (ch 5); stands in the forefront of conflict with a Samaritan magician, “Simon the Great” (ch 8); launches—though somewhat unwillingly—the movement of the gospel to the Gentiles through Cornelius (chs 10–11); and draws the fire of Herod’s campaign against the church but is miraculously delivered from prison (ch 12).<\/p>\n<p>Proclamation of the gospel to the Gentiles through Paul’s ministry is the theme of part two of Acts (chs 13–28). The story primarily concerns three major missionary tours, each of which moved the gospel into yet untouched territory and expanded earlier missionary efforts. The account of Paul’s life and work climaxes in his arrest in Jerusalem (chs 21–22), a lengthy imprisonment in Caesarea (chs 23–26), and a voyage to Rome (chs 27–28).<\/p>\n<p>Another way of getting at the structure and content of Acts is thematic. It has its starting point in Jesus’ statement, “You shall receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you; and you shall be my witnesses in Jerusalem and in all Judea and Samaria and to the ends of the earth” (1:8). Acts can be seen as the story of the fulfillment of that “Great Commission,” unfolding essentially in three stages: (1) witness to Judaism, focused in Jerusalem but also expanding into surrounding Judea and north into Galilee (chs 1–7); (2) witness to Samaria through Philip, Peter, and John (8:1–9:31); (3) witness to the gentile world, first haltingly through Peter (9:32–12:25), and then decisively through Paul (chs 13–28).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Luke (Person); Paul, The Apostle; Simon Peter; Theophilus #1; Chronology of the Bible (New Testament).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, Book of the NT book presenting the history of the early church and written as a sequel to the Gospel of Luke. In the arrangement of the NT books, Acts comes after the four Gospels and before the Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, Destination • Background and Content • Purpose Author The book of Acts does not state clearly who its writer is, but the general consensus is that Luke was its author. Early church tradition from the second century states that Acts (as w...","summary_en":"ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, Book of the NT book presenting the history of the early church and written as a sequel to the Gospel of Luke. In the arrangement of the NT books, Acts comes after the four Gospels and before the Epistles. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, Destination • Background and Content • Purpose Author The book of Acts does not state clearly who its writer is, but the general consensus is that Luke was its author. Early church tradition from the second century states that Acts (as w...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":6539,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"of the Bible* (New Testament), Chronology","title_en":"of the Bible* (New Testament), Chronology","content_ro":"<h3>CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (New Testament)<\/h3>\n<p>Branch of biblical studies that attempts to discover the sequence of NT events and the amount of time that elapsed between them. Chronology is essential to historians, whose task it is to determine the causes and effects of past events. Generally, for a historian’s purpose, assigning absolute dates is less important than knowing the sequence of events that may have influenced each other. Very few NT happenings, in fact, can be given exact dates.<\/p>\n\n<p>A remarkable testimony to the influence of Christianity is the fact that the entire Western world now divides history into <span>BC<\/span> (before Christ) and <span>AD<\/span> (<em>anno Domini,<\/em> “in the year of the Lord”). Before that method of dating became widespread in the Middle Ages, events were dated by their relation to other important events such as the founding of Rome or the beginning of a king’s reign. When a monk named Dionysius Exiguus (sixth century) invented our present method of dating, with the birth of Christ dividing history, he made a mistake in his computations. The odd result is the historical anomaly that Jesus himself was born no later than four years “before Christ.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ChronologyofJesusLife\">Chronology of Jesus’ Life<\/p>\n<h5>Birth<\/h5>\n<p>According to Matthew 2:1 Jesus was born “in the days of Herod the king.” A first-century <span>AD<\/span> historian, Josephus, recorded that Herod died in the spring of the year we identify as 4 <span>BC<\/span>. Hence, Jesus was born sometime before that, but how much before is uncertain. Luke 2:1-2 records that Jesus’ birth occurred when “Caesar Augustus,” the Roman emperor, decreed that a census, or enrollment, should be taken throughout the nation. “This was the first census taken when Quirinius was governor of Syria” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Those statements raise two questions: When was such a census taken, and when was Quirinius governor of Syria? Neither question has received a completely satisfying answer.<\/p>\n<p>Census documents discovered in Egypt, together with earlier references, suggest that such enrollments were held every 14 years. That would put a census roughly in 8 or 9 <span>BC<\/span>. In view of the time needed to carry out the census (which required a person to travel to his birthplace), the birth of Jesus may have been somewhat later than the actual year of the decree (perhaps 7 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Josephus recorded that Quirinius became governor of Syria in <span>AD<\/span> 6, rather late as a date for Jesus’ birth. But some scholars have argued from ancient inscriptions that Quirinius also served in Syria as a special legate of the emperor Augustus before 6 <span>BC<\/span>. That could be the period referred to in Luke 2:2. Why did Luke choose to cite Quirinius instead of the regular governor of Syria at that time? Perhaps by so doing he could provide a more exact date for the birth of Jesus, since Quirinius was in authority for a shorter time than the regular governor of Syria.<\/p>\n<p>A reasonable conclusion is that Jesus was born about 7 or 6 <span>BC<\/span>. That fits with Matthew 2:16, which seems to say that Jesus was born at least two years before Herod’s death in 4 <span>BC<\/span>. No clear evidence exists concerning the day and month of his birth. Celebration of December 25 as Christmas originated in the fourth century, probably as a Christian alternative to the pagan winter solstice festival (Saturnalia).<\/p>\n<h5>The Beginning of Public Ministry<\/h5>\n<p>Luke 3:23 says that Jesus, “when he began his ministry, was about thirty years of age”; since the age given is only approximate, he may have been two or three years older or younger (cf. the pseudepigraphal Testament of Levi 2:2; 12:5). If exactly 30 is added to the suggested date of birth, one gets <span>AD<\/span> 24. That date cannot be right, because Jesus’ ministry began after John the Baptist appears; Luke 3:1-3 dates John’s public appearance precisely in “the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberias Caesar” while Pilate was procurator (governor) over Judea. Pilate governed from <span>AD<\/span> 26 to 36, and the 15th year of Tiberius was most likely <span>AD<\/span> 27. Therefore Jesus did not begin his public ministry before <span>AD<\/span> 27. If only a short time elapsed between the beginning of John’s ministry and the beginning of Jesus’ ministry, then Jesus probably began in <span>AD<\/span> 27 or 28 when he was approximately 33 years old.<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus’ Death<\/h5>\n<p>All four Gospel records seem to imply that Jesus ate the Last Supper with his disciples on Thursday evening, was crucified on Friday, and rose from the dead early Sunday morning (Mt 28:1; Mk 16:1; Lk 24:1). The claim that Jesus rose on the third day (1 Cor 15:4) comes from the Jewish custom of counting a part of the day as a whole day. According to Matthew (26:19), Mark (14:12), and Luke (22:15), the Last Supper was the Passover meal, a yearly celebration of Israel’s escape from Egypt (Ex 12–15). But according to John 13:1 and 19:14, the Passover meal had not yet been eaten on Friday; hence the Last Supper in John was not the Passover meal.<\/p>\n<p>No completely satisfying solution to the apparent discrepancy has been put forward. Some scholars suggest plausibly that the use of two different calendars was responsible. According to that theory, Jesus was following a calendar that placed the Passover meal on Thursday night. Temple officials, on the other hand, followed an alternate calendar that placed the killing of sacrificial victims on the next day. John may have used the second system to emphasize the fact that Christ was offered as the Passover sacrifice (cf. Jn 19:36; 1 Cor 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>To find out how long Jesus’ public ministry lasted and thus the year in which he died, one can turn to time references in John’s Gospel. John referred to at least three Passovers (2:13; 6:4; 13:1) and possibly four (5:1). Since the Passover was a yearly feast, the ministry of Jesus would have lasted at least two and possibly three years. In Matthew, Mark, and Luke the Friday of Jesus’ death occurred on the 15th of the Jewish month Nisan (which overlaps March and April). According to John, Jesus died on 14 Nisan. The question is: In which years from 26 to 36 (when Pilate was procurator in Judea) did 14 or 15 Nisan fall on a Friday? The answer is <span>AD<\/span> 27, 29, 30, and 33. Of those, the year 27 is too early and 33 is probably too late. Thus Jesus was probably crucified in 29 or 30, his public ministry lasted two or three years, and he was 35 or 36 years old when he died.<\/p>\n<h4>Events from <span>AD<\/span> 30 to 50<\/h4>\n<p>Acts is the only NT book that records how much time elapsed between Jesus’ death and his ascension: “To them he presented himself alive after his passion by many proofs, appearing to them during forty days, and speaking of the kingdom of God” (Acts 1:3, <span>rsv<\/span>). The next key event after the ascension of Jesus into heaven was Pentecost (Acts 2:1). Pentecost, the Greek word for “fiftieth,” referred to a celebration of the Feast of Weeks\/Harvest (cf. Ex 34:22; Dt 16:9-12) 50 days after the Passover. Since Jesus was crucified during the Passover season, the Pentecost of Acts 2:1, during which the disciples were filled with the Holy Spirit, took place in <span>AD<\/span> 29 or 30, some 50 days after the Crucifixion and about 10 days after the Ascension.<\/p>\n<p>After that, events of the early chapters of Acts are hard to date because no precise statements are made about the amount of time between various events. Therefore, the usual method for dating events of the apostolic age is first to find at least one event that can be dated with relative certainty from sources outside the NT; one then dates events before and after that event by figuring out how much time elapsed between them. Sometimes Acts records how much time passed between two events; usually it does not, so dating can only be approximate.<\/p>\n<p>One pivotal starting point is the great famine prophesied by Agabus, which befell Palestine during the reign of the Roman emperor Claudius (Acts 11:28-29). Josephus, who was alive at the time, gives enough information to locate the famine sometime between the years 46 and 48. We also know from the Mishnah, a collection of Jewish laws, that the autumn of 47 to the autumn of 48 was a sabbatical year, when the Jews let the land rest and harvested nothing (cf. Lv 25:2-7). That could have aggravated and prolonged a famine, but one cannot be sure how early the famine started; some scholars propose 46 and some 47.<\/p>\n<p>At first, it seems peculiar that Luke, the author of Acts, should have recorded that famine (Acts 11:28) before recording the death of Herod Agrippa (12:20-23). From facts reported by Josephus, the death of Herod (a grandson of Herod the Great) can be dated in <span>AD<\/span> 44, probably in the spring. That means that Herod must have died several years before the famine Luke recorded earlier. Some scholars think that Luke simply got his chronological facts wrong. Others see Acts 12:1-24 as a kind of flashback to bring the history of the church in Jerusalem up to date. Such a practice was common among ancient historians, who often followed one source up to a suitable stopping point before moving on to another source. To charge Luke with inaccurate dating, it is argued, is to misunderstand the techniques of historical writing he was using.<\/p>\n<p>Since Herod Agrippa died in <span>AD<\/span> 44 (Acts 12:23), the apostle James, whom Herod put to death with the sword (v 2), must have died soon before 44, perhaps during the Passover season of 43 (v 3). The apostle Peter’s imprisonment and his miraculous escape (vv 3-17) also belong to that period.<\/p>\n<p>When the Christians of Antioch decided to send relief to the Christians in Jerusalem in the midst of the great famine (Acts 11:29), Barnabas and Paul were appointed to transport the money to Jerusalem. That was Paul’s second visit to Jerusalem after his conversion. The first visit is recorded in Acts 9:26-30. The third comes in Acts 15 when Paul and Barnabas were sent to discuss with the apostles and elders whether gentile converts to Christianity had to be circumcised. How one dates the first and third visits to Jerusalem, as well as Paul’s conversion, depends on how those Jerusalem visits are related to those reported in Paul’s letter to the Galatians.<\/p>\n<p>The basic problem, which still divides NT scholars, is this: In Galatians 1:15–2:10 Paul recounted that his conversion was followed by two visits to Jerusalem, one three years after his conversion (1:18) and one 14 years after that (2:1-10). All scholars agree that the first visit three years after his conversion is the same as the first visit recorded in Acts 9:26-30. Answers differ, however, to the question of whether Galatians 2:1-10 refers to the second (famine) visit to Jerusalem in Acts 11:30 (in which case the third visit of Acts 15 is the one omitted from Galatians) or whether Galatians 2:1-10 refers to the visit in Acts 15 (in which case the famine visit was the one omitted from Galatians).<\/p>\n\n<p>Those who favor the first reconstruction offer six arguments: (1) The reason Paul gave such a rigorous account of his comings and goings in Galatians 1:15-24 was to show that he did not get his gospel from men, nor was he taught it (1:12). In other words, his visits to the Jerusalem apostles were not for the purpose of receiving his gospel. If that is so, for Paul to omit the second Jerusalem visit would jeopardize his integrity and his authority with the Galatians. The first reconstruction avoids that difficulty; omission of a third Jerusalem visit from Galatians 2:1-10 could mean that it had not yet happened when Galatians was written. (2) Galatians 2:1-10 pictures a private meeting between Paul and Barnabas on one hand and the “pillar” apostles on the other. But the meeting in Acts 15 was public and before the whole church. Hence Galatians 2:1-10 more likely refers to a private meeting during the visit of Acts 11:30, which Galatians does not record. (3) Paul’s eagerness to give to the poor mentioned in Galatians 2:10 connects naturally with the second Jerusalem visit, when he was in fact delivering relief to the poor (Acts 11:30). (4) If Galatians 2 recorded the same trip as Acts 15, one would expect some mention of the decision reached by the Jerusalem Council, especially since that decision related directly to the problem of circumcision that Paul was handling in his Letter to the Galatians. (5) Further, it seems unlikely that the Jerusalem Council preceded the event of Galatians 2:11-21, when Peter was rebuked by Paul for withdrawing from fellowship with gentile believers; that incident could hardly have happened so soon after the issue of gentile status in the church had been settled in Jerusalem. (6) According to Galatians 1:6, the letter was written “quickly” after Paul had established the Galatian churches. That makes sense if Galatians was written soon after the first missionary journey, hence just before the Jerusalem Council of Acts 15; that would make Galatians Paul’s first letter.<\/p>\n<p>Scholars who favor the second reconstruction offer four arguments: (1) The main purpose of Paul’s visit in Galatians 2:1-10 appears to be the same as that in Acts 15:1-20; both dealt with the issue of whether circumcision should be required of gentile converts (Gal 2:3-5; Acts 15:1, 5). That similarity is obvious, but there is no such explicit similarity between Galatians 2 and Acts 11:30. (2) On the basis of form and content Galatians is similar to Romans and to 1 and 2 Corinthians; it would thus seem to come from the same period—considerably later than the Jerusalem Council. If so, it is likely that Paul would have included a reference to the Jerusalem Council (namely Gal 2:1-10) in his recollections, since its outcome supported his own stance on circumcision set forth in the letter. (3) Acts 11:30 pictures Barnabas as the leader of the Barnabas\/Paul team, since his name is given first place (as in Acts 12:25; 13:1-2, 7; cf. 11:25-26). But in the description Paul gives of the visit in Galatians 2, he sees himself as the leader of the team. Since Acts does picture Paul as the leader from the time of the first missionary journey (Acts 13:9, 13, 43, 46, 50), including the third Jerusalem visit (15:2), it is more likely that Galatians 2 records the trip of Acts 15. (4) Finally, in Galatians 2:7-8 Paul was recognized as an apostle to the Gentiles with a standing equal to that of Peter. But if Galatians 2 recorded the events of Acts 11:30 and the first missionary journey had not yet occurred, the “pillar” apostles could hardly have recognized Paul’s authority as apostle to the Gentiles. It is more likely that Galatians 2 followed the first missionary journey, just as Acts 15 followed the first missionary journey in Acts, and that both refer to the same event.<\/p>\n<p>The significance of those arguments for chronology is that, according to the first view, Paul’s conversion came 17 years before the famine visit of Acts 11:30 (cf. Gal 1:18; 2:1). According to the second view, Paul’s conversion took place 17 years before the Jerusalem Council in Acts 15. The difference amounts to only one year, however.<\/p>\n<p>It is helpful to consider one more date that can be fixed with high probability—namely, Paul’s arrival in Corinth on his second missionary journey (Acts 18:1). On the second missionary journey (15:40–18:22), Paul and Silas set out on land through Syria, Cilicia, Phrygia, and Galatia, visiting churches founded on the first missionary journey. They came to Troas, then passed over to Philippi and continued down the coast through Thessalonica and Berea. Paul went on to Athens before arriving at Corinth. From Acts 18:12 we know that Gallio was a proconsul in Corinth while Paul was there. An inscription discovered at nearby Delphi indicates that in all likelihood Gallio’s term of office was from mid-51 to mid-52. The incident recorded in Acts 18:12-17 probably occurred at the beginning of Gallio’s term, since the Jews hoped to get a ruling against Paul from their new proconsul. Not long after that, Paul left Corinth, probably in the summer or autumn of 52. According to Acts 18:11 Paul had spent 18 months in Corinth; that means that he probably arrived in the early months of 50 or the end of 49. That arrival date is confirmed by Acts 18:2, which says that Aquila and Priscilla had only recently been exiled from Rome when Paul came to Corinth. A fifth-century historian, Orosius, dated the edict of Claudius expelling the Jews from Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 49. Therefore, Paul and Aquila and Priscilla probably arrived close together late in 49 or early in 50. Early in his 18-month stay Paul wrote his First and Second Letters to the Thessalonians.<\/p>\n<p>The two fixed dates, then, are 46 or 47 for the famine visit (Acts 11:30) and late 49 or early 50 for Paul’s arrival in Corinth (Acts 18:1). Taking into account the time gaps mentioned in Galatians 1:18 and 2:1, as well as the supposition that the first missionary journey lasted about a year, the two reconstructions are presented in the following table. Keep in mind that they are approximations and that they reflect the ancient custom of counting a part of a year as a whole year.<\/p>\n\n<h4>Events from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 70<\/h4>\n<p>Acts 24:27 describes an event that helps us date events in the rest of the book, namely, Porcius Festus’s replacement of Felix as the governor of Judea. A careful analysis of the evidence given by Eusebius, a fourth-century historian, leads to the probable conclusion that Felix was replaced in the summer of 59.<\/p>\n<p>Working backward from that date, Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem (Acts 21:33) must have occurred in 57, some two years before the coming of Festus. More precisely, Paul’s arrest probably occurred in the late spring or summer of 57; Paul’s goal (20:16) was to arrive in Jerusalem by Pentecost of that year, and Pentecost occurred at the end of May. He was not long in the city before he was arrested.<\/p>\n<p>The Passover festival, 50 days before Pentecost, was celebrated by Paul with the church in Philippi (Acts 20:6). That would have been April 7–14, <span>AD<\/span> 57. Only after the feast did he continue his hurried journey to Caesarea and Jerusalem (20:6–21:16). Before his Passover visit to Philippi, Paul had spent three months in Greece (20:3). Allowing some time for him to travel through Macedonia and visit the Thessalonians and Bereans, those three months were probably the winter months of 56–57 (Acts 20:3; cf. 1 Cor 16:6). No doubt they were spent in the main church of Greece, Corinth, and were used in part for the writing of the Letter to the Romans.<\/p>\n<p>Between Paul’s departure from Corinth on the second missionary journey (Acts 18:18) in the autumn of 51 and his arrival in Corinth on the third missionary journey (20:2) in the late winter of 56 are five years of activities that cannot be given exact dates. Paul said that he worked during three of those years in Ephesus (20:31; cf. 19:1–20:1). With enough time allowed for the travels before and after, that stay at Ephesus probably lasted from 52 or 53 to the summer of 55 or 56 (cf. 1 Cor 16:8). During his long stay in Ephesus, Paul wrote his First Letter to the Corinthians. Then, on his way to Corinth in 56, he wrote 2 Corinthians from Macedonia.<\/p>\n<p>Festus arrived as governor in the summer of 59, after Paul had been in prison in Caesarea for two years. Within a matter of days, Paul was tried before Festus (Acts 25:1-12). Not wanting to be remanded to the Jewish authorities, Paul appealed to Caesar (v 12), which meant that he would go to Rome. The account in Acts gives no hint of a delay, so the voyage most likely began in the summer or fall of 59 (27:2).<\/p>\n<p>Luke reported that when Paul the prisoner got to Fair Havens on the island of Crete, the weather had become dangerous for sea travel “because the fast had already gone by” (Acts 27:8-9). One ancient writer said that sailing became dangerous between mid-September and mid-November, and after that, impossible until spring. The fast referred to was no doubt the one in preparation for the Day of Atonement, which in the year 59 fell on October 5. It is not surprising that, 14 days after leaving Fair Havens, the ship in which Paul was traveling was wrecked on the coast of Malta, south of Sicily (vv 27-44). Three months later Paul set sail for Rome again in a ship that had spent the winter at Malta (28:11). Soon he was welcomed into Rome by Christians who came out to meet him (v 15). Thus Paul arrived in Rome in the early part of <span>AD<\/span> 60. The book of Acts closes with the remark that “For two whole years Paul stayed there in his own rented house” (v 30, <span>niv<\/span>). The NT does not report the outcome of his trial. During that period, according to the traditional view, he wrote Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon.<\/p>\n<p>Eusebius wrote, “Tradition has it that after defending himself the Apostle was again sent on the ministry of preaching, and coming a second time to the same city suffered martyrdom under Nero.” Nero, who was the Roman emperor from 54 to 68, put to death a multitude of Christians in Rome soon after a disastrous fire in July of 64, according to the Roman historian Tacitus. A number of early Christian writings (e.g., Clement) seem to indicate that Peter and Paul were both killed in Rome during that savage persecution. If so, and if Eusebius was right, then Paul may have spent the two years from 62 to 64 freely ministering back in the eastern provinces. Many conservative scholars date Paul’s First Letter to Timothy and his Letter to Titus from that period. Written from Rome shortly before Paul’s martyrdom in 64, 2 Timothy was probably his last letter (2 Tm 2:9; 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem, within three years after Paul had been carried off to Rome, James the brother of Jesus was stoned to death by the Jewish authorities. According to Josephus, that occurred in 62. Not long afterward, according to Eusebius, the church in Jerusalem received a prophecy warning them to leave that doomed city and settle in Pella, one of the cities of the Decapolis (“ten cities”) east of the Jordan. Thus when war broke out between the Jews and the Romans in 66, the Christians for the most part escaped its fury. That war ended in 70 with the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (cf. Mk 13:2; Lk 21:24).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Apostle, Apostleship; Age; “Date” under each NT book; First Jewish Revolt; Genealogy of Jesus Christ; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (New Testament)<\/h3>\n<p>Branch of biblical studies that attempts to discover the sequence of NT events and the amount of time that elapsed between them. Chronology is essential to historians, whose task it is to determine the causes and effects of past events. Generally, for a historian’s purpose, assigning absolute dates is less important than knowing the sequence of events that may have influenced each other. Very few NT happenings, in fact, can be given exact dates.<\/p>\n\n<p>A remarkable testimony to the influence of Christianity is the fact that the entire Western world now divides history into <span>BC<\/span> (before Christ) and <span>AD<\/span> (<em>anno Domini,<\/em> “in the year of the Lord”). Before that method of dating became widespread in the Middle Ages, events were dated by their relation to other important events such as the founding of Rome or the beginning of a king’s reign. When a monk named Dionysius Exiguus (sixth century) invented our present method of dating, with the birth of Christ dividing history, he made a mistake in his computations. The odd result is the historical anomaly that Jesus himself was born no later than four years “before Christ.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ChronologyofJesusLife\">Chronology of Jesus’ Life<\/p>\n<h5>Birth<\/h5>\n<p>According to Matthew 2:1 Jesus was born “in the days of Herod the king.” A first-century <span>AD<\/span> historian, Josephus, recorded that Herod died in the spring of the year we identify as 4 <span>BC<\/span>. Hence, Jesus was born sometime before that, but how much before is uncertain. Luke 2:1-2 records that Jesus’ birth occurred when “Caesar Augustus,” the Roman emperor, decreed that a census, or enrollment, should be taken throughout the nation. “This was the first census taken when Quirinius was governor of Syria” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Those statements raise two questions: When was such a census taken, and when was Quirinius governor of Syria? Neither question has received a completely satisfying answer.<\/p>\n<p>Census documents discovered in Egypt, together with earlier references, suggest that such enrollments were held every 14 years. That would put a census roughly in 8 or 9 <span>BC<\/span>. In view of the time needed to carry out the census (which required a person to travel to his birthplace), the birth of Jesus may have been somewhat later than the actual year of the decree (perhaps 7 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Josephus recorded that Quirinius became governor of Syria in <span>AD<\/span> 6, rather late as a date for Jesus’ birth. But some scholars have argued from ancient inscriptions that Quirinius also served in Syria as a special legate of the emperor Augustus before 6 <span>BC<\/span>. That could be the period referred to in Luke 2:2. Why did Luke choose to cite Quirinius instead of the regular governor of Syria at that time? Perhaps by so doing he could provide a more exact date for the birth of Jesus, since Quirinius was in authority for a shorter time than the regular governor of Syria.<\/p>\n<p>A reasonable conclusion is that Jesus was born about 7 or 6 <span>BC<\/span>. That fits with Matthew 2:16, which seems to say that Jesus was born at least two years before Herod’s death in 4 <span>BC<\/span>. No clear evidence exists concerning the day and month of his birth. Celebration of December 25 as Christmas originated in the fourth century, probably as a Christian alternative to the pagan winter solstice festival (Saturnalia).<\/p>\n<h5>The Beginning of Public Ministry<\/h5>\n<p>Luke 3:23 says that Jesus, “when he began his ministry, was about thirty years of age”; since the age given is only approximate, he may have been two or three years older or younger (cf. the pseudepigraphal Testament of Levi 2:2; 12:5). If exactly 30 is added to the suggested date of birth, one gets <span>AD<\/span> 24. That date cannot be right, because Jesus’ ministry began after John the Baptist appears; Luke 3:1-3 dates John’s public appearance precisely in “the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberias Caesar” while Pilate was procurator (governor) over Judea. Pilate governed from <span>AD<\/span> 26 to 36, and the 15th year of Tiberius was most likely <span>AD<\/span> 27. Therefore Jesus did not begin his public ministry before <span>AD<\/span> 27. If only a short time elapsed between the beginning of John’s ministry and the beginning of Jesus’ ministry, then Jesus probably began in <span>AD<\/span> 27 or 28 when he was approximately 33 years old.<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus’ Death<\/h5>\n<p>All four Gospel records seem to imply that Jesus ate the Last Supper with his disciples on Thursday evening, was crucified on Friday, and rose from the dead early Sunday morning (Mt 28:1; Mk 16:1; Lk 24:1). The claim that Jesus rose on the third day (1 Cor 15:4) comes from the Jewish custom of counting a part of the day as a whole day. According to Matthew (26:19), Mark (14:12), and Luke (22:15), the Last Supper was the Passover meal, a yearly celebration of Israel’s escape from Egypt (Ex 12–15). But according to John 13:1 and 19:14, the Passover meal had not yet been eaten on Friday; hence the Last Supper in John was not the Passover meal.<\/p>\n<p>No completely satisfying solution to the apparent discrepancy has been put forward. Some scholars suggest plausibly that the use of two different calendars was responsible. According to that theory, Jesus was following a calendar that placed the Passover meal on Thursday night. Temple officials, on the other hand, followed an alternate calendar that placed the killing of sacrificial victims on the next day. John may have used the second system to emphasize the fact that Christ was offered as the Passover sacrifice (cf. Jn 19:36; 1 Cor 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>To find out how long Jesus’ public ministry lasted and thus the year in which he died, one can turn to time references in John’s Gospel. John referred to at least three Passovers (2:13; 6:4; 13:1) and possibly four (5:1). Since the Passover was a yearly feast, the ministry of Jesus would have lasted at least two and possibly three years. In Matthew, Mark, and Luke the Friday of Jesus’ death occurred on the 15th of the Jewish month Nisan (which overlaps March and April). According to John, Jesus died on 14 Nisan. The question is: In which years from 26 to 36 (when Pilate was procurator in Judea) did 14 or 15 Nisan fall on a Friday? The answer is <span>AD<\/span> 27, 29, 30, and 33. Of those, the year 27 is too early and 33 is probably too late. Thus Jesus was probably crucified in 29 or 30, his public ministry lasted two or three years, and he was 35 or 36 years old when he died.<\/p>\n<h4>Events from <span>AD<\/span> 30 to 50<\/h4>\n<p>Acts is the only NT book that records how much time elapsed between Jesus’ death and his ascension: “To them he presented himself alive after his passion by many proofs, appearing to them during forty days, and speaking of the kingdom of God” (Acts 1:3, <span>rsv<\/span>). The next key event after the ascension of Jesus into heaven was Pentecost (Acts 2:1). Pentecost, the Greek word for “fiftieth,” referred to a celebration of the Feast of Weeks\/Harvest (cf. Ex 34:22; Dt 16:9-12) 50 days after the Passover. Since Jesus was crucified during the Passover season, the Pentecost of Acts 2:1, during which the disciples were filled with the Holy Spirit, took place in <span>AD<\/span> 29 or 30, some 50 days after the Crucifixion and about 10 days after the Ascension.<\/p>\n<p>After that, events of the early chapters of Acts are hard to date because no precise statements are made about the amount of time between various events. Therefore, the usual method for dating events of the apostolic age is first to find at least one event that can be dated with relative certainty from sources outside the NT; one then dates events before and after that event by figuring out how much time elapsed between them. Sometimes Acts records how much time passed between two events; usually it does not, so dating can only be approximate.<\/p>\n<p>One pivotal starting point is the great famine prophesied by Agabus, which befell Palestine during the reign of the Roman emperor Claudius (Acts 11:28-29). Josephus, who was alive at the time, gives enough information to locate the famine sometime between the years 46 and 48. We also know from the Mishnah, a collection of Jewish laws, that the autumn of 47 to the autumn of 48 was a sabbatical year, when the Jews let the land rest and harvested nothing (cf. Lv 25:2-7). That could have aggravated and prolonged a famine, but one cannot be sure how early the famine started; some scholars propose 46 and some 47.<\/p>\n<p>At first, it seems peculiar that Luke, the author of Acts, should have recorded that famine (Acts 11:28) before recording the death of Herod Agrippa (12:20-23). From facts reported by Josephus, the death of Herod (a grandson of Herod the Great) can be dated in <span>AD<\/span> 44, probably in the spring. That means that Herod must have died several years before the famine Luke recorded earlier. Some scholars think that Luke simply got his chronological facts wrong. Others see Acts 12:1-24 as a kind of flashback to bring the history of the church in Jerusalem up to date. Such a practice was common among ancient historians, who often followed one source up to a suitable stopping point before moving on to another source. To charge Luke with inaccurate dating, it is argued, is to misunderstand the techniques of historical writing he was using.<\/p>\n<p>Since Herod Agrippa died in <span>AD<\/span> 44 (Acts 12:23), the apostle James, whom Herod put to death with the sword (v 2), must have died soon before 44, perhaps during the Passover season of 43 (v 3). The apostle Peter’s imprisonment and his miraculous escape (vv 3-17) also belong to that period.<\/p>\n<p>When the Christians of Antioch decided to send relief to the Christians in Jerusalem in the midst of the great famine (Acts 11:29), Barnabas and Paul were appointed to transport the money to Jerusalem. That was Paul’s second visit to Jerusalem after his conversion. The first visit is recorded in Acts 9:26-30. The third comes in Acts 15 when Paul and Barnabas were sent to discuss with the apostles and elders whether gentile converts to Christianity had to be circumcised. How one dates the first and third visits to Jerusalem, as well as Paul’s conversion, depends on how those Jerusalem visits are related to those reported in Paul’s letter to the Galatians.<\/p>\n<p>The basic problem, which still divides NT scholars, is this: In Galatians 1:15–2:10 Paul recounted that his conversion was followed by two visits to Jerusalem, one three years after his conversion (1:18) and one 14 years after that (2:1-10). All scholars agree that the first visit three years after his conversion is the same as the first visit recorded in Acts 9:26-30. Answers differ, however, to the question of whether Galatians 2:1-10 refers to the second (famine) visit to Jerusalem in Acts 11:30 (in which case the third visit of Acts 15 is the one omitted from Galatians) or whether Galatians 2:1-10 refers to the visit in Acts 15 (in which case the famine visit was the one omitted from Galatians).<\/p>\n\n<p>Those who favor the first reconstruction offer six arguments: (1) The reason Paul gave such a rigorous account of his comings and goings in Galatians 1:15-24 was to show that he did not get his gospel from men, nor was he taught it (1:12). In other words, his visits to the Jerusalem apostles were not for the purpose of receiving his gospel. If that is so, for Paul to omit the second Jerusalem visit would jeopardize his integrity and his authority with the Galatians. The first reconstruction avoids that difficulty; omission of a third Jerusalem visit from Galatians 2:1-10 could mean that it had not yet happened when Galatians was written. (2) Galatians 2:1-10 pictures a private meeting between Paul and Barnabas on one hand and the “pillar” apostles on the other. But the meeting in Acts 15 was public and before the whole church. Hence Galatians 2:1-10 more likely refers to a private meeting during the visit of Acts 11:30, which Galatians does not record. (3) Paul’s eagerness to give to the poor mentioned in Galatians 2:10 connects naturally with the second Jerusalem visit, when he was in fact delivering relief to the poor (Acts 11:30). (4) If Galatians 2 recorded the same trip as Acts 15, one would expect some mention of the decision reached by the Jerusalem Council, especially since that decision related directly to the problem of circumcision that Paul was handling in his Letter to the Galatians. (5) Further, it seems unlikely that the Jerusalem Council preceded the event of Galatians 2:11-21, when Peter was rebuked by Paul for withdrawing from fellowship with gentile believers; that incident could hardly have happened so soon after the issue of gentile status in the church had been settled in Jerusalem. (6) According to Galatians 1:6, the letter was written “quickly” after Paul had established the Galatian churches. That makes sense if Galatians was written soon after the first missionary journey, hence just before the Jerusalem Council of Acts 15; that would make Galatians Paul’s first letter.<\/p>\n<p>Scholars who favor the second reconstruction offer four arguments: (1) The main purpose of Paul’s visit in Galatians 2:1-10 appears to be the same as that in Acts 15:1-20; both dealt with the issue of whether circumcision should be required of gentile converts (Gal 2:3-5; Acts 15:1, 5). That similarity is obvious, but there is no such explicit similarity between Galatians 2 and Acts 11:30. (2) On the basis of form and content Galatians is similar to Romans and to 1 and 2 Corinthians; it would thus seem to come from the same period—considerably later than the Jerusalem Council. If so, it is likely that Paul would have included a reference to the Jerusalem Council (namely Gal 2:1-10) in his recollections, since its outcome supported his own stance on circumcision set forth in the letter. (3) Acts 11:30 pictures Barnabas as the leader of the Barnabas\/Paul team, since his name is given first place (as in Acts 12:25; 13:1-2, 7; cf. 11:25-26). But in the description Paul gives of the visit in Galatians 2, he sees himself as the leader of the team. Since Acts does picture Paul as the leader from the time of the first missionary journey (Acts 13:9, 13, 43, 46, 50), including the third Jerusalem visit (15:2), it is more likely that Galatians 2 records the trip of Acts 15. (4) Finally, in Galatians 2:7-8 Paul was recognized as an apostle to the Gentiles with a standing equal to that of Peter. But if Galatians 2 recorded the events of Acts 11:30 and the first missionary journey had not yet occurred, the “pillar” apostles could hardly have recognized Paul’s authority as apostle to the Gentiles. It is more likely that Galatians 2 followed the first missionary journey, just as Acts 15 followed the first missionary journey in Acts, and that both refer to the same event.<\/p>\n<p>The significance of those arguments for chronology is that, according to the first view, Paul’s conversion came 17 years before the famine visit of Acts 11:30 (cf. Gal 1:18; 2:1). According to the second view, Paul’s conversion took place 17 years before the Jerusalem Council in Acts 15. The difference amounts to only one year, however.<\/p>\n<p>It is helpful to consider one more date that can be fixed with high probability—namely, Paul’s arrival in Corinth on his second missionary journey (Acts 18:1). On the second missionary journey (15:40–18:22), Paul and Silas set out on land through Syria, Cilicia, Phrygia, and Galatia, visiting churches founded on the first missionary journey. They came to Troas, then passed over to Philippi and continued down the coast through Thessalonica and Berea. Paul went on to Athens before arriving at Corinth. From Acts 18:12 we know that Gallio was a proconsul in Corinth while Paul was there. An inscription discovered at nearby Delphi indicates that in all likelihood Gallio’s term of office was from mid-51 to mid-52. The incident recorded in Acts 18:12-17 probably occurred at the beginning of Gallio’s term, since the Jews hoped to get a ruling against Paul from their new proconsul. Not long after that, Paul left Corinth, probably in the summer or autumn of 52. According to Acts 18:11 Paul had spent 18 months in Corinth; that means that he probably arrived in the early months of 50 or the end of 49. That arrival date is confirmed by Acts 18:2, which says that Aquila and Priscilla had only recently been exiled from Rome when Paul came to Corinth. A fifth-century historian, Orosius, dated the edict of Claudius expelling the Jews from Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 49. Therefore, Paul and Aquila and Priscilla probably arrived close together late in 49 or early in 50. Early in his 18-month stay Paul wrote his First and Second Letters to the Thessalonians.<\/p>\n<p>The two fixed dates, then, are 46 or 47 for the famine visit (Acts 11:30) and late 49 or early 50 for Paul’s arrival in Corinth (Acts 18:1). Taking into account the time gaps mentioned in Galatians 1:18 and 2:1, as well as the supposition that the first missionary journey lasted about a year, the two reconstructions are presented in the following table. Keep in mind that they are approximations and that they reflect the ancient custom of counting a part of a year as a whole year.<\/p>\n\n<h4>Events from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 70<\/h4>\n<p>Acts 24:27 describes an event that helps us date events in the rest of the book, namely, Porcius Festus’s replacement of Felix as the governor of Judea. A careful analysis of the evidence given by Eusebius, a fourth-century historian, leads to the probable conclusion that Felix was replaced in the summer of 59.<\/p>\n<p>Working backward from that date, Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem (Acts 21:33) must have occurred in 57, some two years before the coming of Festus. More precisely, Paul’s arrest probably occurred in the late spring or summer of 57; Paul’s goal (20:16) was to arrive in Jerusalem by Pentecost of that year, and Pentecost occurred at the end of May. He was not long in the city before he was arrested.<\/p>\n<p>The Passover festival, 50 days before Pentecost, was celebrated by Paul with the church in Philippi (Acts 20:6). That would have been April 7–14, <span>AD<\/span> 57. Only after the feast did he continue his hurried journey to Caesarea and Jerusalem (20:6–21:16). Before his Passover visit to Philippi, Paul had spent three months in Greece (20:3). Allowing some time for him to travel through Macedonia and visit the Thessalonians and Bereans, those three months were probably the winter months of 56–57 (Acts 20:3; cf. 1 Cor 16:6). No doubt they were spent in the main church of Greece, Corinth, and were used in part for the writing of the Letter to the Romans.<\/p>\n<p>Between Paul’s departure from Corinth on the second missionary journey (Acts 18:18) in the autumn of 51 and his arrival in Corinth on the third missionary journey (20:2) in the late winter of 56 are five years of activities that cannot be given exact dates. Paul said that he worked during three of those years in Ephesus (20:31; cf. 19:1–20:1). With enough time allowed for the travels before and after, that stay at Ephesus probably lasted from 52 or 53 to the summer of 55 or 56 (cf. 1 Cor 16:8). During his long stay in Ephesus, Paul wrote his First Letter to the Corinthians. Then, on his way to Corinth in 56, he wrote 2 Corinthians from Macedonia.<\/p>\n<p>Festus arrived as governor in the summer of 59, after Paul had been in prison in Caesarea for two years. Within a matter of days, Paul was tried before Festus (Acts 25:1-12). Not wanting to be remanded to the Jewish authorities, Paul appealed to Caesar (v 12), which meant that he would go to Rome. The account in Acts gives no hint of a delay, so the voyage most likely began in the summer or fall of 59 (27:2).<\/p>\n<p>Luke reported that when Paul the prisoner got to Fair Havens on the island of Crete, the weather had become dangerous for sea travel “because the fast had already gone by” (Acts 27:8-9). One ancient writer said that sailing became dangerous between mid-September and mid-November, and after that, impossible until spring. The fast referred to was no doubt the one in preparation for the Day of Atonement, which in the year 59 fell on October 5. It is not surprising that, 14 days after leaving Fair Havens, the ship in which Paul was traveling was wrecked on the coast of Malta, south of Sicily (vv 27-44). Three months later Paul set sail for Rome again in a ship that had spent the winter at Malta (28:11). Soon he was welcomed into Rome by Christians who came out to meet him (v 15). Thus Paul arrived in Rome in the early part of <span>AD<\/span> 60. The book of Acts closes with the remark that “For two whole years Paul stayed there in his own rented house” (v 30, <span>niv<\/span>). The NT does not report the outcome of his trial. During that period, according to the traditional view, he wrote Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon.<\/p>\n<p>Eusebius wrote, “Tradition has it that after defending himself the Apostle was again sent on the ministry of preaching, and coming a second time to the same city suffered martyrdom under Nero.” Nero, who was the Roman emperor from 54 to 68, put to death a multitude of Christians in Rome soon after a disastrous fire in July of 64, according to the Roman historian Tacitus. A number of early Christian writings (e.g., Clement) seem to indicate that Peter and Paul were both killed in Rome during that savage persecution. If so, and if Eusebius was right, then Paul may have spent the two years from 62 to 64 freely ministering back in the eastern provinces. Many conservative scholars date Paul’s First Letter to Timothy and his Letter to Titus from that period. Written from Rome shortly before Paul’s martyrdom in 64, 2 Timothy was probably his last letter (2 Tm 2:9; 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem, within three years after Paul had been carried off to Rome, James the brother of Jesus was stoned to death by the Jewish authorities. According to Josephus, that occurred in 62. Not long afterward, according to Eusebius, the church in Jerusalem received a prophecy warning them to leave that doomed city and settle in Pella, one of the cities of the Decapolis (“ten cities”) east of the Jordan. Thus when war broke out between the Jews and the Romans in 66, the Christians for the most part escaped its fury. That war ended in 70 with the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (cf. Mk 13:2; Lk 21:24).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Apostle, Apostleship; Age; “Date” under each NT book; First Jewish Revolt; Genealogy of Jesus Christ; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (New Testament) Branch of biblical studies that attempts to discover the sequence of NT events and the amount of time that elapsed between them. Chronology is essential to historians, whose task it is to determine the causes and effects of past events. Generally, for a historian’s purpose, assigning absolute dates is less important than knowing the sequence of events that may have influenced each other. Very few NT happenings, in fact, can be given exact dates. A rema...","summary_en":"CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (New Testament) Branch of biblical studies that attempts to discover the sequence of NT events and the amount of time that elapsed between them. Chronology is essential to historians, whose task it is to determine the causes and effects of past events. Generally, for a historian’s purpose, assigning absolute dates is less important than knowing the sequence of events that may have influenced each other. Very few NT happenings, in fact, can be given exact dates. A rema...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29080,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Paul, the Apostle","title_en":"Paul, the Apostle","content_ro":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PAUL, T<span>he Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>• Education<\/p>\n<p>• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyandCulturalBackground\">Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n<p>Paul was born around <span>AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\n<p>From religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\n<p>Jews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 <span>BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\n<p>Paul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Education\">Education<\/p>\n<p>Although born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\n<p>While Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (<span>AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SaulthePersecutor\">Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConversionandCalling\">Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n<p>Paul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. <span>AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>At that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforMinistry\">Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Then began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>The end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SentOutfromAntioch\">Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Barnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TravelingwithBarnabas\">Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n<p>Arriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\n<p>The success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\n<p>It was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\n<p>After making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCouncilofJerusalem\">The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>The Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\n<p>The church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (<span>AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\n<p>After this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, <span>rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Later, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FurtherTravel\">Further Travel<\/p>\n<p>Paul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\n<p>Beginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\n<p>Philippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\n<p>At Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from <span>AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\n<p>Accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaborintheGospel\">Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n<p>A Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Paul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p>The work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\n<p>During his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>After his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (<span>AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about <span>AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\n<p>A three-month winter stay in Corinth (<span>AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheArrestinJerusalem\">The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\n<p>The travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring <span>AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\n<p>Parting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>In Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\n<p>Paul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of <span>AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\n<p>This meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VoyageandStayinRome\">Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n<p>To plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (<span>AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\n<p>Luke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of <span>AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Luke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in <span>AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FinalYearsandMartyrdom\">Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\n<p>It is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (<em>Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\n<p>If Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, <span>AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\n<p>From here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (<span>AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\n<p>It was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, <span>rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\n<p>Nothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of <span>AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","summary_en":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29721,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Persecution","title_en":"Persecution","content_ro":"<h3>PERSECUTION<\/h3>\n<p>Infliction of suffering, injury, or death on others because of their identity or beliefs. The Bible begins with an account of the persecution of the righteous by the unrighteous (Gn 4:3-7, “regard for Abel”; Mt 23:35; Heb 11:4). The Wisdom of Solomon (Wisd of Sol 2:12-20) dramatically illustrates the envy and guilt that prompt such persecution. Lot’s experience, likewise, illustrates the suffering involved in refusing to conform to popular behavior (Gn 19:9; 2 Pt 2:7-8). The ill-treatment of Israel in Egypt, like her later oppression by the Philistines, Midianites, and others, had economic and political grounds. For those refusing to accept the royal policy of syncretism, official tolerance of injustice, and pagan immoralities, persecution becomes frequent—from Elijah’s period onward (1 Kgs 19:10). Later prophets, as spokesmen of uncompromising truth and the claims of divine law in the face of social evils, suffered severely at the hands of the ruling classes, so that persecution became, in Jewish eyes, the hallmark of the true prophet (2 Chr 36:15-16; Mt 5:12; 23:29-37; Acts 7:52; Heb 11:32-38).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s stories illustrate persecution during the exile. On the return under foreign rule, strict Jews sought to preserve the nation’s identity and religion amid alien pressures and the compromises of lax Jews anxious for accommodation and prosperity (1 Macc 1:11-15; 2:42-48). The result was the social oppression and harassment that made the repeated pleas for vindication and divine intervention, in such psalms as 10, 69, 140, and 149, painfully relevant in postexilic worship. This persecution reached a horrifying climax of cruelty during the Maccabean age, provoking armed resistance in response (2 Macc 6–7; Heb 11:35-38).<\/p>\n<p>Thus, despite her confidence in God’s sovereignty and “protection,” Israel learned that right does not always prosper in this world, that faithfulness to truth does not ensure immunity from suffering, sacrifice, or martyrdom.<\/p>\n<p>This acceptance of the high cost of righteousness was inherited by Christianity. Jesus repeatedly warned of persecution, even within households, and urged “armed” preparation for it, promising the Spirit’s assistance at judicial examinations (Mt 5:11-12; 10:16-23, 34-36; 23:34; Lk 6:26; 22:35-36). Jesus was deeply angered by the murder of John the Baptist by Herod (Lk 23:9), and he foresaw his own fate. Because he criticized the legalism and nationalism of the Pharisees, and the compromises of the Sadducees to protect their own privileges (Jn 11:47-50), and because he disappointed the militaristic hopes set upon the Messiah by the common people, Jesus knew he would be rejected. His call to discipleship came to include warnings of danger, reviling, slander, accusation, flogging, arraignment before courts, hatred, and death. He frankly invited followers to prepare for his crucifixion, as the only way to life and the kingdom (Mt 16:21-26; 20:17-22; Mk 10:29-30; Jn 15:18-25; 16:1-4). Jesus was killed on the charges of subverting the nation, forbidding payment of taxes to the Romans, and claiming to be king (Lk 23:2).<\/p>\n<p>The first persecution of the church by Jewish authorities was provoked mainly by Peter’s accusations concerning the murder of the Messiah. As apostolic influence increased, official action came to include imprisonment and beating (Acts 5:17, 40). The powerful advocacy of the Hellenist Stephen provoked a Jewish mob to stone him (Acts 6–7)—the signal for “a great persecution,” scattering most Christians from Jerusalem. The conversion of the archpersecutor Saul of Tarsus marked a resounding victory over opposition, and Herod’s sudden death just after attacking the church “to please the Jews” was another (Acts 12:1-3, 20-24).<\/p>\n<p>As Christianity moved into the Gentile world, a new cause of Jewish persecution arose as disturbances began to occur in the synagogues (Acts 13:44-45, 50; 14:1-6, 19; 17:1, 5, 13; 18:4-6, 12). In addition, the healing of the slave girl at Philippi led to the disciples’ imprisonment (16:19-24); at Ephesus, the effect of Christian preaching on the trade of idol makers occasioned a dangerous threat, which the authorities averted (19:23-41). Paul averted the plot of more than 40 men who vowed to ambush him and kill him (21:4-36; 23:12-15). And the book of Acts closes with Paul awaiting trial before Caesar (28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p>Throughout this period, persecution of Christians was sporadic, local, and mainly Jewish, provoked by envy of the church’s missionary success. Officially, Christianity, as a Jewish sect (Acts 24:5, 14), shared the state’s legal recognition won by the Jews. Thus, Paul received Roman protection at Paphos, Philippi, Corinth, Ephesus, and Jerusalem from governors Felix and Festus and their adviser Herod Agrippa, as well as from the centurion conveying him to Rome. This explains Paul’s confident appeal to Caesar; an imperial acquittal would ensure Christianity freedom from harassment throughout the empire.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s attitude to persecution included regretful remembrance of his own persecuting days (Acts 22:4; 26:9-11; Gal 1:22-24), deliberate acceptance of risks in obedience to Christ (Acts 20:22-24; 21:13), continual warning that tribulation is inseparable from discipleship (Acts 14:22; Rom 5:3; 12:12; 1 Thes 3:4), and assurance that in every form of tribulation Christians are more than conquerors (Rom 8:35-37).<\/p>\n<p>Almost certainly, Paul was beheaded during fierce persecution at Rome following the fire for which the Christians were blamed. Christians were often accused of “atheism” (rejecting polytheism), of appealing only to slave classes, of “scandalous” love feasts, and unsociable, austere behavior (cf. Jn 15:19), making them a popular target for blame.<\/p>\n<p>About this time, Peter warned Christians in the East of the danger confronting the church. For a little while, “various trials” only prove the genuineness of faith (1 Pt 1:6). Slander should be answered by blameless living. Honor should be paid to the authorities. Suffering for righteousness should be accepted without fear. Let Christians prepare respectful defenses, with consciences clear of blame. If they suffer for doing right, remember that Christ did too—for them. Thus they must “arm” themselves for suffering (4:1), and not be surprised at persecution as “something strange” (v 12). They are sharing Christ’s sufferings. His final word is “Stand fast!”<\/p>\n<p>Mark, too, is thought to have written at this time for the benefit of the suffering Roman church. His Gospel dwells upon Christ’s conflict, its causes and forms, and vividly portrays Christ’s own heroic death. Like Peter, Mark meets persecution by pointing back to the suffering Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Somewhat later, Christianity was exposed as an “illegal religion,” no longer a protected sect of Judaism, by the introduction into synagogue services of a prayer against “Nazarenes,” which Christians could not offer. Thereafter, the church was liable to official suppression. Rome readily incorporated old, national religions into state rituals for the sake of imperial unity, but she resisted new, nonconformist movements, especially those with secret meetings (i.e., the Eucharist), as politically dangerous (cf. Acts 17:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Toward the end of the century, faced with a growing church and political unrest, the state required public “worship” of “the genius of Rome” alongside any other religious rites. In Domitian’s reign (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) this became worship of the living emperor, with elaborate temples and an official priesthood. When Christians refused, acknowledging Jesus alone as divine Lord, official, and increasingly barbaric, persecution began. It is probable that Revelation reflects this situation (Rv 1:9; 2:13; 6:9; 13; 19:2). So the Bible ends as it began, with the theme of the persecution of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Suffering; Tribulation.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PERSECUTION<\/h3>\n<p>Infliction of suffering, injury, or death on others because of their identity or beliefs. The Bible begins with an account of the persecution of the righteous by the unrighteous (Gn 4:3-7, “regard for Abel”; Mt 23:35; Heb 11:4). The Wisdom of Solomon (Wisd of Sol 2:12-20) dramatically illustrates the envy and guilt that prompt such persecution. Lot’s experience, likewise, illustrates the suffering involved in refusing to conform to popular behavior (Gn 19:9; 2 Pt 2:7-8). The ill-treatment of Israel in Egypt, like her later oppression by the Philistines, Midianites, and others, had economic and political grounds. For those refusing to accept the royal policy of syncretism, official tolerance of injustice, and pagan immoralities, persecution becomes frequent—from Elijah’s period onward (1 Kgs 19:10). Later prophets, as spokesmen of uncompromising truth and the claims of divine law in the face of social evils, suffered severely at the hands of the ruling classes, so that persecution became, in Jewish eyes, the hallmark of the true prophet (2 Chr 36:15-16; Mt 5:12; 23:29-37; Acts 7:52; Heb 11:32-38).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s stories illustrate persecution during the exile. On the return under foreign rule, strict Jews sought to preserve the nation’s identity and religion amid alien pressures and the compromises of lax Jews anxious for accommodation and prosperity (1 Macc 1:11-15; 2:42-48). The result was the social oppression and harassment that made the repeated pleas for vindication and divine intervention, in such psalms as 10, 69, 140, and 149, painfully relevant in postexilic worship. This persecution reached a horrifying climax of cruelty during the Maccabean age, provoking armed resistance in response (2 Macc 6–7; Heb 11:35-38).<\/p>\n<p>Thus, despite her confidence in God’s sovereignty and “protection,” Israel learned that right does not always prosper in this world, that faithfulness to truth does not ensure immunity from suffering, sacrifice, or martyrdom.<\/p>\n<p>This acceptance of the high cost of righteousness was inherited by Christianity. Jesus repeatedly warned of persecution, even within households, and urged “armed” preparation for it, promising the Spirit’s assistance at judicial examinations (Mt 5:11-12; 10:16-23, 34-36; 23:34; Lk 6:26; 22:35-36). Jesus was deeply angered by the murder of John the Baptist by Herod (Lk 23:9), and he foresaw his own fate. Because he criticized the legalism and nationalism of the Pharisees, and the compromises of the Sadducees to protect their own privileges (Jn 11:47-50), and because he disappointed the militaristic hopes set upon the Messiah by the common people, Jesus knew he would be rejected. His call to discipleship came to include warnings of danger, reviling, slander, accusation, flogging, arraignment before courts, hatred, and death. He frankly invited followers to prepare for his crucifixion, as the only way to life and the kingdom (Mt 16:21-26; 20:17-22; Mk 10:29-30; Jn 15:18-25; 16:1-4). Jesus was killed on the charges of subverting the nation, forbidding payment of taxes to the Romans, and claiming to be king (Lk 23:2).<\/p>\n<p>The first persecution of the church by Jewish authorities was provoked mainly by Peter’s accusations concerning the murder of the Messiah. As apostolic influence increased, official action came to include imprisonment and beating (Acts 5:17, 40). The powerful advocacy of the Hellenist Stephen provoked a Jewish mob to stone him (Acts 6–7)—the signal for “a great persecution,” scattering most Christians from Jerusalem. The conversion of the archpersecutor Saul of Tarsus marked a resounding victory over opposition, and Herod’s sudden death just after attacking the church “to please the Jews” was another (Acts 12:1-3, 20-24).<\/p>\n<p>As Christianity moved into the Gentile world, a new cause of Jewish persecution arose as disturbances began to occur in the synagogues (Acts 13:44-45, 50; 14:1-6, 19; 17:1, 5, 13; 18:4-6, 12). In addition, the healing of the slave girl at Philippi led to the disciples’ imprisonment (16:19-24); at Ephesus, the effect of Christian preaching on the trade of idol makers occasioned a dangerous threat, which the authorities averted (19:23-41). Paul averted the plot of more than 40 men who vowed to ambush him and kill him (21:4-36; 23:12-15). And the book of Acts closes with Paul awaiting trial before Caesar (28:30-31).<\/p>\n<p>Throughout this period, persecution of Christians was sporadic, local, and mainly Jewish, provoked by envy of the church’s missionary success. Officially, Christianity, as a Jewish sect (Acts 24:5, 14), shared the state’s legal recognition won by the Jews. Thus, Paul received Roman protection at Paphos, Philippi, Corinth, Ephesus, and Jerusalem from governors Felix and Festus and their adviser Herod Agrippa, as well as from the centurion conveying him to Rome. This explains Paul’s confident appeal to Caesar; an imperial acquittal would ensure Christianity freedom from harassment throughout the empire.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s attitude to persecution included regretful remembrance of his own persecuting days (Acts 22:4; 26:9-11; Gal 1:22-24), deliberate acceptance of risks in obedience to Christ (Acts 20:22-24; 21:13), continual warning that tribulation is inseparable from discipleship (Acts 14:22; Rom 5:3; 12:12; 1 Thes 3:4), and assurance that in every form of tribulation Christians are more than conquerors (Rom 8:35-37).<\/p>\n<p>Almost certainly, Paul was beheaded during fierce persecution at Rome following the fire for which the Christians were blamed. Christians were often accused of “atheism” (rejecting polytheism), of appealing only to slave classes, of “scandalous” love feasts, and unsociable, austere behavior (cf. Jn 15:19), making them a popular target for blame.<\/p>\n<p>About this time, Peter warned Christians in the East of the danger confronting the church. For a little while, “various trials” only prove the genuineness of faith (1 Pt 1:6). Slander should be answered by blameless living. Honor should be paid to the authorities. Suffering for righteousness should be accepted without fear. Let Christians prepare respectful defenses, with consciences clear of blame. If they suffer for doing right, remember that Christ did too—for them. Thus they must “arm” themselves for suffering (4:1), and not be surprised at persecution as “something strange” (v 12). They are sharing Christ’s sufferings. His final word is “Stand fast!”<\/p>\n<p>Mark, too, is thought to have written at this time for the benefit of the suffering Roman church. His Gospel dwells upon Christ’s conflict, its causes and forms, and vividly portrays Christ’s own heroic death. Like Peter, Mark meets persecution by pointing back to the suffering Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Somewhat later, Christianity was exposed as an “illegal religion,” no longer a protected sect of Judaism, by the introduction into synagogue services of a prayer against “Nazarenes,” which Christians could not offer. Thereafter, the church was liable to official suppression. Rome readily incorporated old, national religions into state rituals for the sake of imperial unity, but she resisted new, nonconformist movements, especially those with secret meetings (i.e., the Eucharist), as politically dangerous (cf. Acts 17:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Toward the end of the century, faced with a growing church and political unrest, the state required public “worship” of “the genius of Rome” alongside any other religious rites. In Domitian’s reign (<span>AD<\/span> 81–96) this became worship of the living emperor, with elaborate temples and an official priesthood. When Christians refused, acknowledging Jesus alone as divine Lord, official, and increasingly barbaric, persecution began. It is probable that Revelation reflects this situation (Rv 1:9; 2:13; 6:9; 13; 19:2). So the Bible ends as it began, with the theme of the persecution of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Suffering; Tribulation.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PERSECUTION Infliction of suffering, injury, or death on others because of their identity or beliefs. The Bible begins with an account of the persecution of the righteous by the unrighteous (Gn 4:3-7, “regard for Abel”; Mt 23:35; Heb 11:4). The Wisdom of Solomon (Wisd of Sol 2:12-20) dramatically illustrates the envy and guilt that prompt such persecution. Lot’s experience, likewise, illustrates the suffering involved in refusing to conform to popular behavior (Gn 19:9; 2 Pt 2:7-8). The ill-t...","summary_en":"PERSECUTION Infliction of suffering, injury, or death on others because of their identity or beliefs. The Bible begins with an account of the persecution of the righteous by the unrighteous (Gn 4:3-7, “regard for Abel”; Mt 23:35; Heb 11:4). The Wisdom of Solomon (Wisd of Sol 2:12-20) dramatically illustrates the envy and guilt that prompt such persecution. Lot’s experience, likewise, illustrates the suffering involved in refusing to conform to popular behavior (Gn 19:9; 2 Pt 2:7-8). The ill-t...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30207,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter to the Philippians","title_en":"Letter to the Philippians","content_ro":"<h3>PHILIPPIANS, L<span>etter to the<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>One of Paul’s Prison Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date and Origin<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Theological Themes<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Philippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateandOrigin\">Date and Origin<\/p>\n<p>While it is clear that Paul was writing from prison (Phil 1:12-13), it is not clear where he was imprisoned. The most likely possibility is Rome, in which case the date would be around <span>AD<\/span> 62. But some have thought that all the journeys implied in 4:14 and 2:25-26 make such a distant place unlikely (the Philippians hear that Paul is in prison and send a gift by Epaphroditus; Epaphroditus hears in Rome that the Philippians have heard that he has been ill). So the alternatives of Ephesus (c. <span>AD<\/span> 55) and Caesarea (c. <span>AD<\/span> 58) have been proposed. We know that Paul was imprisoned in Caesarea (Acts 23:33-35), but the greeting “from those of Caesar’s household” is difficult to explain if it was written there, in spite of the coincidence of name. Ephesus is certainly near enough to Philippi for plenty of interchange, but no imprisonment is recorded in the account of Paul’s ministry there in Acts. So we would have to assume that Luke’s account in Acts 19 is not complete and that Paul had been placed in protective custody at the time of the riot (see esp. 19:30-31). But such an imprisonment could hardly have led Paul to wonder whether his time “to depart and be with Christ” had now come (Phil 1:23). At the time of writing, he was clearly facing a capital charge.<\/p>\n<p>The traditional location (Rome) seems the most satisfactory, especially when one reflects that Paul was imprisoned there for at least two years (Acts 28:30), and that it took about three weeks to travel from Rome to Philippi.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Philippi had the distinction of being a Roman colony (Acts 16:12), a privilege accorded to only a few cities outside Italy. Some 90 years before the gospel arrived there (c. <span>AD<\/span> 50), the city had been greatly expanded by large numbers of Roman soldiers, who were settled there by their commanding officers. As a consequence, the town acquired its coveted status as a colony, which meant that for all intents and purposes its citizens were treated as if they lived in Italy, and the town had a fully Roman administration. Paul alludes to this status in Philippians 3:20, where he teaches that Christians likewise are citizens of another city, the heavenly one, while yet residents elsewhere. It was a rich and busy place, one of the main centers of life in Macedonia, and consequently was “home” to the adherents of many different religions, from both east and west. There was a strong Jewish community there, as well as pagans of many sorts.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalThemes\">Theological Themes<\/p>\n<p>In a sense Paul’s imprisonment is not just background material but lies at the heart of the letter’s message. In his imprisonment he was experiencing the abasement that he mentions in 4:12, using there the same word found in 2:8 to describe the self-humbling of Christ unto death. The pattern of the ministry of Jesus described in the great “hymn” of 2:6-11—humiliation followed by glorification—becomes the pattern of Paul’s own life and of the vision he holds out before the Philippians. So alongside abasement and suffering, joy is the other great theme of the letter. Within suffering and self-sacrifice, true joy is born. In fact, Philippians could justly be titled “The Epistle of Joy.” Other prominent themes include the gospel, the Day of the Lord, and in addition to the famous “hymn” in chapter 2, a comparison of Paul’s Jewish past with his present Christian experience (3:4-16).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting and Opening Prayer (1:1-11)<\/h5>\n<p>In the opening paragraph of his letter, Paul presents the themes that will be uppermost in his mind throughout. His personal warmth toward the Philippians is immediately striking: “I have you in my heart. . . . I long for all of you” (1:7-8), and this thought of outgoing and suffering love undergirds the whole letter. It is notable, too, that the letter begins and ends with the themes of “grace” and of “the saints” (1:1-2; 4:21-23). The grace of Christ, which reaches out to sinful people and transforms them, separating them from the world, occupies Paul throughout. “The saints” are the ones who, touched by that grace, are transformed in heart and mind, so that their love abounds more and more in knowledge and depth of insight (1:9).<\/p>\n<p>Two more great themes appear here. The Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">phroneo<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to think,” is used more in Philippians than in any other letter of Paul, no fewer than nine times (as against seven in Romans). Unfortunately, it is not uniformly translated in the English versions, and so it is hard for the English reader to notice its repeated appearance and the emphasis on the right use of the mind that goes with it. But for Paul this is vital: the way we think is at the heart of the Christian life, and in these opening verses he makes it clear that the love he feels for the Philippians is actually the Christian way of thinking about them (v 7: literally, “It is right for me to think this way about you”). This leads naturally to another emphasis—growth. For the “Christian mind” does not appear overnight. So Paul prays that this mind may grow, giving the Philippians powers of discernment that will transform their character and prepare them for “the day of Christ” (vv 10-11; cf. v 6).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, we note in this opening prayer the twin emphases on the gospel and on fellowship—linked in Paul’s prayer of thanksgiving for the Philippians’ partnership in the gospel (v 5; cf. v 7)—and also the introduction of the great theme of joy (v 4). All three are vital to the whole letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul and His Imprisonment: Christ Exalted (1:12-26)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul writes about his own situation to present the heart of his message. For when he writes, “For me to live is Christ” (v 21), he means more than that his every waking moment is taken up by fellowship with his Lord and service for him. He means also that, in his own person and experience, he displays Christ and “lives” him. Later he will say, “Keep putting into practice all you learned from me and heard from me and saw me doing” (4:9, <span>nlt<\/span>). Few Christian ministers would dare make such a claim today! Yet Paul believed that, as an apostle of Christ, it was his privilege not just to speak on Christ’s behalf but also to live out Christ’s life in his own person, even if that meant suffering and humiliation.<\/p>\n<p>There are two historical difficulties here. First, it is hard to reconstruct the situation to which Paul refers in 1:12-18. The church in Rome (if that is where he is) was clearly divided about his imprisonment—some believers actually being glad that he was behind bars. It seems as though they were prompted by his imprisonment to get on with preaching their own version of the gospel. Far from being upset by this, Paul is delighted! “What does it matter?” he asks (v 18). Whether by friend or foe, Christ is being proclaimed in a new way as a result of his imprisonment (v 14). He was normally quick to defend the purity of the Word proclaimed, so these rivals of Paul could not have been heretics.<\/p>\n<p>The other historical difficulty surrounds verses 19-26. At one moment Paul seems not to know what the outcome of imprisonment will be (vv 19-21). Yet he then suggests that he can choose whether to live or die (v 22), and finally tells the Philippians that he is sure he will remain alive (v 25). The best explanation is that Paul believed he had received a personal assurance from the Holy Spirit that his imprisonment would not end with his execution.<\/p>\n<p>At any rate, his attitude about his own death is most moving. He expected deliverance, whether by life or by death (vv 19-20), and had an unshakeable confidence that to die is “better by far” (v 23), because it means being “with Christ.” This section ends with a note of joy.<\/p>\n<h5>The Life Worthy of the Gospel (1:27–2:18)<\/h5>\n<p>This section ends with “joy,” just as the last did, and its whole message is summed up in the opening exhortation of verse 27. Paul wanted the Philippians to be people in whom there is no gap between profession and practice, in whom the gospel believed is the gospel lived. The section falls into four portions, which might be entitled as follows: (1) 1:27-30—the worthy life in a hostile world; (2) 2:1-4—the worthy life in Christian fellowship; (3) 2:5-11—the gospel that inspires us; (4) 2:12-18—priorities for lives worthy of the gospel.<\/p>\n<p>Paul refused to let the Philippians feel that he was worse off than they. He wrote, “We are in this fight together. You have seen me suffer for him in the past, and you know that I am still in the midst of this great struggle” (1:30, <span>nlt<\/span>). For suffering at the hands of a hostile world is part and parcel of Christian discipleship. If we profess to believe a gospel about one who, though equal with God, left aside the glory of heaven and submitted not just to incarnation but also to a horrible death (2:6-8), then we must think of suffering not as an unfortunate necessity but as a privilege! “For you have been given not only the privilege of trusting in Christ but also the privilege of suffering for him” (1:29, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The essential quality the believers need, in order to face successfully the hostility of the world, is unity. They must be “standing side by side, fighting together for the Good News” (1:27), and believing one gospel will produce a united front against the world—and not a purely defensive front, either. The theme of unity continues into chapter 2, where Paul turns to life within the fellowship (2:1-4), as if to say that external unity before the world will not be possible unless their hearts and minds are truly united in one love, spirit, and purpose (v 2), whatever their outward situation. Such a unity will come only if there is tenderness and compassion among them (v 1). The lovely progression in verse 1 reaches a climax with this phrase, and that in turn leads into the famous “hymn” in 2:6-11. Such tenderness will not find its home in their hearts unless they believe the gospel about which the hymn sings.<\/p>\n<p>Whether 2:6-11 was in fact a real hymn, sung in the context of early Christian worship, is now impossible to know for sure. Certainly Paul’s language here takes on a hymnic quality, though it is not in poetic form. Many scholars have thought that Paul did not write these verses himself but was quoting a well-known piece of liturgy. All one can say for certain is that his language changes in style, and he expressed here ideas that are unique in his writings.<\/p>\n<p>The hymn blends in with its context beautifully, and in fact forms the core of the whole letter. For we see here how the experience of imprisonment and deliverance, and of suffering and joy, is an entering into the experience of Jesus himself, who died and rose, was humbled and glorified.<\/p>\n<h5>Two Worthy Examples and Friends (2:19-30)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul again writes about his own situation and plans, but as before, this section is not just concerned with practical arrangements. On the face of it, he was simply explaining why he was sending the letter by the hand of Epaphroditus instead of Timothy. But actually he was holding them up as practical examples of the life lived by the gospel, about which he had just written. Timothy “genuinely cares about your welfare” (2:20), because, unlike everyone else, he did not seek his own interests but those of Jesus Christ (v 21). He lived the gospel! He was committed to the work of the gospel (v 22). And Epaphroditus was the same, though in a different way. His union with Jesus was expressed not so much in his self-giving service for the gospel and his fellow saints, as in the illness that he suffered and the pains of separation that he endured. Like Jesus, he put his life on the line (v 30), and like Jesus, he was restored to life again (v 27). Now he was to be restored to his beloved Philippians, and the joy that they would experience together would be a further outworking of the gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>Pressing Forward and Standing Firm (3:1–4:1)<\/h5>\n<p>This section also begins and ends on the note of joy (3:1; 4:1)—not accidentally. The way of the cross that Paul describes is also the way of joy (cf. Heb 12:2). It begins and ends also with the address “dear brothers and sisters,” and this, too, is not accidental, for once again in this passage Paul writes about himself, and once again the underlying thought is that his experience is typical and that his readers should expect and seek to see the same pattern in their lives. He wrote, “Dear brothers and sisters, pattern your lives after mine, and learn from those who follow our example” (3:17, <span>nlt<\/span>). Having put forward Timothy and Epaphroditus as examples in 2:19-30, Paul now does the same with himself.<\/p>\n<p>The tone seems to change dramatically in 3:2, as Paul turns to warn the Philippians against “those dogs,” who are probably the same as those to whom he refers in 1:28 as “your enemies.” There, he was much concerned about the inner foundation of the Philippians’ stand against them, so he did not specify who they were. But now he examines them more closely, in order to show the Philippians that the Christian life entails a complete reversal of the values held by their opponents.<\/p>\n<p>It seems that they were Jews, the sort in Acts 17:5 who opposed Paul’s ministry in nearby Thessalonica. They believed that they were God’s chosen race, but Paul thought that was nothing more than placing confidence in the flesh (Phil 3:4). They thought they knew the way of righteousness—it is the way of rigorous and disciplined obedience to God’s law in every detail of life. But Paul thought that was to seek a righteousness of one’s own (v 9), having nothing to do with the righteousness that God wants to give. The true way to be God’s people, he movingly insists, is the way of self-renunciation, so that all he previously held dear as a Jew came to be seen as rubbish (v 8), considered as loss for the sake of Christ (v 7). The only way to attain righteousness is through faith in Christ (v 9), for Christians must become like him in his death if they are to know the power of his resurrection (v 10). For Paul, dying with Christ meant not just suffering imprisonment and many other indignities for Christ’s sake but also renouncing all the prized possessions that his Judaism had given him.<\/p>\n<h5>Thinking, Rejoicing, Sharing (4:2-23)<\/h5>\n<p>Again, the tone changes suddenly (both at 4:2 and at 4:10)—so much so that some scholars have suggested that Philippians was compiled by an editor using several different letters. But when Paul turns (in v 2) to address Euodia and Syntyche, he was not really changing the subject. The link with the last section is the same as that between 1:27-30 and the first paragraph in chapter 2: how can Christians expect to be able to hold their own in the face of some enemies of the cross of Christ (3:18) if they are disunited and at odds with each other? For if there is just one gospel, disharmony between Christians means that the gospel is not having its full effect. So Euodia and Syntyche are urged (literally) to “think the same thing in the Lord” (4:2), and are then reminded of how they once found a wonderful unity in striving side by side in the cause of the gospel (v 3).<\/p>\n<p>The agreement that Paul urges them to come to does not mean complete identity of opinions on all subjects. It means a oneness of heart in a common love for Christ and the gospel. In the rest of the letter Paul spells out what this oneness means in practice—both what it should mean and what it has meant for the Philippians. The use of the mind is vital, and in verses 4-9 Paul paints a picture of the Christian life in which careful and intelligent prayer (vv 6-7) and the deliberate directing of the mind toward “whatever is true and honorable” (v 8) will produce a life marked by the two qualities of peace and joy, whatever the circumstances.<\/p>\n<p>That leads to the final paragraph, in which Paul gives thanks that, in spite of the disharmony evident in one part of the Philippian church, the church as a whole has already displayed this true Christian “mind.” For they have shown their oneness with Paul in the cause of the gospel by sending him a gift by Epaphroditus. “You have done well to share with me in my present difficulty,” Paul writes (4:14), and our thoughts go back again to the hymn in 2:6-11. From the gospel about the one who came from heaven to bear our burdens comes this mutual sharing—and so does Paul’s wonderful attitude to his circumstances: “I know how to be humbled [the same word as in 2:8], and I know how to abound” (4:12). Joined to Christ, we do not anxiously seek provision for our needs (v 17; cf. v 6), but share with him and with others whatever humiliation and exaltation he sends, confident that God will meet all our needs “from his glorious riches, which have been given to us in Christ Jesus” (4:19, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Philippi.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PHILIPPIANS, L<span>etter to the<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>One of Paul’s Prison Epistles.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date and Origin<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Theological Themes<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Philippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateandOrigin\">Date and Origin<\/p>\n<p>While it is clear that Paul was writing from prison (Phil 1:12-13), it is not clear where he was imprisoned. The most likely possibility is Rome, in which case the date would be around <span>AD<\/span> 62. But some have thought that all the journeys implied in 4:14 and 2:25-26 make such a distant place unlikely (the Philippians hear that Paul is in prison and send a gift by Epaphroditus; Epaphroditus hears in Rome that the Philippians have heard that he has been ill). So the alternatives of Ephesus (c. <span>AD<\/span> 55) and Caesarea (c. <span>AD<\/span> 58) have been proposed. We know that Paul was imprisoned in Caesarea (Acts 23:33-35), but the greeting “from those of Caesar’s household” is difficult to explain if it was written there, in spite of the coincidence of name. Ephesus is certainly near enough to Philippi for plenty of interchange, but no imprisonment is recorded in the account of Paul’s ministry there in Acts. So we would have to assume that Luke’s account in Acts 19 is not complete and that Paul had been placed in protective custody at the time of the riot (see esp. 19:30-31). But such an imprisonment could hardly have led Paul to wonder whether his time “to depart and be with Christ” had now come (Phil 1:23). At the time of writing, he was clearly facing a capital charge.<\/p>\n<p>The traditional location (Rome) seems the most satisfactory, especially when one reflects that Paul was imprisoned there for at least two years (Acts 28:30), and that it took about three weeks to travel from Rome to Philippi.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Philippi had the distinction of being a Roman colony (Acts 16:12), a privilege accorded to only a few cities outside Italy. Some 90 years before the gospel arrived there (c. <span>AD<\/span> 50), the city had been greatly expanded by large numbers of Roman soldiers, who were settled there by their commanding officers. As a consequence, the town acquired its coveted status as a colony, which meant that for all intents and purposes its citizens were treated as if they lived in Italy, and the town had a fully Roman administration. Paul alludes to this status in Philippians 3:20, where he teaches that Christians likewise are citizens of another city, the heavenly one, while yet residents elsewhere. It was a rich and busy place, one of the main centers of life in Macedonia, and consequently was “home” to the adherents of many different religions, from both east and west. There was a strong Jewish community there, as well as pagans of many sorts.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalThemes\">Theological Themes<\/p>\n<p>In a sense Paul’s imprisonment is not just background material but lies at the heart of the letter’s message. In his imprisonment he was experiencing the abasement that he mentions in 4:12, using there the same word found in 2:8 to describe the self-humbling of Christ unto death. The pattern of the ministry of Jesus described in the great “hymn” of 2:6-11—humiliation followed by glorification—becomes the pattern of Paul’s own life and of the vision he holds out before the Philippians. So alongside abasement and suffering, joy is the other great theme of the letter. Within suffering and self-sacrifice, true joy is born. In fact, Philippians could justly be titled “The Epistle of Joy.” Other prominent themes include the gospel, the Day of the Lord, and in addition to the famous “hymn” in chapter 2, a comparison of Paul’s Jewish past with his present Christian experience (3:4-16).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting and Opening Prayer (1:1-11)<\/h5>\n<p>In the opening paragraph of his letter, Paul presents the themes that will be uppermost in his mind throughout. His personal warmth toward the Philippians is immediately striking: “I have you in my heart. . . . I long for all of you” (1:7-8), and this thought of outgoing and suffering love undergirds the whole letter. It is notable, too, that the letter begins and ends with the themes of “grace” and of “the saints” (1:1-2; 4:21-23). The grace of Christ, which reaches out to sinful people and transforms them, separating them from the world, occupies Paul throughout. “The saints” are the ones who, touched by that grace, are transformed in heart and mind, so that their love abounds more and more in knowledge and depth of insight (1:9).<\/p>\n<p>Two more great themes appear here. The Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">phroneo<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to think,” is used more in Philippians than in any other letter of Paul, no fewer than nine times (as against seven in Romans). Unfortunately, it is not uniformly translated in the English versions, and so it is hard for the English reader to notice its repeated appearance and the emphasis on the right use of the mind that goes with it. But for Paul this is vital: the way we think is at the heart of the Christian life, and in these opening verses he makes it clear that the love he feels for the Philippians is actually the Christian way of thinking about them (v 7: literally, “It is right for me to think this way about you”). This leads naturally to another emphasis—growth. For the “Christian mind” does not appear overnight. So Paul prays that this mind may grow, giving the Philippians powers of discernment that will transform their character and prepare them for “the day of Christ” (vv 10-11; cf. v 6).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, we note in this opening prayer the twin emphases on the gospel and on fellowship—linked in Paul’s prayer of thanksgiving for the Philippians’ partnership in the gospel (v 5; cf. v 7)—and also the introduction of the great theme of joy (v 4). All three are vital to the whole letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul and His Imprisonment: Christ Exalted (1:12-26)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul writes about his own situation to present the heart of his message. For when he writes, “For me to live is Christ” (v 21), he means more than that his every waking moment is taken up by fellowship with his Lord and service for him. He means also that, in his own person and experience, he displays Christ and “lives” him. Later he will say, “Keep putting into practice all you learned from me and heard from me and saw me doing” (4:9, <span>nlt<\/span>). Few Christian ministers would dare make such a claim today! Yet Paul believed that, as an apostle of Christ, it was his privilege not just to speak on Christ’s behalf but also to live out Christ’s life in his own person, even if that meant suffering and humiliation.<\/p>\n<p>There are two historical difficulties here. First, it is hard to reconstruct the situation to which Paul refers in 1:12-18. The church in Rome (if that is where he is) was clearly divided about his imprisonment—some believers actually being glad that he was behind bars. It seems as though they were prompted by his imprisonment to get on with preaching their own version of the gospel. Far from being upset by this, Paul is delighted! “What does it matter?” he asks (v 18). Whether by friend or foe, Christ is being proclaimed in a new way as a result of his imprisonment (v 14). He was normally quick to defend the purity of the Word proclaimed, so these rivals of Paul could not have been heretics.<\/p>\n<p>The other historical difficulty surrounds verses 19-26. At one moment Paul seems not to know what the outcome of imprisonment will be (vv 19-21). Yet he then suggests that he can choose whether to live or die (v 22), and finally tells the Philippians that he is sure he will remain alive (v 25). The best explanation is that Paul believed he had received a personal assurance from the Holy Spirit that his imprisonment would not end with his execution.<\/p>\n<p>At any rate, his attitude about his own death is most moving. He expected deliverance, whether by life or by death (vv 19-20), and had an unshakeable confidence that to die is “better by far” (v 23), because it means being “with Christ.” This section ends with a note of joy.<\/p>\n<h5>The Life Worthy of the Gospel (1:27–2:18)<\/h5>\n<p>This section ends with “joy,” just as the last did, and its whole message is summed up in the opening exhortation of verse 27. Paul wanted the Philippians to be people in whom there is no gap between profession and practice, in whom the gospel believed is the gospel lived. The section falls into four portions, which might be entitled as follows: (1) 1:27-30—the worthy life in a hostile world; (2) 2:1-4—the worthy life in Christian fellowship; (3) 2:5-11—the gospel that inspires us; (4) 2:12-18—priorities for lives worthy of the gospel.<\/p>\n<p>Paul refused to let the Philippians feel that he was worse off than they. He wrote, “We are in this fight together. You have seen me suffer for him in the past, and you know that I am still in the midst of this great struggle” (1:30, <span>nlt<\/span>). For suffering at the hands of a hostile world is part and parcel of Christian discipleship. If we profess to believe a gospel about one who, though equal with God, left aside the glory of heaven and submitted not just to incarnation but also to a horrible death (2:6-8), then we must think of suffering not as an unfortunate necessity but as a privilege! “For you have been given not only the privilege of trusting in Christ but also the privilege of suffering for him” (1:29, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The essential quality the believers need, in order to face successfully the hostility of the world, is unity. They must be “standing side by side, fighting together for the Good News” (1:27), and believing one gospel will produce a united front against the world—and not a purely defensive front, either. The theme of unity continues into chapter 2, where Paul turns to life within the fellowship (2:1-4), as if to say that external unity before the world will not be possible unless their hearts and minds are truly united in one love, spirit, and purpose (v 2), whatever their outward situation. Such a unity will come only if there is tenderness and compassion among them (v 1). The lovely progression in verse 1 reaches a climax with this phrase, and that in turn leads into the famous “hymn” in 2:6-11. Such tenderness will not find its home in their hearts unless they believe the gospel about which the hymn sings.<\/p>\n<p>Whether 2:6-11 was in fact a real hymn, sung in the context of early Christian worship, is now impossible to know for sure. Certainly Paul’s language here takes on a hymnic quality, though it is not in poetic form. Many scholars have thought that Paul did not write these verses himself but was quoting a well-known piece of liturgy. All one can say for certain is that his language changes in style, and he expressed here ideas that are unique in his writings.<\/p>\n<p>The hymn blends in with its context beautifully, and in fact forms the core of the whole letter. For we see here how the experience of imprisonment and deliverance, and of suffering and joy, is an entering into the experience of Jesus himself, who died and rose, was humbled and glorified.<\/p>\n<h5>Two Worthy Examples and Friends (2:19-30)<\/h5>\n<p>Paul again writes about his own situation and plans, but as before, this section is not just concerned with practical arrangements. On the face of it, he was simply explaining why he was sending the letter by the hand of Epaphroditus instead of Timothy. But actually he was holding them up as practical examples of the life lived by the gospel, about which he had just written. Timothy “genuinely cares about your welfare” (2:20), because, unlike everyone else, he did not seek his own interests but those of Jesus Christ (v 21). He lived the gospel! He was committed to the work of the gospel (v 22). And Epaphroditus was the same, though in a different way. His union with Jesus was expressed not so much in his self-giving service for the gospel and his fellow saints, as in the illness that he suffered and the pains of separation that he endured. Like Jesus, he put his life on the line (v 30), and like Jesus, he was restored to life again (v 27). Now he was to be restored to his beloved Philippians, and the joy that they would experience together would be a further outworking of the gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>Pressing Forward and Standing Firm (3:1–4:1)<\/h5>\n<p>This section also begins and ends on the note of joy (3:1; 4:1)—not accidentally. The way of the cross that Paul describes is also the way of joy (cf. Heb 12:2). It begins and ends also with the address “dear brothers and sisters,” and this, too, is not accidental, for once again in this passage Paul writes about himself, and once again the underlying thought is that his experience is typical and that his readers should expect and seek to see the same pattern in their lives. He wrote, “Dear brothers and sisters, pattern your lives after mine, and learn from those who follow our example” (3:17, <span>nlt<\/span>). Having put forward Timothy and Epaphroditus as examples in 2:19-30, Paul now does the same with himself.<\/p>\n<p>The tone seems to change dramatically in 3:2, as Paul turns to warn the Philippians against “those dogs,” who are probably the same as those to whom he refers in 1:28 as “your enemies.” There, he was much concerned about the inner foundation of the Philippians’ stand against them, so he did not specify who they were. But now he examines them more closely, in order to show the Philippians that the Christian life entails a complete reversal of the values held by their opponents.<\/p>\n<p>It seems that they were Jews, the sort in Acts 17:5 who opposed Paul’s ministry in nearby Thessalonica. They believed that they were God’s chosen race, but Paul thought that was nothing more than placing confidence in the flesh (Phil 3:4). They thought they knew the way of righteousness—it is the way of rigorous and disciplined obedience to God’s law in every detail of life. But Paul thought that was to seek a righteousness of one’s own (v 9), having nothing to do with the righteousness that God wants to give. The true way to be God’s people, he movingly insists, is the way of self-renunciation, so that all he previously held dear as a Jew came to be seen as rubbish (v 8), considered as loss for the sake of Christ (v 7). The only way to attain righteousness is through faith in Christ (v 9), for Christians must become like him in his death if they are to know the power of his resurrection (v 10). For Paul, dying with Christ meant not just suffering imprisonment and many other indignities for Christ’s sake but also renouncing all the prized possessions that his Judaism had given him.<\/p>\n<h5>Thinking, Rejoicing, Sharing (4:2-23)<\/h5>\n<p>Again, the tone changes suddenly (both at 4:2 and at 4:10)—so much so that some scholars have suggested that Philippians was compiled by an editor using several different letters. But when Paul turns (in v 2) to address Euodia and Syntyche, he was not really changing the subject. The link with the last section is the same as that between 1:27-30 and the first paragraph in chapter 2: how can Christians expect to be able to hold their own in the face of some enemies of the cross of Christ (3:18) if they are disunited and at odds with each other? For if there is just one gospel, disharmony between Christians means that the gospel is not having its full effect. So Euodia and Syntyche are urged (literally) to “think the same thing in the Lord” (4:2), and are then reminded of how they once found a wonderful unity in striving side by side in the cause of the gospel (v 3).<\/p>\n<p>The agreement that Paul urges them to come to does not mean complete identity of opinions on all subjects. It means a oneness of heart in a common love for Christ and the gospel. In the rest of the letter Paul spells out what this oneness means in practice—both what it should mean and what it has meant for the Philippians. The use of the mind is vital, and in verses 4-9 Paul paints a picture of the Christian life in which careful and intelligent prayer (vv 6-7) and the deliberate directing of the mind toward “whatever is true and honorable” (v 8) will produce a life marked by the two qualities of peace and joy, whatever the circumstances.<\/p>\n<p>That leads to the final paragraph, in which Paul gives thanks that, in spite of the disharmony evident in one part of the Philippian church, the church as a whole has already displayed this true Christian “mind.” For they have shown their oneness with Paul in the cause of the gospel by sending him a gift by Epaphroditus. “You have done well to share with me in my present difficulty,” Paul writes (4:14), and our thoughts go back again to the hymn in 2:6-11. From the gospel about the one who came from heaven to bear our burdens comes this mutual sharing—and so does Paul’s wonderful attitude to his circumstances: “I know how to be humbled [the same word as in 2:8], and I know how to abound” (4:12). Joined to Christ, we do not anxiously seek provision for our needs (v 17; cf. v 6), but share with him and with others whatever humiliation and exaltation he sends, confident that God will meet all our needs “from his glorious riches, which have been given to us in Christ Jesus” (4:19, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Philippi.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the One of Paul’s Prison Epistles. Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Theological Themes • Content Author Philippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary. Date and Origin While it is clear ...","summary_en":"PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the One of Paul’s Prison Epistles. Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Theological Themes • Content Author Philippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary. Date and Origin While it is clear ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"31":[{"id":57189,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:31","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:31","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:31<\/strong> Despite being under house arrest (28:16), Paul <em>boldly<\/em> proclaimed the Kingdom message. • <em>And no one tried to stop him<\/em> (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">akōlutōs,<\/span> “without hindrance”): This single word in Greek is the last word of the book of Acts and one of the keys to its meaning: God’s word cannot be chained, even when its messengers are (2 Tim 2:9; see Phil 1:12-14). Acts is the story of an unhindered message of Good News, available to all people throughout the world, whether Jew, Gentile, proselyte, rich, or poor. The mission of proclaiming this message is accomplished in the power of the Spirit (Acts 1:8); it embraces Jews (3:1–5:42), Samaritans (8:1-25), converts to Judaism (2:11; 13:43), “God-fearers” (8:26-40; 9:32–11:18), and Gentiles (13:1–28:28). • Luke ends his account with Paul still under house arrest in Rome (about <span>AD<\/span> 60–62). Paul was later released and traveled freely. According to tradition, Paul was imprisoned again in Rome about <span>AD<\/span> 64 and was martyred there during Nero’s persecution of believers.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:31<\/strong> Despite being under house arrest (28:16), Paul <em>boldly<\/em> proclaimed the Kingdom message. • <em>And no one tried to stop him<\/em> (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">akōlutōs,<\/span> “without hindrance”): This single word in Greek is the last word of the book of Acts and one of the keys to its meaning: God’s word cannot be chained, even when its messengers are (2 Tim 2:9; see Phil 1:12-14). Acts is the story of an unhindered message of Good News, available to all people throughout the world, whether Jew, Gentile, proselyte, rich, or poor. The mission of proclaiming this message is accomplished in the power of the Spirit (Acts 1:8); it embraces Jews (3:1–5:42), Samaritans (8:1-25), converts to Judaism (2:11; 13:43), “God-fearers” (8:26-40; 9:32–11:18), and Gentiles (13:1–28:28). • Luke ends his account with Paul still under house arrest in Rome (about <span>AD<\/span> 60–62). Paul was later released and traveled freely. According to tradition, Paul was imprisoned again in Rome about <span>AD<\/span> 64 and was martyred there during Nero’s persecution of believers.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:31 Despite being under house arrest (28:16), Paul boldly proclaimed the Kingdom message. • And no one tried to stop him (Greek akōlutōs, “without hindrance”): This single word in Greek is the last word of the book of Acts and one of the keys to its meaning: God’s word cannot be chained, even when its messengers are (2 Tim 2:9; see Phil 1:12-14). Acts is the story of an unhindered message of Good News, available to all people throughout the world, whether Jew, Gentile, proselyte, rich, or p...","summary_en":"28:31 Despite being under house arrest (28:16), Paul boldly proclaimed the Kingdom message. • And no one tried to stop him (Greek akōlutōs, “without hindrance”): This single word in Greek is the last word of the book of Acts and one of the keys to its meaning: God’s word cannot be chained, even when its messengers are (2 Tim 2:9; see Phil 1:12-14). Acts is the story of an unhindered message of Good News, available to all people throughout the world, whether Jew, Gentile, proselyte, rich, or p...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":84815,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:31","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:31","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:31<\/strong> Despite being under house arrest (28:16), Paul <em>boldly<\/em> proclaimed the Kingdom message. • <em>And no one tried to stop him<\/em> (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">akōlutōs,<\/span> “without hindrance”): This single word in Greek is the last word of the book of Acts and one of the keys to its meaning: God’s word cannot be chained, even when its messengers are (2 Tim 2:9; see Phil 1:12-14). Acts is the story of an unhindered message of Good News, available to all people throughout the world, whether Jew, Gentile, proselyte, rich, or poor. The mission of proclaiming this message is accomplished in the power of the Spirit (Acts 1:8); it embraces Jews (3:1–5:42), Samaritans (8:1-25), converts to Judaism (2:11; 13:43), “God-fearers” (8:26-40; 9:32–11:18), and Gentiles (13:1–28:28). • Luke ends his account with Paul still under house arrest in Rome (about <span>AD<\/span> 60–62). Paul was later released and traveled freely. According to tradition, Paul was imprisoned again in Rome about <span>AD<\/span> 64 and was martyred there during Nero’s persecution of believers.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:31<\/strong> Despite being under house arrest (28:16), Paul <em>boldly<\/em> proclaimed the Kingdom message. • <em>And no one tried to stop him<\/em> (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">akōlutōs,<\/span> “without hindrance”): This single word in Greek is the last word of the book of Acts and one of the keys to its meaning: God’s word cannot be chained, even when its messengers are (2 Tim 2:9; see Phil 1:12-14). Acts is the story of an unhindered message of Good News, available to all people throughout the world, whether Jew, Gentile, proselyte, rich, or poor. The mission of proclaiming this message is accomplished in the power of the Spirit (Acts 1:8); it embraces Jews (3:1–5:42), Samaritans (8:1-25), converts to Judaism (2:11; 13:43), “God-fearers” (8:26-40; 9:32–11:18), and Gentiles (13:1–28:28). • Luke ends his account with Paul still under house arrest in Rome (about <span>AD<\/span> 60–62). Paul was later released and traveled freely. According to tradition, Paul was imprisoned again in Rome about <span>AD<\/span> 64 and was martyred there during Nero’s persecution of believers.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:31 Despite being under house arrest (28:16), Paul boldly proclaimed the Kingdom message. • And no one tried to stop him (Greek akōlutōs, “without hindrance”): This single word in Greek is the last word of the book of Acts and one of the keys to its meaning: God’s word cannot be chained, even when its messengers are (2 Tim 2:9; see Phil 1:12-14). Acts is the story of an unhindered message of Good News, available to all people throughout the world, whether Jew, Gentile, proselyte, rich, or p...","summary_en":"28:31 Despite being under house arrest (28:16), Paul boldly proclaimed the Kingdom message. • And no one tried to stop him (Greek akōlutōs, “without hindrance”): This single word in Greek is the last word of the book of Acts and one of the keys to its meaning: God’s word cannot be chained, even when its messengers are (2 Tim 2:9; see Phil 1:12-14). Acts is the story of an unhindered message of Good News, available to all people throughout the world, whether Jew, Gentile, proselyte, rich, or p...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112441,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:31","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:31","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:31<\/strong> Despite being under house arrest (28:16), Paul <em>boldly<\/em> proclaimed the Kingdom message. • <em>And no one tried to stop him<\/em> (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">akōlutōs,<\/span> “without hindrance”): This single word in Greek is the last word of the book of Acts and one of the keys to its meaning: God’s word cannot be chained, even when its messengers are (2 Tim 2:9; see Phil 1:12-14). Acts is the story of an unhindered message of Good News, available to all people throughout the world, whether Jew, Gentile, proselyte, rich, or poor. The mission of proclaiming this message is accomplished in the power of the Spirit (Acts 1:8); it embraces Jews (3:1–5:42), Samaritans (8:1-25), converts to Judaism (2:11; 13:43), “God-fearers” (8:26-40; 9:32–11:18), and Gentiles (13:1–28:28). • Luke ends his account with Paul still under house arrest in Rome (about <span>AD<\/span> 60–62). Paul was later released and traveled freely. According to tradition, Paul was imprisoned again in Rome about <span>AD<\/span> 64 and was martyred there during Nero’s persecution of believers.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:31<\/strong> Despite being under house arrest (28:16), Paul <em>boldly<\/em> proclaimed the Kingdom message. • <em>And no one tried to stop him<\/em> (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">akōlutōs,<\/span> “without hindrance”): This single word in Greek is the last word of the book of Acts and one of the keys to its meaning: God’s word cannot be chained, even when its messengers are (2 Tim 2:9; see Phil 1:12-14). Acts is the story of an unhindered message of Good News, available to all people throughout the world, whether Jew, Gentile, proselyte, rich, or poor. The mission of proclaiming this message is accomplished in the power of the Spirit (Acts 1:8); it embraces Jews (3:1–5:42), Samaritans (8:1-25), converts to Judaism (2:11; 13:43), “God-fearers” (8:26-40; 9:32–11:18), and Gentiles (13:1–28:28). • Luke ends his account with Paul still under house arrest in Rome (about <span>AD<\/span> 60–62). Paul was later released and traveled freely. According to tradition, Paul was imprisoned again in Rome about <span>AD<\/span> 64 and was martyred there during Nero’s persecution of believers.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:31 Despite being under house arrest (28:16), Paul boldly proclaimed the Kingdom message. • And no one tried to stop him (Greek akōlutōs, “without hindrance”): This single word in Greek is the last word of the book of Acts and one of the keys to its meaning: God’s word cannot be chained, even when its messengers are (2 Tim 2:9; see Phil 1:12-14). Acts is the story of an unhindered message of Good News, available to all people throughout the world, whether Jew, Gentile, proselyte, rich, or p...","summary_en":"28:31 Despite being under house arrest (28:16), Paul boldly proclaimed the Kingdom message. • And no one tried to stop him (Greek akōlutōs, “without hindrance”): This single word in Greek is the last word of the book of Acts and one of the keys to its meaning: God’s word cannot be chained, even when its messengers are (2 Tim 2:9; see Phil 1:12-14). Acts is the story of an unhindered message of Good News, available to all people throughout the world, whether Jew, Gentile, proselyte, rich, or p...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140067,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Faptele Apostolilor 28:31","title_en":"Study Note: Faptele Apostolilor 28:31","content_ro":"<p><strong>28:31<\/strong> Despite being under house arrest (28:16), Paul <em>boldly<\/em> proclaimed the Kingdom message. • <em>And no one tried to stop him<\/em> (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">akōlutōs,<\/span> “without hindrance”): This single word in Greek is the last word of the book of Acts and one of the keys to its meaning: God’s word cannot be chained, even when its messengers are (2 Tim 2:9; see Phil 1:12-14). Acts is the story of an unhindered message of Good News, available to all people throughout the world, whether Jew, Gentile, proselyte, rich, or poor. The mission of proclaiming this message is accomplished in the power of the Spirit (Acts 1:8); it embraces Jews (3:1–5:42), Samaritans (8:1-25), converts to Judaism (2:11; 13:43), “God-fearers” (8:26-40; 9:32–11:18), and Gentiles (13:1–28:28). • Luke ends his account with Paul still under house arrest in Rome (about <span>AD<\/span> 60–62). Paul was later released and traveled freely. According to tradition, Paul was imprisoned again in Rome about <span>AD<\/span> 64 and was martyred there during Nero’s persecution of believers.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>28:31<\/strong> Despite being under house arrest (28:16), Paul <em>boldly<\/em> proclaimed the Kingdom message. • <em>And no one tried to stop him<\/em> (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">akōlutōs,<\/span> “without hindrance”): This single word in Greek is the last word of the book of Acts and one of the keys to its meaning: God’s word cannot be chained, even when its messengers are (2 Tim 2:9; see Phil 1:12-14). Acts is the story of an unhindered message of Good News, available to all people throughout the world, whether Jew, Gentile, proselyte, rich, or poor. The mission of proclaiming this message is accomplished in the power of the Spirit (Acts 1:8); it embraces Jews (3:1–5:42), Samaritans (8:1-25), converts to Judaism (2:11; 13:43), “God-fearers” (8:26-40; 9:32–11:18), and Gentiles (13:1–28:28). • Luke ends his account with Paul still under house arrest in Rome (about <span>AD<\/span> 60–62). Paul was later released and traveled freely. According to tradition, Paul was imprisoned again in Rome about <span>AD<\/span> 64 and was martyred there during Nero’s persecution of believers.<\/p>","summary_ro":"28:31 Despite being under house arrest (28:16), Paul boldly proclaimed the Kingdom message. • And no one tried to stop him (Greek akōlutōs, “without hindrance”): This single word in Greek is the last word of the book of Acts and one of the keys to its meaning: God’s word cannot be chained, even when its messengers are (2 Tim 2:9; see Phil 1:12-14). Acts is the story of an unhindered message of Good News, available to all people throughout the world, whether Jew, Gentile, proselyte, rich, or p...","summary_en":"28:31 Despite being under house arrest (28:16), Paul boldly proclaimed the Kingdom message. • And no one tried to stop him (Greek akōlutōs, “without hindrance”): This single word in Greek is the last word of the book of Acts and one of the keys to its meaning: God’s word cannot be chained, even when its messengers are (2 Tim 2:9; see Phil 1:12-14). Acts is the story of an unhindered message of Good News, available to all people throughout the world, whether Jew, Gentile, proselyte, rich, or p...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}
🔍
Niciun rezultat
Nu am găsit versete care să conțină textul căutat.
Faptele Apostolilor 28
— 31 versete
Faptele Apostolilor 28
📘 Info carte
Se încarcă...
📖 Resurse