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Filipeni 3

¹ Încolo, fraţii mei, bucuraţi-vă în Domnul.

² Păziţi-vă de cânii aceia; păziţi-vă de lucrătorii aceia răi; păziţi-vă de scrâjilaţii aceia!

³ Căci cei tăiaţi împrejur sântem noi, cari slujim lui Dumnezeu, prin Duhul lui Dumnezeu, cari ne lăudăm în Hristos Isus, şi cari nu ne punem încrederea în lucrurile pământeşti.

⁴ Măcar că eu aş avea pricină de încredere chiar în lucrurile pământeşti. Dacă altul crede că se poate încrede în lucrurile pământeşti, eu şi mai mult;

⁵ eu, care sânt tăiat împrejur a opta zi, din neamul lui Israel, din seminţia lui Beniamin, Evreu din Evrei; în ce priveşte Legea, Fariseu;

⁶ în ce priveşte râvna, prigonitor al Bisericii; cu privire la neprihănirea, pe care o dă Legea, fără prihană.

⁷ Dar lucrurile, cari pentru mine erau cîştiguri, le-am socotit ca o pierdere, din pricina lui Hristos.

⁸ Ba încă, şi acum privesc toate aceste lucruri ca o pierdere, faţă de preţul nespus de mare al cunoaşterii lui Hristos Isus, Domnul meu. Pentru El am perdut toate şi le socotesc ca un gunoi, ca să cîştig pe Hristos,

⁹ şi să fiu găsit în El, nu având o neprihănire a mea, pe care mi-o dă Legea, ci aceea care se capătă prin credinţa în Hristos, neprihănirea, pe care o dă Dumnezeu, prin credinţă.

¹⁰ Şi să -L cunosc pe El şi puterea învierii Lui şi părtăşia suferinţelor Lui, şi să mă fac asemenea cu moartea Lui;

¹¹ ca să ajung cu orice chip, dacă voi putea, la învierea din morţi.

¹² Nu că am şi cîştigat premiul, sau că am şi ajuns desăvârşit; dar alerg înainte, căutând să-l apuc, întrucât şi eu am fost apucat de Hristos Isus.

¹³ Fraţilor, eu nu cred că l-am apucat încă; dar fac un singur lucru: uitând ce este în urma mea, şi aruncându-mă spre ce este înainte,

¹⁴ alerg spre ţintă, pentru premiul chemării cereşti a lui Dumnezeu, în Hristos Isus.

¹⁵ Gândul acesta dar să ne însufleţească pe toţi, cari sântem desăvârşiţi; şi dacă în vreo privinţă sânteţi de altă părere, Dumnezeu vă va lumina şi în această privinţă.

¹⁶ Dar în lucrurile în cari am ajuns de aceeaş părere, să umblăm la fel.

¹⁷ Urmaţi-mă pe mine, fraţilor, şi uitaţi-vă bine la cei ce se poartă după pilda, pe care o aveţi în noi.

¹⁸ Căci v-am spus de multe ori, şi vă mai spun şi acum, plângând: sânt mulţi, cari se poartă ca vrăjmaşi ai crucii lui Hristos.

¹⁹ Sfârşitul lor va fi pierzarea. Dumenzeul lor este pântecele şi slava lor este în ruşinea lor, şi se gândesc la lucrurile de pe pământ.

²⁰ Dar cetăţenia noastră este în ceruri, de unde şi aşteptăm ca Mântuitor pe Domnul Isus Hristos.

²¹ El va schimba trupul stării noastre smerite, şi-l va face asemenea trupului slavei Sale, prin lucrarea puterii pe care o are de a-Şi supune toate lucrurile.

{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":30242,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter to the Philippians","title_en":"Letter to the Philippians","content_ro":"<h3>PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the<\/span><\/h3>\nOne of Paul’s Prison Epistles.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date and Origin<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Theological Themes<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nPhilippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary.<\/p>\nDate and Origin<\/p>\nWhile it is clear that Paul was writing from prison (Phil 1:12-13), it is not clear where he was imprisoned. The most likely possibility is Rome, in which case the date would be around AD<\/span> 62. But some have thought that all the journeys implied in 4:14 and 2:25-26 make such a distant place unlikely (the Philippians hear that Paul is in prison and send a gift by Epaphroditus; Epaphroditus hears in Rome that the Philippians have heard that he has been ill). So the alternatives of Ephesus (c. AD<\/span> 55) and Caesarea (c. AD<\/span> 58) have been proposed. We know that Paul was imprisoned in Caesarea (Acts 23:33-35), but the greeting “from those of Caesar’s household” is difficult to explain if it was written there, in spite of the coincidence of name. Ephesus is certainly near enough to Philippi for plenty of interchange, but no imprisonment is recorded in the account of Paul’s ministry there in Acts. So we would have to assume that Luke’s account in Acts 19 is not complete and that Paul had been placed in protective custody at the time of the riot (see esp. 19:30-31). But such an imprisonment could hardly have led Paul to wonder whether his time “to depart and be with Christ” had now come (Phil 1:23). At the time of writing, he was clearly facing a capital charge.<\/p>\nThe traditional location (Rome) seems the most satisfactory, especially when one reflects that Paul was imprisoned there for at least two years (Acts 28:30), and that it took about three weeks to travel from Rome to Philippi.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nPhilippi had the distinction of being a Roman colony (Acts 16:12), a privilege accorded to only a few cities outside Italy. Some 90 years before the gospel arrived there (c. AD<\/span> 50), the city had been greatly expanded by large numbers of Roman soldiers, who were settled there by their commanding officers. As a consequence, the town acquired its coveted status as a colony, which meant that for all intents and purposes its citizens were treated as if they lived in Italy, and the town had a fully Roman administration. Paul alludes to this status in Philippians 3:20, where he teaches that Christians likewise are citizens of another city, the heavenly one, while yet residents elsewhere. It was a rich and busy place, one of the main centers of life in Macedonia, and consequently was “home” to the adherents of many different religions, from both east and west. There was a strong Jewish community there, as well as pagans of many sorts.<\/p>\nTheological Themes<\/p>\nIn a sense Paul’s imprisonment is not just background material but lies at the heart of the letter’s message. In his imprisonment he was experiencing the abasement that he mentions in 4:12, using there the same word found in 2:8 to describe the self-humbling of Christ unto death. The pattern of the ministry of Jesus described in the great “hymn” of 2:6-11—humiliation followed by glorification—becomes the pattern of Paul’s own life and of the vision he holds out before the Philippians. So alongside abasement and suffering, joy is the other great theme of the letter. Within suffering and self-sacrifice, true joy is born. In fact, Philippians could justly be titled “The Epistle of Joy.” Other prominent themes include the gospel, the Day of the Lord, and in addition to the famous “hymn” in chapter 2, a comparison of Paul’s Jewish past with his present Christian experience (3:4-16).<\/p>\n\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting and Opening Prayer (1:1-11)<\/h5>\nIn the opening paragraph of his letter, Paul presents the themes that will be uppermost in his mind throughout. His personal warmth toward the Philippians is immediately striking: “I have you in my heart. . . . I long for all of you” (1:7-8), and this thought of outgoing and suffering love undergirds the whole letter. It is notable, too, that the letter begins and ends with the themes of “grace” and of “the saints” (1:1-2; 4:21-23). The grace of Christ, which reaches out to sinful people and transforms them, separating them from the world, occupies Paul throughout. “The saints” are the ones who, touched by that grace, are transformed in heart and mind, so that their love abounds more and more in knowledge and depth of insight (1:9).<\/p>\nTwo more great themes appear here. The Greek word phroneo<\/span>,<\/em> “to think,” is used more in Philippians than in any other letter of Paul, no fewer than nine times (as against seven in Romans). Unfortunately, it is not uniformly translated in the English versions, and so it is hard for the English reader to notice its repeated appearance and the emphasis on the right use of the mind that goes with it. But for Paul this is vital: the way we think is at the heart of the Christian life, and in these opening verses he makes it clear that the love he feels for the Philippians is actually the Christian way of thinking about them (v 7: literally, “It is right for me to think this way about you”). This leads naturally to another emphasis—growth. For the “Christian mind” does not appear overnight. So Paul prays that this mind may grow, giving the Philippians powers of discernment that will transform their character and prepare them for “the day of Christ” (vv 10-11; cf. v 6).<\/p>\nFinally, we note in this opening prayer the twin emphases on the gospel and on fellowship—linked in Paul’s prayer of thanksgiving for the Philippians’ partnership in the gospel (v 5; cf. v 7)—and also the introduction of the great theme of joy (v 4). All three are vital to the whole letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul and His Imprisonment: Christ Exalted (1:12-26)<\/h5>\nPaul writes about his own situation to present the heart of his message. For when he writes, “For me to live is Christ” (v 21), he means more than that his every waking moment is taken up by fellowship with his Lord and service for him. He means also that, in his own person and experience, he displays Christ and “lives” him. Later he will say, “Keep putting into practice all you learned from me and heard from me and saw me doing” (4:9, nlt<\/span>). Few Christian ministers would dare make such a claim today! Yet Paul believed that, as an apostle of Christ, it was his privilege not just to speak on Christ’s behalf but also to live out Christ’s life in his own person, even if that meant suffering and humiliation.<\/p>\nThere are two historical difficulties here. First, it is hard to reconstruct the situation to which Paul refers in 1:12-18. The church in Rome (if that is where he is) was clearly divided about his imprisonment—some believers actually being glad that he was behind bars. It seems as though they were prompted by his imprisonment to get on with preaching their own version of the gospel. Far from being upset by this, Paul is delighted! “What does it matter?” he asks (v 18). Whether by friend or foe, Christ is being proclaimed in a new way as a result of his imprisonment (v 14). He was normally quick to defend the purity of the Word proclaimed, so these rivals of Paul could not have been heretics.<\/p>\nThe other historical difficulty surrounds verses 19-26. At one moment Paul seems not to know what the outcome of imprisonment will be (vv 19-21). Yet he then suggests that he can choose whether to live or die (v 22), and finally tells the Philippians that he is sure he will remain alive (v 25). The best explanation is that Paul believed he had received a personal assurance from the Holy Spirit that his imprisonment would not end with his execution.<\/p>\nAt any rate, his attitude about his own death is most moving. He expected deliverance, whether by life or by death (vv 19-20), and had an unshakeable confidence that to die is “better by far” (v 23), because it means being “with Christ.” This section ends with a note of joy.<\/p>\n<h5>The Life Worthy of the Gospel (1:27–2:18)<\/h5>\nThis section ends with “joy,” just as the last did, and its whole message is summed up in the opening exhortation of verse 27. Paul wanted the Philippians to be people in whom there is no gap between profession and practice, in whom the gospel believed is the gospel lived. The section falls into four portions, which might be entitled as follows: (1) 1:27-30—the worthy life in a hostile world; (2) 2:1-4—the worthy life in Christian fellowship; (3) 2:5-11—the gospel that inspires us; (4) 2:12-18—priorities for lives worthy of the gospel.<\/p>\nPaul refused to let the Philippians feel that he was worse off than they. He wrote, “We are in this fight together. You have seen me suffer for him in the past, and you know that I am still in the midst of this great struggle” (1:30, nlt<\/span>). For suffering at the hands of a hostile world is part and parcel of Christian discipleship. If we profess to believe a gospel about one who, though equal with God, left aside the glory of heaven and submitted not just to incarnation but also to a horrible death (2:6-8), then we must think of suffering not as an unfortunate necessity but as a privilege! “For you have been given not only the privilege of trusting in Christ but also the privilege of suffering for him” (1:29, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe essential quality the believers need, in order to face successfully the hostility of the world, is unity. They must be “standing side by side, fighting together for the Good News” (1:27), and believing one gospel will produce a united front against the world—and not a purely defensive front, either. The theme of unity continues into chapter 2, where Paul turns to life within the fellowship (2:1-4), as if to say that external unity before the world will not be possible unless their hearts and minds are truly united in one love, spirit, and purpose (v 2), whatever their outward situation. Such a unity will come only if there is tenderness and compassion among them (v 1). The lovely progression in verse 1 reaches a climax with this phrase, and that in turn leads into the famous “hymn” in 2:6-11. Such tenderness will not find its home in their hearts unless they believe the gospel about which the hymn sings.<\/p>\nWhether 2:6-11 was in fact a real hymn, sung in the context of early Christian worship, is now impossible to know for sure. Certainly Paul’s language here takes on a hymnic quality, though it is not in poetic form. Many scholars have thought that Paul did not write these verses himself but was quoting a well-known piece of liturgy. All one can say for certain is that his language changes in style, and he expressed here ideas that are unique in his writings.<\/p>\nThe hymn blends in with its context beautifully, and in fact forms the core of the whole letter. For we see here how the experience of imprisonment and deliverance, and of suffering and joy, is an entering into the experience of Jesus himself, who died and rose, was humbled and glorified.<\/p>\n<h5>Two Worthy Examples and Friends (2:19-30)<\/h5>\nPaul again writes about his own situation and plans, but as before, this section is not just concerned with practical arrangements. On the face of it, he was simply explaining why he was sending the letter by the hand of Epaphroditus instead of Timothy. But actually he was holding them up as practical examples of the life lived by the gospel, about which he had just written. Timothy “genuinely cares about your welfare” (2:20), because, unlike everyone else, he did not seek his own interests but those of Jesus Christ (v 21). He lived the gospel! He was committed to the work of the gospel (v 22). And Epaphroditus was the same, though in a different way. His union with Jesus was expressed not so much in his self-giving service for the gospel and his fellow saints, as in the illness that he suffered and the pains of separation that he endured. Like Jesus, he put his life on the line (v 30), and like Jesus, he was restored to life again (v 27). Now he was to be restored to his beloved Philippians, and the joy that they would experience together would be a further outworking of the gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>Pressing Forward and Standing Firm (3:1–4:1)<\/h5>\nThis section also begins and ends on the note of joy (3:1; 4:1)—not accidentally. The way of the cross that Paul describes is also the way of joy (cf. Heb 12:2). It begins and ends also with the address “dear brothers and sisters,” and this, too, is not accidental, for once again in this passage Paul writes about himself, and once again the underlying thought is that his experience is typical and that his readers should expect and seek to see the same pattern in their lives. He wrote, “Dear brothers and sisters, pattern your lives after mine, and learn from those who follow our example” (3:17, nlt<\/span>). Having put forward Timothy and Epaphroditus as examples in 2:19-30, Paul now does the same with himself.<\/p>\nThe tone seems to change dramatically in 3:2, as Paul turns to warn the Philippians against “those dogs,” who are probably the same as those to whom he refers in 1:28 as “your enemies.” There, he was much concerned about the inner foundation of the Philippians’ stand against them, so he did not specify who they were. But now he examines them more closely, in order to show the Philippians that the Christian life entails a complete reversal of the values held by their opponents.<\/p>\nIt seems that they were Jews, the sort in Acts 17:5 who opposed Paul’s ministry in nearby Thessalonica. They believed that they were God’s chosen race, but Paul thought that was nothing more than placing confidence in the flesh (Phil 3:4). They thought they knew the way of righteousness—it is the way of rigorous and disciplined obedience to God’s law in every detail of life. But Paul thought that was to seek a righteousness of one’s own (v 9), having nothing to do with the righteousness that God wants to give. The true way to be God’s people, he movingly insists, is the way of self-renunciation, so that all he previously held dear as a Jew came to be seen as rubbish (v 8), considered as loss for the sake of Christ (v 7). The only way to attain righteousness is through faith in Christ (v 9), for Christians must become like him in his death if they are to know the power of his resurrection (v 10). For Paul, dying with Christ meant not just suffering imprisonment and many other indignities for Christ’s sake but also renouncing all the prized possessions that his Judaism had given him.<\/p>\n<h5>Thinking, Rejoicing, Sharing (4:2-23)<\/h5>\nAgain, the tone changes suddenly (both at 4:2 and at 4:10)—so much so that some scholars have suggested that Philippians was compiled by an editor using several different letters. But when Paul turns (in v 2) to address Euodia and Syntyche, he was not really changing the subject. The link with the last section is the same as that between 1:27-30 and the first paragraph in chapter 2: how can Christians expect to be able to hold their own in the face of some enemies of the cross of Christ (3:18) if they are disunited and at odds with each other? For if there is just one gospel, disharmony between Christians means that the gospel is not having its full effect. So Euodia and Syntyche are urged (literally) to “think the same thing in the Lord” (4:2), and are then reminded of how they once found a wonderful unity in striving side by side in the cause of the gospel (v 3).<\/p>\nThe agreement that Paul urges them to come to does not mean complete identity of opinions on all subjects. It means a oneness of heart in a common love for Christ and the gospel. In the rest of the letter Paul spells out what this oneness means in practice—both what it should mean and what it has meant for the Philippians. The use of the mind is vital, and in verses 4-9 Paul paints a picture of the Christian life in which careful and intelligent prayer (vv 6-7) and the deliberate directing of the mind toward “whatever is true and honorable” (v 8) will produce a life marked by the two qualities of peace and joy, whatever the circumstances.<\/p>\nThat leads to the final paragraph, in which Paul gives thanks that, in spite of the disharmony evident in one part of the Philippian church, the church as a whole has already displayed this true Christian “mind.” For they have shown their oneness with Paul in the cause of the gospel by sending him a gift by Epaphroditus. “You have done well to share with me in my present difficulty,” Paul writes (4:14), and our thoughts go back again to the hymn in 2:6-11. From the gospel about the one who came from heaven to bear our burdens comes this mutual sharing—and so does Paul’s wonderful attitude to his circumstances: “I know how to be humbled [the same word as in 2:8], and I know how to abound” (4:12). Joined to Christ, we do not anxiously seek provision for our needs (v 17; cf. v 6), but share with him and with others whatever humiliation and exaltation he sends, confident that God will meet all our needs “from his glorious riches, which have been given to us in Christ Jesus” (4:19, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Philippi.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the<\/span><\/h3>\nOne of Paul’s Prison Epistles.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date and Origin<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Theological Themes<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nPhilippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary.<\/p>\nDate and Origin<\/p>\nWhile it is clear that Paul was writing from prison (Phil 1:12-13), it is not clear where he was imprisoned. The most likely possibility is Rome, in which case the date would be around AD<\/span> 62. But some have thought that all the journeys implied in 4:14 and 2:25-26 make such a distant place unlikely (the Philippians hear that Paul is in prison and send a gift by Epaphroditus; Epaphroditus hears in Rome that the Philippians have heard that he has been ill). So the alternatives of Ephesus (c. AD<\/span> 55) and Caesarea (c. AD<\/span> 58) have been proposed. We know that Paul was imprisoned in Caesarea (Acts 23:33-35), but the greeting “from those of Caesar’s household” is difficult to explain if it was written there, in spite of the coincidence of name. Ephesus is certainly near enough to Philippi for plenty of interchange, but no imprisonment is recorded in the account of Paul’s ministry there in Acts. So we would have to assume that Luke’s account in Acts 19 is not complete and that Paul had been placed in protective custody at the time of the riot (see esp. 19:30-31). But such an imprisonment could hardly have led Paul to wonder whether his time “to depart and be with Christ” had now come (Phil 1:23). At the time of writing, he was clearly facing a capital charge.<\/p>\nThe traditional location (Rome) seems the most satisfactory, especially when one reflects that Paul was imprisoned there for at least two years (Acts 28:30), and that it took about three weeks to travel from Rome to Philippi.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nPhilippi had the distinction of being a Roman colony (Acts 16:12), a privilege accorded to only a few cities outside Italy. Some 90 years before the gospel arrived there (c. AD<\/span> 50), the city had been greatly expanded by large numbers of Roman soldiers, who were settled there by their commanding officers. As a consequence, the town acquired its coveted status as a colony, which meant that for all intents and purposes its citizens were treated as if they lived in Italy, and the town had a fully Roman administration. Paul alludes to this status in Philippians 3:20, where he teaches that Christians likewise are citizens of another city, the heavenly one, while yet residents elsewhere. It was a rich and busy place, one of the main centers of life in Macedonia, and consequently was “home” to the adherents of many different religions, from both east and west. There was a strong Jewish community there, as well as pagans of many sorts.<\/p>\nTheological Themes<\/p>\nIn a sense Paul’s imprisonment is not just background material but lies at the heart of the letter’s message. In his imprisonment he was experiencing the abasement that he mentions in 4:12, using there the same word found in 2:8 to describe the self-humbling of Christ unto death. The pattern of the ministry of Jesus described in the great “hymn” of 2:6-11—humiliation followed by glorification—becomes the pattern of Paul’s own life and of the vision he holds out before the Philippians. So alongside abasement and suffering, joy is the other great theme of the letter. Within suffering and self-sacrifice, true joy is born. In fact, Philippians could justly be titled “The Epistle of Joy.” Other prominent themes include the gospel, the Day of the Lord, and in addition to the famous “hymn” in chapter 2, a comparison of Paul’s Jewish past with his present Christian experience (3:4-16).<\/p>\n\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting and Opening Prayer (1:1-11)<\/h5>\nIn the opening paragraph of his letter, Paul presents the themes that will be uppermost in his mind throughout. His personal warmth toward the Philippians is immediately striking: “I have you in my heart. . . . I long for all of you” (1:7-8), and this thought of outgoing and suffering love undergirds the whole letter. It is notable, too, that the letter begins and ends with the themes of “grace” and of “the saints” (1:1-2; 4:21-23). The grace of Christ, which reaches out to sinful people and transforms them, separating them from the world, occupies Paul throughout. “The saints” are the ones who, touched by that grace, are transformed in heart and mind, so that their love abounds more and more in knowledge and depth of insight (1:9).<\/p>\nTwo more great themes appear here. The Greek word phroneo<\/span>,<\/em> “to think,” is used more in Philippians than in any other letter of Paul, no fewer than nine times (as against seven in Romans). Unfortunately, it is not uniformly translated in the English versions, and so it is hard for the English reader to notice its repeated appearance and the emphasis on the right use of the mind that goes with it. But for Paul this is vital: the way we think is at the heart of the Christian life, and in these opening verses he makes it clear that the love he feels for the Philippians is actually the Christian way of thinking about them (v 7: literally, “It is right for me to think this way about you”). This leads naturally to another emphasis—growth. For the “Christian mind” does not appear overnight. So Paul prays that this mind may grow, giving the Philippians powers of discernment that will transform their character and prepare them for “the day of Christ” (vv 10-11; cf. v 6).<\/p>\nFinally, we note in this opening prayer the twin emphases on the gospel and on fellowship—linked in Paul’s prayer of thanksgiving for the Philippians’ partnership in the gospel (v 5; cf. v 7)—and also the introduction of the great theme of joy (v 4). All three are vital to the whole letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul and His Imprisonment: Christ Exalted (1:12-26)<\/h5>\nPaul writes about his own situation to present the heart of his message. For when he writes, “For me to live is Christ” (v 21), he means more than that his every waking moment is taken up by fellowship with his Lord and service for him. He means also that, in his own person and experience, he displays Christ and “lives” him. Later he will say, “Keep putting into practice all you learned from me and heard from me and saw me doing” (4:9, nlt<\/span>). Few Christian ministers would dare make such a claim today! Yet Paul believed that, as an apostle of Christ, it was his privilege not just to speak on Christ’s behalf but also to live out Christ’s life in his own person, even if that meant suffering and humiliation.<\/p>\nThere are two historical difficulties here. First, it is hard to reconstruct the situation to which Paul refers in 1:12-18. The church in Rome (if that is where he is) was clearly divided about his imprisonment—some believers actually being glad that he was behind bars. It seems as though they were prompted by his imprisonment to get on with preaching their own version of the gospel. Far from being upset by this, Paul is delighted! “What does it matter?” he asks (v 18). Whether by friend or foe, Christ is being proclaimed in a new way as a result of his imprisonment (v 14). He was normally quick to defend the purity of the Word proclaimed, so these rivals of Paul could not have been heretics.<\/p>\nThe other historical difficulty surrounds verses 19-26. At one moment Paul seems not to know what the outcome of imprisonment will be (vv 19-21). Yet he then suggests that he can choose whether to live or die (v 22), and finally tells the Philippians that he is sure he will remain alive (v 25). The best explanation is that Paul believed he had received a personal assurance from the Holy Spirit that his imprisonment would not end with his execution.<\/p>\nAt any rate, his attitude about his own death is most moving. He expected deliverance, whether by life or by death (vv 19-20), and had an unshakeable confidence that to die is “better by far” (v 23), because it means being “with Christ.” This section ends with a note of joy.<\/p>\n<h5>The Life Worthy of the Gospel (1:27–2:18)<\/h5>\nThis section ends with “joy,” just as the last did, and its whole message is summed up in the opening exhortation of verse 27. Paul wanted the Philippians to be people in whom there is no gap between profession and practice, in whom the gospel believed is the gospel lived. The section falls into four portions, which might be entitled as follows: (1) 1:27-30—the worthy life in a hostile world; (2) 2:1-4—the worthy life in Christian fellowship; (3) 2:5-11—the gospel that inspires us; (4) 2:12-18—priorities for lives worthy of the gospel.<\/p>\nPaul refused to let the Philippians feel that he was worse off than they. He wrote, “We are in this fight together. You have seen me suffer for him in the past, and you know that I am still in the midst of this great struggle” (1:30, nlt<\/span>). For suffering at the hands of a hostile world is part and parcel of Christian discipleship. If we profess to believe a gospel about one who, though equal with God, left aside the glory of heaven and submitted not just to incarnation but also to a horrible death (2:6-8), then we must think of suffering not as an unfortunate necessity but as a privilege! “For you have been given not only the privilege of trusting in Christ but also the privilege of suffering for him” (1:29, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe essential quality the believers need, in order to face successfully the hostility of the world, is unity. They must be “standing side by side, fighting together for the Good News” (1:27), and believing one gospel will produce a united front against the world—and not a purely defensive front, either. The theme of unity continues into chapter 2, where Paul turns to life within the fellowship (2:1-4), as if to say that external unity before the world will not be possible unless their hearts and minds are truly united in one love, spirit, and purpose (v 2), whatever their outward situation. Such a unity will come only if there is tenderness and compassion among them (v 1). The lovely progression in verse 1 reaches a climax with this phrase, and that in turn leads into the famous “hymn” in 2:6-11. Such tenderness will not find its home in their hearts unless they believe the gospel about which the hymn sings.<\/p>\nWhether 2:6-11 was in fact a real hymn, sung in the context of early Christian worship, is now impossible to know for sure. Certainly Paul’s language here takes on a hymnic quality, though it is not in poetic form. Many scholars have thought that Paul did not write these verses himself but was quoting a well-known piece of liturgy. All one can say for certain is that his language changes in style, and he expressed here ideas that are unique in his writings.<\/p>\nThe hymn blends in with its context beautifully, and in fact forms the core of the whole letter. For we see here how the experience of imprisonment and deliverance, and of suffering and joy, is an entering into the experience of Jesus himself, who died and rose, was humbled and glorified.<\/p>\n<h5>Two Worthy Examples and Friends (2:19-30)<\/h5>\nPaul again writes about his own situation and plans, but as before, this section is not just concerned with practical arrangements. On the face of it, he was simply explaining why he was sending the letter by the hand of Epaphroditus instead of Timothy. But actually he was holding them up as practical examples of the life lived by the gospel, about which he had just written. Timothy “genuinely cares about your welfare” (2:20), because, unlike everyone else, he did not seek his own interests but those of Jesus Christ (v 21). He lived the gospel! He was committed to the work of the gospel (v 22). And Epaphroditus was the same, though in a different way. His union with Jesus was expressed not so much in his self-giving service for the gospel and his fellow saints, as in the illness that he suffered and the pains of separation that he endured. Like Jesus, he put his life on the line (v 30), and like Jesus, he was restored to life again (v 27). Now he was to be restored to his beloved Philippians, and the joy that they would experience together would be a further outworking of the gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>Pressing Forward and Standing Firm (3:1–4:1)<\/h5>\nThis section also begins and ends on the note of joy (3:1; 4:1)—not accidentally. The way of the cross that Paul describes is also the way of joy (cf. Heb 12:2). It begins and ends also with the address “dear brothers and sisters,” and this, too, is not accidental, for once again in this passage Paul writes about himself, and once again the underlying thought is that his experience is typical and that his readers should expect and seek to see the same pattern in their lives. He wrote, “Dear brothers and sisters, pattern your lives after mine, and learn from those who follow our example” (3:17, nlt<\/span>). Having put forward Timothy and Epaphroditus as examples in 2:19-30, Paul now does the same with himself.<\/p>\nThe tone seems to change dramatically in 3:2, as Paul turns to warn the Philippians against “those dogs,” who are probably the same as those to whom he refers in 1:28 as “your enemies.” There, he was much concerned about the inner foundation of the Philippians’ stand against them, so he did not specify who they were. But now he examines them more closely, in order to show the Philippians that the Christian life entails a complete reversal of the values held by their opponents.<\/p>\nIt seems that they were Jews, the sort in Acts 17:5 who opposed Paul’s ministry in nearby Thessalonica. They believed that they were God’s chosen race, but Paul thought that was nothing more than placing confidence in the flesh (Phil 3:4). They thought they knew the way of righteousness—it is the way of rigorous and disciplined obedience to God’s law in every detail of life. But Paul thought that was to seek a righteousness of one’s own (v 9), having nothing to do with the righteousness that God wants to give. The true way to be God’s people, he movingly insists, is the way of self-renunciation, so that all he previously held dear as a Jew came to be seen as rubbish (v 8), considered as loss for the sake of Christ (v 7). The only way to attain righteousness is through faith in Christ (v 9), for Christians must become like him in his death if they are to know the power of his resurrection (v 10). For Paul, dying with Christ meant not just suffering imprisonment and many other indignities for Christ’s sake but also renouncing all the prized possessions that his Judaism had given him.<\/p>\n<h5>Thinking, Rejoicing, Sharing (4:2-23)<\/h5>\nAgain, the tone changes suddenly (both at 4:2 and at 4:10)—so much so that some scholars have suggested that Philippians was compiled by an editor using several different letters. But when Paul turns (in v 2) to address Euodia and Syntyche, he was not really changing the subject. The link with the last section is the same as that between 1:27-30 and the first paragraph in chapter 2: how can Christians expect to be able to hold their own in the face of some enemies of the cross of Christ (3:18) if they are disunited and at odds with each other? For if there is just one gospel, disharmony between Christians means that the gospel is not having its full effect. So Euodia and Syntyche are urged (literally) to “think the same thing in the Lord” (4:2), and are then reminded of how they once found a wonderful unity in striving side by side in the cause of the gospel (v 3).<\/p>\nThe agreement that Paul urges them to come to does not mean complete identity of opinions on all subjects. It means a oneness of heart in a common love for Christ and the gospel. In the rest of the letter Paul spells out what this oneness means in practice—both what it should mean and what it has meant for the Philippians. The use of the mind is vital, and in verses 4-9 Paul paints a picture of the Christian life in which careful and intelligent prayer (vv 6-7) and the deliberate directing of the mind toward “whatever is true and honorable” (v 8) will produce a life marked by the two qualities of peace and joy, whatever the circumstances.<\/p>\nThat leads to the final paragraph, in which Paul gives thanks that, in spite of the disharmony evident in one part of the Philippian church, the church as a whole has already displayed this true Christian “mind.” For they have shown their oneness with Paul in the cause of the gospel by sending him a gift by Epaphroditus. “You have done well to share with me in my present difficulty,” Paul writes (4:14), and our thoughts go back again to the hymn in 2:6-11. From the gospel about the one who came from heaven to bear our burdens comes this mutual sharing—and so does Paul’s wonderful attitude to his circumstances: “I know how to be humbled [the same word as in 2:8], and I know how to abound” (4:12). Joined to Christ, we do not anxiously seek provision for our needs (v 17; cf. v 6), but share with him and with others whatever humiliation and exaltation he sends, confident that God will meet all our needs “from his glorious riches, which have been given to us in Christ Jesus” (4:19, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Philippi.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the One of Paul’s Prison Epistles. Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Theological Themes • Content Author Philippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary. Date and Origin While it is clear ...","summary_en":"PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the One of Paul’s Prison Epistles. Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Theological Themes • Content Author Philippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary. Date and Origin While it is clear ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":58256,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:1","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:1","content_ro":"3:1<\/strong> rejoice in the Lord:<\/em> This theme is resumed in 4:4 (see also 1:18; 2:17-18, 28; 4:10). • The phrase these things<\/em> (literally the same things<\/em>) is ambiguous: it may refer to (1) the immediately preceding encouragement to rejoice in the Lord<\/em>; (2) the earlier encouragement to follow Christ’s example (2:1-18); (3) Paul’s exhortation in general; or (4) the following warning about threats to their faith.<\/p>","content_en":"3:1<\/strong> rejoice in the Lord:<\/em> This theme is resumed in 4:4 (see also 1:18; 2:17-18, 28; 4:10). • The phrase these things<\/em> (literally the same things<\/em>) is ambiguous: it may refer to (1) the immediately preceding encouragement to rejoice in the Lord<\/em>; (2) the earlier encouragement to follow Christ’s example (2:1-18); (3) Paul’s exhortation in general; or (4) the following warning about threats to their faith.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:1 rejoice in the Lord: This theme is resumed in 4:4 (see also 1:18; 2:17-18, 28; 4:10). • The phrase these things (literally the same things) is ambiguous: it may refer to (1) the immediately preceding encouragement to rejoice in the Lord; (2) the earlier encouragement to follow Christ’s example (2:1-18); (3) Paul’s exhortation in general; or (4) the following warning about threats to their faith.","summary_en":"3:1 rejoice in the Lord: This theme is resumed in 4:4 (see also 1:18; 2:17-18, 28; 4:10). • The phrase these things (literally the same things) is ambiguous: it may refer to (1) the immediately preceding encouragement to rejoice in the Lord; (2) the earlier encouragement to follow Christ’s example (2:1-18); (3) Paul’s exhortation in general; or (4) the following warning about threats to their faith.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85882,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:1","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:1","content_ro":"3:1<\/strong> rejoice in the Lord:<\/em> This theme is resumed in 4:4 (see also 1:18; 2:17-18, 28; 4:10). • The phrase these things<\/em> (literally the same things<\/em>) is ambiguous: it may refer to (1) the immediately preceding encouragement to rejoice in the Lord<\/em>; (2) the earlier encouragement to follow Christ’s example (2:1-18); (3) Paul’s exhortation in general; or (4) the following warning about threats to their faith.<\/p>","content_en":"3:1<\/strong> rejoice in the Lord:<\/em> This theme is resumed in 4:4 (see also 1:18; 2:17-18, 28; 4:10). • The phrase these things<\/em> (literally the same things<\/em>) is ambiguous: it may refer to (1) the immediately preceding encouragement to rejoice in the Lord<\/em>; (2) the earlier encouragement to follow Christ’s example (2:1-18); (3) Paul’s exhortation in general; or (4) the following warning about threats to their faith.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:1 rejoice in the Lord: This theme is resumed in 4:4 (see also 1:18; 2:17-18, 28; 4:10). • The phrase these things (literally the same things) is ambiguous: it may refer to (1) the immediately preceding encouragement to rejoice in the Lord; (2) the earlier encouragement to follow Christ’s example (2:1-18); (3) Paul’s exhortation in general; or (4) the following warning about threats to their faith.","summary_en":"3:1 rejoice in the Lord: This theme is resumed in 4:4 (see also 1:18; 2:17-18, 28; 4:10). • The phrase these things (literally the same things) is ambiguous: it may refer to (1) the immediately preceding encouragement to rejoice in the Lord; (2) the earlier encouragement to follow Christ’s example (2:1-18); (3) Paul’s exhortation in general; or (4) the following warning about threats to their faith.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113508,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:1","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:1","content_ro":"3:1<\/strong> rejoice in the Lord:<\/em> This theme is resumed in 4:4 (see also 1:18; 2:17-18, 28; 4:10). • The phrase these things<\/em> (literally the same things<\/em>) is ambiguous: it may refer to (1) the immediately preceding encouragement to rejoice in the Lord<\/em>; (2) the earlier encouragement to follow Christ’s example (2:1-18); (3) Paul’s exhortation in general; or (4) the following warning about threats to their faith.<\/p>","content_en":"3:1<\/strong> rejoice in the Lord:<\/em> This theme is resumed in 4:4 (see also 1:18; 2:17-18, 28; 4:10). • The phrase these things<\/em> (literally the same things<\/em>) is ambiguous: it may refer to (1) the immediately preceding encouragement to rejoice in the Lord<\/em>; (2) the earlier encouragement to follow Christ’s example (2:1-18); (3) Paul’s exhortation in general; or (4) the following warning about threats to their faith.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:1 rejoice in the Lord: This theme is resumed in 4:4 (see also 1:18; 2:17-18, 28; 4:10). • The phrase these things (literally the same things) is ambiguous: it may refer to (1) the immediately preceding encouragement to rejoice in the Lord; (2) the earlier encouragement to follow Christ’s example (2:1-18); (3) Paul’s exhortation in general; or (4) the following warning about threats to their faith.","summary_en":"3:1 rejoice in the Lord: This theme is resumed in 4:4 (see also 1:18; 2:17-18, 28; 4:10). • The phrase these things (literally the same things) is ambiguous: it may refer to (1) the immediately preceding encouragement to rejoice in the Lord; (2) the earlier encouragement to follow Christ’s example (2:1-18); (3) Paul’s exhortation in general; or (4) the following warning about threats to their faith.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141134,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:1","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:1","content_ro":"3:1<\/strong> rejoice in the Lord:<\/em> This theme is resumed in 4:4 (see also 1:18; 2:17-18, 28; 4:10). • The phrase these things<\/em> (literally the same things<\/em>) is ambiguous: it may refer to (1) the immediately preceding encouragement to rejoice in the Lord<\/em>; (2) the earlier encouragement to follow Christ’s example (2:1-18); (3) Paul’s exhortation in general; or (4) the following warning about threats to their faith.<\/p>","content_en":"3:1<\/strong> rejoice in the Lord:<\/em> This theme is resumed in 4:4 (see also 1:18; 2:17-18, 28; 4:10). • The phrase these things<\/em> (literally the same things<\/em>) is ambiguous: it may refer to (1) the immediately preceding encouragement to rejoice in the Lord<\/em>; (2) the earlier encouragement to follow Christ’s example (2:1-18); (3) Paul’s exhortation in general; or (4) the following warning about threats to their faith.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:1 rejoice in the Lord: This theme is resumed in 4:4 (see also 1:18; 2:17-18, 28; 4:10). • The phrase these things (literally the same things) is ambiguous: it may refer to (1) the immediately preceding encouragement to rejoice in the Lord; (2) the earlier encouragement to follow Christ’s example (2:1-18); (3) Paul’s exhortation in general; or (4) the following warning about threats to their faith.","summary_en":"3:1 rejoice in the Lord: This theme is resumed in 4:4 (see also 1:18; 2:17-18, 28; 4:10). • The phrase these things (literally the same things) is ambiguous: it may refer to (1) the immediately preceding encouragement to rejoice in the Lord; (2) the earlier encouragement to follow Christ’s example (2:1-18); (3) Paul’s exhortation in general; or (4) the following warning about threats to their faith.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67418,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Christian Joy","title_en":"Christian Joy","content_ro":"<h3>Christian Joy<\/h3>\nIn the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16).<\/p>\nSuperficial happiness is dependent on circumstances. Christian joy is clearly different; it is rooted in a person’s relationship with the Lord, and it is resilient even in the midst of suffering and death. Joy comes in knowing that whatever happens, God will use everything for our ultimate good (see Rom 5:3-4; 8:28). Believers also have joy from the dynamic presence of God’s Spirit in their hearts (see Gal 5:22). The real secret to a joyful life is in continuously being “filled with the Holy Spirit” (see Eph 5:18). The attitudes of believers are not defined by outward circumstances, but by a relationship with the living God.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 15:11; 16:24; Rom 5:3-4; 8:28; Gal 5:22; Eph 5:18; Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Christian Joy<\/h3>\nIn the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16).<\/p>\nSuperficial happiness is dependent on circumstances. Christian joy is clearly different; it is rooted in a person’s relationship with the Lord, and it is resilient even in the midst of suffering and death. Joy comes in knowing that whatever happens, God will use everything for our ultimate good (see Rom 5:3-4; 8:28). Believers also have joy from the dynamic presence of God’s Spirit in their hearts (see Gal 5:22). The real secret to a joyful life is in continuously being “filled with the Holy Spirit” (see Eph 5:18). The attitudes of believers are not defined by outward circumstances, but by a relationship with the living God.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 15:11; 16:24; Rom 5:3-4; 8:28; Gal 5:22; Eph 5:18; Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Christian Joy In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16). Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstan...","summary_en":"Christian Joy In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16). Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstan...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95044,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Christian Joy","title_en":"Christian Joy","content_ro":"<h3>Christian Joy<\/h3>\nIn the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16).<\/p>\nSuperficial happiness is dependent on circumstances. Christian joy is clearly different; it is rooted in a person’s relationship with the Lord, and it is resilient even in the midst of suffering and death. Joy comes in knowing that whatever happens, God will use everything for our ultimate good (see Rom 5:3-4; 8:28). Believers also have joy from the dynamic presence of God’s Spirit in their hearts (see Gal 5:22). The real secret to a joyful life is in continuously being “filled with the Holy Spirit” (see Eph 5:18). The attitudes of believers are not defined by outward circumstances, but by a relationship with the living God.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 15:11; 16:24; Rom 5:3-4; 8:28; Gal 5:22; Eph 5:18; Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Christian Joy<\/h3>\nIn the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16).<\/p>\nSuperficial happiness is dependent on circumstances. Christian joy is clearly different; it is rooted in a person’s relationship with the Lord, and it is resilient even in the midst of suffering and death. Joy comes in knowing that whatever happens, God will use everything for our ultimate good (see Rom 5:3-4; 8:28). Believers also have joy from the dynamic presence of God’s Spirit in their hearts (see Gal 5:22). The real secret to a joyful life is in continuously being “filled with the Holy Spirit” (see Eph 5:18). The attitudes of believers are not defined by outward circumstances, but by a relationship with the living God.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 15:11; 16:24; Rom 5:3-4; 8:28; Gal 5:22; Eph 5:18; Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Christian Joy In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16). Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstan...","summary_en":"Christian Joy In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16). Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstan...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":122670,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Christian Joy","title_en":"Christian Joy","content_ro":"<h3>Christian Joy<\/h3>\nIn the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16).<\/p>\nSuperficial happiness is dependent on circumstances. Christian joy is clearly different; it is rooted in a person’s relationship with the Lord, and it is resilient even in the midst of suffering and death. Joy comes in knowing that whatever happens, God will use everything for our ultimate good (see Rom 5:3-4; 8:28). Believers also have joy from the dynamic presence of God’s Spirit in their hearts (see Gal 5:22). The real secret to a joyful life is in continuously being “filled with the Holy Spirit” (see Eph 5:18). The attitudes of believers are not defined by outward circumstances, but by a relationship with the living God.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 15:11; 16:24; Rom 5:3-4; 8:28; Gal 5:22; Eph 5:18; Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Christian Joy<\/h3>\nIn the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16).<\/p>\nSuperficial happiness is dependent on circumstances. Christian joy is clearly different; it is rooted in a person’s relationship with the Lord, and it is resilient even in the midst of suffering and death. Joy comes in knowing that whatever happens, God will use everything for our ultimate good (see Rom 5:3-4; 8:28). Believers also have joy from the dynamic presence of God’s Spirit in their hearts (see Gal 5:22). The real secret to a joyful life is in continuously being “filled with the Holy Spirit” (see Eph 5:18). The attitudes of believers are not defined by outward circumstances, but by a relationship with the living God.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 15:11; 16:24; Rom 5:3-4; 8:28; Gal 5:22; Eph 5:18; Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Christian Joy In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16). Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstan...","summary_en":"Christian Joy In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16). Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstan...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":150296,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Christian Joy","title_en":"Christian Joy","content_ro":"<h3>Christian Joy<\/h3>\nIn the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16).<\/p>\nSuperficial happiness is dependent on circumstances. Christian joy is clearly different; it is rooted in a person’s relationship with the Lord, and it is resilient even in the midst of suffering and death. Joy comes in knowing that whatever happens, God will use everything for our ultimate good (see Rom 5:3-4; 8:28). Believers also have joy from the dynamic presence of God’s Spirit in their hearts (see Gal 5:22). The real secret to a joyful life is in continuously being “filled with the Holy Spirit” (see Eph 5:18). The attitudes of believers are not defined by outward circumstances, but by a relationship with the living God.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 15:11; 16:24; Rom 5:3-4; 8:28; Gal 5:22; Eph 5:18; Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Christian Joy<\/h3>\nIn the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16).<\/p>\nSuperficial happiness is dependent on circumstances. Christian joy is clearly different; it is rooted in a person’s relationship with the Lord, and it is resilient even in the midst of suffering and death. Joy comes in knowing that whatever happens, God will use everything for our ultimate good (see Rom 5:3-4; 8:28). Believers also have joy from the dynamic presence of God’s Spirit in their hearts (see Gal 5:22). The real secret to a joyful life is in continuously being “filled with the Holy Spirit” (see Eph 5:18). The attitudes of believers are not defined by outward circumstances, but by a relationship with the living God.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 15:11; 16:24; Rom 5:3-4; 8:28; Gal 5:22; Eph 5:18; Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Christian Joy In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16). Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstan...","summary_en":"Christian Joy In the last hours of his life, Jesus expressed a desire that his disciples “be filled with [his] joy” (see John 15:11; 16:20-24). The subject of joy emerges in a number of Paul’s letters and is a major theme in Philippians. Often when Paul encourages believers to be filled with joy, his words are directed toward those who are experiencing persecution—for example, believers in Philippi and Thessalonica (Phil 3:1; 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16). Superficial happiness is dependent on circumstan...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":1837,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Animals","title_en":"Animals","content_ro":"<h3>ANIMALS<\/h3>\nIn biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals as object lessons.<\/p>\nThe biblical approach to classification of animals is somewhat different from the system of classification used by biologists today. The present system of classification, which traces back to Carolus Linnaeus (an 18th-century Swedish botanist), is based on structure, both internal and external. The biblical basis of classification is habitat. Thus Genesis 1 speaks of aquatic organisms (v 20); aerial organisms (v 21); animals that crawl on the ground (v 24); cattle or domesticated animals (animals that live in association with humans) (v 24); and wild animals (v 24). The same system of classification is followed in Leviticus 11 and throughout Scripture.<\/p>\nBecause of the divergence between systems of classification, the various animals of the Bible will be listed here in alphabetical order—including reptiles, fish, and even invertebrates such as insects, spiders, worms, and sponges. Birds are discussed in a separate article.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Adder<\/p>\n• Ant<\/p>\n• Antelope<\/p>\n• Ape<\/p>\n• Asp<\/p>\n• Ass<\/p>\n• Badger<\/p>\n• Bat<\/p>\n• Bear<\/p>\n• Bee<\/p>\n• Behemoth<\/p>\n• Camel<\/p>\n• Caterpillar<\/p>\n• Cattle<\/p>\n• Chameleon<\/p>\n• Coral<\/p>\n• Cricket<\/p>\n• Crocodile<\/p>\n• Deer<\/p>\n• Dog<\/p>\n• Donkey<\/p>\n• Dragon<\/p>\n• Fish<\/p>\n• Flea<\/p>\n• Fly<\/p>\n• Fox<\/p>\n• Frog<\/p>\n• Gazelle<\/p>\n• Gecko<\/p>\n• Gnat<\/p>\n• Goat<\/p>\n• Grasshopper<\/p>\n• Hare<\/p>\n• Hippopotamus<\/p>\n• Horse<\/p>\n• Hyena<\/p>\n• Jackal<\/p>\n• Leech<\/p>\n• Leopard<\/p>\n• Leviathan<\/p>\n• Lion<\/p>\n• Lizard<\/p>\n• Locust<\/p>\n• Mole<\/p>\n• Moth<\/p>\n• Mouse<\/p>\n• Mule<\/p>\n• Pig<\/p>\n• Porcupine<\/p>\n• Scorpion<\/p>\n• Sheep<\/p>\n• Snail<\/p>\n• Snake<\/p>\n• Spider<\/p>\n• Sponge<\/p>\n• Unicorn<\/p>\n• Wasp<\/p>\n• Whale<\/p>\n• Wild Ox<\/p>\n• Wolf<\/p>\n• Worm<\/p>\n\nAdder<\/p>\nOne of the 20 poisonous snakes found in Israel and surrounding countries, also referred to as cockatrice and viper. True vipers (genus Cerastes, Echis colorata,<\/em> and Vipera palestina<\/em>) also exist there, poisonous snakes with curved fangs that spring into position when the snake strikes. The horned viper (Cerastes hasselquistii)<\/em> may attack horses. It is 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 centimeters) long and often lies in ambush in the sand with only its eyes and the hornlike protrusions on its head visible.<\/p>\nBoth Jesus and John the Baptist referred to the viper several times (Mt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33). The reference in Acts 28:3 is probably to a small viper (Vipera aspis)<\/em> that strikes rapidly and is very pugnacious. It is found in southern Europe and hisses each time it inhales and exhales. The poison of vipers attacks the respiratory system and disintegrates red blood cells.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\nAnt<\/p>\nMentioned only twice in the Bible, both times in the book of Proverbs. For many years Solomon was charged with a biological error when he referred to the ant as providing her meat in the summer and gathering her food in the harvest (Prv 6:8). Critics of the Bible were quick to point out that, so far as was then known, ants do not store up food. They assumed that Solomon had probably kicked open an ant hill and mistaken the pupal cases (pods in which immature ants grow to maturity) for grain or had observed ants carrying bits of grain, leaves, and other matter to their nests.<\/p>\nAt least three species of grain-storing ants are now known—two occur in Israel and the other in Mediterranean countries. The particular species referred to by Solomon (Prv 6:6-8; 30:24-25) is probably the harvester ant (Messor semirufus).<\/em> Its granaries are flat chambers connected by galleries irregularly scattered over an area about six feet (1.8 meters) in diameter and about a foot (.3 meter) deep in the ground. Seeds are collected from the ground or picked from plants. The head, or radicle, which is the softest part of the kernel, is bitten off to prevent germination, and the chaff and empty capsules are discarded on kitchen middens (refuse piles) outside the nest. Individual granaries may be 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) in diameter and a half inch (1.2 centimeters) high. Some nests are known to be 40 feet (12 meters) in diameter and 6 to 7 feet (approx. 2 meters) deep with several entrances.<\/p>\nAntelope<\/p>\nSeveral antelope-like creatures are referred to in the Scriptures. One seems to be the white oryx (Oryx leucoryx),<\/em> referred to in Deuteronomy 14:5 (kjv<\/span> “wild ox”; rsv<\/span> “antelope”) and Isaiah 51:20 (kjv<\/span> “wild bull”; RSV <\/span>“antelope”). The oryx was probably the antelope, commonly used for food because its long horns made it relatively easy to catch.<\/p>\nAnother antelope mentioned in the Bible is the addax (Addax nasomaculatus),<\/em> probably the “pygarg” of Deuteronomy 14:5 (kjv<\/span>). It is a native of North Africa with grayish white hinder parts, a white patch on the forehead, and twisted and ringed horns. The word “pygarg” comes from a Greek word meaning “white rump.” The addax is about the size of a donkey. Its body is closely covered with short hair. It has a short mane on the underside of its neck that makes the head look somewhat like that of a goat. The hooves are broad and flat, and the tail resembles that of a donkey. It is common in Africa and in Arabia, where Arabs hunt it with falcons and dogs.<\/p>\nAntelopes are very graceful and run with their heads held high. Both sexes have long, permanent, hollow horns. With the oryx the horns go straight back; addax horns are twisted and ringed. Antelope are alert, wary, and keen sighted. They are usually found in herds of from two to a dozen. If injured or brought to bay, an antelope attacks with its head lowered so that the sharp horns point forward. Antelopes feed on grasses and shrubs, drinking from streams and water holes. When water is scarce, they eat melons and succulent bulbs. Both addax and oryx were ceremonially clean in Jewish law.<\/p>\nApe<\/p>\nPrimate not native to Palestine. The two references to apes in the OT (1 Kgs 10:22; 2 Chr 9:21) refer to their importation by King Solomon with other treasures on board the ships of his mercantile fleet. There is some question concerning the origin of those primates. Some believe that the mention of “ivory” in the same verses suggests they came from East Africa and that they were indeed apes, that is, tailless primates. Others, believing they came from India or Ceylon, suggest that they were actually monkeys. There the baboon (genus Papeio), a large monkey, was considered sacred to the god Thoth. Males of that genus were kept in temples, and the more docile females were often kept as house pets. Such baboons frequently had some of their teeth removed or ground down to lessen the danger of their biting. A number of mummified baboons have been found in Egypt, indicating the high regard in which they were held.<\/p>\nAsp<\/p>\nPoisonous snake. Most biblical references to the asp (Dt 32:33) seem to be to the Egyptian cobra (Naja haje),<\/em> which conceals itself in holes, walls, and rocks and has the ability to expand its neck by raising its anterior ribs so as to enlarge the front of its breast into the shape of a flat disc. Its potent poison can cause death in 30 minutes. It attains a length of about 80 inches (2 meters). The fangs are permanently erect, not movable as in the vipers (the common poisonous snakes of North America; only the coral snake in America has permanently erect fangs). Cobra poison attacks the nervous system, causing muscular paralysis. The Egyptians looked upon it as a sacred creature; they regarded it as a protector since it fed on the rodents that ate their crops. The “fiery serpents” (Nm 21:6; Dt 8:15, both rsv<\/span>) may have been cobras; “fiery” probably refers to the burning fever caused by their venom. Isaiah 14:29 and 30:6 (“flying serpent”) may refer to the hood of the cobra.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\nAss<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Donkey (below).<\/p>\nBadger<\/p>\nSmall hoofed mammal. What the kjv<\/span> calls a “coney,” modern translations name “rock badger” (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7; Ps 104:18; Prv 30:26). The rock badger spoken of in the Bible is probably the Syrian rock hyrax (Hyrax syriaca),<\/em> the only species of hyrax found outside Africa. This small ungulate (having hooflike toenails) lives among rocks from the Dead Sea valley to Mt Hermon. It is strictly a herbivorous (plant-eating) animal about the size of a rabbit. It resembles a guinea pig more than a rabbit, having quite inconspicuous ears and a very small tail. It has broad nails with four toes on its forelegs and three on its hind legs, the toes being connected with skin almost like a web. Pads acting as sucking discs under its feet enable it to keep its footing on slippery rocks. With its yellow and brown fur, it is sometimes called the bear rat because of its resemblance to a tailless rat. It is also equipped with black whiskers that may be seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long.<\/p>\nThese rock badgers, or hyraxes, live together in colonies of from 6 to 50 animals, often sunning themselves on rocks. They are difficult to catch. Guards are posted, and if approaching danger is sighted, the whole group will scurry for cover, warned by the sharp whistles of the guards. Thus they are commended for taking refuge in the rocks (Ps 104:18) and are called wise for making “their houses in the rocks” (Prv 30:24, 26, kjv<\/span>). The badger is not a ruminant (does not chew its cud), but the motion of its jaws may suggest that it chews its cud. That is probably why it was included with other cud-chewing animals in the Jewish food laws (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7). It was forbidden to the Jews as food because it did not have cloven hooves. Some Arabs eat and even prize its meat.<\/p>\nBat<\/p>\nFlying mammals according to modern classification. They have hair and provide milk for their young. The Bible classifies them with other aerial creatures. Bats take shelter in caves, crevices, tree cavities, buildings, and also in exposed places on trees. In colder areas they hibernate or migrate. The normal resting position for a bat is hanging head downward. Bats “swim” through the air rather than fly because they move with their legs as well as with their wings.<\/p>\nThe bat’s thumb is free and terminates in a single hook claw used for climbing and hanging. The hind feet have five toes, all pointing the same way. The large chest accommodates the powerful muscles needed for flying. Because they orient themselves by echo location, the sense of hearing is very well developed.<\/p>\nMost bats are insect eaters, seizing insects in flight. Many insectivorous bats also eat some fruit. Other bats feed exclusively, usually in groups, on fruit and green vegetation. Fruit-eating bats generally live in the tropics where fruit is constantly ripening, although some have been found in the Holy Land. These bats tend to be larger than the insectivores, having a wingspread of up to five feet (1.5 meters).<\/p>\nA third group includes flower-eating bats that feed on pollen and nectar. These small bats with long pointed heads and long tongues are found only in tropical and semitropical regions. Three species of vampire bats, which do not occur in the Holy Land, eat blood by making a small incision and lapping it up. Carnivorous (meat-eating) bats prey on birds, lizards, and frogs. Fish-eating bats catch fish at or near the water surface.<\/p>\nEight varieties of bats are known in the Holy Land. One of them, the little brown bat (genus Myotis<\/em>), is worldwide in its distribution. It is insectivorous and probably has the widest distribution of any nonhuman terrestrial mammal. Brown bats are mostly cave dwellers. The females form maternity colonies that may number in the tens of thousands.<\/p>\nTwo species of mouse-tailed bats (genus Rhinopoma<\/em>) are found in the Holy Land. Their tails are nearly as long as the head and body combined. They are colonial, roosting in caves, rock clefts, wells, pyramids, palaces, and houses. Like the brown bat, they are insectivorous. The slit-faced or hollow-faced bats (genus Nycteris<\/em>) are also found in the Holy Land. They are insectivorous and roost in groups from 6 to 20.<\/p>\nThe bats found in the Holy Land vary in size from that of a mouse to the size of a rat; the largest species measures more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) across the wings. The bat was unclean to the Jews (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\nBear<\/p>\nLarge, heavy, big-headed mammal with short, powerful limbs, a short tail, and small eyes and ears. Bears have a “plantigrade” walk: they walk on both the sole and heel as humans do. The Palestinian bear is a Syrian version of the brown bear (Ursus arctos syriacus).<\/em> It can grow to a height of 6 feet (1.8 meters) and may weigh as much as 500 pounds (227 kilograms).<\/p>\nBears have an excellent sense of smell but less developed senses of sight and hearing. They are omnivorous (eating any kind of food); they subsist largely on vegetation, fruits, insects, and fish.<\/p>\nBears are usually peaceful and inoffensive, but if they think they must defend themselves (Lam 3:10) or their young (2 Sm 17:8; Prv 17:12; Hos 13:8), they may be formidable and dangerous adversaries. David boasted of his role as a bear killer (1 Sm 17:34-37). Since a blow from a bear’s paw can be fatal, David’s courage and strength as a young shepherd in running after a bear and wrenching one of his father’s sheep from its jaws were noteworthy.<\/p>\nSome biblical passages seem to imply that bears attacked for no apparent reason (e.g., Prv 28:15; Am 5:19). At other times they were God’s instruments of punishment, as in the story of Elisha and the two she-bears (2 Kgs 2:24). The bear and the lion, often mentioned together in the Bible (1 Sm 17:37), were the two largest and strongest beasts of prey in the Holy Land. Thus they symbolized both strength and terror (Am 5:19).<\/p>\nIn biblical times bears seem to have roamed all over Palestine. Today they are found only in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and even there they are rare.<\/p>\nBee<\/p>\nOne of two domesticated insects (Apis mellifica),<\/em> the other being the silkworm. Bees gather nectar from flowers, transferring pollen from one flower to another in the process. It is believed that they convey the location of sources of nectar to other bees through a bee “dance,” which may indicate both distance and direction. Bees are sensitive to four colors: blue-green, yellow-green, blue-violet, and ultra-violet (invisible to humans).<\/p>\nThe wild bees of the Holy Land are especially noted for their ferocity in attack. Only the female “worker” bees sting people and animals, the virulence of their venom increasing in warm weather. A number of biblical passages allude to the irritable, vindictive nature of bees and to the painful stings they inflict (Dt 1:44; Ps 118:12; Is 7:18).<\/p>\nOne reference calls attention to the fact that in semidesert regions a dead animal’s carcass, stripped to the bone by jackals or vultures and dried in the sun, can provide wild bees an excellent place to start a new colony (Jgs 14:5-9).<\/p>\nThe Egyptians considered the bee sacred. In ancient Greece candles were made from beeswax. In the Holy Land, beekeeping was probably not practiced until the Hellenistic period (second century BC<\/span>), although Ezekiel 27:17 suggests that it may have been practiced earlier. If domestic honey was not available to the Hebrews, wild honey certainly was, and travelers would be on the lookout for caches of honey in rocky clefts and other likely places. The Philistines and the Hittites practiced beekeeping in their cities.<\/p>\nThe Bible contains many references to bees and bee products. A bee swarm was a valuable asset, though the price of honey itself was low. Honey was sometimes eaten with the honeycomb (Sg 5:1). Honey also had uses other than food, e.g., in embalming.<\/p>\nThe land of Israel was described as a land flowing with milk and honey. Honey was a major source of sweetening in the ancient Near East—hence, its importance (cf. Jgs 14:8-9). Actually the Hebrew word for “honey” may include not only bee honey but also the sweet syrup extracted from such fruits as figs, dates, and grapes. Thus “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ex 3:8, rsv<\/span>) does not necessarily stand for a land of bees but for a land rich in sweetness.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Honey.<\/p>\nBehemoth<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Hippopotamus (below).<\/p>\nCamel<\/p>\nLarge beast of burden. Unintelligent, ill-natured, and quarrelsome, the camel (Camelus dromedarius)<\/em> is nevertheless a blessing to people living in the desert and on its borders because it is especially adapted to that habitat. It has been called the ship of the desert. Having thick elastic pads of fibrous tissue on its feet, it can walk on hot desert sands. It can go without water for long periods and can subsist on vegetation growing on the saline soils. The camel’s nostrils are pinched together and can be closed at will to prevent penetration of sand during violent sandstorms.<\/p>\nCamels are used for transporting both goods and people. A person riding a camel can cover from 60 to 75 miles (96.5 to 121 kilometers) in a day. A camel can carry a load weighing 600 pounds (272 kilograms) or more. Camels were used heavily in the spice trade (Gn 37:25) and traveled regularly in camel trains between Arabia, Egypt, and Assyria. They were also ridden in time of war (Jgs 6:5). A camel can even be hitched to a plow in areas where the land is cultivated.<\/p>\nThe hair shed by camels during the early spring is preserved and used in weaving cloth and making tents. As much as 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of hair can be obtained from one camel. A rough cloak of camel’s hair, as worn by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4), is still worn by Bedouins today. A camel’s hair garment was also the sign of the prophetic office (Zec 13:4).<\/p>\nTwo varieties of camel occur within the one-humped species, the slow burden-bearing camel referred to in Genesis 37:25 and the fast dromedary of 1 Samuel 30:17. The dromedary can stand seven feet (2.1 meters) tall and measure as much as nine feet (2.7 meters) from the muzzle to the tip of the tail. With its three-chambered stomach, which can hold from 15 to 30 quarts (14.2 to 28.4 liters) of liquid, it can go for as long as 5 days during the summer or 25 days in winter without drinking. The camel’s hump is a reserve store of fat, making it possible for the animal to subsist on very little food during a desert journey.<\/p>\nAnother species of camel, the Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus),<\/em> is also resident in the Holy Land. It has two humps. It is heavier, bigger, and has longer hair than the one-humped camel and is slower than the swift dromedary. Isaiah 21:7 may refer to the Bactrian camel; both kinds of camel are referred to in Esther 8:10 (kjv<\/span>). Camels ranked in importance with sheep, cattle, and asses in OT times. A third of the 66 biblical references to the camel lists it with other animals.<\/p>\nCamels are ruminants (cud-chewing mammals) but do not have cloven hooves. Thus, they were included in the list of unclean beasts, forbidden by the Israelites as food (Lv 11:4; Dt 14:7). They are eaten by Arabs, however, who also drink their milk (cf. Gn 32:15).<\/p>\nAbraham had camels in Egypt (Gn 12:16). At first Job had 3,000 camels (Jb 1:3) and after his recovery, 6,000 (Jb 42:12). Although wide use of camels does not seem to have begun until shortly before 1000 BC<\/span> (Jgs 6:5), Sumerian texts from the Old Babylonian period list camels and indicate that they had been domesticated. Camel bones and figurines have been found at various eastern archaeological sites dating from well before 1200 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\nCaterpillar<\/p>\nLarval stage of insects characterized by complete metamorphosis. Such insects pass through four stages: egg, larva or caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Bees, flies, moths, and butterflies all pass through a larval or caterpillar stage.<\/p>\nThe word “caterpillar” occurs three times in the nlt<\/span> (1 Kgs 8:37; 2 Chr 6:28; Ps 78:46). In the book of Joel that same Hebrew word is translated “locust” (1:4; 2:25, nlt<\/span>). The locust and grasshopper to which the Hebrew word refers have an incomplete type of metamorphosis with only three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The nymph is a miniature adult in which the wings are not fully developed, though their outline may be present. There are several nymph stages known as instars. The reference is to one of the last instars, in which the wing structures are still folded together and enclosed in a sac but are nevertheless clearly recognizable. That form of the insect is about an inch (2.5 centimeters) long.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\nCattle<\/p>\nDomestic animals of the bovine species (Bos primigenius).<\/em> The OT often emphasized the beauty of cattle. Egypt was rich in cattle, especially in the Nile River delta area (Goshen), where the Hebrews settled under Joseph.<\/p>\nSome scholars believe that milk rather than meat was the foremost consideration in the domestication of cattle and that in early civilizations meat supplies came chiefly from wild game. Cattle also supplied strong hides that supplanted wood in the manufacture of shields. Their dung was a source of fuel when wood was scarce (Ez 4:15). They were used as beasts of burden and for plowing. Development of wheeled transportation was associated more closely with cattle than with any other animal.<\/p>\nThe biblical term “cattle” often refers to all domesticated animals or livestock (Gn 1:24; 2:20; 7:23; 47:6, 16-17; Ex 9:3-7; Nm 3:41, 45). Occasionally, the term was used to refer to all large domestic animals (Nm 31:9; 32:26), although sometimes the word as used in the kjv<\/span> refers only to sheep and goats (Gn 30:32, 39, 43; 31:8, 10; Is 7:25; 43:23).<\/p>\nProbably several kinds of cattle were domesticated in the Holy Land. Small, short-legged, black or brown shorthorn cattle were found in the southern part of Judah; that type submitted easily to the yoke and was prominent in agricultural operations. Along the coast a larger variety was found, and the wild districts east of the Jordan River were populated with a breed of huge black cattle.<\/p>\nCattle breeding was widely practiced by the patriarchs (cf. Gn 32:15; Jb 21:10). Strict laws in Mesopotamia, as well as in Israel, penalized the owner of a bull that gored a man or other cattle (Ex 21:28-36). Bulls were sometimes employed figuratively as pictures of strength or violence (Dt 33:17; Pss 22:12; 68:30; Is 10:13). For breeding purposes one bull is normally adequate for about 30 cows, but many more were kept since bulls were widely used in Israel for sacrifices. They might be used as a general sacrifice (Lv 22:23; Nm 23:1) or for special sacrifices (Jgs 6:25; 1 Sm 1:24). Particular sacrifices were offered at the consecration of priests (Ex 29:1), consecration of an altar (Nm 7), purification of the Levites (Nm 8), sin offerings (Lv 16), day of the new moon (Nm 28:11-14), Passover (Nm 28:19), Feast of Weeks (Nm 28:27), Feast of Trumpets (Nm 29:1-2), Day of Atonement (Nm 29:7-9), and the Feast of Tabernacles (Nm 29:12-38). The Feast of Tabernacles required the largest number of bulls for burnt offerings of all the annual feasts, with a total of 71 being slaughtered during the course of eight days.<\/p>\nCalves were sometimes referred to as “sons of the herd” in the original Hebrew (Gn 18:8; 1 Sm 6:7; 14:32). The calf, a symbol of peacefulness (Is 11:6), was also used figuratively to refer to the weak (Ps 68:30). A calf’s head decorated the back of Solomon’s throne (1 Kgs 10:19). Calves were sometimes fattened in stalls to keep them from running off weight in the field (Am 6:4; Mal 4:2; Lk 15:23) or were kept around the house; the witch of Endor kept a calf in her house that she killed and served to Saul and his men (1 Sm 28:24-25). Calves supplied veal (Gn 18:7), considered a delicacy by the wealthy; Amos referred to stall-fattened calves in a denunciation of luxurious and careless living (Am 6:4). Calves also supplied meat for all Saul’s armies at the great slaughter of the Philistines (1 Sm 14:32). The “fatted calf” served roasted or boiled was gourmet fare, suitable for the finest banquet (Gn 18:7; Mt 22:4; Lk 15:23).<\/p>\nCattle were subject to the law of firstlings (Ex 13:12). They were a mark of wealth (Gn 13:2) and were considered proper booty of war (Jos 8:2). Aaron, the first high priest, made a golden calf as a rival to the ark of the covenant (Ex 32; Dt 9:16, 21). Even though he represented the calf as an image of the invisible God, it was especially offensive because the calf was a fertility symbol related to Egyptian and Canaanite practices. Two calves were later made by Jeroboam I of Israel (930–909 BC<\/span>) for his shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:28-33). Hosea’s prophetic denunciations of calf worship were directed at those shrines (Hos 8:5-6; 13:2).<\/p>\nAn ox is an adult castrated bull. A steer is a young ox. Oxen were used to do work (Nm 7:3; Dt 22:10; 25:4), though for moving heavy objects, cows were typically favored over bulls because of their more docile nature. Oxen were also used as pack animals (1 Chr 12:40, although they did not have the endurance of the ass, camel, or mule. They usually fed on grass (Nm 22:4; Ps 106:20), but they also ate straw (Is 11:7) and salted fodder (Is 30:24) and could be kept in a stable (Lk 13:15). Oxen could not be offered as sacrifices because they had been castrated (Lv 22:24). They could be used for food but were rarely eaten. Possession of an ox and an ass was regarded as the bare minimum for existence in the ancient Palestinian agriculture economy (Jb 24:3; cf. Ex 20:17).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Agriculture; Food and Food Preparation; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\nChameleon<\/p>\nLizard characterized by its ability to change color according to its surroundings (Chameleon vulgaris).<\/em> To the Israelites the chameleon was ritually unclean (Lv 11:30). The Hebrew word for chameleon is derived from a word meaning “to pant.” A lizard’s lungs are very large, and in ancient times lizards were believed to live on air. A chameleon’s eyes move independently of each other; so at times one eye may be turned upward and the other downward. Chameleons live in trees and bushes, clinging to branches with their long tails.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\nCoral<\/p>\nCalcareous (lime-containing) skeletons of relatively simple marine organisms (Corallium rubrum).<\/em> Red coral from the Mediterranean and Red Seas is widely used for jewelry and for medicinal purposes. While the animal is alive, the coral is green in color and shrublike in appearance, looking rather like an underwater plant since the coral animals are immobil. When the coral is removed from the water, it becomes hard and red in color.<\/p>\nIn ancient times coral was sometimes used as money, along with precious stones, pearls, and gold. Some believe the biblical reference in Lamentations 4:7 (rsv<\/span>) is to pearls rather than to coral, but it is probable that the references in Job 28:18 and Ezekiel 27:16 are to the red coral (see nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nCricket<\/p>\nInsect of the order Orthptera related to grasshoppers and locusts. According to Leviticus 11:22, the cricket was edible. The reference may be to one of the growth stages of the locust.<\/p>\nThe kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word as “beetle.” Beetles are insects with chewing mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the fore pair being hard and sheathlike and the hind pair being membranous and folded under the fore pair. Some beetles are carnivorous, others are chiefly herbivorous. Some are aquatic, some produce a secretion that blisters the skin, some damage fabrics, some damage crops, and some feed on other insects that are harmful to humans. In ancient Egypt the beetle, or sacred scarab, was a symbol of the sun god Ra. Scarab seals and amulets were extremely popular in Egypt.<\/p>\nCrocodile<\/p>\nLargest of all existing reptiles (Crocodilus vulgaris),<\/em> attaining a length of well over 20 feet (6 meters). Crocodiles are characterized by large lizardlike bodies supported by short legs. The head terminates in a flattened snout armed with strong conical teeth, each of which is implanted in a distinct socket. New teeth growing from beneath continually replace those in use. The toes are webbed. The back and tail are protected by quadrangular horny shields of varying sizes arranged in regular rows and in contact with one another at the edges. The eyes are covered with movable lids that can be closed when the animal enters the water.<\/p>\nThe crocodile spends most of its time in the water where it feeds mainly on fish but also on aquatic birds and even small animals that come down to the water’s edge to drink. It is surprisingly fast and agile on dry land, even though its legs are so short that its belly and tail drag across the earth leaving a distinct path.<\/p>\nUntil the beginning of the 20th century, the crocodile was found in the marshes and small coastal rivers of western Palestine. A first-century Roman writer, Pliny, referred to a place in the Holy Land called Crocodeilopolis (“crocodile city”) to the south of Mt Carmel, and visitors to the Holy Land as late as the 19th century reported seeing crocodiles in that general region.<\/p>\nThe description of “Leviathan” in Job 41 seems to be based on the crocodile (thus the translation of the nlt<\/span>). The “dragon” of Ezekiel 29:3, used figuratively of the Egyptian pharaoh, may be a reference to the crocodile.<\/p>\nDeer<\/p>\nLarge ruminant (cud-chewing) animals. Only the males have antlers (branching horns). Deer antlers grow annually and are solid, in contrast to those of the antelope and the gazelle. Fully developed antlers are devoid of any covering of skin or horn and, for all practical purposes, may be regarded as a mass of dead bone carried for a certain time by the living animal.<\/p>\nThe end of the deer’s muzzle is naked in all species. The stomach is divided into a series of compartments, some of which are used to store partly chewed food. The food is later regurgitated, rechewed, and finally swallowed into a section of the stomach where true digestion takes place.<\/p>\nThree species of deer were known in Palestine: the red deer (Cervus elaphus),<\/em> the Persian fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica),<\/em> and the roe deer (Capreolus capreolus).<\/em> All are now extinct there. The last deer were hunted in the Holy Land in 1914. The red deer referred to in the Bible as “hart” (male), “stag” (male), or “hind” (female) stood about four feet (1.2 meters) high at the shoulder. It was gregarious (living in herds or flocks), each group remaining in a definite territory. Red deer grazed and browsed during the morning and late afternoon (Lam 1:6). The sexes remained in separate herds. The red deer was known for its leaping (Is 35:6) and sure-footedness in the mountains (Ps 18:33; Sg 2:8-9, 17; 8:14; Hb 3:19).<\/p>\nThe antlers of the Persian fallow deer (1 Kgs 4:23) were large, flattened, and palmated (shaped like an open palm with fingers extended), and its coat was a yellowbrown. It traveled in small groups, feeding mainly on grass in the morning and evening.<\/p>\nThe roe deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23) was a small, graceful animal, dark reddish brown in summer and yellowish gray in winter. Its antlers were about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and had three points. The roe deer preferred sparsely wooded valleys and the lower slopes of mountains, grazing in open grasslands. It usually associated in family groups made up of the doe and her offspring. They were shy, yet very curious. The roe deer barked like a dog when disturbed, and they were excellent swimmers.<\/p>\nThere is some question as to whether the roe deer is actually referred to in such passages as 1 Kings 4:23; references may be to the fallow deer, although that animal does not seem to have lived in the southern part of Palestine around the Sinai Desert because of its need for ample amounts of food and water. Fallow deer were found in northern Palestine.<\/p>\nThe hart (the male red deer) was listed among the clean beasts that Jewish law permitted as food (Dt 12:15, 22; 14:5), but deer were not listed among the animals appropriate for sacrifice. The hind (female red deer) normally gave birth to one calf at a time, though twins were born with some degree of regularity (Jb 39:1; Ps 29:9, kjv<\/span>; Jer 14:5). The gestation period was about 40 weeks. When it was about to give birth, the hind looked for a secure hiding place, preferably in the dense undergrowth of the forest where it could find natural protection for the tiny calf. During the first few days after birth, the mother never went far from her young. The fawn was able to stand on its own legs a few hours after birth. The solicitous care by the hind for her calf during the first days of its life is hinted at in a touching way in Jeremiah 14:4-5, where only a severe drought is said to drive the hind from her calf. Job 39:1-4 describes the calving of the hinds. The hind illustrated grace and charm (Gn 49:21; Prv 5:19), and its dark, gentle eyes and graceful limbs were used to describe the beauty of a woman (Prv 5:18-19).<\/p>\nDog<\/p>\nProbably the earliest domesticated animal (Canis familiaris),<\/em> used very early in hunting. The modern dog is believed to have come from the Indian wolf (Canis lupus pallipes).<\/em> The dogs of biblical times probably looked like a modern German shepherd, with short pointed ears, a pointed nose, and a long tail.<\/p>\nThe dog was generally looked down upon in biblical times (Prv 26:11; 2 Pt 2:22). The biblical writers did not share modern sentiments about dogs being man’s best friends. The dog was pictured as a scavenger, haunting streets and dumps (Ex 22:31; 1 Kgs 22:38; Mt 15:26; Lk 16:21). Human corpses could become the spoil of dogs (2 Kgs 9:35-36). In general, dogs served the same function as vultures and other birds of prey. Most of the 41 references in the Scriptures to dogs show strong disfavor. Dogs were considered cowardly, filthy creatures.<\/p>\nDogs used in hunting occur in paintings in Egyptian tombs, and there is a reference to dogs herding sheep in Job 30:1. One good quality of dogs highly esteemed by the Israelites was watchfulness (Is 56:10). In general, however, in biblical times “dog” was a term of contempt (1 Sm 17:43; 2 Sm 16:9) and was used of overly submissive persons (2 Sm 9:8; 2 Kgs 8:13) and of evil persons (Is 56:10-11; Mt 7:6; Phil 3:2; Rv 22:15).<\/p>\nDogs, like pigs, were voracious and omnivorous (eating any kind of food). In response to a Gentile woman’s request that he heal her daughter, Jesus used the metaphor of throwing household food scraps to dogs (Mt 15:22-28; Mk 7:25-30). At the time of Jesus, the word “dog” was a standard Jewish term of contempt for Gentiles who, like dogs, were considered unclean, although the diminutive form of the word, used by Jesus, softened this considerably. Seeing her faith, Jesus granted the woman’s request, giving a non-Jew some of “the children’s bread.”<\/p>\nDonkey<\/p>\nBeast of burden. The donkey of the Holy Land (Equus asinus)<\/em> was quite different from the European donkey of today, which is usually a small, stubborn animal. In biblical times the donkey was a beautiful, stately, friendly animal. Its color was usually reddish brown. Three wild races have been described, all from Africa. The race from northwest Africa is extinct; the one from northeast Africa, if not extinct, is close to extinction; the Somalian race, which survives, did not play an important part in domestication. The northeast African race, the Nubian donkey, was evidently domesticated in the Nile River region in early historic times. The donkey was used as a mount from the time of domestication on. It is first mentioned in the Bible among the animals that Abraham acquired in Egypt (Gn 12:16). The donkey was primarily a beast of burden, driven but not bridled. From the time of the Middle Kingdom on (c. 2040 BC<\/span>), it was used for riding in Egypt, but only the Jews and Nubians rode donkeys regularly. The donkey was also used for threshing grain and for pulling the plow. In Arab countries today peasants plow with a donkey and a cow or camel hitched together. In Israel the law forbade plowing with a donkey and an ox hitched together (Dt 22:10). Until the time of Solomon (960 BC<\/span>), horses were not used in Palestine. From that time on, the horse was ridden by warriors; the donkey was used by those who were traveling peaceably.<\/p>\nThe donkey was held in high regard by the Jews and was considered an economic asset. An individual had to have a donkey for minimum existence (Jb 24:3), and wealth was frequently counted by the number of donkeys one possessed (Gn 12:16; 24:35). The donkey was considered an acceptable gift (Gn 32:13-15). It was allowed to rest on the Sabbath (Dt 5:14). Women in biblical times often used the donkey as a riding animal (Jos 15:18; 1 Sm 25:23; 2 Kgs 4:24); often a special driver would help a woman guide the animal, running along at its side. If a married couple possessed only one donkey, the husband usually walked alongside while the wife rode (Ex 4:20).<\/p>\nThe people of Israel returning from Babylon had ten times as many donkeys as horses and camels (Ezr 2:66-67; Neh 7:68-69). Job’s wealth was indicated by the fact that he had 500 she-donkeys before catastrophe hit him (Jb 1:3); after his recovery he had 1,000 donkeys (Jb 42:12). Joseph’s brothers used donkeys to transport the grain they purchased in Egypt (Gn 42:26; 43:24). Abigail transported food on donkeys to David and his troops during their conflict with Saul (1 Sm 25:18). David assigned one of the 12 managers of his royal estates to look after his donkeys exclusively (1 Chr 27:30).<\/p>\nThe onager, or Syrian wild donkey (Equus hemionus hemihippus)<\/em>, is an intermediate between the true horse and the true donkey. Its ears are longer than those of a horse but shorter than those of a donkey. The front hooves are narrow; there are chestnuts (callouslike spots on the inside of the knees) on the front legs only, and the tail is short haired for a long distance from its root so that it appears to be tufted.<\/p>\nThe Sumerians (ancient Mesopotamians) were able to domesticate the onager, which was eventually replaced by the horse. It was used to draw chariots in Ur; a number of onagers were buried with their vehicles in a royal grave that dates from about 2500 BC<\/span>. Later the wild onager was a favorite hunter’s prize for Babylonian and Assyrian kings.<\/p>\nThe onager was very common in the steppe lands near Israel, where it was described as a freedom-loving desert animal (Jb 24:5; 39:5-8; Ps 104:11; Is 32:14; Jer 2:24; Hos 8:9). Ishmael was described as “free and untamed as a wild donkey” (Gn 16:12, nlt<\/span>)—that is, one who could not adjust to domestic life. Drought seems to have been responsible for the population decline of the onager in biblical times (Jer 14:6). The modern onager (Equus hemionus onager)<\/em> is slightly larger than the Syrian wild donkey that is extinct.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\nDragon<\/p>\nAny one of a number of monstrous land and sea creatures. In biblical usage, “dragon” does not refer to the huge, fire-breathing, winged reptile of European folklore. The translators of the kjv<\/span> used the term to translate two Hebrew words that are usually rendered more precisely in modern translations. One word referred to desert animals; most scholars agree with the niv<\/span> that “jackals” is its proper meaning (Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; Jer 9:11; Mal 1:3). See<\/em> Jackal (below).<\/p>\nThe other Hebrew word translated “dragon” is harder to define. It was frequently used in reference to serpents (so translated in the rsv<\/span>: Ex 7:9-12; Dt 32:33; Ps 91:13). In other rsv<\/span> passages it is translated “sea monster” (Gn 1:21; Jb 7:12; Ps 148:7). The exact identity of such sea monsters is not known. Several rsv<\/span> passages retain the English “dragon.” In two of them (Ps 74:13; Is 27:1), the context indicates that sea monsters are meant. In three others (Is 51:9; Ez 29:3; 32:2) “dragon” seems to refer to the crocodile, a figurative reference to the Egyptian pharaoh at the time of the exodus. Jeremiah 51:34 (translated “monster” in the rsv<\/span>) may also refer to a voracious creature such as a crocodile. See<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\nBabylonian myths described monsters and dragons in primordial conflict with the god Marduk; they represented the principle of evil. In its figurative usages in Scripture, “dragon” has a similar significance, especially in the prophetic books. In the book of Revelation it is a symbol of Satan, the archenemy of God and his people (Rv 12:3-17; 13:2, 4, 11; 16:13; 20:2).<\/p>\nFish<\/p>\nAquatic animals frequently mentioned in the Bible without names or descriptions that enable us to identify the particular species. Since time immemorial, fish have constituted one of the staple foods of humanity, and they still serve as the chief source of protein in many parts of the world. The trade in fish was highly developed in biblical times. For example, one of the gates in Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3; Zep 1:10). The law in Leviticus 11:9-12 permitted the Jews to eat fish, but only those having both fins and scales. Scaleless fish such as catfish were forbidden, even though they had fins.<\/p>\nEgyptian paintings depict various methods of fishing, and the Philistines fished in the Mediterranean Sea. Since the people of Israel were not a seafaring nation, it is safe to assume that most of their fish came from freshwater lakes and rivers, especially the Sea of Galilee. Some 36 species of fish have been identified in that lake, including varieties of perch, carp, barbel, “sardine,” and catfish.<\/p>\nThe method of fishing characteristic of NT times was the dragnet. After a boat had put out into the deep (Lk 5:4), a large net would be thrown out from it and then dragged toward shore by the rowers in the boat, possibly with the help of a crew in another boat. The catch was sorted out on shore (Mt 13:47-48). Fishing was usually carried out at night when the coolness of the water brought fish closer to the surface and when they could not see the approaching nets.<\/p>\nThe Jews also fished by hook and line (Mt 17:27), a few by spear (Jb 41:7), and some by the throw net (Ez 47:10). Habakkuk refers to hook-and-line fishing, netting, and seining (1:15).<\/p>\nVery early in the history of the Christian church the fish became a symbol for Christ and the faith. It was scratched on the walls of Roman catacombs and may be seen today decorating walls, altars, pews, and vestments. The symbol came into use because the Greek word for “fish” (<\/em>ichthus<\/span>)<\/em> is composed of the first letter of each word in the Greek phrase “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” See<\/em> Whale (below).<\/p>\nFlea<\/p>\nTiny, irritating insect (1 Sm 24:14; 26:20, nlt<\/span>). Many species of fleas occur in Palestine, the most common being Pulex irritans.<\/em> About a thousand species are known around the world. Fleas are wingless parasites that have sharp jaws and suck out blood from the bodies of humans and animals. The body is wedge shaped, enabling the flea to burrow into folds of skin and hide there. The eggs, laid by the female in dust heaps in the corners of rooms, hatch into small, white larvae that pupate (a nonfeeding stage) in a cocoon. Soon adult fleas appear that immediately attach themselves to the body of a host. The female requires blood for the development of her eggs.<\/p>\nA flea bite is painful and causes some swelling and itching. Fleas are attracted by warmth. With favorable moisture and temperature, adult fleas can live a year or longer without food, but they are voracious feeders. The most dangerous fleas are those of the rat that transmit the organism responsible for bubonic plague. There were 41 recorded epidemics of bubonic plague before the Christian era.<\/p>\nFly<\/p>\nInsects of the order Diptera, which have one pair of wings. Many winged insects of other orders, however, are also called flies, such as the dragonfly or butterfly.<\/p>\nAs in almost all parts of the world, flies are abundant in Palestine. One of the most numerous is the common housefly (Musca domestica),<\/em> found chiefly around dung heaps and garbage. The female lays her eggs, out of which emerge white maggots that feed on refuse. After a few days the maggot develops into a cocoon out of which emerges the adult housefly. In the summer the whole cycle lasts about 12 days, so that a fly can breed about 20 generations a year.<\/p>\nAnother fly common to Palestine is the botfly (family Oestridae). It causes much discomfort among livestock by irritating them and spreading diseases. Tabanid flies (family Tabanidae), including the horsefly (genus Tabanus<\/em>) and related species, are also found in Palestine. Both the botfly and horsefly are known as gadflies because of the persistent distress they inflict. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar is spoken of as a gadfly in view of his invasion of Egypt (Jer 46:20).<\/p>\nThe fourth plague in Egypt just before the exodus featured “swarms of flies” (Ex 8:21-31, nlt<\/span>; cf. Pss 78:45; 105:31). Those swarms may have been made up of any or all the flies mentioned above. The maggots mentioned in Job 25:6 and Isaiah 14:11 and the worms in Exodus 16:24 and Job 7:5 and 17:14 were probably fly larvae.<\/p>\nA proverb quoted in Ecclesiastes 10:1 probably refers to the housefly, which would be attracted to an open, perfumed ointment bottle. Once inside it would drown and eventually decay, causing the ointment to spoil and stink. The fly is also referred to in Isaiah 7:18 where it symbolizes Egypt. Isaiah may have had in mind a horsefly (Tabanus arenivagus)<\/em> that attacks both humans and animals.<\/p>\nPhilistine inhabitants of the city of Ekron worshiped a god named Baal-zebul, meaning “Lord of the high places.” The Hebrews mockingly spoke of Baal-zebub, meaning “Lord of the flies” (2 Kgs 1:2). The NT form is Beelzebub (e.g., Mt 10:25; 12:24, 27).<\/p>\nFox<\/p>\nSmall, doglike carnivore with a bushy tail that is about half its body length. The red fox of the Holy Land (Vulpes palaetinae)<\/em> is similar to the North American red fox; it is smaller than a wolf and is normally a nocturnal solitary animal. The omnivorous fox eats almost any kind of food—fruits, plants, mice, beetles, and birds—but seldom touches carrion. It loves the sweet juice of grapes, but it also burrows underground tunnels that can destroy the vines (Sg 2:15). The fox is intelligent and known for its slyness (Lk 13:32). It has considerable endurance and can run at speeds up to 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour. The Jews rebuilding Jerusalem’s wall were taunted by the wisecrack that even a fox jumping on their wall would knock it over (Neh 4:3).<\/p>\nThe Egyptian fox (Vulpes niloticus)<\/em> is found in the central and southern parts of the Holy Land. It is somewhat smaller than the common red fox. Its back is rust colored and its belly light. The Syrian fox (Vulpes flavescens)<\/em> that lives in the northern part of the Holy Land is shiny gold in color.<\/p>\nSome OT references such as Psalm 63:10 and Lamentations 5:18 are translated “fox” in the kjv<\/span> but probably refer to jackals. Jackals, not foxes, hunt in packs and tend to act as scavengers.<\/p>\nFrog<\/p>\nAmphibian (genus Rana<\/em>), living part of its life in the water and part on land.<\/p>\nFrogs and toads are covered with soft, hairless skin and lack a tail in the adult stage. The hind legs are much longer and more powerfully developed than the forelegs so that the animals are able to jump large distances. It has been suggested that the frog referred to in Scripture is an edible one, Rana ridibunda,<\/em> one of the aquatic frogs found in Egypt and in the stagnant waters of the Holy Land.<\/p>\nThe female frog lays her eggs in the water; after about a week the eggs hatch into tadpoles. Gradually through metamorphosis the tail is lost and limbs are acquired. Frogs must maintain a moist skin since they take oxygen through the skin as well as through their lungs; thus they must always remain close to water. They feed on insects and worms.<\/p>\nFrogs are found throughout the Palestinian lowlands, where their croaking is heard in the spring and on summer evenings. The Israelites seem to have associated frogs primarily with sliminess and foulness. They fell into the category of creeping or swarming creatures, which in general were ritually unclean (Lv 11:29-31). Since the frog was not specifically listed, however, rabbis did not consider it one of the animals that defiled human beings through contact.<\/p>\nIn Revelation 16:13 certain foul spirits are said to look like frogs. The ancient Egyptians made the frog a symbol of life and birth and an image of Heqet, the patron goddess of birth. She is depicted with a frog’s head giving life to the newborn. Thus that deity was discredited when the power of God afflicted Egypt in the second of the ten plagues on the Egyptians with the very animal that was her symbol (Ex 8:1-14; Pss 78:45; 105:30). The frog in question may have been the spotted frog of Egypt (Rana punctata,<\/em> or Rana ridibunda).<\/em><\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\nGazelle<\/p>\nSmall, dainty, graceful antelope with hollow recurved horns on both sexes. Two varieties exist in the Holy Land, the dorcas gazelle (Gazella dorcas),<\/em> which is pale fawn in color and up to 22 inches (56 centimeters) tall, and the Arabian gazelle (Gazella arabica),<\/em> which is a dark smoky color and up to 25 inches (63.5 centimeters) tall.<\/p>\nGazelles are still quite common throughout the desert and steppe areas of the Holy Land, especially in the Negev Desert. Herds usually consist of from 5 to 10 animals, but some varieties assemble in large migratory herds in the fall to relocate to lower elevations and new feeding grounds. Gazelles are herbivorous (plant eating). They are very shy and post guards to warn the herd of approaching danger.<\/p>\nIn biblical times the gazelle was probably the game animal most hunted by the Jews (Prv 6:5; Is 13:14). Pharaoh Tutankhamen hunted gazelles and ostriches. The gazelle is said to have graced Solomon’s table (1 Kgs 4:23). Gazelles were not easy to catch because of their great speed (2 Sm 2:18; 1 Chr 12:8; Prv 6:5); they surpass the deer in swiftness. They were trapped in various ways—encircled with nets, driven into enclosures with pitfalls, or forced into narrow valleys and shot with arrows. The Bedouin hunt gazelle with falcons and dogs; the falcon annoys the gazelle, striking it on the head and injuring it so that the dogs can overtake it.<\/p>\nThe gazelle is referred to in Song of Songs 2:9, 17; 4:5; 7:3; 8:14, where it is an image of feminine beauty.<\/p>\nGecko<\/p>\nReptile of the family Gekkonidae, referred to in Leviticus 11:30. In Jewish food law it was a ritually unclean lizard. There are seven species of geckos in the Holy Land (including Hemidactylus turcicus<\/em> and Ptyodactylus hasselquistii,<\/em> all insectivorous—insect eating). The gecko makes a low mourning sound by vibrating its tongue rapidly against the roof of its mouth. In legend the gecko was said to cause leprosy by crawling across a person’s body.<\/p>\nAnother name for the gecko is the wall lizard, so named because it can walk upside down on ceilings with the aid of the suction discs on its toes—but it often plops down into the middle of the home. Since it was considered unclean, such an intrusion would have been a disgusting nuisance to Jewish households (Lv 11:31-38).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\nGnat<\/p>\nAny very small fly, in common and biblical usage. According to the nlt<\/span>, the third plague in Egypt before the exodus consisted of gnats (Ex 8:16-18; Ps 105:31). The kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word there as “lice,” but the breeding pattern described in Exodus 8—insects rising from the dust—seems to fit gnats better than lice. Since “gnat” is a general term, the small flies of that plague may have included several small species such as mosquitos, harvester gnats, midges, or sand flies.<\/p>\nThe sand fly inflicts a far more painful bite than the mosquito. Further, it does not betray itself by a buzzing noise in flight and is so small that it penetrates most mosquito netting.<\/p>\nGnats were drawn to wine while it was fermenting. The Pharisees in particular would strain their wine to avoid consuming unclean insects (Mt 23:24).<\/p>\nGoat<\/p>\nCloven-hooved mammals (genus Capra<\/em>) with large eyes and big, floppy ears that constantly twitch. Both males and females have backward arching horns. The Palestinian goat is a ruminant (cud-chewing animal) of lighter build than the sheep.<\/p>\nThe goat was probably the earliest ruminant to be domesticated. Its wild ancestor seems to have been the Gezoar goat (Capra aegagrus).<\/em> Wild goats are believed to have been domesticated very early in Palestine. The goat of Bible times was probably the Syrian or Mamber variety (Capra hircus mambrica).<\/em> Domesticated goats may have as many as four kids in a litter, whereas wild goats bear only one or two.<\/p>\nThe Palestinian goat was commonly black. Speckled and spotted goats were a rarity, and for that reason Jacob’s request for those goats in Genesis 30:32 appeared very modest. There may also have been red goats (cf. 1 Sm 16:12; 19:13, where goat’s hair was used to imitate David’s hair, which was “ruddy” or auburn).<\/p>\nAlmost every part of the goat was used by the Israelites. The whole goat was used for sacrifice. Its flesh served as meat (Lv 7:23; Dt 14:4), and it was the principal source of milk (Prv 27:27). Goats were sheared in the late spring, and the goat hair was used for weaving tent cloth and for various domestic purposes (Ex 36:14; 1 Sm 19:13, 16). The tabernacle at Mt Sinai was made of goat’s hair blankets (Ex 26:7).<\/p>\nAdult male goats were generally not eaten because of their strong flavor and toughness and also because they were necessary to insure the flock’s increase. Young kids, however, were usually the chief meat for a feast and were offered to visitors as a symbol of hospitality. Goat milk is richer than the milk of cows and sheep and evidently had broader uses. A good goat gives three quarts of milk a day, from which a rich butter and buttermilk can be made. The average Hebrew family could have lived almost entirely on a single goat’s production.<\/p>\nGoatskin was tanned as leather, and the whole hide was turned into a skin bottle by sewing shut leg and neck apertures (Gn 21:14; Jos 9:4). Goatskin had many uses, including the construction of Hebrew musical instruments. The nebal, a large harp, was made with goatskin for its base sound. Drums had goatskin coverings.<\/p>\nGoats were herded with sheep in biblical times, but each group remained separate following its own bell-laden leader. Jesus was evidently referring to their common herding in his description of the Last Judgment (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\nBecause of their wool, sheep are valued more than goats. However, where pasture and water are scarce and thorny shrubs dominate over grass, sheep are difficult to keep and goats become important. They can live under conditions that suit neither cows nor sheep, producing large quantities of milk. The goat does not supply fat as the sheep does, and since its hair is coarse its wool is rather scarce. Goat-hair cloth called cilicium was used to make tents.<\/p>\nGoats have voracious appetites. They also were responsible for much damage done to the land of Palestine, breaking down terraces, destroying forests, and bringing about soil erosion by eating off all cover.<\/p>\nThe goat was recognized as a form of wealth, subject to the law of firstlings (Nm 18:17). It had to be eight days old before it could be offered as a sacrifice. A year-old male goat was one of the animals offered at the Passover (28:22), and two goats were offered on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:7-10). The goat was also used for other specific sacrifices.<\/p>\nThe ibex, a type of wild goat (Capra ibex nubiana),<\/em> still lives in small numbers on the cliffs close to the Dead Sea. That it was known in ancient times is evident from rock carvings. It is distinguished from the true wild goat by having a more compact rump and horns that are slender and curved back. Its slender legs and sharp cloven hooves enable it to cling to narrow rock ledges, to jump between them, and to climb steep cliffs.<\/p>\nUsually the ibex is found in rugged mountain country among rocky crags and meadows just below the snow line (Ps 104:18). In Job 39:1 they are referred to as “mountain goats.” They frequently gather in herds of 5 to 20. They graze and browse, being active in the afternoon and sometimes feeding through the night. The large horn of the ibex was at one period made into the shofar that was blown in the second Jerusalem temple to announce the new year and the jubilee year.<\/p>\nThe goat was often used in a figurative and symbolic sense by the writers of the Bible: in Song of Songs 4:1 and 6:5 for the bride’s black hair; in Matthew 25:31-46 for the wicked; and in Ezekiel 34:17 and Daniel 8:5-8 for various human leaders.<\/p>\nGrasshopper<\/p>\nLarge insects of the Orthoptera order. They have chewing or biting mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the front pair of which is narrow and somewhat thickened and the hind pair membranous and used for flying. When not in use the flight wings are folded beneath the protective front wings like a fan against the body. By rubbing their wings together, male grasshoppers produce sounds that both males and females can detect. Grasshoppers pass through a partial metamorphosis; the egg hatches into a juvenile nymph that looks like an adult except for its smaller size and undeveloped wings. After several months the nymph becomes a winged adult.<\/p>\nThe terms “grasshopper” and “locust” are often used interchangeably. Actually the locust is a kind of grasshopper. Also confusing is the fact that other insects such as cicadas are sometimes called locusts. The difference between grasshoppers and locusts depends more on behavior than appearance. Grasshoppers are individual insects that lead solitary lives and do not migrate. The same insects when migrating in a swarm are called migratory grasshoppers or locusts. Elimination of their food supply by drought, flood, or fire may lead to migration. Climatic factors such as a warm dry winter also stimulate migrations.<\/p>\nGrasshoppers and locusts have been a staple food in the Middle East and also among the Indians of the American Southwest. To the Israelites the grasshopper was considered ritually clean and could be eaten (Lv 11:22).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\nHare<\/p>\nAnimal of the genus and species Lepus europaeus judaeus, Lepus capensis,<\/em> and Lepus arabicus.<\/em> It is found in open country, often near or on cultivated lands, and in woods, usually deciduous rather than evergreen. It is an herbivorous rodent and is different from the rabbit, which is not found in Palestine. Although it is not a true ruminant according to modern classification (because it does not have a four-chambered stomach), the hare does rechew its food. It has a process of partial regurgitation of material too hard for the cells in the stomach to absorb initially; thus, the hare actually chews food previously swallowed.<\/p>\nNear Eastern hares have very long ears and large hind feet; their feet are well furred. They are similar to American jackrabbits, which are true hares. Hares do not dig or occupy burrows the way rabbits do. Hares are mainly nocturnal and spend their inactive hours hiding in vegetation. They eat grasses and herbaceous matter as well as twigs and young bark of woody plants. Hares breed with great rapidity—the young attaining sexual maturity at six months after birth.<\/p>\nThe hare was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:6; Dt 14:7), evidently because although it appeared to chew its cud, it did not have cloven hooves. Consumption of hares has also been forbidden among the Arabs, Chinese, and Lapps, but the hare was widely hunted by other people in ancient and modern times. Its great speed, prolific breeding, timidity, and caution have saved it from extermination by its many enemies.<\/p>\nHippopotamus<\/p>\nLarge beast of problematic interpretation. Some early interpreters thought it referred to the elephant, others to the wild ox, the mammoth, or any large animal. It was called “behemoth” by the kjv<\/span> translators. Today it is generally agreed that the reference is to the hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius),<\/em> a large, thick-skinned, amphibious mammal, an ungulate (having hooflike toenails) with a large head, a bulky, hairless body, and short legs.<\/p>\nThe description in Job 40:15-24 fits closely the modern hippopotamus (see nlt<\/span>), except for the depiction of the tail. At present the hippopotamus is found only in the rivers of Africa, but there is fossil evidence that it has existed in the Holy Land, perhaps in the swamps of northern Galilee and the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\nThe hippopotamus has highly developed sense organs, placed in such a way that it can see, hear, and smell almost without being seen; its eyes, ears, and nostrils can reach above water while the rest of the animal lies submerged. It has a large mouth, large tusks, and a short, heavy throat. The strong legs are so short that the belly almost reaches the ground when the animal is on the land. The hippopotamus lives on plants and herbs growing in rivers, but if food is scarce there, it forages on land, usually at night. In spite of its heavy body it is surprisingly agile on land.<\/p>\nHorse<\/p>\nPrzewalski’s horse (Equus przewalskii,<\/em> an eastern race that roamed about Mongolia until modern firearms destroyed most of them after World War I) and the tarpan (a western race of southern Russia that became extinct in the Ukraine in 1851). The domesticated horse (Equus caballus)<\/em> seems to have been derived from the tarpan. The original site of domestication is believed to have been Turkestan, a region north of Afghanistan and India, now in Russia. The horse differs from the donkey in that it has shorter ears, a longer mane with a forelock, a long hairy tail, and a soft, sensitive muzzle.<\/p>\nHorses were used in war not only for riding but also for pulling the heavy, springless war chariots. Two kinds of horses were needed for these different purposes, and the Hebrews distinguished between chariot horses and cavalry horses.<\/p>\n\nThe Lord warned the early Israelites against unnecessarily amassing military strength in the form of horses and thereby following the oppressive tactics of the powerful Egyptians (Dt 17:14-16), but the demands of war caused both David and Solomon to import horses from Egypt into their kingdoms and to breed them. Solomon greatly increased the number of horses in the Jewish kingdom and maintained large stables at various cities (1 Kgs 10:26) such as the regional defense centers of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer (1 Kgs 9:15-19). Ahab’s horses are mentioned in 1 Kings 18:5, and records of Shalmaneser III state that Ahab furnished 2,000 chariots to a coalition against Assyria.<\/p>\nIn early Israel, the horse was opposed as a symbol of pagan luxury and of dependence on physical power for defense (Dt 17:16; 1 Sm 8:11; Ps 20:7; Is 31:1). Horse trading, mentioned as early as Genesis 47:17, was carried on by Solomon between Egypt and the Syro-Hittite principalities (1 Kgs 10:28-29). Most biblical references to horses refer to their use in war, but horses were also used for transportation. Riding seems to have been less popular than the use of chariots. Cavalry units were not introduced until the 12th century BC<\/span> by the Medes. Joseph rode in Pharaoh’s second horse-drawn chariot (Gn 41:43), and Absalom made a display by riding a horse-drawn chariot (2 Sm 15:1). Naaman traveled by horse and chariot (2 Kgs 5:9). Later, horses were so common in Jerusalem that the royal palace had a special horse gate (2 Chr 23:15), and a gate of the city itself was known as the Horse Gate (Neh 3:28; Jer 31:40). Mordecai rode a royal horse of King Xerxes as a sign of honor (Est 6:8-11). Horses are often spoken of figuratively (Ps 32:9; “mare,” Sg 1:9; “stallions,” Jer 5:8; 12:5), especially in the context of judgment (Hb 3:8; Zec 1:8; 6:1-8; Rv 6:2-8; 9:17; 19:11-16).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Warfare; Travel.<\/p>\nHyena<\/p>\nStocky carnivore (Hyaena hyaena)<\/em> with coarse hair, an erect mane, and long hairs along the neck and back. Hyenas live in holes among rocks and banks. They are mainly nocturnal but are ordinarily neither noisy nor aggressive. Their cry, however, is a disagreeable, unearthly sound. Hyenas usually feed on carrion, crushing bones with their powerful jaws. If the carrion supply is inadequate, they will kill sheep, goats, or other small animals. When threatened, hyenas growl and erect their mane, but they rarely fight. They are massively built with forelegs longer than the hind legs.<\/p>\nKnown as scavengers in Africa, hyenas eat domestic refuse in the villages. In Palestine the striped hyena is a common predator, preferring rocky territory and even rock tombs. Since hyenas were notorious for raiding the graves of the dead, all Israelites who could afford it arranged for burial in tombs protected by massive stone doors. Absalom, King David’s son who was killed by Joab in the wild, was buried under a huge pile of stones to protect his corpse from molestation by hyenas (2 Sm 18:17).<\/p>\nJackal<\/p>\nCarnivore (Canis aureus)<\/em> smaller than the true wolf and with a shorter tail. It is similar to the fox but has a broader head, shorter ears, and longer legs. The fox is solitary; the jackal tends to be gregarious. Its tail can be drooping or erect, compared with the long horizontal tail of the fox. Jackals usually prowl at night, either singly, in pairs, or in packs through open savannah country. They eat small mammals, poultry, fruit, vegetables, and carrion. They spend their days in thickets and clumps of vegetation. Often they obtain scraps from kills by larger carnivores. Jackals can run at speeds of about 33 miles (53 kilometers) per hour.<\/p>\nThe jackal can reach a height of about 20 inches (51 centimeters), roughly the size of a German shepherd dog. Its back is pale yellow with dark, almost black, flanks. Its lips are black and its ears white on the inside. The howl of the jackal sounds like the crying of a child or the heartrending wail of the bereaved (Mi 1:8; cf. Jb 30:29). To other jackals the howl is merely an invitation calling the pack together for its nocturnal hunting.<\/p>\nOT references are chiefly to jackals prowling around ruined cities and wilderness areas (Neh 2:13; Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; Jer 9:11; 14:6; 49:33; 51:37; Lam 4:3; 5:18; Mal 1:3). Many such references are translated “dragon” in the kjv<\/span>, but “jackal” is more appropriate.<\/p>\nLeech<\/p>\nSegmented worm (class Hirundinea) up to five inches (12.7 centimeters) long with a flat body equipped with suction pads at each end. The mouth, located at the bottom of the front suction pad, has three teeth that the leech uses to pierce the skin of its host. The leech feeds on blood, and its glands secrete an anticoagulant to prevent the blood from clotting. The ordinary medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is abundant in springs and ponds from the Negev Desert to Galilee. It adheres to the bodies of human beings and animals that submerge themselves in water, injects its anticoagulant, and sucks their blood.<\/p>\nThe reference in Proverbs 30:15 is uncertain (see nlt<\/span>) but may be to the parasitic and greedy nature of the horse leech (genus Haemopis<\/em>). The small horse leech enters its host’s mouth and nostrils from water while the animal is drinking. A leech weighing one-half ounce (14.2 grams) has been known to gorge itself with two and a half ounces (71 grams) of concentrated blood and then to exist for 15 months with no more to eat.<\/p>\nLeopard<\/p>\nCalled Panthera pardus tulliana,<\/em> it is the most widespread of all the large wildcats. In rocky areas it lives in caves, but in forested regions it lives in thick vegetation. In OT times many lived in the vicinity of Mt Hermon (Sg 4:8).<\/p>\nThe leopard is somewhat smaller than the tiger, measuring up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length with a tail of about 30 inches (.8 meter). Its body is better proportioned than that of the tiger. The leopard takes its victim by surprise from a silent ambush, often concealing itself near villages or watering places and waiting for its prey, remaining in one spot for long spans of time. The leopard is swift on the ground (Hb 1:8), agile in trees, and very graceful in its movements. Its color is yellowish speckled with black spots (Jer 13:23). Daniel and John saw visions in which leopards were symbols of world powers (Dn 7:6; Rv 13:2).<\/p>\nThe leopard is a wary and cunning animal, formidable and ferocious (Jer 5:6; Hos 13:7; cf. Is 11:6). The leopard is dangerous not only to domestic animals but also to humans. With its natural camouflage it can hide on the forest floor, blending into the changing light and shadows. The Israelites were terrified of the leopard because it constantly ravaged their sheep and goats. Several biblical place names suggest that they were known for the leopards in their vicinity: Nimrah, Beth-nimrah, and Nimrim, a district northeast of the Dead Sea. It has survived in the Holy Land into the present century; a few leopards still exist in remote areas near Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\nLeviathan<\/p>\nSea monster mentioned several times in the Bible (Pss 74:14; 104:26; Is 27:1, nlt<\/span>). It may refer to any of the larger marine animals such as large jellyfish, whales, or sharks, or to a large reptile like the crocodile. Some scholars think “Leviathan” may refer to animals now extinct, such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs (marine reptiles similar to dinosaurs). The scriptural term might also refer to certain dinosaurs that spent part of their lives half-submerged in shallow lakes and oceans. Other scholars believe that most of the references are to the crocodile.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\nLion<\/p>\nLarge, tawny-colored carnivore (Panthera leo)<\/em> that preys chiefly on hoofed mammals and charges by a series of leaps and bounds. Within historic times the lion ranged in Africa, Europe, and the Holy Land. In ancient times the territories of the African and Persian lions met in the Middle East. The lion of the Holy Land was the Asiatic or Persian lion (Panthera leo persica).<\/em><\/p>\nThe males have heavy manes that stop at the shoulders but cover much of the chest. The Persian lion cannot climb and is mainly nocturnal, returning to its lair or a thicket by day (Jer 4:7; 25:38; Na 2:11-12). This lion is about 5 feet (1.5 meters) long with a tasseled tail 30 inches (.8 meter) or so long; its shoulders may reach a height of 35 inches (.9 meter). It is one of the smallest of the lion breeds.<\/p>\nLions are usually found in pairs, though sometimes in larger numbers. A small group is known as a pride. They generally prefer open country but in Palestine evidently prowled the subtropical vegetation of the Jordan River valley. Lions, which usually hunt at dusk, kill smaller animals by a blow of the paw, larger ones by a bite in the throat. A lion does not remain in the same place for more than a few days. The animal is in its prime at about seven years of age, when it weighs from 400 to 600 pounds (181.6 to 272.4 kilograms).<\/p>\nThe lion does not characteristically attack humans, though like other great cats it may become a man-eater (1 Kgs 13:24-28; 20:36; 2 Kgs 17:25-26; Ps 57:4; Dn 6:7-27). Ordinarily, it attacks only out of great hunger or in self-defense. A very young lion that attacks humans can become dangerous if it develops a taste for human flesh. A very old lion, expelled from the pride because it can no longer keep up in the pursuit of antelope or gazelles, may choose humans as a relatively slow-moving prey.<\/p>\nA lion generally roars only on a full stomach—that is, after it has consumed its prey (Ps 22:13; Ez 22:25; Am 3:4). Nevertheless, its roaring arouses fear (Am 3:8; 1 Pt 5:8). The lion is a bold (2 Sm 17:10; Prv 28:1), destructive animal (Ps 7:2; Jer 2:30; Hos 5:14; Mi 5:8), and the enemy of flocks (Am 3:12).<\/p>\nLions were common in biblical times in all parts of the Holy Land. Hebrew has at least seven words for lion and young lion. The lion is referred to about 130 times in the OT—more than any other wild animal. Lions were evidently much less common in NT times. After gradually declining, they became extinct in Palestine shortly after AD<\/span> 1300. The lion was present in Mesopotamia, however, until the end of the 19th century.<\/p>\nLions played an important part in the political and religious symbolism of the Near East (1 Kgs 10:19-20). In Assyria and Babylonia the lion was regarded as a royal beast (Dn 7:4). Oriental monarchs maintained artificial lion pits as places of execution (Ez 19:1-9; Dn 6:7-16). Animals for these were captured in camouflaged nets or pits. To the Jews, the lion was the mightiest of beasts (Prv 30:29-31). Thus, it symbolized leadership (Gn 49:9-10; Nm 24:9) and hence eventually became a title for Christ (Rv 5:5). It was also the ensign of Judah’s tribe and was used by King Solomon in the decoration of his house and the temple.<\/p>\nLizard<\/p>\nReptiles of the suborder Lacertilia. Their skin is covered with scales. The lizard is a useful creature because it captures harmful insects and worms. Like other reptiles, it lays eggs with shells softer than those of a bird and with no clear division between the yolk and the white. Lizards are “cold-blooded” organisms without a temperature-maintenance mechanism; hence, they become inactive in cold weather.<\/p>\nLizards can survive in barren parched countryside. In the Near East they are encountered in great numbers in the Arabian Desert, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Judean wilderness. There may be as many as 44 different species of lizards in the Holy Land.<\/p>\nThe Dabb lizard (genus Uromastyx<\/em>), which attains a length of about 24 inches (61 centimeters), is found in the Negev Desert. It is omnivorous, an unusual trait since most lizards are insectivorous. It has a hard, rough skin, green with brown spots; a short, rounded head; and a powerful tail encircled with a row of strong spines that it uses as a weapon of defense.<\/p>\nLizards are listed as ceremonially unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:29-31). The fact that lizards crawl on their bellies made them unclean. Contact with a lizard’s carcass defiled a law-abiding Jew (Lv 11:32-36). The nlt<\/span> translates the “lizards” of Leviticus 11 as “great lizard,” “gecko,” “monitor lizard,” “sand lizard,” and “chameleon.” The monitor lizard is a large lizard that lives in the deserts of southern Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt. It is up to 55 inches (1.4 meters) long with a long snout and sharp teeth. Other translators and commentators render the original Hebrew in a wide variety of ways, including “tortoise,” “ferret,” “lizard,” “snail,” “mole,” and even “water hen.” The fact that most of the original Hebrew words occur only once in Scripture makes it very difficult to be certain about their appropriate translation.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Gecko (above).<\/p>\nLocust<\/p>\nAn insect of the family Acridiidae.<\/em> It is referred to by at least 12 different names in Scripture. The various Hebrew words may refer to different stages of its development from larva to adult or to the type of damage that it causes. Locusts are characterized by swarming and mass migration. In modern times they have caused extensive and disastrous destruction to vegetation. Grasshoppers do not swarm or migrate en masse, differentiating them from the true locusts.<\/p>\nThe OT mentions several different species of locusts. Leviticus 11:22 seems to refer to the slant-faced (bald) locust and also to the katydid, or long-horned grasshopper. The reference in Deuteronomy 28:42 may be to the mole cricket. In Joel 1:4 and 2:25 and in Nahum 3:16-17, successive stages of the insect’s development are described. The cutting locust (kjv<\/span> “palmerworm”) of Joel is probably the first instar (stage of development), the swarming locusts (kjv<\/span> “locust”) are middle stages, and the hopping locusts (kjv<\/span> “cankerworm”) later instars but not yet fully matured insects. In the adult stage, called destroying locusts (kjv<\/span> “caterpillar”), the color of the locust is reddish brown, which turns to yellow with a brownish network on the wings.<\/p>\nOnly three of the hundreds of varieties of locusts found in Bible lands are capable of multiplying into great swarms, and only the desert locust (Schistocerca gergaria)<\/em> can be considered widespread in all the Bible lands. The desert locust is native to the Sudan (Africa). It is a little over two inches (5 centimeters) long and has a wingspread of some five inches (12.7 centimeters). It shows two phases, a solitary phase and a gregarious phase, with a possible third phase known as transiens. There are differences in the immature and adult forms of the phases in color and physiology.<\/p>\nThe quantity and distribution of rains are important factors in the extent of swarming. Moist soil is needed for depositing the eggs and permitting them to develop. Each female deposits from one to six egg pods, containing 28 to 146 eggs each. The larvae emerge in 15 to 43 days.<\/p>\nIn the gregarious phase (from the second stage of metamorphosis onward), the locust is driven by a strong wandering instinct. Masses of them form a random procession of overflowing locust bodies that ignore any obstruction. They swarm over everything (Jl 2:4-9). The only regulator of their activities is temperature; they are immobilized by high or low temperatures. Taking to wing they may move 1,200 miles (1,930.8 kilometers) from their native home. They fly in compact formations large enough to blot out the light of the sun. Their movement seems to be controlled by hormones, but the direction is influenced by the wind. The swarms consume almost every plant in their path, sparing only the carob, sycamore, castor tree, and oleander bush.<\/p>\nA locust plague was one of the most severe evils to come upon the ancient world (Dt 28:38). Joel 2:1-11 describes a locust plague in graphic terms, using it as a symbol of God’s destroying judgment. Special days of prayer, fasting, and trumpet blowing were prescribed to remove locust plagues (1 Kgs 8:37-38; 2 Chr 6:28-29; Jl 2:12-17). Locusts symbolized powerful and merciless enemies that completely destroyed the earnings of human toil (Jgs 6:5; Is 33:4; Jer 46:23; 51:27; Na 3:15).<\/p>\nBedouins eat locusts raw, roasted, or boiled, preserving them by drying and threading. They are also crushed and ground, and the grist used in cooking or eaten with bread, sometimes mixed with honey and dates. Such was the diet of John the Baptist (Mk 1:6). The Greeks ground locusts in stone mortars to make flour of them.<\/p>\nThe ancients considered the two large hind legs, or jumping legs, as separate limbs and had a special name for them. Hence locusts were described as having four legs, a reference to the four smaller walking legs. “Going on all fours” thus referred to creeping or walking as opposed to jumping and did not mean that the unclean insects had only four legs in all. Because of its two hind jumping legs, the locust was exempted from the prohibition against unclean insects (Lv 11:20-23).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\nMole<\/p>\nRodent (Spalax ehrenbergi)<\/em> from six to nine inches (15 to 23 centimeters) long, which burrows in any area where the soil is suitable for digging; it should be called a mole rat. Common in the Holy Land, large numbers are found in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Isaiah 2:20 refers to the mole, as does Leviticus 11:29-30 (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe mole rat has no tail and is molelike in appearance, but neither true moles nor shrews have ever been found in the Holy Land. The mole rat’s teeth are strong and protruding like those of a squirrel. The neck is short and thick with a plump body shaped like a sausage. The short legs have broad paws with claws adapted for burrowing. The fur is soft, thick, and ashen gray. Its ears and almost sightless eyes, which are no larger than poppyseeds, are hidden in the fur. Folklore taught that touching a mole rat would result in blindness.<\/p>\nIn the wet winter season the mole rat builds breeding mounds resembling those of pocket gophers. It builds less complex resting mounds in the summer, although both have rather elaborate tunnel systems. The mole rat feeds on roots, bulbs, tubers, and various other subterranean plant parts, often doing extensive damage to agriculture.<\/p>\nMoth<\/p>\nInsect of the genus Tineola<\/em> that lays its eggs on wool or furs, its larvae feeding on those materials. The destructive qualities of moths are referred to in several biblical passages (Jb 13:28; Ps 39:11; Is 50:9; Hos 5:12; Mt 6:19-20; Lk 12:33; Jas 5:2). In Isaiah 51:8 “worm” (nlt<\/span>) refers specifically to the larva of the clothes moth. The moth symbolizes disintegration, decay, and weakening. It is only the larvae that do the damage. The adult is quite harmless and feeds mainly on the nectar of flowers. It is easily crushed (Jb 4:19). The clothes moth reproduces in May or June. It enters human dwellings in the evening. A week after the eggs are laid the larvae appear and immediately begin their work of destruction, eating anything within reach made of animal fibers.<\/p>\nThe moth’s destructive activity is done in secret without any sound and without any dramatic appearance, such as a swarm that blots out the sun. In an age when wealth was counted more in possessions than in money, and when among those possessions wool clothing was highly valued, moths could literally cause economic disaster; hence the words of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 6:19-20).<\/p>\nThere are hundreds of species of moths other than the clothes moth in the Holy Land; they are harmless to leaves, flowers, fruit, trees, and seeds. As with the clothes moth, the larvae inflict the damage.<\/p>\nMouse<\/p>\nRodent of the family Muridae, especially genus Mus.<\/em> The mouse was regarded as unclean because, being short legged, it was considered one of the creeping creatures (Lv 11:29). Mice known as commensals live in dwellings and tend to have longer tails and to be darker in color than wild mice, which are active chiefly at night. Mice are good climbers and even good swimmers. Wild mice eat many kinds of vegetation, including seeds, fleshy roots, leaves, and stems. At times they store food.<\/p>\nThe Hebrew word for “mouse” (Lv 11:29; 1 Sm 6:4-5; Is 66:17) is probably a general term for various rats and mice. The root meaning of the Hebrew word “mouse” is “destruction of corn,” a reference to the damage mice do to field crops. At least 23 varieties of mouselike rodents are known in the Holy Land. They cause food spoilage, damage household articles, and transport the host fleas that spread typhus, spotted fever, and bubonic plague. Plague bacteria may have caused the tumors or swellings among the Philistines (1 Sm 6:5). Isaiah 66:17 refers to a pre-exilic Canaanite cultic practice in which mice were eaten; the reference may actually be to the hamster. A number of rodents are eaten by Arabs of the Near East; the gerbil is considered a special delicacy. See<\/em> Mole (above).<\/p>\nMule<\/p>\nHybrid offspring of a male ass and a female horse (Equus asinus mulus),<\/em> ordinarily sterile. The offspring of a female donkey and a stallion (male horse) is known as a hinny and is of little value because of its inferior size.<\/p>\nBecause crossbreeding was forbidden in the law (Lv 19:19), the Israelites procured mules from the Gentiles, perhaps from the Phoenicians, since Tyre (a Phoenician seaport in what is now southern Lebanon) imported horses and mules (Ez 27:14). Mules did not appear in Israel until David’s reign (2 Sm 13:29), possibly because of the rarity of horses among the Hebrews. Mules were used chiefly by members of the royal court and by other nobles. King David rode on a mule, and Solomon rode to his inaugaration on King David’s mule (1 Kgs 1:33). Absalom met his death riding on a mule (2 Sm 18:9). Mules were less common than horses, camels, and asses in the postexilic community (Ezr 2:66). In antiquity Asia Minor was especially noted for breeding fine mules.<\/p>\nMules have long enjoyed a reputation for obstinacy, but that trait is not mentioned in the Bible. The mule is prized for riding and for carrying heavy burdens, especially in warm mountainous regions. They are sure-footed and thrive best in hot, dry climates. The mule has the frugality, endurance, and steady gait of an ass along with the size, strength, swiftness, and courage of a horse. Mules are almost never sick. They live longer than horses. They can carry a load of up to 300 pounds (136 kilograms) as far as 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) a day.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\nPig<\/p>\nMost properly, newborn swine. “Swine” is technically the better name for the species, but it is rarely used in common speech today. The domestic pigs of the Middle East derived from the wild pig (Sus scrofa).<\/em> The pig is the most prolific and abundant supplier of meat and fat for food. A thick layer of fat just under the skin is especially pronounced in domestic breeds. Pigs cannot be driven, so they are of value only to the settled farmer. The Hebrews were originally a nomadic people; therefore, they had little use for an animal closely associated with settled life. An Egyptian prince of about 1500 BC<\/span>, however, is recorded as owning a herd of 1,500 swine.<\/p>\nThe pig is clumsily built, yet lively and able to move with agility and speed. The most conspicuous characteristic of the pig is a truncated, mobile snout terminating in a disc-shaped surface on which the nostrils are located. Most pigs have large tusks in both jaws which grow continuously in life. The tusks of the upper jaw are unique in that they curve upward instead of pointing downward as in most animals. The excrement of a pig has an almost unbearable odor, which clings not only to the pig itself but also to swineherds, who can be identified a long way off.<\/p>\nPigs were never raised in the Holy Land by Jews. The great herd into which Jesus drove the unclean spirits was encountered in the land of the Gadarenes, a non-Jewish area east of the Jordan. The Gadarene demons took refuge in a herd of pigs feeding on a bluff overlooking the Sea of Galilee (Mt 8:28-32).<\/p>\nWild pigs were found in the Holy Land as in many countries today. Psalm 80:13 refers to the destructiveness of a wild boar (the male, or hog) attacking growing crops. A party of wild boars can destroy an entire vineyard or a field of crops in a single night. They devour, trample, and ravage everything within reach.<\/p>\nBoar hunts were common in ancient Mesopotamia. Wild boars do not attack unless molested, but they are dangerous when aroused. They travel in bands of from 6 to 50 and are most active in the evening and early morning hours. The body is covered with stiff bristles and usually some finer hair, but the body covering is often quite scanty. Wild pigs are mainly vegetarian, feeding on roots, nuts, grains, and plant stems. Wild boars were particularly abundant in the mountainous regions of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, in the Jordan River valley, and in wooded sections such as Mt Tabor.<\/p>\nStrict Jews would not even mention swine by name but would always substitute the term “the abomination.” Israelites considered themselves polluted if they were even touched by a swine’s bristle. To the Jews, the pig symbolized filth and ugliness. Pigs will eat fecal material, vermin, rodents, carrion, and the like (2 Pt 2:22). Proverbs 11:22 refers to the incongruity of a golden ring in the nose of an animal showing such characteristics. A similar metaphor occurs in Jesus’ statement about casting pearls before swine (Mt 7:6). The prodigal son’s degeneration was shown by his being forced in his poverty to feed pigs and eat their food (Lk 15:15-16).<\/p>\nEating the flesh of pigs was forbidden to the Jews (Lv 11:7; Dt 14:8). The Canaanites in the Holy Land killed and ate pigs freely. In intertestamental times Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), a Syrian king whose territories included Israel, used the pig to “Hellenize” the Jews. He first tested their loyalty to the Jewish faith by requiring the consumption of pork, considered a delicacy by the Greeks (2 Macc 6:18). The act of desecration that drove the Jews to rebellion, however, was the sprinkling of pig blood on the temple altar in a sacrifice to Zeus (1 Macc 1:47).<\/p>\nPigs were frequently used in pagan worship (Is 65:4; 66:3, 17), which may account for their being forbidden to the Jews as food. Evidence in the Holy Land shows that pigs were sacrificed long before Hellenistic times. Pig bones were found in a grotto below the rock-cut place of sacrifice at Gezer. A similar underground chamber with vessels containing piglet bones at Tirzah dates to the middle Bronze Age (about 2000 BC<\/span>).<\/p>\nAlabaster fragments of a statuette of a pig ready to be sacrificed have been unearthed. Swine were sacrificed to Aphrodite (Venus) in Greece and Asia Minor. In addition, pigs were sacrificed in connection with oaths and treaties; in the Iliad,<\/em> Agamemnon sacrificed a boar to Zeus and Helios. So it is not surprising that among the Jews the pig became a symbol of filthiness and paganism.<\/p>\nIt is possible that eating pork was forbidden primarily because the pig may carry many worm parasites such as trichina, though that is also true of some “clean” animals. Another reason for forbidding their consumption may have been that pigs eat carrion. Some people are allergic to pork in hot weather—another suggested reason behind the Jewish taboo. The same taboo exists among the Muslims and existed in certain social strata in Egypt.<\/p>\nPorcupine<\/p>\nRodent, Hystrix cristata,<\/em> which lives in forested areas, rocky hills, ravines, and valleys. The porcupine is still found in the Holy Land today. It has long quills that can be raised to give the appearance of a crest. It is almost entirely nocturnal. It burrows by day into a natural cavity or crevice. The Old World porcupine rarely climbed trees, although the New World porcupine frequently does. A porcupine may weigh as much as 60 pounds (27.2 kilograms). It eats fruit, bark, roots, and other vegetation, and carrion as well. Although its flesh is edible, the porcupine was not classed among the clean animals for the Israelites. The reference in Isaiah 34:11 (rsv<\/span>) is probably to the porcupine, as is Isaiah 14:23 in the nlt<\/span>. See<\/em> Hedgehog.<\/p>\nScorpion<\/p>\nArthropod of the same group as spiders (arachnids). A dozen species of scorpions (order Scorpionida) are found in the Holy Land, but 90 percent of the scorpions are yellow scorpions, usually three to five inches (7.6 to 12.7 centimeters) long. The rock scorpion, also common to the Holy Land, is as thick as a man’s finger and from five to seven inches (12.7 to 17.8 centimeters) in length. Scorpions are slow, nocturnal invertebrates that rest beneath stones by day and prey on insects and other arachnids by night. At the end of its long tail the scorpion carries a poisonous sting that is fatal to most prey and extremely painful to humans (Rv 9:3, 5, 10; cf. 1 Kgs 12:11, 14). Scorpions symbolize Ezekiel’s evil countrymen (Ez 2:6) and the demonic forces of Satan (Lk 10:19). The scorpion is referred to as frequenting the Sinai Desert (Dt 8:15).<\/p>\nA scorpion has from six to eight eyes. It has eight legs like a spider and two lobsterlike claws with which it catches and holds its prey. It feeds particularly on locusts and beetles. In many species the female scorpion eats the male after mating. Scorpions lay eggs that hatch very shortly after laying. Scorpions prefer warmer climates, and because of their desire for warmth, enter houses, especially at night, hiding in beds, blankets, footwear, and clothing.<\/p>\nSheep<\/p>\nDomestic animal, Ovis orientalis,<\/em> referred to directly or by some term such as ewe, lamb, ram, or by some fact concerning them over 700 times in Scripture.<\/p>\nSheep represented the chief wealth and total livelihood of pastoral peoples, providing food to eat, milk to drink, wool for the making of cloth, and hides and bones for other uses. In addition, the sheep was a medium of exchange and a sacrificial animal. The number of sheep raised in ancient times was prodigious. Mesha, king of Moab, paid a tribute annually of 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams (2 Kgs 3:4). The Israelites took 250,000 sheep from the Hagrites (1 Chr 5:21).<\/p>\nSheep shearing was often done for festivals (2 Sm 13:23). The sheep was held down on its side and its legs were tied together; then it lay docilely while its wool was clipped (Is 53:7). Sheep reserved for burnt offerings were not shorn; nothing could be held back from a sacrifice to the Lord.<\/p>\nWool had to be processed before it could be used for clothing. First it was washed, sometimes while still on the sheep, then carded and perhaps weighed for the market. The spinning of wool was regarded as a woman’s work (Prv 31:19), but weaving the spun thread into cloth on a loom was primarily a man’s occupation.<\/p>\nThe Bible reports that Abel kept sheep (Gn 4:2). The first sheep to be domesticated was probably the argali (Ovis ammon),<\/em> a variety of the urial (Ovis vignei),<\/em> a mountainous species still existing in Turkestan and Mongolia. Five breeds had reached Mesopotamia by 2000 BC<\/span>; all were of the urial stock.<\/p>\nThe sheep known in Israel was the broad-tailed sheep (Ovis orientalis vignei<\/em> or laticaudata),<\/em> of which the tail weighs from 10 to 15 pounds (4.5 to 6.8 kilograms) and has always been considered a delicacy. Thus the Lord asked for this choice part as a sacrifice (Ex 29:22-25).<\/p>\nOnly the ram of the broad-tailed sheep has horns, but in other varieties of sheep in the Holy Land the ewe also has horns. The horns, two to three inches (5 to 8 centimeters) in diameter, can be potent weapons. Rams’ horns could be used as trumpets (Jos 6:4) or as oil containers (1 Sm 16:1).<\/p>\nAlthough the sheep is very similar to the goat, it is differentiated by a lower forehead, its angulated spiral horns marked with transverse wrinkles and curved slightly outward, its covering of wool, and its lack of a “goatee.” Most sheep are white (Ps 147:16; Is 1:18; Dn 7:9; Rv 1:14).<\/p>\nThe flesh of sheep was a luxury in the biblical culture. King Solomon required a daily provision of 100 sheep for his table (1 Kgs 4:23), but the common people ate lamb or mutton only on festive occasions. A young ram was usually chosen because the ewes were more important to the future prospects of the herd. The meat was boiled in large caldrons. The milk of the sheep is extremely rich; in biblical times it was usually allowed to curdle before drinking. Possibly some Israelites kept lambs in their houses as pets (2 Sm 12:3-4).<\/p>\nTo protect the flock at night against predatory attacks, the shepherd tried to provide a fold. In meadows near villages, folds were built and watchmen were hired to relieve the shepherds. The shepherds of the nativity story were out in the field (Lk 2:8); they had no fold but probably had set up a tent for shelter, consisting simply of goat-hair blankets spread across sapling supports. The scarcity of springs in the Holy Land made the watering of the flock a crucial problem for the shepherd (Gn 13:8-11).<\/p>\nWild mountain sheep, varieties of Ovis orientalis,<\/em> are known in the Mediterranean area (Dt 14:5). The Deuteronomy passage (kjv<\/span> “chamois”) might also refer to Ovis traelaphus,<\/em> a sheep about five feet high (1.5 meters) with long, curved horns. Another possibility is the Barbary sheep that lives in small flocks in rugged mountain areas in Barbary, Egypt, and Mt Sinai. The true chamois is unknown in Palestine.<\/p>\nThe sheep is also used figuratively in Scripture. The ram represented great strength and fittingly symbolized Medo-Persia in Daniel’s vision (Dn 8:3). It is the nature of sheep to be gentle and submissive (Is 53:7; Jer 11:19), defenseless (Mi 5:8; Mt 10:16), and in constant need of guidance and care (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36). Such qualities are regarded as desirable in the lives of believers in Christ; hence the many figurative references to sheep in the NT and to Jesus as shepherd (Mk 6:34; Jn 10:1-30; Rom 8:35-37; Heb 13:20-21; 1 Pt 2:25). The resurrected Christ told the apostle Peter to “feed my lambs” and “tend my sheep” (Jn 21:15-17).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\nSnail<\/p>\nInvertebrate gastropods (mollusks). Land snails are very numerous in the Near East. Some freshwater forms serve as hosts for the schistosome worm, the fluke parasite causing the dread disease bilharzia (schistosomiasis).<\/p>\nPurple dyes of all shades were highly valued in the ancient world. A royal purple dye was obtained from secretions of a sea snail (Murex trunculus<\/em> and Murex brandaris).<\/em> Evidently, that process was developed by Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Assyrians as early as 1500 BC<\/span>. The “purple” fishermen had their own guild during the time of the Roman Empire. The snails were harvested during the fall and winter seasons; in the spring, when egg laying took place, little dye was available. The snails tended to remain concealed in the summer. They inhabited the waters off Crete and Phoenicia. Tyrian purple, produced in the Phoenician city of Tyre, the center of the purple-dye industry, was obtained by a double dyeing. Large deposits of murex shells from dyeing operations have been found along the Mediterranean shoreline. The Israelites had to import purple goods (Ez 27:16). Lydia was a “seller of purple” or of cloth so dyed (Acts 16:14). Purple was a sign of distinction, royalty, and wealth (cf. Ex 25:4; 28:5-6, 15; Nm 15:38; 2 Chr 2:7; Est 8:15; Prv 31:22; Sg 3:10; Ez 27:7; Dn 5:7).<\/p>\nExodus 30:34-35 refers to “onycha,” which was an important ingredient of incense. Onycha is the horny, clawlike operculum (the plate that closes off the opening of its shell when a snail is retracted) of a Near Eastern member of the molluskan family Strombidae. The operculum is sometimes used for offense or locomotion as well as for defense. When burned, the operculum gives off a sharp, strong scent, and when mixed with more fragrant but less powerful substances is even more potent. The name “onycha” is derived from a Greek word (onyx)<\/em> for a fingernail or a claw.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>\nSnake<\/p>\nVarious species of snake, suborder Ophidia (Serpentes). In the Bible nine Hebrew words and four Greek ones refer to snakes. The most common Hebrew word is onomatopoeic—that is, it is an imitation of a snake hissing or of the sound it produces as it scrapes its scales along the ground (cf. Jer 46:22). Many types of snakes lay eggs (Is 59:5), although some retain the eggs in the body until ready to hatch.<\/p>\nSnakes are among the most widespread reptiles and are found on all continents except Antarctica; they decrease in numbers and species toward the poles but increase as one approaches the equator. Thirty-three species of snakes are known in Palestine and neighboring countries, 20 of which are poisonous. Two dangerous characteristics of the snake noted by biblical writers are its inconspicuous way of moving and the ease with which it hides itself.<\/p>\nMany snakes are able to swallow animals several times their own diameter because of their unusually flexible jaw mechanism. They lack not only legs but also movable eyelids. Snakes periodically shed their skins. The tongue is actually a hearing apparatus sensitive to airborne vibrations and probably to heat waves.<\/p>\nThe venom of poisonous species is a clear, thin secretion, transmitted to the victim’s bloodstream by means of fangs. Two types of venom are known: that of the vipers, which affects respiration and disintegrates red blood cells, and that of the cobras, which paralyzes the nervous system.<\/p>\nThe “asp” referred to in the Bible is probably the cobra; the “adder” is the viper. The “cockatrice” (kjv<\/span>) is probably the adder. Serpents were associated with worship in Canaanite religion and symbolized evil deities among many other peoples. Steles (upright stones bearing inscriptions) have been unearthed at several sites in the Holy Land and Syria depicting a god or worshiper with a snake winding about the legs or body. Because the Israelites were burning incense in pagan worship of Moses’ bronze serpent (Nm 21:8-9), King Hezekiah destroyed it in his religious reform (2 Kgs 18:4).<\/p>\nAlthough snakes have been an object of veneration in some religions, in the Judeo-Christian tradition snakes represent evil and, more specifically, the devil. That association began in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:1-15) and is also found in the book of Revelation (12:9; 20:2-3).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Adder (above); Asp (above).<\/p>\nSpider<\/p>\nAnimal of the order Araneida. Between 600 and 700 different species inhabit the Holy Land. Spiders are different from insects in that, like scorpions, they have four pairs of legs instead of three. Spiders are equipped with poison glands—the effectiveness varying from species to species. A few can kill only insects, but others can also kill birds and mice.<\/p>\nMost spiders have a pair of spinnerets attached to silk glands on the underside of the abdomen; from them a web is extruded. In the Bible the spider’s web is referred to as a symbol of frailty and insecurity (Jb 8:14; Is 59:5-6).<\/p>\nSponge<\/p>\nSimple marine animals, phylum Porifera. The term “sponge” also refers to those animals’ skeletal remains. The sponge has a porous body composed of tubules and cells.<\/p>\nSponge fishing was well known in the Mediterranean area in ancient times. It was practiced particularly along the Anatolian and Syrian coasts. Sponges were harvested by divers. The use of sponges in absorbing liquids is referred to in the Bible (Mt 27:48; Mk 15:36).<\/p>\nUnicorn<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Wild Ox (below).<\/p>\nWasp<\/p>\nInsects of the family Vespidae. Hornets are social wasps that build large aerial apartment houses in which 1,000 or more individuals may live. In the Bible the hornet is used as a metaphor for God’s use of military forces (Ex 23:28; Dt 7:20; Jos 24:12).<\/p>\nWhale<\/p>\nLargest of all living creatures, including those that have become extinct. Whales are air-breathing mammals of the order Cetacea.<\/p>\nTwo varieties of whales visit the shores of the Holy Land at times. The finback whale (Balaenoptera physalus)<\/em> weighs about 200 tons (181 metric tons) and lives mainly in the Arctic region but sometimes passes through the Straits of Gibraltar to reach the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It feeds on small marine organisms that it strains through its whale bone; it does not have teeth. The finback whale’s esophagus is narrow.<\/p>\nThe sperm whale (Physeter catodon),<\/em> about 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, has a curiously shaped head that looks like a battering ram. The teeth in the lower jaw of the male sperm whale are about seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long. It feeds on big fish, even on sharks. It has a large throat opening.<\/p>\nWhales are referred to in Genesis 1:21 and Job 7:12 (kjv<\/span> only). The “great fish” of Jonah 2:1 need not have been a whale but could have been a large shark, such as the whale shark (Rhineodon),<\/em> which grows 70 feet (21.3 meters) long and lacks the terrible teeth of other sharks. Whatever the actual marine organism, Jonah’s deliverance was miraculous. The Greek word for “whale” is sometimes used as a general term for “sea monster” or huge fish and may be used in that sense in Matthew 12:40.<\/p>\nWild Ox<\/p>\nLarge, fierce, fleet, intractable animal (Bos primigenius).<\/em> It had a long, lean rump with a straight back and a long, narrow head. The animal described in Job 39:9-12 is clearly the wild ox. The two horns (Dt 33:17), its outstanding characteristic, were straight and as long as the head (Nm 23:22; 24:8; Ps 22:21). Kings often symbolized their dominion by wearing a helmet with two wild ox horns (cf. Pss 92:10; 132:17-18). The horns were often used as drinking vessels by the Israelites; some were large enough to hold four gallons (15 liters).<\/p>\nHunting the wild ox was a favorite sport of Assyrian kings. Tiglath-pileser I hunted it in the Lebanon Mountains about 1100 BC<\/span> (cf. Ps 29:6). At one time the animal referred to in Job 39:9-12 was thought to be the oryx or antelope because of the similarity between the Hebrew word in Job and the Arabian name for oryx. The translators of the kjv<\/span> called the wild ox a “unicorn” because of representations found on Babylonian mosaics and Egyptian drawings. Those representations showed it in strict profile, showing only one horn—hence, “unicorn.” Jerome’s Vulgate, a Latin Bible translation (fourth century AD<\/span>) and Martin Luther’s German version translated it similarly.<\/p>\nWolf<\/p>\nLarge doglike mammal (Canis lupus)<\/em> that travels in bands of up to 30 animals. From the nose to the rump, the wolf measures about 3 feet (.9 meter); its drooping tail is about 18 inches (.5 meter) long. It looks much like a skinny German shepherd dog. The grayish yellow pelt is coarse and short haired.<\/p>\nWolves hunt singly or in relays, usually at night (Jer 5:6). Wolves have acute hearing and sight but rely chiefly on scent and usually catch their prey in a swift, open chase. The wolf has a reputation for boldness, fierceness, and voracity (Gn 49:27; Hb 1:8). It commonly kills more than it can eat or drag away and thus is known for its greediness.<\/p>\nThe wolf is a restless animal, always on the move; hunger drives it from one place to another in constant search of new hunting grounds. During spring and fall, wolves usually roam singly or in pairs, whereas in summer they may travel in family groups. In winter, several such groups may join to form a large pack. Wolves are intelligent, social creatures, faithful to their own kind. They mate for life. Individually, the wolf is a rather timid animal; it would much rather avoid human beings. But collectively wolves can be among the most dangerous animals alive.<\/p>\nIn Egypt, Rome, and Greece the wolf was considered sacred. Wolves were well known in the Holy Land and are still found there and also in many places in Asia Minor. Shepherds continually battled with wolves that plundered their flocks (Jn 10:12).<\/p>\nThe Bible refers to wolves in a literal sense in only three places (Is 11:6; 65:25; Jn 10:12), all other references being figurative. Usually the wolf is a symbol of enemies or the wicked (e.g., Ez 22:27; Zep 3:3; Acts 20:29). Both the wolf’s courage and its cruelty were probably in the mind of the patriarch Jacob when he predicted the fate of Benjamin’s tribe (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\nWorm<\/p>\nActually insect larvae in most biblical references, usually maggots, the larvae of flies (see Fly, above). For example, maggots are evidently referred to in accounts of worms feeding on spoiled manna (Ex 16:19-20), corpses (Jb 21:26; Is 14:11), or open wounds (Jb 7:5). Mark 9:48 refers to a maggot that eats dead flesh. In Acts 12:23 a fatal, worm-induced abdominal disease of King Herod is mentioned. In other cases, the reference is to the larvae of other insects (Is 51:8). In Deuteronomy 28:39 and Jonah 4:7 the vine weevil (Cochylis ambiguella)<\/em> is probably referred to; it destroys vines by boring into their stems. Comparing a man to a worm is a metaphor for abasement (Jb 25:6; Ps 22:6).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ANIMALS<\/h3>\nIn biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals as object lessons.<\/p>\nThe biblical approach to classification of animals is somewhat different from the system of classification used by biologists today. The present system of classification, which traces back to Carolus Linnaeus (an 18th-century Swedish botanist), is based on structure, both internal and external. The biblical basis of classification is habitat. Thus Genesis 1 speaks of aquatic organisms (v 20); aerial organisms (v 21); animals that crawl on the ground (v 24); cattle or domesticated animals (animals that live in association with humans) (v 24); and wild animals (v 24). The same system of classification is followed in Leviticus 11 and throughout Scripture.<\/p>\nBecause of the divergence between systems of classification, the various animals of the Bible will be listed here in alphabetical order—including reptiles, fish, and even invertebrates such as insects, spiders, worms, and sponges. Birds are discussed in a separate article.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Adder<\/p>\n• Ant<\/p>\n• Antelope<\/p>\n• Ape<\/p>\n• Asp<\/p>\n• Ass<\/p>\n• Badger<\/p>\n• Bat<\/p>\n• Bear<\/p>\n• Bee<\/p>\n• Behemoth<\/p>\n• Camel<\/p>\n• Caterpillar<\/p>\n• Cattle<\/p>\n• Chameleon<\/p>\n• Coral<\/p>\n• Cricket<\/p>\n• Crocodile<\/p>\n• Deer<\/p>\n• Dog<\/p>\n• Donkey<\/p>\n• Dragon<\/p>\n• Fish<\/p>\n• Flea<\/p>\n• Fly<\/p>\n• Fox<\/p>\n• Frog<\/p>\n• Gazelle<\/p>\n• Gecko<\/p>\n• Gnat<\/p>\n• Goat<\/p>\n• Grasshopper<\/p>\n• Hare<\/p>\n• Hippopotamus<\/p>\n• Horse<\/p>\n• Hyena<\/p>\n• Jackal<\/p>\n• Leech<\/p>\n• Leopard<\/p>\n• Leviathan<\/p>\n• Lion<\/p>\n• Lizard<\/p>\n• Locust<\/p>\n• Mole<\/p>\n• Moth<\/p>\n• Mouse<\/p>\n• Mule<\/p>\n• Pig<\/p>\n• Porcupine<\/p>\n• Scorpion<\/p>\n• Sheep<\/p>\n• Snail<\/p>\n• Snake<\/p>\n• Spider<\/p>\n• Sponge<\/p>\n• Unicorn<\/p>\n• Wasp<\/p>\n• Whale<\/p>\n• Wild Ox<\/p>\n• Wolf<\/p>\n• Worm<\/p>\n\nAdder<\/p>\nOne of the 20 poisonous snakes found in Israel and surrounding countries, also referred to as cockatrice and viper. True vipers (genus Cerastes, Echis colorata,<\/em> and Vipera palestina<\/em>) also exist there, poisonous snakes with curved fangs that spring into position when the snake strikes. The horned viper (Cerastes hasselquistii)<\/em> may attack horses. It is 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 centimeters) long and often lies in ambush in the sand with only its eyes and the hornlike protrusions on its head visible.<\/p>\nBoth Jesus and John the Baptist referred to the viper several times (Mt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33). The reference in Acts 28:3 is probably to a small viper (Vipera aspis)<\/em> that strikes rapidly and is very pugnacious. It is found in southern Europe and hisses each time it inhales and exhales. The poison of vipers attacks the respiratory system and disintegrates red blood cells.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\nAnt<\/p>\nMentioned only twice in the Bible, both times in the book of Proverbs. For many years Solomon was charged with a biological error when he referred to the ant as providing her meat in the summer and gathering her food in the harvest (Prv 6:8). Critics of the Bible were quick to point out that, so far as was then known, ants do not store up food. They assumed that Solomon had probably kicked open an ant hill and mistaken the pupal cases (pods in which immature ants grow to maturity) for grain or had observed ants carrying bits of grain, leaves, and other matter to their nests.<\/p>\nAt least three species of grain-storing ants are now known—two occur in Israel and the other in Mediterranean countries. The particular species referred to by Solomon (Prv 6:6-8; 30:24-25) is probably the harvester ant (Messor semirufus).<\/em> Its granaries are flat chambers connected by galleries irregularly scattered over an area about six feet (1.8 meters) in diameter and about a foot (.3 meter) deep in the ground. Seeds are collected from the ground or picked from plants. The head, or radicle, which is the softest part of the kernel, is bitten off to prevent germination, and the chaff and empty capsules are discarded on kitchen middens (refuse piles) outside the nest. Individual granaries may be 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) in diameter and a half inch (1.2 centimeters) high. Some nests are known to be 40 feet (12 meters) in diameter and 6 to 7 feet (approx. 2 meters) deep with several entrances.<\/p>\nAntelope<\/p>\nSeveral antelope-like creatures are referred to in the Scriptures. One seems to be the white oryx (Oryx leucoryx),<\/em> referred to in Deuteronomy 14:5 (kjv<\/span> “wild ox”; rsv<\/span> “antelope”) and Isaiah 51:20 (kjv<\/span> “wild bull”; RSV <\/span>“antelope”). The oryx was probably the antelope, commonly used for food because its long horns made it relatively easy to catch.<\/p>\nAnother antelope mentioned in the Bible is the addax (Addax nasomaculatus),<\/em> probably the “pygarg” of Deuteronomy 14:5 (kjv<\/span>). It is a native of North Africa with grayish white hinder parts, a white patch on the forehead, and twisted and ringed horns. The word “pygarg” comes from a Greek word meaning “white rump.” The addax is about the size of a donkey. Its body is closely covered with short hair. It has a short mane on the underside of its neck that makes the head look somewhat like that of a goat. The hooves are broad and flat, and the tail resembles that of a donkey. It is common in Africa and in Arabia, where Arabs hunt it with falcons and dogs.<\/p>\nAntelopes are very graceful and run with their heads held high. Both sexes have long, permanent, hollow horns. With the oryx the horns go straight back; addax horns are twisted and ringed. Antelope are alert, wary, and keen sighted. They are usually found in herds of from two to a dozen. If injured or brought to bay, an antelope attacks with its head lowered so that the sharp horns point forward. Antelopes feed on grasses and shrubs, drinking from streams and water holes. When water is scarce, they eat melons and succulent bulbs. Both addax and oryx were ceremonially clean in Jewish law.<\/p>\nApe<\/p>\nPrimate not native to Palestine. The two references to apes in the OT (1 Kgs 10:22; 2 Chr 9:21) refer to their importation by King Solomon with other treasures on board the ships of his mercantile fleet. There is some question concerning the origin of those primates. Some believe that the mention of “ivory” in the same verses suggests they came from East Africa and that they were indeed apes, that is, tailless primates. Others, believing they came from India or Ceylon, suggest that they were actually monkeys. There the baboon (genus Papeio), a large monkey, was considered sacred to the god Thoth. Males of that genus were kept in temples, and the more docile females were often kept as house pets. Such baboons frequently had some of their teeth removed or ground down to lessen the danger of their biting. A number of mummified baboons have been found in Egypt, indicating the high regard in which they were held.<\/p>\nAsp<\/p>\nPoisonous snake. Most biblical references to the asp (Dt 32:33) seem to be to the Egyptian cobra (Naja haje),<\/em> which conceals itself in holes, walls, and rocks and has the ability to expand its neck by raising its anterior ribs so as to enlarge the front of its breast into the shape of a flat disc. Its potent poison can cause death in 30 minutes. It attains a length of about 80 inches (2 meters). The fangs are permanently erect, not movable as in the vipers (the common poisonous snakes of North America; only the coral snake in America has permanently erect fangs). Cobra poison attacks the nervous system, causing muscular paralysis. The Egyptians looked upon it as a sacred creature; they regarded it as a protector since it fed on the rodents that ate their crops. The “fiery serpents” (Nm 21:6; Dt 8:15, both rsv<\/span>) may have been cobras; “fiery” probably refers to the burning fever caused by their venom. Isaiah 14:29 and 30:6 (“flying serpent”) may refer to the hood of the cobra.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\nAss<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Donkey (below).<\/p>\nBadger<\/p>\nSmall hoofed mammal. What the kjv<\/span> calls a “coney,” modern translations name “rock badger” (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7; Ps 104:18; Prv 30:26). The rock badger spoken of in the Bible is probably the Syrian rock hyrax (Hyrax syriaca),<\/em> the only species of hyrax found outside Africa. This small ungulate (having hooflike toenails) lives among rocks from the Dead Sea valley to Mt Hermon. It is strictly a herbivorous (plant-eating) animal about the size of a rabbit. It resembles a guinea pig more than a rabbit, having quite inconspicuous ears and a very small tail. It has broad nails with four toes on its forelegs and three on its hind legs, the toes being connected with skin almost like a web. Pads acting as sucking discs under its feet enable it to keep its footing on slippery rocks. With its yellow and brown fur, it is sometimes called the bear rat because of its resemblance to a tailless rat. It is also equipped with black whiskers that may be seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long.<\/p>\nThese rock badgers, or hyraxes, live together in colonies of from 6 to 50 animals, often sunning themselves on rocks. They are difficult to catch. Guards are posted, and if approaching danger is sighted, the whole group will scurry for cover, warned by the sharp whistles of the guards. Thus they are commended for taking refuge in the rocks (Ps 104:18) and are called wise for making “their houses in the rocks” (Prv 30:24, 26, kjv<\/span>). The badger is not a ruminant (does not chew its cud), but the motion of its jaws may suggest that it chews its cud. That is probably why it was included with other cud-chewing animals in the Jewish food laws (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7). It was forbidden to the Jews as food because it did not have cloven hooves. Some Arabs eat and even prize its meat.<\/p>\nBat<\/p>\nFlying mammals according to modern classification. They have hair and provide milk for their young. The Bible classifies them with other aerial creatures. Bats take shelter in caves, crevices, tree cavities, buildings, and also in exposed places on trees. In colder areas they hibernate or migrate. The normal resting position for a bat is hanging head downward. Bats “swim” through the air rather than fly because they move with their legs as well as with their wings.<\/p>\nThe bat’s thumb is free and terminates in a single hook claw used for climbing and hanging. The hind feet have five toes, all pointing the same way. The large chest accommodates the powerful muscles needed for flying. Because they orient themselves by echo location, the sense of hearing is very well developed.<\/p>\nMost bats are insect eaters, seizing insects in flight. Many insectivorous bats also eat some fruit. Other bats feed exclusively, usually in groups, on fruit and green vegetation. Fruit-eating bats generally live in the tropics where fruit is constantly ripening, although some have been found in the Holy Land. These bats tend to be larger than the insectivores, having a wingspread of up to five feet (1.5 meters).<\/p>\nA third group includes flower-eating bats that feed on pollen and nectar. These small bats with long pointed heads and long tongues are found only in tropical and semitropical regions. Three species of vampire bats, which do not occur in the Holy Land, eat blood by making a small incision and lapping it up. Carnivorous (meat-eating) bats prey on birds, lizards, and frogs. Fish-eating bats catch fish at or near the water surface.<\/p>\nEight varieties of bats are known in the Holy Land. One of them, the little brown bat (genus Myotis<\/em>), is worldwide in its distribution. It is insectivorous and probably has the widest distribution of any nonhuman terrestrial mammal. Brown bats are mostly cave dwellers. The females form maternity colonies that may number in the tens of thousands.<\/p>\nTwo species of mouse-tailed bats (genus Rhinopoma<\/em>) are found in the Holy Land. Their tails are nearly as long as the head and body combined. They are colonial, roosting in caves, rock clefts, wells, pyramids, palaces, and houses. Like the brown bat, they are insectivorous. The slit-faced or hollow-faced bats (genus Nycteris<\/em>) are also found in the Holy Land. They are insectivorous and roost in groups from 6 to 20.<\/p>\nThe bats found in the Holy Land vary in size from that of a mouse to the size of a rat; the largest species measures more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) across the wings. The bat was unclean to the Jews (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\nBear<\/p>\nLarge, heavy, big-headed mammal with short, powerful limbs, a short tail, and small eyes and ears. Bears have a “plantigrade” walk: they walk on both the sole and heel as humans do. The Palestinian bear is a Syrian version of the brown bear (Ursus arctos syriacus).<\/em> It can grow to a height of 6 feet (1.8 meters) and may weigh as much as 500 pounds (227 kilograms).<\/p>\nBears have an excellent sense of smell but less developed senses of sight and hearing. They are omnivorous (eating any kind of food); they subsist largely on vegetation, fruits, insects, and fish.<\/p>\nBears are usually peaceful and inoffensive, but if they think they must defend themselves (Lam 3:10) or their young (2 Sm 17:8; Prv 17:12; Hos 13:8), they may be formidable and dangerous adversaries. David boasted of his role as a bear killer (1 Sm 17:34-37). Since a blow from a bear’s paw can be fatal, David’s courage and strength as a young shepherd in running after a bear and wrenching one of his father’s sheep from its jaws were noteworthy.<\/p>\nSome biblical passages seem to imply that bears attacked for no apparent reason (e.g., Prv 28:15; Am 5:19). At other times they were God’s instruments of punishment, as in the story of Elisha and the two she-bears (2 Kgs 2:24). The bear and the lion, often mentioned together in the Bible (1 Sm 17:37), were the two largest and strongest beasts of prey in the Holy Land. Thus they symbolized both strength and terror (Am 5:19).<\/p>\nIn biblical times bears seem to have roamed all over Palestine. Today they are found only in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and even there they are rare.<\/p>\nBee<\/p>\nOne of two domesticated insects (Apis mellifica),<\/em> the other being the silkworm. Bees gather nectar from flowers, transferring pollen from one flower to another in the process. It is believed that they convey the location of sources of nectar to other bees through a bee “dance,” which may indicate both distance and direction. Bees are sensitive to four colors: blue-green, yellow-green, blue-violet, and ultra-violet (invisible to humans).<\/p>\nThe wild bees of the Holy Land are especially noted for their ferocity in attack. Only the female “worker” bees sting people and animals, the virulence of their venom increasing in warm weather. A number of biblical passages allude to the irritable, vindictive nature of bees and to the painful stings they inflict (Dt 1:44; Ps 118:12; Is 7:18).<\/p>\nOne reference calls attention to the fact that in semidesert regions a dead animal’s carcass, stripped to the bone by jackals or vultures and dried in the sun, can provide wild bees an excellent place to start a new colony (Jgs 14:5-9).<\/p>\nThe Egyptians considered the bee sacred. In ancient Greece candles were made from beeswax. In the Holy Land, beekeeping was probably not practiced until the Hellenistic period (second century BC<\/span>), although Ezekiel 27:17 suggests that it may have been practiced earlier. If domestic honey was not available to the Hebrews, wild honey certainly was, and travelers would be on the lookout for caches of honey in rocky clefts and other likely places. The Philistines and the Hittites practiced beekeeping in their cities.<\/p>\nThe Bible contains many references to bees and bee products. A bee swarm was a valuable asset, though the price of honey itself was low. Honey was sometimes eaten with the honeycomb (Sg 5:1). Honey also had uses other than food, e.g., in embalming.<\/p>\nThe land of Israel was described as a land flowing with milk and honey. Honey was a major source of sweetening in the ancient Near East—hence, its importance (cf. Jgs 14:8-9). Actually the Hebrew word for “honey” may include not only bee honey but also the sweet syrup extracted from such fruits as figs, dates, and grapes. Thus “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ex 3:8, rsv<\/span>) does not necessarily stand for a land of bees but for a land rich in sweetness.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Honey.<\/p>\nBehemoth<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Hippopotamus (below).<\/p>\nCamel<\/p>\nLarge beast of burden. Unintelligent, ill-natured, and quarrelsome, the camel (Camelus dromedarius)<\/em> is nevertheless a blessing to people living in the desert and on its borders because it is especially adapted to that habitat. It has been called the ship of the desert. Having thick elastic pads of fibrous tissue on its feet, it can walk on hot desert sands. It can go without water for long periods and can subsist on vegetation growing on the saline soils. The camel’s nostrils are pinched together and can be closed at will to prevent penetration of sand during violent sandstorms.<\/p>\nCamels are used for transporting both goods and people. A person riding a camel can cover from 60 to 75 miles (96.5 to 121 kilometers) in a day. A camel can carry a load weighing 600 pounds (272 kilograms) or more. Camels were used heavily in the spice trade (Gn 37:25) and traveled regularly in camel trains between Arabia, Egypt, and Assyria. They were also ridden in time of war (Jgs 6:5). A camel can even be hitched to a plow in areas where the land is cultivated.<\/p>\nThe hair shed by camels during the early spring is preserved and used in weaving cloth and making tents. As much as 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of hair can be obtained from one camel. A rough cloak of camel’s hair, as worn by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4), is still worn by Bedouins today. A camel’s hair garment was also the sign of the prophetic office (Zec 13:4).<\/p>\nTwo varieties of camel occur within the one-humped species, the slow burden-bearing camel referred to in Genesis 37:25 and the fast dromedary of 1 Samuel 30:17. The dromedary can stand seven feet (2.1 meters) tall and measure as much as nine feet (2.7 meters) from the muzzle to the tip of the tail. With its three-chambered stomach, which can hold from 15 to 30 quarts (14.2 to 28.4 liters) of liquid, it can go for as long as 5 days during the summer or 25 days in winter without drinking. The camel’s hump is a reserve store of fat, making it possible for the animal to subsist on very little food during a desert journey.<\/p>\nAnother species of camel, the Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus),<\/em> is also resident in the Holy Land. It has two humps. It is heavier, bigger, and has longer hair than the one-humped camel and is slower than the swift dromedary. Isaiah 21:7 may refer to the Bactrian camel; both kinds of camel are referred to in Esther 8:10 (kjv<\/span>). Camels ranked in importance with sheep, cattle, and asses in OT times. A third of the 66 biblical references to the camel lists it with other animals.<\/p>\nCamels are ruminants (cud-chewing mammals) but do not have cloven hooves. Thus, they were included in the list of unclean beasts, forbidden by the Israelites as food (Lv 11:4; Dt 14:7). They are eaten by Arabs, however, who also drink their milk (cf. Gn 32:15).<\/p>\nAbraham had camels in Egypt (Gn 12:16). At first Job had 3,000 camels (Jb 1:3) and after his recovery, 6,000 (Jb 42:12). Although wide use of camels does not seem to have begun until shortly before 1000 BC<\/span> (Jgs 6:5), Sumerian texts from the Old Babylonian period list camels and indicate that they had been domesticated. Camel bones and figurines have been found at various eastern archaeological sites dating from well before 1200 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\nCaterpillar<\/p>\nLarval stage of insects characterized by complete metamorphosis. Such insects pass through four stages: egg, larva or caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Bees, flies, moths, and butterflies all pass through a larval or caterpillar stage.<\/p>\nThe word “caterpillar” occurs three times in the nlt<\/span> (1 Kgs 8:37; 2 Chr 6:28; Ps 78:46). In the book of Joel that same Hebrew word is translated “locust” (1:4; 2:25, nlt<\/span>). The locust and grasshopper to which the Hebrew word refers have an incomplete type of metamorphosis with only three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The nymph is a miniature adult in which the wings are not fully developed, though their outline may be present. There are several nymph stages known as instars. The reference is to one of the last instars, in which the wing structures are still folded together and enclosed in a sac but are nevertheless clearly recognizable. That form of the insect is about an inch (2.5 centimeters) long.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\nCattle<\/p>\nDomestic animals of the bovine species (Bos primigenius).<\/em> The OT often emphasized the beauty of cattle. Egypt was rich in cattle, especially in the Nile River delta area (Goshen), where the Hebrews settled under Joseph.<\/p>\nSome scholars believe that milk rather than meat was the foremost consideration in the domestication of cattle and that in early civilizations meat supplies came chiefly from wild game. Cattle also supplied strong hides that supplanted wood in the manufacture of shields. Their dung was a source of fuel when wood was scarce (Ez 4:15). They were used as beasts of burden and for plowing. Development of wheeled transportation was associated more closely with cattle than with any other animal.<\/p>\nThe biblical term “cattle” often refers to all domesticated animals or livestock (Gn 1:24; 2:20; 7:23; 47:6, 16-17; Ex 9:3-7; Nm 3:41, 45). Occasionally, the term was used to refer to all large domestic animals (Nm 31:9; 32:26), although sometimes the word as used in the kjv<\/span> refers only to sheep and goats (Gn 30:32, 39, 43; 31:8, 10; Is 7:25; 43:23).<\/p>\nProbably several kinds of cattle were domesticated in the Holy Land. Small, short-legged, black or brown shorthorn cattle were found in the southern part of Judah; that type submitted easily to the yoke and was prominent in agricultural operations. Along the coast a larger variety was found, and the wild districts east of the Jordan River were populated with a breed of huge black cattle.<\/p>\nCattle breeding was widely practiced by the patriarchs (cf. Gn 32:15; Jb 21:10). Strict laws in Mesopotamia, as well as in Israel, penalized the owner of a bull that gored a man or other cattle (Ex 21:28-36). Bulls were sometimes employed figuratively as pictures of strength or violence (Dt 33:17; Pss 22:12; 68:30; Is 10:13). For breeding purposes one bull is normally adequate for about 30 cows, but many more were kept since bulls were widely used in Israel for sacrifices. They might be used as a general sacrifice (Lv 22:23; Nm 23:1) or for special sacrifices (Jgs 6:25; 1 Sm 1:24). Particular sacrifices were offered at the consecration of priests (Ex 29:1), consecration of an altar (Nm 7), purification of the Levites (Nm 8), sin offerings (Lv 16), day of the new moon (Nm 28:11-14), Passover (Nm 28:19), Feast of Weeks (Nm 28:27), Feast of Trumpets (Nm 29:1-2), Day of Atonement (Nm 29:7-9), and the Feast of Tabernacles (Nm 29:12-38). The Feast of Tabernacles required the largest number of bulls for burnt offerings of all the annual feasts, with a total of 71 being slaughtered during the course of eight days.<\/p>\nCalves were sometimes referred to as “sons of the herd” in the original Hebrew (Gn 18:8; 1 Sm 6:7; 14:32). The calf, a symbol of peacefulness (Is 11:6), was also used figuratively to refer to the weak (Ps 68:30). A calf’s head decorated the back of Solomon’s throne (1 Kgs 10:19). Calves were sometimes fattened in stalls to keep them from running off weight in the field (Am 6:4; Mal 4:2; Lk 15:23) or were kept around the house; the witch of Endor kept a calf in her house that she killed and served to Saul and his men (1 Sm 28:24-25). Calves supplied veal (Gn 18:7), considered a delicacy by the wealthy; Amos referred to stall-fattened calves in a denunciation of luxurious and careless living (Am 6:4). Calves also supplied meat for all Saul’s armies at the great slaughter of the Philistines (1 Sm 14:32). The “fatted calf” served roasted or boiled was gourmet fare, suitable for the finest banquet (Gn 18:7; Mt 22:4; Lk 15:23).<\/p>\nCattle were subject to the law of firstlings (Ex 13:12). They were a mark of wealth (Gn 13:2) and were considered proper booty of war (Jos 8:2). Aaron, the first high priest, made a golden calf as a rival to the ark of the covenant (Ex 32; Dt 9:16, 21). Even though he represented the calf as an image of the invisible God, it was especially offensive because the calf was a fertility symbol related to Egyptian and Canaanite practices. Two calves were later made by Jeroboam I of Israel (930–909 BC<\/span>) for his shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:28-33). Hosea’s prophetic denunciations of calf worship were directed at those shrines (Hos 8:5-6; 13:2).<\/p>\nAn ox is an adult castrated bull. A steer is a young ox. Oxen were used to do work (Nm 7:3; Dt 22:10; 25:4), though for moving heavy objects, cows were typically favored over bulls because of their more docile nature. Oxen were also used as pack animals (1 Chr 12:40, although they did not have the endurance of the ass, camel, or mule. They usually fed on grass (Nm 22:4; Ps 106:20), but they also ate straw (Is 11:7) and salted fodder (Is 30:24) and could be kept in a stable (Lk 13:15). Oxen could not be offered as sacrifices because they had been castrated (Lv 22:24). They could be used for food but were rarely eaten. Possession of an ox and an ass was regarded as the bare minimum for existence in the ancient Palestinian agriculture economy (Jb 24:3; cf. Ex 20:17).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Agriculture; Food and Food Preparation; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\nChameleon<\/p>\nLizard characterized by its ability to change color according to its surroundings (Chameleon vulgaris).<\/em> To the Israelites the chameleon was ritually unclean (Lv 11:30). The Hebrew word for chameleon is derived from a word meaning “to pant.” A lizard’s lungs are very large, and in ancient times lizards were believed to live on air. A chameleon’s eyes move independently of each other; so at times one eye may be turned upward and the other downward. Chameleons live in trees and bushes, clinging to branches with their long tails.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\nCoral<\/p>\nCalcareous (lime-containing) skeletons of relatively simple marine organisms (Corallium rubrum).<\/em> Red coral from the Mediterranean and Red Seas is widely used for jewelry and for medicinal purposes. While the animal is alive, the coral is green in color and shrublike in appearance, looking rather like an underwater plant since the coral animals are immobil. When the coral is removed from the water, it becomes hard and red in color.<\/p>\nIn ancient times coral was sometimes used as money, along with precious stones, pearls, and gold. Some believe the biblical reference in Lamentations 4:7 (rsv<\/span>) is to pearls rather than to coral, but it is probable that the references in Job 28:18 and Ezekiel 27:16 are to the red coral (see nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nCricket<\/p>\nInsect of the order Orthptera related to grasshoppers and locusts. According to Leviticus 11:22, the cricket was edible. The reference may be to one of the growth stages of the locust.<\/p>\nThe kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word as “beetle.” Beetles are insects with chewing mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the fore pair being hard and sheathlike and the hind pair being membranous and folded under the fore pair. Some beetles are carnivorous, others are chiefly herbivorous. Some are aquatic, some produce a secretion that blisters the skin, some damage fabrics, some damage crops, and some feed on other insects that are harmful to humans. In ancient Egypt the beetle, or sacred scarab, was a symbol of the sun god Ra. Scarab seals and amulets were extremely popular in Egypt.<\/p>\nCrocodile<\/p>\nLargest of all existing reptiles (Crocodilus vulgaris),<\/em> attaining a length of well over 20 feet (6 meters). Crocodiles are characterized by large lizardlike bodies supported by short legs. The head terminates in a flattened snout armed with strong conical teeth, each of which is implanted in a distinct socket. New teeth growing from beneath continually replace those in use. The toes are webbed. The back and tail are protected by quadrangular horny shields of varying sizes arranged in regular rows and in contact with one another at the edges. The eyes are covered with movable lids that can be closed when the animal enters the water.<\/p>\nThe crocodile spends most of its time in the water where it feeds mainly on fish but also on aquatic birds and even small animals that come down to the water’s edge to drink. It is surprisingly fast and agile on dry land, even though its legs are so short that its belly and tail drag across the earth leaving a distinct path.<\/p>\nUntil the beginning of the 20th century, the crocodile was found in the marshes and small coastal rivers of western Palestine. A first-century Roman writer, Pliny, referred to a place in the Holy Land called Crocodeilopolis (“crocodile city”) to the south of Mt Carmel, and visitors to the Holy Land as late as the 19th century reported seeing crocodiles in that general region.<\/p>\nThe description of “Leviathan” in Job 41 seems to be based on the crocodile (thus the translation of the nlt<\/span>). The “dragon” of Ezekiel 29:3, used figuratively of the Egyptian pharaoh, may be a reference to the crocodile.<\/p>\nDeer<\/p>\nLarge ruminant (cud-chewing) animals. Only the males have antlers (branching horns). Deer antlers grow annually and are solid, in contrast to those of the antelope and the gazelle. Fully developed antlers are devoid of any covering of skin or horn and, for all practical purposes, may be regarded as a mass of dead bone carried for a certain time by the living animal.<\/p>\nThe end of the deer’s muzzle is naked in all species. The stomach is divided into a series of compartments, some of which are used to store partly chewed food. The food is later regurgitated, rechewed, and finally swallowed into a section of the stomach where true digestion takes place.<\/p>\nThree species of deer were known in Palestine: the red deer (Cervus elaphus),<\/em> the Persian fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica),<\/em> and the roe deer (Capreolus capreolus).<\/em> All are now extinct there. The last deer were hunted in the Holy Land in 1914. The red deer referred to in the Bible as “hart” (male), “stag” (male), or “hind” (female) stood about four feet (1.2 meters) high at the shoulder. It was gregarious (living in herds or flocks), each group remaining in a definite territory. Red deer grazed and browsed during the morning and late afternoon (Lam 1:6). The sexes remained in separate herds. The red deer was known for its leaping (Is 35:6) and sure-footedness in the mountains (Ps 18:33; Sg 2:8-9, 17; 8:14; Hb 3:19).<\/p>\nThe antlers of the Persian fallow deer (1 Kgs 4:23) were large, flattened, and palmated (shaped like an open palm with fingers extended), and its coat was a yellowbrown. It traveled in small groups, feeding mainly on grass in the morning and evening.<\/p>\nThe roe deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23) was a small, graceful animal, dark reddish brown in summer and yellowish gray in winter. Its antlers were about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and had three points. The roe deer preferred sparsely wooded valleys and the lower slopes of mountains, grazing in open grasslands. It usually associated in family groups made up of the doe and her offspring. They were shy, yet very curious. The roe deer barked like a dog when disturbed, and they were excellent swimmers.<\/p>\nThere is some question as to whether the roe deer is actually referred to in such passages as 1 Kings 4:23; references may be to the fallow deer, although that animal does not seem to have lived in the southern part of Palestine around the Sinai Desert because of its need for ample amounts of food and water. Fallow deer were found in northern Palestine.<\/p>\nThe hart (the male red deer) was listed among the clean beasts that Jewish law permitted as food (Dt 12:15, 22; 14:5), but deer were not listed among the animals appropriate for sacrifice. The hind (female red deer) normally gave birth to one calf at a time, though twins were born with some degree of regularity (Jb 39:1; Ps 29:9, kjv<\/span>; Jer 14:5). The gestation period was about 40 weeks. When it was about to give birth, the hind looked for a secure hiding place, preferably in the dense undergrowth of the forest where it could find natural protection for the tiny calf. During the first few days after birth, the mother never went far from her young. The fawn was able to stand on its own legs a few hours after birth. The solicitous care by the hind for her calf during the first days of its life is hinted at in a touching way in Jeremiah 14:4-5, where only a severe drought is said to drive the hind from her calf. Job 39:1-4 describes the calving of the hinds. The hind illustrated grace and charm (Gn 49:21; Prv 5:19), and its dark, gentle eyes and graceful limbs were used to describe the beauty of a woman (Prv 5:18-19).<\/p>\nDog<\/p>\nProbably the earliest domesticated animal (Canis familiaris),<\/em> used very early in hunting. The modern dog is believed to have come from the Indian wolf (Canis lupus pallipes).<\/em> The dogs of biblical times probably looked like a modern German shepherd, with short pointed ears, a pointed nose, and a long tail.<\/p>\nThe dog was generally looked down upon in biblical times (Prv 26:11; 2 Pt 2:22). The biblical writers did not share modern sentiments about dogs being man’s best friends. The dog was pictured as a scavenger, haunting streets and dumps (Ex 22:31; 1 Kgs 22:38; Mt 15:26; Lk 16:21). Human corpses could become the spoil of dogs (2 Kgs 9:35-36). In general, dogs served the same function as vultures and other birds of prey. Most of the 41 references in the Scriptures to dogs show strong disfavor. Dogs were considered cowardly, filthy creatures.<\/p>\nDogs used in hunting occur in paintings in Egyptian tombs, and there is a reference to dogs herding sheep in Job 30:1. One good quality of dogs highly esteemed by the Israelites was watchfulness (Is 56:10). In general, however, in biblical times “dog” was a term of contempt (1 Sm 17:43; 2 Sm 16:9) and was used of overly submissive persons (2 Sm 9:8; 2 Kgs 8:13) and of evil persons (Is 56:10-11; Mt 7:6; Phil 3:2; Rv 22:15).<\/p>\nDogs, like pigs, were voracious and omnivorous (eating any kind of food). In response to a Gentile woman’s request that he heal her daughter, Jesus used the metaphor of throwing household food scraps to dogs (Mt 15:22-28; Mk 7:25-30). At the time of Jesus, the word “dog” was a standard Jewish term of contempt for Gentiles who, like dogs, were considered unclean, although the diminutive form of the word, used by Jesus, softened this considerably. Seeing her faith, Jesus granted the woman’s request, giving a non-Jew some of “the children’s bread.”<\/p>\nDonkey<\/p>\nBeast of burden. The donkey of the Holy Land (Equus asinus)<\/em> was quite different from the European donkey of today, which is usually a small, stubborn animal. In biblical times the donkey was a beautiful, stately, friendly animal. Its color was usually reddish brown. Three wild races have been described, all from Africa. The race from northwest Africa is extinct; the one from northeast Africa, if not extinct, is close to extinction; the Somalian race, which survives, did not play an important part in domestication. The northeast African race, the Nubian donkey, was evidently domesticated in the Nile River region in early historic times. The donkey was used as a mount from the time of domestication on. It is first mentioned in the Bible among the animals that Abraham acquired in Egypt (Gn 12:16). The donkey was primarily a beast of burden, driven but not bridled. From the time of the Middle Kingdom on (c. 2040 BC<\/span>), it was used for riding in Egypt, but only the Jews and Nubians rode donkeys regularly. The donkey was also used for threshing grain and for pulling the plow. In Arab countries today peasants plow with a donkey and a cow or camel hitched together. In Israel the law forbade plowing with a donkey and an ox hitched together (Dt 22:10). Until the time of Solomon (960 BC<\/span>), horses were not used in Palestine. From that time on, the horse was ridden by warriors; the donkey was used by those who were traveling peaceably.<\/p>\nThe donkey was held in high regard by the Jews and was considered an economic asset. An individual had to have a donkey for minimum existence (Jb 24:3), and wealth was frequently counted by the number of donkeys one possessed (Gn 12:16; 24:35). The donkey was considered an acceptable gift (Gn 32:13-15). It was allowed to rest on the Sabbath (Dt 5:14). Women in biblical times often used the donkey as a riding animal (Jos 15:18; 1 Sm 25:23; 2 Kgs 4:24); often a special driver would help a woman guide the animal, running along at its side. If a married couple possessed only one donkey, the husband usually walked alongside while the wife rode (Ex 4:20).<\/p>\nThe people of Israel returning from Babylon had ten times as many donkeys as horses and camels (Ezr 2:66-67; Neh 7:68-69). Job’s wealth was indicated by the fact that he had 500 she-donkeys before catastrophe hit him (Jb 1:3); after his recovery he had 1,000 donkeys (Jb 42:12). Joseph’s brothers used donkeys to transport the grain they purchased in Egypt (Gn 42:26; 43:24). Abigail transported food on donkeys to David and his troops during their conflict with Saul (1 Sm 25:18). David assigned one of the 12 managers of his royal estates to look after his donkeys exclusively (1 Chr 27:30).<\/p>\nThe onager, or Syrian wild donkey (Equus hemionus hemihippus)<\/em>, is an intermediate between the true horse and the true donkey. Its ears are longer than those of a horse but shorter than those of a donkey. The front hooves are narrow; there are chestnuts (callouslike spots on the inside of the knees) on the front legs only, and the tail is short haired for a long distance from its root so that it appears to be tufted.<\/p>\nThe Sumerians (ancient Mesopotamians) were able to domesticate the onager, which was eventually replaced by the horse. It was used to draw chariots in Ur; a number of onagers were buried with their vehicles in a royal grave that dates from about 2500 BC<\/span>. Later the wild onager was a favorite hunter’s prize for Babylonian and Assyrian kings.<\/p>\nThe onager was very common in the steppe lands near Israel, where it was described as a freedom-loving desert animal (Jb 24:5; 39:5-8; Ps 104:11; Is 32:14; Jer 2:24; Hos 8:9). Ishmael was described as “free and untamed as a wild donkey” (Gn 16:12, nlt<\/span>)—that is, one who could not adjust to domestic life. Drought seems to have been responsible for the population decline of the onager in biblical times (Jer 14:6). The modern onager (Equus hemionus onager)<\/em> is slightly larger than the Syrian wild donkey that is extinct.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\nDragon<\/p>\nAny one of a number of monstrous land and sea creatures. In biblical usage, “dragon” does not refer to the huge, fire-breathing, winged reptile of European folklore. The translators of the kjv<\/span> used the term to translate two Hebrew words that are usually rendered more precisely in modern translations. One word referred to desert animals; most scholars agree with the niv<\/span> that “jackals” is its proper meaning (Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; Jer 9:11; Mal 1:3). See<\/em> Jackal (below).<\/p>\nThe other Hebrew word translated “dragon” is harder to define. It was frequently used in reference to serpents (so translated in the rsv<\/span>: Ex 7:9-12; Dt 32:33; Ps 91:13). In other rsv<\/span> passages it is translated “sea monster” (Gn 1:21; Jb 7:12; Ps 148:7). The exact identity of such sea monsters is not known. Several rsv<\/span> passages retain the English “dragon.” In two of them (Ps 74:13; Is 27:1), the context indicates that sea monsters are meant. In three others (Is 51:9; Ez 29:3; 32:2) “dragon” seems to refer to the crocodile, a figurative reference to the Egyptian pharaoh at the time of the exodus. Jeremiah 51:34 (translated “monster” in the rsv<\/span>) may also refer to a voracious creature such as a crocodile. See<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\nBabylonian myths described monsters and dragons in primordial conflict with the god Marduk; they represented the principle of evil. In its figurative usages in Scripture, “dragon” has a similar significance, especially in the prophetic books. In the book of Revelation it is a symbol of Satan, the archenemy of God and his people (Rv 12:3-17; 13:2, 4, 11; 16:13; 20:2).<\/p>\nFish<\/p>\nAquatic animals frequently mentioned in the Bible without names or descriptions that enable us to identify the particular species. Since time immemorial, fish have constituted one of the staple foods of humanity, and they still serve as the chief source of protein in many parts of the world. The trade in fish was highly developed in biblical times. For example, one of the gates in Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3; Zep 1:10). The law in Leviticus 11:9-12 permitted the Jews to eat fish, but only those having both fins and scales. Scaleless fish such as catfish were forbidden, even though they had fins.<\/p>\nEgyptian paintings depict various methods of fishing, and the Philistines fished in the Mediterranean Sea. Since the people of Israel were not a seafaring nation, it is safe to assume that most of their fish came from freshwater lakes and rivers, especially the Sea of Galilee. Some 36 species of fish have been identified in that lake, including varieties of perch, carp, barbel, “sardine,” and catfish.<\/p>\nThe method of fishing characteristic of NT times was the dragnet. After a boat had put out into the deep (Lk 5:4), a large net would be thrown out from it and then dragged toward shore by the rowers in the boat, possibly with the help of a crew in another boat. The catch was sorted out on shore (Mt 13:47-48). Fishing was usually carried out at night when the coolness of the water brought fish closer to the surface and when they could not see the approaching nets.<\/p>\nThe Jews also fished by hook and line (Mt 17:27), a few by spear (Jb 41:7), and some by the throw net (Ez 47:10). Habakkuk refers to hook-and-line fishing, netting, and seining (1:15).<\/p>\nVery early in the history of the Christian church the fish became a symbol for Christ and the faith. It was scratched on the walls of Roman catacombs and may be seen today decorating walls, altars, pews, and vestments. The symbol came into use because the Greek word for “fish” (<\/em>ichthus<\/span>)<\/em> is composed of the first letter of each word in the Greek phrase “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” See<\/em> Whale (below).<\/p>\nFlea<\/p>\nTiny, irritating insect (1 Sm 24:14; 26:20, nlt<\/span>). Many species of fleas occur in Palestine, the most common being Pulex irritans.<\/em> About a thousand species are known around the world. Fleas are wingless parasites that have sharp jaws and suck out blood from the bodies of humans and animals. The body is wedge shaped, enabling the flea to burrow into folds of skin and hide there. The eggs, laid by the female in dust heaps in the corners of rooms, hatch into small, white larvae that pupate (a nonfeeding stage) in a cocoon. Soon adult fleas appear that immediately attach themselves to the body of a host. The female requires blood for the development of her eggs.<\/p>\nA flea bite is painful and causes some swelling and itching. Fleas are attracted by warmth. With favorable moisture and temperature, adult fleas can live a year or longer without food, but they are voracious feeders. The most dangerous fleas are those of the rat that transmit the organism responsible for bubonic plague. There were 41 recorded epidemics of bubonic plague before the Christian era.<\/p>\nFly<\/p>\nInsects of the order Diptera, which have one pair of wings. Many winged insects of other orders, however, are also called flies, such as the dragonfly or butterfly.<\/p>\nAs in almost all parts of the world, flies are abundant in Palestine. One of the most numerous is the common housefly (Musca domestica),<\/em> found chiefly around dung heaps and garbage. The female lays her eggs, out of which emerge white maggots that feed on refuse. After a few days the maggot develops into a cocoon out of which emerges the adult housefly. In the summer the whole cycle lasts about 12 days, so that a fly can breed about 20 generations a year.<\/p>\nAnother fly common to Palestine is the botfly (family Oestridae). It causes much discomfort among livestock by irritating them and spreading diseases. Tabanid flies (family Tabanidae), including the horsefly (genus Tabanus<\/em>) and related species, are also found in Palestine. Both the botfly and horsefly are known as gadflies because of the persistent distress they inflict. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar is spoken of as a gadfly in view of his invasion of Egypt (Jer 46:20).<\/p>\nThe fourth plague in Egypt just before the exodus featured “swarms of flies” (Ex 8:21-31, nlt<\/span>; cf. Pss 78:45; 105:31). Those swarms may have been made up of any or all the flies mentioned above. The maggots mentioned in Job 25:6 and Isaiah 14:11 and the worms in Exodus 16:24 and Job 7:5 and 17:14 were probably fly larvae.<\/p>\nA proverb quoted in Ecclesiastes 10:1 probably refers to the housefly, which would be attracted to an open, perfumed ointment bottle. Once inside it would drown and eventually decay, causing the ointment to spoil and stink. The fly is also referred to in Isaiah 7:18 where it symbolizes Egypt. Isaiah may have had in mind a horsefly (Tabanus arenivagus)<\/em> that attacks both humans and animals.<\/p>\nPhilistine inhabitants of the city of Ekron worshiped a god named Baal-zebul, meaning “Lord of the high places.” The Hebrews mockingly spoke of Baal-zebub, meaning “Lord of the flies” (2 Kgs 1:2). The NT form is Beelzebub (e.g., Mt 10:25; 12:24, 27).<\/p>\nFox<\/p>\nSmall, doglike carnivore with a bushy tail that is about half its body length. The red fox of the Holy Land (Vulpes palaetinae)<\/em> is similar to the North American red fox; it is smaller than a wolf and is normally a nocturnal solitary animal. The omnivorous fox eats almost any kind of food—fruits, plants, mice, beetles, and birds—but seldom touches carrion. It loves the sweet juice of grapes, but it also burrows underground tunnels that can destroy the vines (Sg 2:15). The fox is intelligent and known for its slyness (Lk 13:32). It has considerable endurance and can run at speeds up to 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour. The Jews rebuilding Jerusalem’s wall were taunted by the wisecrack that even a fox jumping on their wall would knock it over (Neh 4:3).<\/p>\nThe Egyptian fox (Vulpes niloticus)<\/em> is found in the central and southern parts of the Holy Land. It is somewhat smaller than the common red fox. Its back is rust colored and its belly light. The Syrian fox (Vulpes flavescens)<\/em> that lives in the northern part of the Holy Land is shiny gold in color.<\/p>\nSome OT references such as Psalm 63:10 and Lamentations 5:18 are translated “fox” in the kjv<\/span> but probably refer to jackals. Jackals, not foxes, hunt in packs and tend to act as scavengers.<\/p>\nFrog<\/p>\nAmphibian (genus Rana<\/em>), living part of its life in the water and part on land.<\/p>\nFrogs and toads are covered with soft, hairless skin and lack a tail in the adult stage. The hind legs are much longer and more powerfully developed than the forelegs so that the animals are able to jump large distances. It has been suggested that the frog referred to in Scripture is an edible one, Rana ridibunda,<\/em> one of the aquatic frogs found in Egypt and in the stagnant waters of the Holy Land.<\/p>\nThe female frog lays her eggs in the water; after about a week the eggs hatch into tadpoles. Gradually through metamorphosis the tail is lost and limbs are acquired. Frogs must maintain a moist skin since they take oxygen through the skin as well as through their lungs; thus they must always remain close to water. They feed on insects and worms.<\/p>\nFrogs are found throughout the Palestinian lowlands, where their croaking is heard in the spring and on summer evenings. The Israelites seem to have associated frogs primarily with sliminess and foulness. They fell into the category of creeping or swarming creatures, which in general were ritually unclean (Lv 11:29-31). Since the frog was not specifically listed, however, rabbis did not consider it one of the animals that defiled human beings through contact.<\/p>\nIn Revelation 16:13 certain foul spirits are said to look like frogs. The ancient Egyptians made the frog a symbol of life and birth and an image of Heqet, the patron goddess of birth. She is depicted with a frog’s head giving life to the newborn. Thus that deity was discredited when the power of God afflicted Egypt in the second of the ten plagues on the Egyptians with the very animal that was her symbol (Ex 8:1-14; Pss 78:45; 105:30). The frog in question may have been the spotted frog of Egypt (Rana punctata,<\/em> or Rana ridibunda).<\/em><\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\nGazelle<\/p>\nSmall, dainty, graceful antelope with hollow recurved horns on both sexes. Two varieties exist in the Holy Land, the dorcas gazelle (Gazella dorcas),<\/em> which is pale fawn in color and up to 22 inches (56 centimeters) tall, and the Arabian gazelle (Gazella arabica),<\/em> which is a dark smoky color and up to 25 inches (63.5 centimeters) tall.<\/p>\nGazelles are still quite common throughout the desert and steppe areas of the Holy Land, especially in the Negev Desert. Herds usually consist of from 5 to 10 animals, but some varieties assemble in large migratory herds in the fall to relocate to lower elevations and new feeding grounds. Gazelles are herbivorous (plant eating). They are very shy and post guards to warn the herd of approaching danger.<\/p>\nIn biblical times the gazelle was probably the game animal most hunted by the Jews (Prv 6:5; Is 13:14). Pharaoh Tutankhamen hunted gazelles and ostriches. The gazelle is said to have graced Solomon’s table (1 Kgs 4:23). Gazelles were not easy to catch because of their great speed (2 Sm 2:18; 1 Chr 12:8; Prv 6:5); they surpass the deer in swiftness. They were trapped in various ways—encircled with nets, driven into enclosures with pitfalls, or forced into narrow valleys and shot with arrows. The Bedouin hunt gazelle with falcons and dogs; the falcon annoys the gazelle, striking it on the head and injuring it so that the dogs can overtake it.<\/p>\nThe gazelle is referred to in Song of Songs 2:9, 17; 4:5; 7:3; 8:14, where it is an image of feminine beauty.<\/p>\nGecko<\/p>\nReptile of the family Gekkonidae, referred to in Leviticus 11:30. In Jewish food law it was a ritually unclean lizard. There are seven species of geckos in the Holy Land (including Hemidactylus turcicus<\/em> and Ptyodactylus hasselquistii,<\/em> all insectivorous—insect eating). The gecko makes a low mourning sound by vibrating its tongue rapidly against the roof of its mouth. In legend the gecko was said to cause leprosy by crawling across a person’s body.<\/p>\nAnother name for the gecko is the wall lizard, so named because it can walk upside down on ceilings with the aid of the suction discs on its toes—but it often plops down into the middle of the home. Since it was considered unclean, such an intrusion would have been a disgusting nuisance to Jewish households (Lv 11:31-38).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\nGnat<\/p>\nAny very small fly, in common and biblical usage. According to the nlt<\/span>, the third plague in Egypt before the exodus consisted of gnats (Ex 8:16-18; Ps 105:31). The kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word there as “lice,” but the breeding pattern described in Exodus 8—insects rising from the dust—seems to fit gnats better than lice. Since “gnat” is a general term, the small flies of that plague may have included several small species such as mosquitos, harvester gnats, midges, or sand flies.<\/p>\nThe sand fly inflicts a far more painful bite than the mosquito. Further, it does not betray itself by a buzzing noise in flight and is so small that it penetrates most mosquito netting.<\/p>\nGnats were drawn to wine while it was fermenting. The Pharisees in particular would strain their wine to avoid consuming unclean insects (Mt 23:24).<\/p>\nGoat<\/p>\nCloven-hooved mammals (genus Capra<\/em>) with large eyes and big, floppy ears that constantly twitch. Both males and females have backward arching horns. The Palestinian goat is a ruminant (cud-chewing animal) of lighter build than the sheep.<\/p>\nThe goat was probably the earliest ruminant to be domesticated. Its wild ancestor seems to have been the Gezoar goat (Capra aegagrus).<\/em> Wild goats are believed to have been domesticated very early in Palestine. The goat of Bible times was probably the Syrian or Mamber variety (Capra hircus mambrica).<\/em> Domesticated goats may have as many as four kids in a litter, whereas wild goats bear only one or two.<\/p>\nThe Palestinian goat was commonly black. Speckled and spotted goats were a rarity, and for that reason Jacob’s request for those goats in Genesis 30:32 appeared very modest. There may also have been red goats (cf. 1 Sm 16:12; 19:13, where goat’s hair was used to imitate David’s hair, which was “ruddy” or auburn).<\/p>\nAlmost every part of the goat was used by the Israelites. The whole goat was used for sacrifice. Its flesh served as meat (Lv 7:23; Dt 14:4), and it was the principal source of milk (Prv 27:27). Goats were sheared in the late spring, and the goat hair was used for weaving tent cloth and for various domestic purposes (Ex 36:14; 1 Sm 19:13, 16). The tabernacle at Mt Sinai was made of goat’s hair blankets (Ex 26:7).<\/p>\nAdult male goats were generally not eaten because of their strong flavor and toughness and also because they were necessary to insure the flock’s increase. Young kids, however, were usually the chief meat for a feast and were offered to visitors as a symbol of hospitality. Goat milk is richer than the milk of cows and sheep and evidently had broader uses. A good goat gives three quarts of milk a day, from which a rich butter and buttermilk can be made. The average Hebrew family could have lived almost entirely on a single goat’s production.<\/p>\nGoatskin was tanned as leather, and the whole hide was turned into a skin bottle by sewing shut leg and neck apertures (Gn 21:14; Jos 9:4). Goatskin had many uses, including the construction of Hebrew musical instruments. The nebal, a large harp, was made with goatskin for its base sound. Drums had goatskin coverings.<\/p>\nGoats were herded with sheep in biblical times, but each group remained separate following its own bell-laden leader. Jesus was evidently referring to their common herding in his description of the Last Judgment (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\nBecause of their wool, sheep are valued more than goats. However, where pasture and water are scarce and thorny shrubs dominate over grass, sheep are difficult to keep and goats become important. They can live under conditions that suit neither cows nor sheep, producing large quantities of milk. The goat does not supply fat as the sheep does, and since its hair is coarse its wool is rather scarce. Goat-hair cloth called cilicium was used to make tents.<\/p>\nGoats have voracious appetites. They also were responsible for much damage done to the land of Palestine, breaking down terraces, destroying forests, and bringing about soil erosion by eating off all cover.<\/p>\nThe goat was recognized as a form of wealth, subject to the law of firstlings (Nm 18:17). It had to be eight days old before it could be offered as a sacrifice. A year-old male goat was one of the animals offered at the Passover (28:22), and two goats were offered on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:7-10). The goat was also used for other specific sacrifices.<\/p>\nThe ibex, a type of wild goat (Capra ibex nubiana),<\/em> still lives in small numbers on the cliffs close to the Dead Sea. That it was known in ancient times is evident from rock carvings. It is distinguished from the true wild goat by having a more compact rump and horns that are slender and curved back. Its slender legs and sharp cloven hooves enable it to cling to narrow rock ledges, to jump between them, and to climb steep cliffs.<\/p>\nUsually the ibex is found in rugged mountain country among rocky crags and meadows just below the snow line (Ps 104:18). In Job 39:1 they are referred to as “mountain goats.” They frequently gather in herds of 5 to 20. They graze and browse, being active in the afternoon and sometimes feeding through the night. The large horn of the ibex was at one period made into the shofar that was blown in the second Jerusalem temple to announce the new year and the jubilee year.<\/p>\nThe goat was often used in a figurative and symbolic sense by the writers of the Bible: in Song of Songs 4:1 and 6:5 for the bride’s black hair; in Matthew 25:31-46 for the wicked; and in Ezekiel 34:17 and Daniel 8:5-8 for various human leaders.<\/p>\nGrasshopper<\/p>\nLarge insects of the Orthoptera order. They have chewing or biting mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the front pair of which is narrow and somewhat thickened and the hind pair membranous and used for flying. When not in use the flight wings are folded beneath the protective front wings like a fan against the body. By rubbing their wings together, male grasshoppers produce sounds that both males and females can detect. Grasshoppers pass through a partial metamorphosis; the egg hatches into a juvenile nymph that looks like an adult except for its smaller size and undeveloped wings. After several months the nymph becomes a winged adult.<\/p>\nThe terms “grasshopper” and “locust” are often used interchangeably. Actually the locust is a kind of grasshopper. Also confusing is the fact that other insects such as cicadas are sometimes called locusts. The difference between grasshoppers and locusts depends more on behavior than appearance. Grasshoppers are individual insects that lead solitary lives and do not migrate. The same insects when migrating in a swarm are called migratory grasshoppers or locusts. Elimination of their food supply by drought, flood, or fire may lead to migration. Climatic factors such as a warm dry winter also stimulate migrations.<\/p>\nGrasshoppers and locusts have been a staple food in the Middle East and also among the Indians of the American Southwest. To the Israelites the grasshopper was considered ritually clean and could be eaten (Lv 11:22).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\nHare<\/p>\nAnimal of the genus and species Lepus europaeus judaeus, Lepus capensis,<\/em> and Lepus arabicus.<\/em> It is found in open country, often near or on cultivated lands, and in woods, usually deciduous rather than evergreen. It is an herbivorous rodent and is different from the rabbit, which is not found in Palestine. Although it is not a true ruminant according to modern classification (because it does not have a four-chambered stomach), the hare does rechew its food. It has a process of partial regurgitation of material too hard for the cells in the stomach to absorb initially; thus, the hare actually chews food previously swallowed.<\/p>\nNear Eastern hares have very long ears and large hind feet; their feet are well furred. They are similar to American jackrabbits, which are true hares. Hares do not dig or occupy burrows the way rabbits do. Hares are mainly nocturnal and spend their inactive hours hiding in vegetation. They eat grasses and herbaceous matter as well as twigs and young bark of woody plants. Hares breed with great rapidity—the young attaining sexual maturity at six months after birth.<\/p>\nThe hare was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:6; Dt 14:7), evidently because although it appeared to chew its cud, it did not have cloven hooves. Consumption of hares has also been forbidden among the Arabs, Chinese, and Lapps, but the hare was widely hunted by other people in ancient and modern times. Its great speed, prolific breeding, timidity, and caution have saved it from extermination by its many enemies.<\/p>\nHippopotamus<\/p>\nLarge beast of problematic interpretation. Some early interpreters thought it referred to the elephant, others to the wild ox, the mammoth, or any large animal. It was called “behemoth” by the kjv<\/span> translators. Today it is generally agreed that the reference is to the hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius),<\/em> a large, thick-skinned, amphibious mammal, an ungulate (having hooflike toenails) with a large head, a bulky, hairless body, and short legs.<\/p>\nThe description in Job 40:15-24 fits closely the modern hippopotamus (see nlt<\/span>), except for the depiction of the tail. At present the hippopotamus is found only in the rivers of Africa, but there is fossil evidence that it has existed in the Holy Land, perhaps in the swamps of northern Galilee and the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\nThe hippopotamus has highly developed sense organs, placed in such a way that it can see, hear, and smell almost without being seen; its eyes, ears, and nostrils can reach above water while the rest of the animal lies submerged. It has a large mouth, large tusks, and a short, heavy throat. The strong legs are so short that the belly almost reaches the ground when the animal is on the land. The hippopotamus lives on plants and herbs growing in rivers, but if food is scarce there, it forages on land, usually at night. In spite of its heavy body it is surprisingly agile on land.<\/p>\nHorse<\/p>\nPrzewalski’s horse (Equus przewalskii,<\/em> an eastern race that roamed about Mongolia until modern firearms destroyed most of them after World War I) and the tarpan (a western race of southern Russia that became extinct in the Ukraine in 1851). The domesticated horse (Equus caballus)<\/em> seems to have been derived from the tarpan. The original site of domestication is believed to have been Turkestan, a region north of Afghanistan and India, now in Russia. The horse differs from the donkey in that it has shorter ears, a longer mane with a forelock, a long hairy tail, and a soft, sensitive muzzle.<\/p>\nHorses were used in war not only for riding but also for pulling the heavy, springless war chariots. Two kinds of horses were needed for these different purposes, and the Hebrews distinguished between chariot horses and cavalry horses.<\/p>\n\nThe Lord warned the early Israelites against unnecessarily amassing military strength in the form of horses and thereby following the oppressive tactics of the powerful Egyptians (Dt 17:14-16), but the demands of war caused both David and Solomon to import horses from Egypt into their kingdoms and to breed them. Solomon greatly increased the number of horses in the Jewish kingdom and maintained large stables at various cities (1 Kgs 10:26) such as the regional defense centers of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer (1 Kgs 9:15-19). Ahab’s horses are mentioned in 1 Kings 18:5, and records of Shalmaneser III state that Ahab furnished 2,000 chariots to a coalition against Assyria.<\/p>\nIn early Israel, the horse was opposed as a symbol of pagan luxury and of dependence on physical power for defense (Dt 17:16; 1 Sm 8:11; Ps 20:7; Is 31:1). Horse trading, mentioned as early as Genesis 47:17, was carried on by Solomon between Egypt and the Syro-Hittite principalities (1 Kgs 10:28-29). Most biblical references to horses refer to their use in war, but horses were also used for transportation. Riding seems to have been less popular than the use of chariots. Cavalry units were not introduced until the 12th century BC<\/span> by the Medes. Joseph rode in Pharaoh’s second horse-drawn chariot (Gn 41:43), and Absalom made a display by riding a horse-drawn chariot (2 Sm 15:1). Naaman traveled by horse and chariot (2 Kgs 5:9). Later, horses were so common in Jerusalem that the royal palace had a special horse gate (2 Chr 23:15), and a gate of the city itself was known as the Horse Gate (Neh 3:28; Jer 31:40). Mordecai rode a royal horse of King Xerxes as a sign of honor (Est 6:8-11). Horses are often spoken of figuratively (Ps 32:9; “mare,” Sg 1:9; “stallions,” Jer 5:8; 12:5), especially in the context of judgment (Hb 3:8; Zec 1:8; 6:1-8; Rv 6:2-8; 9:17; 19:11-16).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Warfare; Travel.<\/p>\nHyena<\/p>\nStocky carnivore (Hyaena hyaena)<\/em> with coarse hair, an erect mane, and long hairs along the neck and back. Hyenas live in holes among rocks and banks. They are mainly nocturnal but are ordinarily neither noisy nor aggressive. Their cry, however, is a disagreeable, unearthly sound. Hyenas usually feed on carrion, crushing bones with their powerful jaws. If the carrion supply is inadequate, they will kill sheep, goats, or other small animals. When threatened, hyenas growl and erect their mane, but they rarely fight. They are massively built with forelegs longer than the hind legs.<\/p>\nKnown as scavengers in Africa, hyenas eat domestic refuse in the villages. In Palestine the striped hyena is a common predator, preferring rocky territory and even rock tombs. Since hyenas were notorious for raiding the graves of the dead, all Israelites who could afford it arranged for burial in tombs protected by massive stone doors. Absalom, King David’s son who was killed by Joab in the wild, was buried under a huge pile of stones to protect his corpse from molestation by hyenas (2 Sm 18:17).<\/p>\nJackal<\/p>\nCarnivore (Canis aureus)<\/em> smaller than the true wolf and with a shorter tail. It is similar to the fox but has a broader head, shorter ears, and longer legs. The fox is solitary; the jackal tends to be gregarious. Its tail can be drooping or erect, compared with the long horizontal tail of the fox. Jackals usually prowl at night, either singly, in pairs, or in packs through open savannah country. They eat small mammals, poultry, fruit, vegetables, and carrion. They spend their days in thickets and clumps of vegetation. Often they obtain scraps from kills by larger carnivores. Jackals can run at speeds of about 33 miles (53 kilometers) per hour.<\/p>\nThe jackal can reach a height of about 20 inches (51 centimeters), roughly the size of a German shepherd dog. Its back is pale yellow with dark, almost black, flanks. Its lips are black and its ears white on the inside. The howl of the jackal sounds like the crying of a child or the heartrending wail of the bereaved (Mi 1:8; cf. Jb 30:29). To other jackals the howl is merely an invitation calling the pack together for its nocturnal hunting.<\/p>\nOT references are chiefly to jackals prowling around ruined cities and wilderness areas (Neh 2:13; Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; Jer 9:11; 14:6; 49:33; 51:37; Lam 4:3; 5:18; Mal 1:3). Many such references are translated “dragon” in the kjv<\/span>, but “jackal” is more appropriate.<\/p>\nLeech<\/p>\nSegmented worm (class Hirundinea) up to five inches (12.7 centimeters) long with a flat body equipped with suction pads at each end. The mouth, located at the bottom of the front suction pad, has three teeth that the leech uses to pierce the skin of its host. The leech feeds on blood, and its glands secrete an anticoagulant to prevent the blood from clotting. The ordinary medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is abundant in springs and ponds from the Negev Desert to Galilee. It adheres to the bodies of human beings and animals that submerge themselves in water, injects its anticoagulant, and sucks their blood.<\/p>\nThe reference in Proverbs 30:15 is uncertain (see nlt<\/span>) but may be to the parasitic and greedy nature of the horse leech (genus Haemopis<\/em>). The small horse leech enters its host’s mouth and nostrils from water while the animal is drinking. A leech weighing one-half ounce (14.2 grams) has been known to gorge itself with two and a half ounces (71 grams) of concentrated blood and then to exist for 15 months with no more to eat.<\/p>\nLeopard<\/p>\nCalled Panthera pardus tulliana,<\/em> it is the most widespread of all the large wildcats. In rocky areas it lives in caves, but in forested regions it lives in thick vegetation. In OT times many lived in the vicinity of Mt Hermon (Sg 4:8).<\/p>\nThe leopard is somewhat smaller than the tiger, measuring up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length with a tail of about 30 inches (.8 meter). Its body is better proportioned than that of the tiger. The leopard takes its victim by surprise from a silent ambush, often concealing itself near villages or watering places and waiting for its prey, remaining in one spot for long spans of time. The leopard is swift on the ground (Hb 1:8), agile in trees, and very graceful in its movements. Its color is yellowish speckled with black spots (Jer 13:23). Daniel and John saw visions in which leopards were symbols of world powers (Dn 7:6; Rv 13:2).<\/p>\nThe leopard is a wary and cunning animal, formidable and ferocious (Jer 5:6; Hos 13:7; cf. Is 11:6). The leopard is dangerous not only to domestic animals but also to humans. With its natural camouflage it can hide on the forest floor, blending into the changing light and shadows. The Israelites were terrified of the leopard because it constantly ravaged their sheep and goats. Several biblical place names suggest that they were known for the leopards in their vicinity: Nimrah, Beth-nimrah, and Nimrim, a district northeast of the Dead Sea. It has survived in the Holy Land into the present century; a few leopards still exist in remote areas near Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\nLeviathan<\/p>\nSea monster mentioned several times in the Bible (Pss 74:14; 104:26; Is 27:1, nlt<\/span>). It may refer to any of the larger marine animals such as large jellyfish, whales, or sharks, or to a large reptile like the crocodile. Some scholars think “Leviathan” may refer to animals now extinct, such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs (marine reptiles similar to dinosaurs). The scriptural term might also refer to certain dinosaurs that spent part of their lives half-submerged in shallow lakes and oceans. Other scholars believe that most of the references are to the crocodile.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\nLion<\/p>\nLarge, tawny-colored carnivore (Panthera leo)<\/em> that preys chiefly on hoofed mammals and charges by a series of leaps and bounds. Within historic times the lion ranged in Africa, Europe, and the Holy Land. In ancient times the territories of the African and Persian lions met in the Middle East. The lion of the Holy Land was the Asiatic or Persian lion (Panthera leo persica).<\/em><\/p>\nThe males have heavy manes that stop at the shoulders but cover much of the chest. The Persian lion cannot climb and is mainly nocturnal, returning to its lair or a thicket by day (Jer 4:7; 25:38; Na 2:11-12). This lion is about 5 feet (1.5 meters) long with a tasseled tail 30 inches (.8 meter) or so long; its shoulders may reach a height of 35 inches (.9 meter). It is one of the smallest of the lion breeds.<\/p>\nLions are usually found in pairs, though sometimes in larger numbers. A small group is known as a pride. They generally prefer open country but in Palestine evidently prowled the subtropical vegetation of the Jordan River valley. Lions, which usually hunt at dusk, kill smaller animals by a blow of the paw, larger ones by a bite in the throat. A lion does not remain in the same place for more than a few days. The animal is in its prime at about seven years of age, when it weighs from 400 to 600 pounds (181.6 to 272.4 kilograms).<\/p>\nThe lion does not characteristically attack humans, though like other great cats it may become a man-eater (1 Kgs 13:24-28; 20:36; 2 Kgs 17:25-26; Ps 57:4; Dn 6:7-27). Ordinarily, it attacks only out of great hunger or in self-defense. A very young lion that attacks humans can become dangerous if it develops a taste for human flesh. A very old lion, expelled from the pride because it can no longer keep up in the pursuit of antelope or gazelles, may choose humans as a relatively slow-moving prey.<\/p>\nA lion generally roars only on a full stomach—that is, after it has consumed its prey (Ps 22:13; Ez 22:25; Am 3:4). Nevertheless, its roaring arouses fear (Am 3:8; 1 Pt 5:8). The lion is a bold (2 Sm 17:10; Prv 28:1), destructive animal (Ps 7:2; Jer 2:30; Hos 5:14; Mi 5:8), and the enemy of flocks (Am 3:12).<\/p>\nLions were common in biblical times in all parts of the Holy Land. Hebrew has at least seven words for lion and young lion. The lion is referred to about 130 times in the OT—more than any other wild animal. Lions were evidently much less common in NT times. After gradually declining, they became extinct in Palestine shortly after AD<\/span> 1300. The lion was present in Mesopotamia, however, until the end of the 19th century.<\/p>\nLions played an important part in the political and religious symbolism of the Near East (1 Kgs 10:19-20). In Assyria and Babylonia the lion was regarded as a royal beast (Dn 7:4). Oriental monarchs maintained artificial lion pits as places of execution (Ez 19:1-9; Dn 6:7-16). Animals for these were captured in camouflaged nets or pits. To the Jews, the lion was the mightiest of beasts (Prv 30:29-31). Thus, it symbolized leadership (Gn 49:9-10; Nm 24:9) and hence eventually became a title for Christ (Rv 5:5). It was also the ensign of Judah’s tribe and was used by King Solomon in the decoration of his house and the temple.<\/p>\nLizard<\/p>\nReptiles of the suborder Lacertilia. Their skin is covered with scales. The lizard is a useful creature because it captures harmful insects and worms. Like other reptiles, it lays eggs with shells softer than those of a bird and with no clear division between the yolk and the white. Lizards are “cold-blooded” organisms without a temperature-maintenance mechanism; hence, they become inactive in cold weather.<\/p>\nLizards can survive in barren parched countryside. In the Near East they are encountered in great numbers in the Arabian Desert, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Judean wilderness. There may be as many as 44 different species of lizards in the Holy Land.<\/p>\nThe Dabb lizard (genus Uromastyx<\/em>), which attains a length of about 24 inches (61 centimeters), is found in the Negev Desert. It is omnivorous, an unusual trait since most lizards are insectivorous. It has a hard, rough skin, green with brown spots; a short, rounded head; and a powerful tail encircled with a row of strong spines that it uses as a weapon of defense.<\/p>\nLizards are listed as ceremonially unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:29-31). The fact that lizards crawl on their bellies made them unclean. Contact with a lizard’s carcass defiled a law-abiding Jew (Lv 11:32-36). The nlt<\/span> translates the “lizards” of Leviticus 11 as “great lizard,” “gecko,” “monitor lizard,” “sand lizard,” and “chameleon.” The monitor lizard is a large lizard that lives in the deserts of southern Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt. It is up to 55 inches (1.4 meters) long with a long snout and sharp teeth. Other translators and commentators render the original Hebrew in a wide variety of ways, including “tortoise,” “ferret,” “lizard,” “snail,” “mole,” and even “water hen.” The fact that most of the original Hebrew words occur only once in Scripture makes it very difficult to be certain about their appropriate translation.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Gecko (above).<\/p>\nLocust<\/p>\nAn insect of the family Acridiidae.<\/em> It is referred to by at least 12 different names in Scripture. The various Hebrew words may refer to different stages of its development from larva to adult or to the type of damage that it causes. Locusts are characterized by swarming and mass migration. In modern times they have caused extensive and disastrous destruction to vegetation. Grasshoppers do not swarm or migrate en masse, differentiating them from the true locusts.<\/p>\nThe OT mentions several different species of locusts. Leviticus 11:22 seems to refer to the slant-faced (bald) locust and also to the katydid, or long-horned grasshopper. The reference in Deuteronomy 28:42 may be to the mole cricket. In Joel 1:4 and 2:25 and in Nahum 3:16-17, successive stages of the insect’s development are described. The cutting locust (kjv<\/span> “palmerworm”) of Joel is probably the first instar (stage of development), the swarming locusts (kjv<\/span> “locust”) are middle stages, and the hopping locusts (kjv<\/span> “cankerworm”) later instars but not yet fully matured insects. In the adult stage, called destroying locusts (kjv<\/span> “caterpillar”), the color of the locust is reddish brown, which turns to yellow with a brownish network on the wings.<\/p>\nOnly three of the hundreds of varieties of locusts found in Bible lands are capable of multiplying into great swarms, and only the desert locust (Schistocerca gergaria)<\/em> can be considered widespread in all the Bible lands. The desert locust is native to the Sudan (Africa). It is a little over two inches (5 centimeters) long and has a wingspread of some five inches (12.7 centimeters). It shows two phases, a solitary phase and a gregarious phase, with a possible third phase known as transiens. There are differences in the immature and adult forms of the phases in color and physiology.<\/p>\nThe quantity and distribution of rains are important factors in the extent of swarming. Moist soil is needed for depositing the eggs and permitting them to develop. Each female deposits from one to six egg pods, containing 28 to 146 eggs each. The larvae emerge in 15 to 43 days.<\/p>\nIn the gregarious phase (from the second stage of metamorphosis onward), the locust is driven by a strong wandering instinct. Masses of them form a random procession of overflowing locust bodies that ignore any obstruction. They swarm over everything (Jl 2:4-9). The only regulator of their activities is temperature; they are immobilized by high or low temperatures. Taking to wing they may move 1,200 miles (1,930.8 kilometers) from their native home. They fly in compact formations large enough to blot out the light of the sun. Their movement seems to be controlled by hormones, but the direction is influenced by the wind. The swarms consume almost every plant in their path, sparing only the carob, sycamore, castor tree, and oleander bush.<\/p>\nA locust plague was one of the most severe evils to come upon the ancient world (Dt 28:38). Joel 2:1-11 describes a locust plague in graphic terms, using it as a symbol of God’s destroying judgment. Special days of prayer, fasting, and trumpet blowing were prescribed to remove locust plagues (1 Kgs 8:37-38; 2 Chr 6:28-29; Jl 2:12-17). Locusts symbolized powerful and merciless enemies that completely destroyed the earnings of human toil (Jgs 6:5; Is 33:4; Jer 46:23; 51:27; Na 3:15).<\/p>\nBedouins eat locusts raw, roasted, or boiled, preserving them by drying and threading. They are also crushed and ground, and the grist used in cooking or eaten with bread, sometimes mixed with honey and dates. Such was the diet of John the Baptist (Mk 1:6). The Greeks ground locusts in stone mortars to make flour of them.<\/p>\nThe ancients considered the two large hind legs, or jumping legs, as separate limbs and had a special name for them. Hence locusts were described as having four legs, a reference to the four smaller walking legs. “Going on all fours” thus referred to creeping or walking as opposed to jumping and did not mean that the unclean insects had only four legs in all. Because of its two hind jumping legs, the locust was exempted from the prohibition against unclean insects (Lv 11:20-23).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\nMole<\/p>\nRodent (Spalax ehrenbergi)<\/em> from six to nine inches (15 to 23 centimeters) long, which burrows in any area where the soil is suitable for digging; it should be called a mole rat. Common in the Holy Land, large numbers are found in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Isaiah 2:20 refers to the mole, as does Leviticus 11:29-30 (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe mole rat has no tail and is molelike in appearance, but neither true moles nor shrews have ever been found in the Holy Land. The mole rat’s teeth are strong and protruding like those of a squirrel. The neck is short and thick with a plump body shaped like a sausage. The short legs have broad paws with claws adapted for burrowing. The fur is soft, thick, and ashen gray. Its ears and almost sightless eyes, which are no larger than poppyseeds, are hidden in the fur. Folklore taught that touching a mole rat would result in blindness.<\/p>\nIn the wet winter season the mole rat builds breeding mounds resembling those of pocket gophers. It builds less complex resting mounds in the summer, although both have rather elaborate tunnel systems. The mole rat feeds on roots, bulbs, tubers, and various other subterranean plant parts, often doing extensive damage to agriculture.<\/p>\nMoth<\/p>\nInsect of the genus Tineola<\/em> that lays its eggs on wool or furs, its larvae feeding on those materials. The destructive qualities of moths are referred to in several biblical passages (Jb 13:28; Ps 39:11; Is 50:9; Hos 5:12; Mt 6:19-20; Lk 12:33; Jas 5:2). In Isaiah 51:8 “worm” (nlt<\/span>) refers specifically to the larva of the clothes moth. The moth symbolizes disintegration, decay, and weakening. It is only the larvae that do the damage. The adult is quite harmless and feeds mainly on the nectar of flowers. It is easily crushed (Jb 4:19). The clothes moth reproduces in May or June. It enters human dwellings in the evening. A week after the eggs are laid the larvae appear and immediately begin their work of destruction, eating anything within reach made of animal fibers.<\/p>\nThe moth’s destructive activity is done in secret without any sound and without any dramatic appearance, such as a swarm that blots out the sun. In an age when wealth was counted more in possessions than in money, and when among those possessions wool clothing was highly valued, moths could literally cause economic disaster; hence the words of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 6:19-20).<\/p>\nThere are hundreds of species of moths other than the clothes moth in the Holy Land; they are harmless to leaves, flowers, fruit, trees, and seeds. As with the clothes moth, the larvae inflict the damage.<\/p>\nMouse<\/p>\nRodent of the family Muridae, especially genus Mus.<\/em> The mouse was regarded as unclean because, being short legged, it was considered one of the creeping creatures (Lv 11:29). Mice known as commensals live in dwellings and tend to have longer tails and to be darker in color than wild mice, which are active chiefly at night. Mice are good climbers and even good swimmers. Wild mice eat many kinds of vegetation, including seeds, fleshy roots, leaves, and stems. At times they store food.<\/p>\nThe Hebrew word for “mouse” (Lv 11:29; 1 Sm 6:4-5; Is 66:17) is probably a general term for various rats and mice. The root meaning of the Hebrew word “mouse” is “destruction of corn,” a reference to the damage mice do to field crops. At least 23 varieties of mouselike rodents are known in the Holy Land. They cause food spoilage, damage household articles, and transport the host fleas that spread typhus, spotted fever, and bubonic plague. Plague bacteria may have caused the tumors or swellings among the Philistines (1 Sm 6:5). Isaiah 66:17 refers to a pre-exilic Canaanite cultic practice in which mice were eaten; the reference may actually be to the hamster. A number of rodents are eaten by Arabs of the Near East; the gerbil is considered a special delicacy. See<\/em> Mole (above).<\/p>\nMule<\/p>\nHybrid offspring of a male ass and a female horse (Equus asinus mulus),<\/em> ordinarily sterile. The offspring of a female donkey and a stallion (male horse) is known as a hinny and is of little value because of its inferior size.<\/p>\nBecause crossbreeding was forbidden in the law (Lv 19:19), the Israelites procured mules from the Gentiles, perhaps from the Phoenicians, since Tyre (a Phoenician seaport in what is now southern Lebanon) imported horses and mules (Ez 27:14). Mules did not appear in Israel until David’s reign (2 Sm 13:29), possibly because of the rarity of horses among the Hebrews. Mules were used chiefly by members of the royal court and by other nobles. King David rode on a mule, and Solomon rode to his inaugaration on King David’s mule (1 Kgs 1:33). Absalom met his death riding on a mule (2 Sm 18:9). Mules were less common than horses, camels, and asses in the postexilic community (Ezr 2:66). In antiquity Asia Minor was especially noted for breeding fine mules.<\/p>\nMules have long enjoyed a reputation for obstinacy, but that trait is not mentioned in the Bible. The mule is prized for riding and for carrying heavy burdens, especially in warm mountainous regions. They are sure-footed and thrive best in hot, dry climates. The mule has the frugality, endurance, and steady gait of an ass along with the size, strength, swiftness, and courage of a horse. Mules are almost never sick. They live longer than horses. They can carry a load of up to 300 pounds (136 kilograms) as far as 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) a day.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\nPig<\/p>\nMost properly, newborn swine. “Swine” is technically the better name for the species, but it is rarely used in common speech today. The domestic pigs of the Middle East derived from the wild pig (Sus scrofa).<\/em> The pig is the most prolific and abundant supplier of meat and fat for food. A thick layer of fat just under the skin is especially pronounced in domestic breeds. Pigs cannot be driven, so they are of value only to the settled farmer. The Hebrews were originally a nomadic people; therefore, they had little use for an animal closely associated with settled life. An Egyptian prince of about 1500 BC<\/span>, however, is recorded as owning a herd of 1,500 swine.<\/p>\nThe pig is clumsily built, yet lively and able to move with agility and speed. The most conspicuous characteristic of the pig is a truncated, mobile snout terminating in a disc-shaped surface on which the nostrils are located. Most pigs have large tusks in both jaws which grow continuously in life. The tusks of the upper jaw are unique in that they curve upward instead of pointing downward as in most animals. The excrement of a pig has an almost unbearable odor, which clings not only to the pig itself but also to swineherds, who can be identified a long way off.<\/p>\nPigs were never raised in the Holy Land by Jews. The great herd into which Jesus drove the unclean spirits was encountered in the land of the Gadarenes, a non-Jewish area east of the Jordan. The Gadarene demons took refuge in a herd of pigs feeding on a bluff overlooking the Sea of Galilee (Mt 8:28-32).<\/p>\nWild pigs were found in the Holy Land as in many countries today. Psalm 80:13 refers to the destructiveness of a wild boar (the male, or hog) attacking growing crops. A party of wild boars can destroy an entire vineyard or a field of crops in a single night. They devour, trample, and ravage everything within reach.<\/p>\nBoar hunts were common in ancient Mesopotamia. Wild boars do not attack unless molested, but they are dangerous when aroused. They travel in bands of from 6 to 50 and are most active in the evening and early morning hours. The body is covered with stiff bristles and usually some finer hair, but the body covering is often quite scanty. Wild pigs are mainly vegetarian, feeding on roots, nuts, grains, and plant stems. Wild boars were particularly abundant in the mountainous regions of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, in the Jordan River valley, and in wooded sections such as Mt Tabor.<\/p>\nStrict Jews would not even mention swine by name but would always substitute the term “the abomination.” Israelites considered themselves polluted if they were even touched by a swine’s bristle. To the Jews, the pig symbolized filth and ugliness. Pigs will eat fecal material, vermin, rodents, carrion, and the like (2 Pt 2:22). Proverbs 11:22 refers to the incongruity of a golden ring in the nose of an animal showing such characteristics. A similar metaphor occurs in Jesus’ statement about casting pearls before swine (Mt 7:6). The prodigal son’s degeneration was shown by his being forced in his poverty to feed pigs and eat their food (Lk 15:15-16).<\/p>\nEating the flesh of pigs was forbidden to the Jews (Lv 11:7; Dt 14:8). The Canaanites in the Holy Land killed and ate pigs freely. In intertestamental times Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), a Syrian king whose territories included Israel, used the pig to “Hellenize” the Jews. He first tested their loyalty to the Jewish faith by requiring the consumption of pork, considered a delicacy by the Greeks (2 Macc 6:18). The act of desecration that drove the Jews to rebellion, however, was the sprinkling of pig blood on the temple altar in a sacrifice to Zeus (1 Macc 1:47).<\/p>\nPigs were frequently used in pagan worship (Is 65:4; 66:3, 17), which may account for their being forbidden to the Jews as food. Evidence in the Holy Land shows that pigs were sacrificed long before Hellenistic times. Pig bones were found in a grotto below the rock-cut place of sacrifice at Gezer. A similar underground chamber with vessels containing piglet bones at Tirzah dates to the middle Bronze Age (about 2000 BC<\/span>).<\/p>\nAlabaster fragments of a statuette of a pig ready to be sacrificed have been unearthed. Swine were sacrificed to Aphrodite (Venus) in Greece and Asia Minor. In addition, pigs were sacrificed in connection with oaths and treaties; in the Iliad,<\/em> Agamemnon sacrificed a boar to Zeus and Helios. So it is not surprising that among the Jews the pig became a symbol of filthiness and paganism.<\/p>\nIt is possible that eating pork was forbidden primarily because the pig may carry many worm parasites such as trichina, though that is also true of some “clean” animals. Another reason for forbidding their consumption may have been that pigs eat carrion. Some people are allergic to pork in hot weather—another suggested reason behind the Jewish taboo. The same taboo exists among the Muslims and existed in certain social strata in Egypt.<\/p>\nPorcupine<\/p>\nRodent, Hystrix cristata,<\/em> which lives in forested areas, rocky hills, ravines, and valleys. The porcupine is still found in the Holy Land today. It has long quills that can be raised to give the appearance of a crest. It is almost entirely nocturnal. It burrows by day into a natural cavity or crevice. The Old World porcupine rarely climbed trees, although the New World porcupine frequently does. A porcupine may weigh as much as 60 pounds (27.2 kilograms). It eats fruit, bark, roots, and other vegetation, and carrion as well. Although its flesh is edible, the porcupine was not classed among the clean animals for the Israelites. The reference in Isaiah 34:11 (rsv<\/span>) is probably to the porcupine, as is Isaiah 14:23 in the nlt<\/span>. See<\/em> Hedgehog.<\/p>\nScorpion<\/p>\nArthropod of the same group as spiders (arachnids). A dozen species of scorpions (order Scorpionida) are found in the Holy Land, but 90 percent of the scorpions are yellow scorpions, usually three to five inches (7.6 to 12.7 centimeters) long. The rock scorpion, also common to the Holy Land, is as thick as a man’s finger and from five to seven inches (12.7 to 17.8 centimeters) in length. Scorpions are slow, nocturnal invertebrates that rest beneath stones by day and prey on insects and other arachnids by night. At the end of its long tail the scorpion carries a poisonous sting that is fatal to most prey and extremely painful to humans (Rv 9:3, 5, 10; cf. 1 Kgs 12:11, 14). Scorpions symbolize Ezekiel’s evil countrymen (Ez 2:6) and the demonic forces of Satan (Lk 10:19). The scorpion is referred to as frequenting the Sinai Desert (Dt 8:15).<\/p>\nA scorpion has from six to eight eyes. It has eight legs like a spider and two lobsterlike claws with which it catches and holds its prey. It feeds particularly on locusts and beetles. In many species the female scorpion eats the male after mating. Scorpions lay eggs that hatch very shortly after laying. Scorpions prefer warmer climates, and because of their desire for warmth, enter houses, especially at night, hiding in beds, blankets, footwear, and clothing.<\/p>\nSheep<\/p>\nDomestic animal, Ovis orientalis,<\/em> referred to directly or by some term such as ewe, lamb, ram, or by some fact concerning them over 700 times in Scripture.<\/p>\nSheep represented the chief wealth and total livelihood of pastoral peoples, providing food to eat, milk to drink, wool for the making of cloth, and hides and bones for other uses. In addition, the sheep was a medium of exchange and a sacrificial animal. The number of sheep raised in ancient times was prodigious. Mesha, king of Moab, paid a tribute annually of 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams (2 Kgs 3:4). The Israelites took 250,000 sheep from the Hagrites (1 Chr 5:21).<\/p>\nSheep shearing was often done for festivals (2 Sm 13:23). The sheep was held down on its side and its legs were tied together; then it lay docilely while its wool was clipped (Is 53:7). Sheep reserved for burnt offerings were not shorn; nothing could be held back from a sacrifice to the Lord.<\/p>\nWool had to be processed before it could be used for clothing. First it was washed, sometimes while still on the sheep, then carded and perhaps weighed for the market. The spinning of wool was regarded as a woman’s work (Prv 31:19), but weaving the spun thread into cloth on a loom was primarily a man’s occupation.<\/p>\nThe Bible reports that Abel kept sheep (Gn 4:2). The first sheep to be domesticated was probably the argali (Ovis ammon),<\/em> a variety of the urial (Ovis vignei),<\/em> a mountainous species still existing in Turkestan and Mongolia. Five breeds had reached Mesopotamia by 2000 BC<\/span>; all were of the urial stock.<\/p>\nThe sheep known in Israel was the broad-tailed sheep (Ovis orientalis vignei<\/em> or laticaudata),<\/em> of which the tail weighs from 10 to 15 pounds (4.5 to 6.8 kilograms) and has always been considered a delicacy. Thus the Lord asked for this choice part as a sacrifice (Ex 29:22-25).<\/p>\nOnly the ram of the broad-tailed sheep has horns, but in other varieties of sheep in the Holy Land the ewe also has horns. The horns, two to three inches (5 to 8 centimeters) in diameter, can be potent weapons. Rams’ horns could be used as trumpets (Jos 6:4) or as oil containers (1 Sm 16:1).<\/p>\nAlthough the sheep is very similar to the goat, it is differentiated by a lower forehead, its angulated spiral horns marked with transverse wrinkles and curved slightly outward, its covering of wool, and its lack of a “goatee.” Most sheep are white (Ps 147:16; Is 1:18; Dn 7:9; Rv 1:14).<\/p>\nThe flesh of sheep was a luxury in the biblical culture. King Solomon required a daily provision of 100 sheep for his table (1 Kgs 4:23), but the common people ate lamb or mutton only on festive occasions. A young ram was usually chosen because the ewes were more important to the future prospects of the herd. The meat was boiled in large caldrons. The milk of the sheep is extremely rich; in biblical times it was usually allowed to curdle before drinking. Possibly some Israelites kept lambs in their houses as pets (2 Sm 12:3-4).<\/p>\nTo protect the flock at night against predatory attacks, the shepherd tried to provide a fold. In meadows near villages, folds were built and watchmen were hired to relieve the shepherds. The shepherds of the nativity story were out in the field (Lk 2:8); they had no fold but probably had set up a tent for shelter, consisting simply of goat-hair blankets spread across sapling supports. The scarcity of springs in the Holy Land made the watering of the flock a crucial problem for the shepherd (Gn 13:8-11).<\/p>\nWild mountain sheep, varieties of Ovis orientalis,<\/em> are known in the Mediterranean area (Dt 14:5). The Deuteronomy passage (kjv<\/span> “chamois”) might also refer to Ovis traelaphus,<\/em> a sheep about five feet high (1.5 meters) with long, curved horns. Another possibility is the Barbary sheep that lives in small flocks in rugged mountain areas in Barbary, Egypt, and Mt Sinai. The true chamois is unknown in Palestine.<\/p>\nThe sheep is also used figuratively in Scripture. The ram represented great strength and fittingly symbolized Medo-Persia in Daniel’s vision (Dn 8:3). It is the nature of sheep to be gentle and submissive (Is 53:7; Jer 11:19), defenseless (Mi 5:8; Mt 10:16), and in constant need of guidance and care (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36). Such qualities are regarded as desirable in the lives of believers in Christ; hence the many figurative references to sheep in the NT and to Jesus as shepherd (Mk 6:34; Jn 10:1-30; Rom 8:35-37; Heb 13:20-21; 1 Pt 2:25). The resurrected Christ told the apostle Peter to “feed my lambs” and “tend my sheep” (Jn 21:15-17).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\nSnail<\/p>\nInvertebrate gastropods (mollusks). Land snails are very numerous in the Near East. Some freshwater forms serve as hosts for the schistosome worm, the fluke parasite causing the dread disease bilharzia (schistosomiasis).<\/p>\nPurple dyes of all shades were highly valued in the ancient world. A royal purple dye was obtained from secretions of a sea snail (Murex trunculus<\/em> and Murex brandaris).<\/em> Evidently, that process was developed by Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Assyrians as early as 1500 BC<\/span>. The “purple” fishermen had their own guild during the time of the Roman Empire. The snails were harvested during the fall and winter seasons; in the spring, when egg laying took place, little dye was available. The snails tended to remain concealed in the summer. They inhabited the waters off Crete and Phoenicia. Tyrian purple, produced in the Phoenician city of Tyre, the center of the purple-dye industry, was obtained by a double dyeing. Large deposits of murex shells from dyeing operations have been found along the Mediterranean shoreline. The Israelites had to import purple goods (Ez 27:16). Lydia was a “seller of purple” or of cloth so dyed (Acts 16:14). Purple was a sign of distinction, royalty, and wealth (cf. Ex 25:4; 28:5-6, 15; Nm 15:38; 2 Chr 2:7; Est 8:15; Prv 31:22; Sg 3:10; Ez 27:7; Dn 5:7).<\/p>\nExodus 30:34-35 refers to “onycha,” which was an important ingredient of incense. Onycha is the horny, clawlike operculum (the plate that closes off the opening of its shell when a snail is retracted) of a Near Eastern member of the molluskan family Strombidae. The operculum is sometimes used for offense or locomotion as well as for defense. When burned, the operculum gives off a sharp, strong scent, and when mixed with more fragrant but less powerful substances is even more potent. The name “onycha” is derived from a Greek word (onyx)<\/em> for a fingernail or a claw.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>\nSnake<\/p>\nVarious species of snake, suborder Ophidia (Serpentes). In the Bible nine Hebrew words and four Greek ones refer to snakes. The most common Hebrew word is onomatopoeic—that is, it is an imitation of a snake hissing or of the sound it produces as it scrapes its scales along the ground (cf. Jer 46:22). Many types of snakes lay eggs (Is 59:5), although some retain the eggs in the body until ready to hatch.<\/p>\nSnakes are among the most widespread reptiles and are found on all continents except Antarctica; they decrease in numbers and species toward the poles but increase as one approaches the equator. Thirty-three species of snakes are known in Palestine and neighboring countries, 20 of which are poisonous. Two dangerous characteristics of the snake noted by biblical writers are its inconspicuous way of moving and the ease with which it hides itself.<\/p>\nMany snakes are able to swallow animals several times their own diameter because of their unusually flexible jaw mechanism. They lack not only legs but also movable eyelids. Snakes periodically shed their skins. The tongue is actually a hearing apparatus sensitive to airborne vibrations and probably to heat waves.<\/p>\nThe venom of poisonous species is a clear, thin secretion, transmitted to the victim’s bloodstream by means of fangs. Two types of venom are known: that of the vipers, which affects respiration and disintegrates red blood cells, and that of the cobras, which paralyzes the nervous system.<\/p>\nThe “asp” referred to in the Bible is probably the cobra; the “adder” is the viper. The “cockatrice” (kjv<\/span>) is probably the adder. Serpents were associated with worship in Canaanite religion and symbolized evil deities among many other peoples. Steles (upright stones bearing inscriptions) have been unearthed at several sites in the Holy Land and Syria depicting a god or worshiper with a snake winding about the legs or body. Because the Israelites were burning incense in pagan worship of Moses’ bronze serpent (Nm 21:8-9), King Hezekiah destroyed it in his religious reform (2 Kgs 18:4).<\/p>\nAlthough snakes have been an object of veneration in some religions, in the Judeo-Christian tradition snakes represent evil and, more specifically, the devil. That association began in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:1-15) and is also found in the book of Revelation (12:9; 20:2-3).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Adder (above); Asp (above).<\/p>\nSpider<\/p>\nAnimal of the order Araneida. Between 600 and 700 different species inhabit the Holy Land. Spiders are different from insects in that, like scorpions, they have four pairs of legs instead of three. Spiders are equipped with poison glands—the effectiveness varying from species to species. A few can kill only insects, but others can also kill birds and mice.<\/p>\nMost spiders have a pair of spinnerets attached to silk glands on the underside of the abdomen; from them a web is extruded. In the Bible the spider’s web is referred to as a symbol of frailty and insecurity (Jb 8:14; Is 59:5-6).<\/p>\nSponge<\/p>\nSimple marine animals, phylum Porifera. The term “sponge” also refers to those animals’ skeletal remains. The sponge has a porous body composed of tubules and cells.<\/p>\nSponge fishing was well known in the Mediterranean area in ancient times. It was practiced particularly along the Anatolian and Syrian coasts. Sponges were harvested by divers. The use of sponges in absorbing liquids is referred to in the Bible (Mt 27:48; Mk 15:36).<\/p>\nUnicorn<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Wild Ox (below).<\/p>\nWasp<\/p>\nInsects of the family Vespidae. Hornets are social wasps that build large aerial apartment houses in which 1,000 or more individuals may live. In the Bible the hornet is used as a metaphor for God’s use of military forces (Ex 23:28; Dt 7:20; Jos 24:12).<\/p>\nWhale<\/p>\nLargest of all living creatures, including those that have become extinct. Whales are air-breathing mammals of the order Cetacea.<\/p>\nTwo varieties of whales visit the shores of the Holy Land at times. The finback whale (Balaenoptera physalus)<\/em> weighs about 200 tons (181 metric tons) and lives mainly in the Arctic region but sometimes passes through the Straits of Gibraltar to reach the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It feeds on small marine organisms that it strains through its whale bone; it does not have teeth. The finback whale’s esophagus is narrow.<\/p>\nThe sperm whale (Physeter catodon),<\/em> about 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, has a curiously shaped head that looks like a battering ram. The teeth in the lower jaw of the male sperm whale are about seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long. It feeds on big fish, even on sharks. It has a large throat opening.<\/p>\nWhales are referred to in Genesis 1:21 and Job 7:12 (kjv<\/span> only). The “great fish” of Jonah 2:1 need not have been a whale but could have been a large shark, such as the whale shark (Rhineodon),<\/em> which grows 70 feet (21.3 meters) long and lacks the terrible teeth of other sharks. Whatever the actual marine organism, Jonah’s deliverance was miraculous. The Greek word for “whale” is sometimes used as a general term for “sea monster” or huge fish and may be used in that sense in Matthew 12:40.<\/p>\nWild Ox<\/p>\nLarge, fierce, fleet, intractable animal (Bos primigenius).<\/em> It had a long, lean rump with a straight back and a long, narrow head. The animal described in Job 39:9-12 is clearly the wild ox. The two horns (Dt 33:17), its outstanding characteristic, were straight and as long as the head (Nm 23:22; 24:8; Ps 22:21). Kings often symbolized their dominion by wearing a helmet with two wild ox horns (cf. Pss 92:10; 132:17-18). The horns were often used as drinking vessels by the Israelites; some were large enough to hold four gallons (15 liters).<\/p>\nHunting the wild ox was a favorite sport of Assyrian kings. Tiglath-pileser I hunted it in the Lebanon Mountains about 1100 BC<\/span> (cf. Ps 29:6). At one time the animal referred to in Job 39:9-12 was thought to be the oryx or antelope because of the similarity between the Hebrew word in Job and the Arabian name for oryx. The translators of the kjv<\/span> called the wild ox a “unicorn” because of representations found on Babylonian mosaics and Egyptian drawings. Those representations showed it in strict profile, showing only one horn—hence, “unicorn.” Jerome’s Vulgate, a Latin Bible translation (fourth century AD<\/span>) and Martin Luther’s German version translated it similarly.<\/p>\nWolf<\/p>\nLarge doglike mammal (Canis lupus)<\/em> that travels in bands of up to 30 animals. From the nose to the rump, the wolf measures about 3 feet (.9 meter); its drooping tail is about 18 inches (.5 meter) long. It looks much like a skinny German shepherd dog. The grayish yellow pelt is coarse and short haired.<\/p>\nWolves hunt singly or in relays, usually at night (Jer 5:6). Wolves have acute hearing and sight but rely chiefly on scent and usually catch their prey in a swift, open chase. The wolf has a reputation for boldness, fierceness, and voracity (Gn 49:27; Hb 1:8). It commonly kills more than it can eat or drag away and thus is known for its greediness.<\/p>\nThe wolf is a restless animal, always on the move; hunger drives it from one place to another in constant search of new hunting grounds. During spring and fall, wolves usually roam singly or in pairs, whereas in summer they may travel in family groups. In winter, several such groups may join to form a large pack. Wolves are intelligent, social creatures, faithful to their own kind. They mate for life. Individually, the wolf is a rather timid animal; it would much rather avoid human beings. But collectively wolves can be among the most dangerous animals alive.<\/p>\nIn Egypt, Rome, and Greece the wolf was considered sacred. Wolves were well known in the Holy Land and are still found there and also in many places in Asia Minor. Shepherds continually battled with wolves that plundered their flocks (Jn 10:12).<\/p>\nThe Bible refers to wolves in a literal sense in only three places (Is 11:6; 65:25; Jn 10:12), all other references being figurative. Usually the wolf is a symbol of enemies or the wicked (e.g., Ez 22:27; Zep 3:3; Acts 20:29). Both the wolf’s courage and its cruelty were probably in the mind of the patriarch Jacob when he predicted the fate of Benjamin’s tribe (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\nWorm<\/p>\nActually insect larvae in most biblical references, usually maggots, the larvae of flies (see Fly, above). For example, maggots are evidently referred to in accounts of worms feeding on spoiled manna (Ex 16:19-20), corpses (Jb 21:26; Is 14:11), or open wounds (Jb 7:5). Mark 9:48 refers to a maggot that eats dead flesh. In Acts 12:23 a fatal, worm-induced abdominal disease of King Herod is mentioned. In other cases, the reference is to the larvae of other insects (Is 51:8). In Deuteronomy 28:39 and Jonah 4:7 the vine weevil (Cochylis ambiguella)<\/em> is probably referred to; it destroys vines by boring into their stems. Comparing a man to a worm is a metaphor for abasement (Jb 25:6; Ps 22:6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ANIMALS In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals ...","summary_en":"ANIMALS In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals ...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":6712,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>CIRCUMCISION<\/h3>\nSurgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after birth on nearly all newborn males in North America. Outside of Judaism the procedure no longer carries religious significance.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n• Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n• Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\nCircumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\nThe rite of circumcision is far older than the Hebrew people. Cave paintings give evidence that it was practiced in prehistoric times. Egyptian temple drawings show that the operation was common in 4000 BC<\/span> and probably earlier. Peoples practicing circumcision lived on almost every continent. The rite was observed among Central and South American Indians, Polynesians, the peoples of New Guinea, many Australian and African tribes, Egyptians, and pre-Islamic Arabs. The rite is not mentioned in the Koran, but because Muhammad was circumcised, tradition dictates that male Muslims follow the ancient custom. Arab ancestry is traced to Abraham through Ishmael (Gn 17:20), so a common age for Muslim circumcisions is 13, because Ishmael was circumcised at that age (v 25).<\/p>\nAmong the West Semitic people, the Ammonites, Edomites, Midianites, Moabites, and Phoenicians all practiced circumcision (Jer 9:25-26). The Philistines, however, did not (Jgs 14:3; 15:18; 1 Sm 14:6; 17:26, 36; 18:25, 27; 31:4; 2 Sm 1:20; 3:14; 1 Chr 10:4).<\/p>\nYoung men were usually circumcised at puberty, evidently in preparation for marriage and entrance into full tribal responsibilities. The Hebrews were the only ancient practitioners of circumcision to observe the rite in infancy, thus freeing it from association with fertility rituals.<\/p>\nCircumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\nIn the Bible the practice of circumcision began in Genesis 17 as a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham. God promised Abraham a land and, through a son yet to be conceived, numerous descendants, from whom kings would come. Blessings would come upon Abraham and through him to all nations (Gn 12:1-3). After the covenant was formally inaugurated (ch 15), God sealed it, ordering Abraham to be circumcised along with all the males in his household (17:9-13).<\/p>\nCircumcision was to be an expression of faith that God’s promises would be realized. Because Abraham’s faith had lapsed (Gn 16) even after he had seen the awesome display of God’s majesty (15:9-17), a permanent reminder of God’s covenant promises was placed on his body and the bodies of his male descendants (17:11). This sign was so closely related to God’s covenant promise that the rite itself could be termed the “covenant” (Gn 17:10; Acts 7:8).<\/p>\nCircumcision was to be performed on the eighth day after birth (Gn 17:12; Lv 12:1-3; see Gn 21:4; Lk 1:59; 2:21; Acts 7:8; Phil 3:5), customarily by the boy’s father (Gn 17:23; 21:4; Acts 7:8), at which time a name would be given (Lk 1:59; 2:21). Flint knives were used in the early days (Ex 4:25; Jos 5:2-3). Later, the rite was carried out by a trained practitioner called a mohel<\/span>.<\/em> Medical research has determined that prothrombin, a substance in the blood that aids in clotting, is present in greater quantity on the eighth day than at any other time in life.<\/p>\n<h5>Theological Meaning<\/h5>\nCircumcision had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning Abraham’s descendants (Gn 17:9-12). Because it was applied to the reproductive organ, the sign involved the propagation of the race. Its application to the eight-day-old infant demonstrates the gracious character of God’s promise to Abraham’s descendants and indicates that God’s people are in need of cleansing grace from birth (Lv 12:1-3). The promises of the covenant were reaffirmed to each generation before the recipients were able to respond in either faith or unbelief; nothing in the hearts of the chosen people could either bring about or thwart the ultimate fulfillment of the promises given to Abraham and his posterity.<\/p>\nCircumcision also had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning the land (Gn 17:8). The land was God’s holy possession, and the Israelites had to be holy to possess it. When Joseph and his descendants were in Egypt, they continued to circumcise their sons. But following the great sin at Mt Sinai after the exodus, the unbelieving Israelites failed to place the covenant sign upon their children as they wandered in the wilderness. Because the new generation had not been circumcised, the people were unprepared to enter the Promised Land. Therefore, God ordered Joshua to circumcise the men of Israel. The people’s obedient response was an act of faith, since the armies of the enemy were camped nearby as the Israelite warriors lay incapacitated by the surgery (Jos 5:2-9).<\/p>\nFrom the beginning, participation in the covenant promises was open to persons outside Abraham’s household (Gn 17:12-13). Exodus 12:43-49 gives non-Israelites the opportunity to participate in the Passover if they are willing to fulfill the same stipulation placed upon the Jews—that of circumcision.<\/p>\nThe provision for admission to God’s people by reception of the covenant sign was abused by Jacob’s sons when circumcision was made a precondition for intermarriage with the Shechemites. While the Shechemites were disabled by their wounds, Simeon and Levi killed them, plundering the city to exact retribution for the rape of their sister Dinah (Gn 34).<\/p>\nThe sign of the covenant was not to be treated lightly. The penalty of excommunication rested upon the uncircumcised (Gn 17:14). The strange incident recorded in Exodus 4:24-26 seems to have been God’s reminder to Moses of the stipulations of the covenant made with Abraham. Moses had proved an unfaithful servant of the Lord by neglecting to circumcise his son but was rescued from judgment when his wife Zipporah took a flint rock and circumcised the boy, throwing the bloody foreskin at her husband’s feet.<\/p>\n\nCircumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\nJohn the Baptist was circumcised, as were Jesus and Paul (Lk 1:59; 2:21; Phil 3:5). Jesus recognized the cleansing significance of circumcision (Jn 7:22-23), contrasting the rite with his healing ministry that made a man completely well and therefore ceremonially “clean.” Just before he was stoned, Stephen referred to the covenant of circumcision, charging that his Jewish accusers, like their ancestors, were stiff-necked and uncircumcised in heart and ears, always resisting the Holy Spirit (Acts 7:8, 51).<\/p>\nFor a time the first Christians continued to participate in the Jewish rites and customs, even attending the services of the temple (Acts 3:1; 5:21, 42). As Gentiles came to Christ, controversy arose between those who said that participation in the covenant community required circumcision and those who believed the rite was unnecessary. It was argued that since the covenant promise of the Messiah was given to the Jews, Gentiles must first be circumcised and become Jews before they could receive salvation in Christ.<\/p>\nIn the time of Christ, many Jews misunderstood the significance of circumcision, believing that the physical act was necessary for and a guarantee of salvation. Thus for Jews the observance became not only a symbol of religious privilege but also a source of racial pride (Phil 3:4-6). These Jews associated the ceremony with the Mosaic law rather than the promise to Abraham (Jn 7:22; Acts 15:1). Because Greeks and Romans did not practice circumcision, Jews had come to be called “the circumcision” (kjv<\/span> Acts 10:45; 11:2; Rom 15:8; Gal 2:7-9; Eph 2:11; Ti 1:10), and following OT practice (Ez 28:10; 31:18; 32:19-32), Gentiles were termed “the uncircumcision” (kjv<\/span> Gal 2:7; Eph 2:11).<\/p>\nWhile visiting Caesarea, Jewish believers were amazed to realize that uncircumcised Gentiles received the purifying gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts 10:44-48). Moses had promised that God would circumcise the hearts of his people to love the Lord with heart and soul (Dt 30:6), and Ezekiel had prophesied that the Lord would sprinkle clean water on his people, giving them a new heart and putting his Spirit within them (Ez 36:25-27). As these Jewish believers saw the prophecy that God would pour out his Spirit upon all flesh (Jl 2:28; Acts 2:17) being fulfilled, they realized that the inward reality symbolized by circumcision could be accomplished without the physical sign. Thus, the gentile believers were immediately baptized.<\/p>\nNot all the Jewish believers were immediately willing to accept Gentiles into the church. When Peter returned to Jerusalem after his visit to Caesarea, “the circumcision party” criticized him. But after telling how the Spirit had fallen upon the Gentiles, Peter declared that he could not stand against God. At this the Jewish believers were silenced and glorified God that repentance unto life had been granted to Gentiles (Acts 11:1-3, 15:8).<\/p>\nCertain “Judaizers” of the Pharisaic party taught the Christians in Antioch that circumcision was necessary for salvation (Acts 15:1, 5). After debating these persons, Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles and elders (v 2). Peter argued that God had given the Spirit to Gentiles and “cleansed their hearts by faith,” affirming that “we believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus, just as they will” (vv 8-9, 11, rsv<\/span>). Therefore, James and the other Jerusalem leaders agreed that circumcision should not be imposed on the Gentiles (vv 13-21).<\/p>\nIt was decided that Peter, James, and John would be entrusted with the gospel to “the circumcised,” while Paul and Barnabas would preach to “the uncircumcised” (Gal 2:7-9). Because of his evangelistic policy to be “all things to all people” with respect to spiritually indifferent matters of custom (1 Cor 9:19-23), Paul had Timothy circumcised. Timothy was reckoned by Jews as one of their race because his mother was Jewish (Acts 16:1-2). But Paul resisted attempts to have Titus circumcised, since he was a Gentile (Gal 2:3). Paul apparently allowed Jewish believers to circumcise their sons (Acts 21:21).<\/p>\nYet Paul charged that those who argued that the Galatian Christians must be circumcised and keep the law did not keep it themselves but wanted to boast in the Galatians’ flesh and avoid persecution for the cross of Christ (Gal 6:12-13)—persecution Paul was willing to bear (5:11). Granting for the sake of argument the Pharisaic assumption that salvation could be merited by keeping the law, Paul declared that those who received circumcision must obey every other Jewish law (vv 2-3). Christ would be “of no advantage” to those who “would be justified by the law”; this attempt at works righteousness would evidence that the Galatians were “severed from Christ,” having “fallen from grace” (vv 2-4). These Christians were being tempted to turn to “a different gospel” (1:6-7).<\/p>\nBecause of the serious threat the Judaizers posed to the gospel of free grace, Paul wished that those who unsettled the Galatians would “mutilate themselves” (Gal 5:12). He termed the Judaizers “dogs” and “evil workers” (kjv<\/span> “concision”), asserting that Christians are “the true circumcision,” because they worship God in spirit and glory in Christ Jesus, putting no confidence in human works to merit salvation (Phil 3:2-3).<\/p>\nPaul taught that circumcision was indeed of value to Jews, for it was the sign that to them had been committed the “oracles of God,” that is, God’s word concerning the promise of salvation (Rom 3:1-3). He reminded the prideful Ephesians that as Gentiles they had once been “strangers to the covenants of promise,” not bearing the covenant sign in their flesh (Eph 2:11-12; see Col 2:13). Likewise, Jews had no cause for pride, for disobedience could cause outward circumcision to be counted as uncircumcision (Rom 2:25).<\/p>\nPaul and the other apostles followed Moses and the OT prophets in teaching that true circumcision was a matter of the heart. The teaching of the NT goes further to affirm that a faithful believer, though physically uncircumcised, is regarded by God as circumcised, “for he is not a real Jew who is one outwardly, nor is true circumcision something external and physical” (Rom 2:28, rsv<\/span>). Both Jews and Gentiles are saved by grace (Acts 15:11), and circumcised and uncircumcised alike are justified on the ground of their faith, apart from works of the law (Rom 3:28-30).<\/p>\nAbraham served as an example of a person whose faith was reckoned to him as righteousness (Rom 4:3; see Gn 15:6). Paul argued that both Gentiles and Jews are justified by faith, because Abraham was accounted righteous before he was circumcised. Abraham did not receive circumcision to obtain righteousness, but as a sign or seal of the righteousness that he had by faith while he was still uncircumcised. Thus, Abraham is the father of all who believe without being circumcised, as well as those who are circumcised but also follow the example of Abraham’s faith (Rom 4:9-12; see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Baptism; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Uncircumcision.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CIRCUMCISION<\/h3>\nSurgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after birth on nearly all newborn males in North America. Outside of Judaism the procedure no longer carries religious significance.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n• Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n• Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\nCircumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\nThe rite of circumcision is far older than the Hebrew people. Cave paintings give evidence that it was practiced in prehistoric times. Egyptian temple drawings show that the operation was common in 4000 BC<\/span> and probably earlier. Peoples practicing circumcision lived on almost every continent. The rite was observed among Central and South American Indians, Polynesians, the peoples of New Guinea, many Australian and African tribes, Egyptians, and pre-Islamic Arabs. The rite is not mentioned in the Koran, but because Muhammad was circumcised, tradition dictates that male Muslims follow the ancient custom. Arab ancestry is traced to Abraham through Ishmael (Gn 17:20), so a common age for Muslim circumcisions is 13, because Ishmael was circumcised at that age (v 25).<\/p>\nAmong the West Semitic people, the Ammonites, Edomites, Midianites, Moabites, and Phoenicians all practiced circumcision (Jer 9:25-26). The Philistines, however, did not (Jgs 14:3; 15:18; 1 Sm 14:6; 17:26, 36; 18:25, 27; 31:4; 2 Sm 1:20; 3:14; 1 Chr 10:4).<\/p>\nYoung men were usually circumcised at puberty, evidently in preparation for marriage and entrance into full tribal responsibilities. The Hebrews were the only ancient practitioners of circumcision to observe the rite in infancy, thus freeing it from association with fertility rituals.<\/p>\nCircumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\nIn the Bible the practice of circumcision began in Genesis 17 as a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham. God promised Abraham a land and, through a son yet to be conceived, numerous descendants, from whom kings would come. Blessings would come upon Abraham and through him to all nations (Gn 12:1-3). After the covenant was formally inaugurated (ch 15), God sealed it, ordering Abraham to be circumcised along with all the males in his household (17:9-13).<\/p>\nCircumcision was to be an expression of faith that God’s promises would be realized. Because Abraham’s faith had lapsed (Gn 16) even after he had seen the awesome display of God’s majesty (15:9-17), a permanent reminder of God’s covenant promises was placed on his body and the bodies of his male descendants (17:11). This sign was so closely related to God’s covenant promise that the rite itself could be termed the “covenant” (Gn 17:10; Acts 7:8).<\/p>\nCircumcision was to be performed on the eighth day after birth (Gn 17:12; Lv 12:1-3; see Gn 21:4; Lk 1:59; 2:21; Acts 7:8; Phil 3:5), customarily by the boy’s father (Gn 17:23; 21:4; Acts 7:8), at which time a name would be given (Lk 1:59; 2:21). Flint knives were used in the early days (Ex 4:25; Jos 5:2-3). Later, the rite was carried out by a trained practitioner called a mohel<\/span>.<\/em> Medical research has determined that prothrombin, a substance in the blood that aids in clotting, is present in greater quantity on the eighth day than at any other time in life.<\/p>\n<h5>Theological Meaning<\/h5>\nCircumcision had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning Abraham’s descendants (Gn 17:9-12). Because it was applied to the reproductive organ, the sign involved the propagation of the race. Its application to the eight-day-old infant demonstrates the gracious character of God’s promise to Abraham’s descendants and indicates that God’s people are in need of cleansing grace from birth (Lv 12:1-3). The promises of the covenant were reaffirmed to each generation before the recipients were able to respond in either faith or unbelief; nothing in the hearts of the chosen people could either bring about or thwart the ultimate fulfillment of the promises given to Abraham and his posterity.<\/p>\nCircumcision also had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning the land (Gn 17:8). The land was God’s holy possession, and the Israelites had to be holy to possess it. When Joseph and his descendants were in Egypt, they continued to circumcise their sons. But following the great sin at Mt Sinai after the exodus, the unbelieving Israelites failed to place the covenant sign upon their children as they wandered in the wilderness. Because the new generation had not been circumcised, the people were unprepared to enter the Promised Land. Therefore, God ordered Joshua to circumcise the men of Israel. The people’s obedient response was an act of faith, since the armies of the enemy were camped nearby as the Israelite warriors lay incapacitated by the surgery (Jos 5:2-9).<\/p>\nFrom the beginning, participation in the covenant promises was open to persons outside Abraham’s household (Gn 17:12-13). Exodus 12:43-49 gives non-Israelites the opportunity to participate in the Passover if they are willing to fulfill the same stipulation placed upon the Jews—that of circumcision.<\/p>\nThe provision for admission to God’s people by reception of the covenant sign was abused by Jacob’s sons when circumcision was made a precondition for intermarriage with the Shechemites. While the Shechemites were disabled by their wounds, Simeon and Levi killed them, plundering the city to exact retribution for the rape of their sister Dinah (Gn 34).<\/p>\nThe sign of the covenant was not to be treated lightly. The penalty of excommunication rested upon the uncircumcised (Gn 17:14). The strange incident recorded in Exodus 4:24-26 seems to have been God’s reminder to Moses of the stipulations of the covenant made with Abraham. Moses had proved an unfaithful servant of the Lord by neglecting to circumcise his son but was rescued from judgment when his wife Zipporah took a flint rock and circumcised the boy, throwing the bloody foreskin at her husband’s feet.<\/p>\n\nCircumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\nJohn the Baptist was circumcised, as were Jesus and Paul (Lk 1:59; 2:21; Phil 3:5). Jesus recognized the cleansing significance of circumcision (Jn 7:22-23), contrasting the rite with his healing ministry that made a man completely well and therefore ceremonially “clean.” Just before he was stoned, Stephen referred to the covenant of circumcision, charging that his Jewish accusers, like their ancestors, were stiff-necked and uncircumcised in heart and ears, always resisting the Holy Spirit (Acts 7:8, 51).<\/p>\nFor a time the first Christians continued to participate in the Jewish rites and customs, even attending the services of the temple (Acts 3:1; 5:21, 42). As Gentiles came to Christ, controversy arose between those who said that participation in the covenant community required circumcision and those who believed the rite was unnecessary. It was argued that since the covenant promise of the Messiah was given to the Jews, Gentiles must first be circumcised and become Jews before they could receive salvation in Christ.<\/p>\nIn the time of Christ, many Jews misunderstood the significance of circumcision, believing that the physical act was necessary for and a guarantee of salvation. Thus for Jews the observance became not only a symbol of religious privilege but also a source of racial pride (Phil 3:4-6). These Jews associated the ceremony with the Mosaic law rather than the promise to Abraham (Jn 7:22; Acts 15:1). Because Greeks and Romans did not practice circumcision, Jews had come to be called “the circumcision” (kjv<\/span> Acts 10:45; 11:2; Rom 15:8; Gal 2:7-9; Eph 2:11; Ti 1:10), and following OT practice (Ez 28:10; 31:18; 32:19-32), Gentiles were termed “the uncircumcision” (kjv<\/span> Gal 2:7; Eph 2:11).<\/p>\nWhile visiting Caesarea, Jewish believers were amazed to realize that uncircumcised Gentiles received the purifying gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts 10:44-48). Moses had promised that God would circumcise the hearts of his people to love the Lord with heart and soul (Dt 30:6), and Ezekiel had prophesied that the Lord would sprinkle clean water on his people, giving them a new heart and putting his Spirit within them (Ez 36:25-27). As these Jewish believers saw the prophecy that God would pour out his Spirit upon all flesh (Jl 2:28; Acts 2:17) being fulfilled, they realized that the inward reality symbolized by circumcision could be accomplished without the physical sign. Thus, the gentile believers were immediately baptized.<\/p>\nNot all the Jewish believers were immediately willing to accept Gentiles into the church. When Peter returned to Jerusalem after his visit to Caesarea, “the circumcision party” criticized him. But after telling how the Spirit had fallen upon the Gentiles, Peter declared that he could not stand against God. At this the Jewish believers were silenced and glorified God that repentance unto life had been granted to Gentiles (Acts 11:1-3, 15:8).<\/p>\nCertain “Judaizers” of the Pharisaic party taught the Christians in Antioch that circumcision was necessary for salvation (Acts 15:1, 5). After debating these persons, Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles and elders (v 2). Peter argued that God had given the Spirit to Gentiles and “cleansed their hearts by faith,” affirming that “we believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus, just as they will” (vv 8-9, 11, rsv<\/span>). Therefore, James and the other Jerusalem leaders agreed that circumcision should not be imposed on the Gentiles (vv 13-21).<\/p>\nIt was decided that Peter, James, and John would be entrusted with the gospel to “the circumcised,” while Paul and Barnabas would preach to “the uncircumcised” (Gal 2:7-9). Because of his evangelistic policy to be “all things to all people” with respect to spiritually indifferent matters of custom (1 Cor 9:19-23), Paul had Timothy circumcised. Timothy was reckoned by Jews as one of their race because his mother was Jewish (Acts 16:1-2). But Paul resisted attempts to have Titus circumcised, since he was a Gentile (Gal 2:3). Paul apparently allowed Jewish believers to circumcise their sons (Acts 21:21).<\/p>\nYet Paul charged that those who argued that the Galatian Christians must be circumcised and keep the law did not keep it themselves but wanted to boast in the Galatians’ flesh and avoid persecution for the cross of Christ (Gal 6:12-13)—persecution Paul was willing to bear (5:11). Granting for the sake of argument the Pharisaic assumption that salvation could be merited by keeping the law, Paul declared that those who received circumcision must obey every other Jewish law (vv 2-3). Christ would be “of no advantage” to those who “would be justified by the law”; this attempt at works righteousness would evidence that the Galatians were “severed from Christ,” having “fallen from grace” (vv 2-4). These Christians were being tempted to turn to “a different gospel” (1:6-7).<\/p>\nBecause of the serious threat the Judaizers posed to the gospel of free grace, Paul wished that those who unsettled the Galatians would “mutilate themselves” (Gal 5:12). He termed the Judaizers “dogs” and “evil workers” (kjv<\/span> “concision”), asserting that Christians are “the true circumcision,” because they worship God in spirit and glory in Christ Jesus, putting no confidence in human works to merit salvation (Phil 3:2-3).<\/p>\nPaul taught that circumcision was indeed of value to Jews, for it was the sign that to them had been committed the “oracles of God,” that is, God’s word concerning the promise of salvation (Rom 3:1-3). He reminded the prideful Ephesians that as Gentiles they had once been “strangers to the covenants of promise,” not bearing the covenant sign in their flesh (Eph 2:11-12; see Col 2:13). Likewise, Jews had no cause for pride, for disobedience could cause outward circumcision to be counted as uncircumcision (Rom 2:25).<\/p>\nPaul and the other apostles followed Moses and the OT prophets in teaching that true circumcision was a matter of the heart. The teaching of the NT goes further to affirm that a faithful believer, though physically uncircumcised, is regarded by God as circumcised, “for he is not a real Jew who is one outwardly, nor is true circumcision something external and physical” (Rom 2:28, rsv<\/span>). Both Jews and Gentiles are saved by grace (Acts 15:11), and circumcised and uncircumcised alike are justified on the ground of their faith, apart from works of the law (Rom 3:28-30).<\/p>\nAbraham served as an example of a person whose faith was reckoned to him as righteousness (Rom 4:3; see Gn 15:6). Paul argued that both Gentiles and Jews are justified by faith, because Abraham was accounted righteous before he was circumcised. Abraham did not receive circumcision to obtain righteousness, but as a sign or seal of the righteousness that he had by faith while he was still uncircumcised. Thus, Abraham is the father of all who believe without being circumcised, as well as those who are circumcised but also follow the example of Abraham’s faith (Rom 4:9-12; see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Baptism; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Uncircumcision.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CIRCUMCISION Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after bi...","summary_en":"CIRCUMCISION Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after bi...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":7351,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Concision*","title_en":"Concision*","content_ro":"<h3>CONCISION*<\/h3>\nKJV translation in the text of Philippians 3:2, meaning “mutilation of the flesh.”<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CONCISION*<\/h3>\nKJV translation in the text of Philippians 3:2, meaning “mutilation of the flesh.”<\/p>","summary_ro":"CONCISION* KJV translation in the text of Philippians 3:2, meaning “mutilation of the flesh.”","summary_en":"CONCISION* KJV translation in the text of Philippians 3:2, meaning “mutilation of the flesh.”","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21104,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Judaizers*","title_en":"Judaizers*","content_ro":"<h3>JUDAIZERS*<\/h3>\nChristian Jews who, during the apostolic and early postapostolic periods, attempted to impose the Jewish way of life on gentile Christians. The Greek verb, which literally means “to Judaize,” is found only one time in the NT (Gal 2:14), where it actually means “to live according to Jewish customs and traditions.” In that passage Paul quotes part of a brief conversation he had with Peter several years earlier: “If you, though a Jew, live like a Gentile and not like a Jew, how can you compel the Gentiles to live like Jews [i.e., to Judaize]?” (rsv<\/span>). The issue that concerned Paul was not simply whether or not a person followed the Jewish way of life but whether one erroneously thought that salvation was attained thereby.<\/p>\nIn the early days of Christianity, most—if not all—Christians were Jews prior to their conversion to Christianity. The few who were originally Gentiles, such as Nicolaus of Antioch (Acts 6:5), had converted to Judaism before turning to Christianity. At that time, conversion to Judaism was accomplished through three separate steps: (1) circumcision (for males); (2) a ritual bath in water; and (3) agreement to take upon oneself the “yoke of the law,” that is, to obey the 613 commands of the Mosaic law as interpreted and expanded in Jewish Halakah (rabbinic legal decisions). Following Jewish customs and traditions and observing Jewish religious laws was a normal way of life for Jewish Christians, whether they were Jews by birth or through conversion. For them, belief in Jesus as the Messiah of Jewish expectation enhanced, but did not replace, their Judaism. Christianity was not regarded as a religion distinct from Judaism but rather as the truest form of Judaism. These Jewish Christians had all been circumcised as infants, or upon conversion to Judaism, and they also practiced the kosher dietary laws and rules of ritual purity prescribed in Mosaic legislation and rabbinic tradition. Further, they continued to worship at the temple in Jerusalem (Acts 3:1; 21:26) until its destruction by the Romans in AD<\/span> 70, and certain Jewish Christians continued to meet in synagogues (see Jas 2:2, nlt<\/span> mg).<\/p>\nWhile earliest Christianity began as a predominantly Jewish movement, it soon expanded into the Greco-Roman world. Jewish Christians were forced to leave Jerusalem as a result of persecutions (Acts 8:1; 11:19-24), and they proclaimed the gospel wherever they went. Philip was responsible for bringing the gospel to Samaria, where many Samaritans became Christians (8:4-25). On the Day of Pentecost, many Jews from places all over the Roman world became converts to the Christian faith (2:5-11). Presumably, when these newly converted Jewish Christians returned to their homes, they carried the gospel with them. Although the origin of the Christian community in Rome is shrouded in obscurity, this is probably how the gospel first came to Rome. One of the central concerns of Luke, the author of Acts, is to show how Christianity, which began as a small, persecuted sect of Judaism in Jerusalem, spread throughout the Roman world; in so doing, it was rejected by Jews and embraced by Gentiles. The major turning point in Acts is in chapter 10, where Peter is the means whereby the Roman centurion Cornelius, together with his entire household, accepted the gospel and began to manifest the gifts of the Holy Spirit. According to Acts 10:45, “The Jewish believers who came with Peter were amazed that the gift of the Holy Spirit had been poured out upon the Gentiles, too” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe growing number of gentile converts to Christianity forced Jewish Christians to face a very difficult problem: Must a Gentile first become a Jew in order to be a Christian? Some Jewish Christians gave a positive answer to this question, and these became known as the circumcision party (Acts 11:2; Gal 2:12). Others, such as Peter and Barnabas, and especially Paul, vigorously disagreed. While these two radically different points of view could have split the early church into two major factions, that possibility did not occur. Luke tells the story of how, after a successful first missionary journey (Acts 13:1–14:28), Paul and Barnabas reported to the church at Antioch how God had opened a door of faith to the Gentiles (Acts 14:27). Opposition from the Judaizers in the circumcision party was soon felt, however, since some of them had come to Antioch from Judea for the express purpose of advocating the idea that circumcision was absolutely necessary for salvation (15:1). Many Jewish Christians had, like Paul, once been Pharisees. These former Pharisees were particularly insistent that new converts who were Gentiles be circumcised and charged to keep the law of Moses (v 5). They were really demanding that Gentiles become converted to Judaism in order to be Christians.<\/p>\nPaul and Barnabas debated with members of the circumcision party before an assembly of apostles and elders in Jerusalem (Acts 15:4-12). The assembly, led by James the Just (the brother of Jesus), listened to both sides and decided to issue a compromise. A letter to the gentile churches was drafted in which it was recommended that gentile converts to Christianity adhere to only a few absolutely essential obligations: (1) abstention from meat sacrificed to idols, (2) abstention from eating blood or blood-saturated meat, and (3) abstention from unchastity (vv 23-29). These three obligations were probably singled out because they were thought to have been important features of those laws regarded as part of the covenant between God and Noah according to Jewish tradition. Since Noah was the ancestor of all mankind, Gentiles as well as Jews, such laws had universal validity. The Mosaic covenant, on the other hand, was incumbent only upon Jews, not upon Gentiles. For this reason the Jerusalem Council determined that abstention from meat sacrificed to idols, blood-saturated meat, and unchastity applied to all Christians, whereas the obligation of circumcision did not.<\/p>\nJudging from the remainder of the book of Acts, it might be supposed that the decision of the Jerusalem Council was satisfactory to the Judaizers of the circumcision party. However, from the details provided by Paul in many of his letters, we find that this was not the case. After Paul briefly summarizes the results of the Jerusalem Council for the Galatian Christians (Gal 2:1-10), he relates how, even after the Jerusalem Council, the Judaizers of the circumcision party were sufficiently powerful to cause even Peter and Barnabas to temporarily isolate themselves from gentile Christians. (According to rabbinic purity laws, one would become religiously impure if one ate with Gentiles.) The major reason Paul wrote the Letter to the Galatians was to combat Judaizers who had apparently invaded the Christian communities in Galatia after his departure. These Judaizers appear to have successfully persuaded some of the Galatian Christians that salvation was available only for those who were circumcised and who kept the Mosaic law (5:12; 6:13). At least some of the problems experienced by the Corinthian church appear to have been caused by Judaizers (2 Cor 11:12–15, 22), and they had infected the Christian community at Philippi (Phil 3:2-3). Judaizers also appear to have made some progress in the church at Colosse. Therefore, according to Colossians 2:16-17, “Let no one pass judgment on you in questions of food and drink or with regard to a festival or a new moon or a sabbath. These are only a shadow of what is to come; but the substance belongs to Christ” (rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nOf all the early apostles and elders, Paul was the one who most consistently opposed the Judaizers’ view that Gentiles must first become Jews in order to be Christians. His dramatic conversion to Christianity, narrated three times in Acts (9:1-9; 22:6-16; 26:12-23) and occasionally referred to by Paul himself (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:11-17), convinced him that salvation could be achieved only through faith in Christ. Since Jesus was the only<\/em> way, all other means by which persons sought to obtain salvation were necessarily invalid and illegitimate. Paul was fully aware that it was not because of the fact that he was an observant Jew that he had become justified before God (Phil 3:2-11) but through his faith in Christ. Primarily because of the persistent activity of the Judaizers, Paul had to insist frequently on the invalidity of the law and the validity of faith as the means of being justified before God. This theme dominates his letters to the Romans and the Galatians.<\/p>\nJewish Christianity gradually withered and disappeared, and with it went the insistence of the Judaizers that Gentiles live according to Jewish customs and traditions in order to receive salvation. The center of Jewish Christianity had traditionally been Jerusalem. Just before the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple at the end of the Jewish revolt of AD<\/span> 66–70, many Jewish Christians fled to Pella in obedience to a divine revelation. The ill-fated revolt of Bar-Kochba (AD<\/span> 132–135) further weakened the movement, when Jewish Christians experienced persecution at the hands of the Jewish insurgents. Thereafter Jewish Christianity grew weaker and eventually disappeared. With its disappearance the persistent notion that Gentiles must first become Jews in order to be Christians also died.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; First Jewish Revolt; Galatians, Letter to the; Jerusalem Council; Jew; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JUDAIZERS*<\/h3>\nChristian Jews who, during the apostolic and early postapostolic periods, attempted to impose the Jewish way of life on gentile Christians. The Greek verb, which literally means “to Judaize,” is found only one time in the NT (Gal 2:14), where it actually means “to live according to Jewish customs and traditions.” In that passage Paul quotes part of a brief conversation he had with Peter several years earlier: “If you, though a Jew, live like a Gentile and not like a Jew, how can you compel the Gentiles to live like Jews [i.e., to Judaize]?” (rsv<\/span>). The issue that concerned Paul was not simply whether or not a person followed the Jewish way of life but whether one erroneously thought that salvation was attained thereby.<\/p>\nIn the early days of Christianity, most—if not all—Christians were Jews prior to their conversion to Christianity. The few who were originally Gentiles, such as Nicolaus of Antioch (Acts 6:5), had converted to Judaism before turning to Christianity. At that time, conversion to Judaism was accomplished through three separate steps: (1) circumcision (for males); (2) a ritual bath in water; and (3) agreement to take upon oneself the “yoke of the law,” that is, to obey the 613 commands of the Mosaic law as interpreted and expanded in Jewish Halakah (rabbinic legal decisions). Following Jewish customs and traditions and observing Jewish religious laws was a normal way of life for Jewish Christians, whether they were Jews by birth or through conversion. For them, belief in Jesus as the Messiah of Jewish expectation enhanced, but did not replace, their Judaism. Christianity was not regarded as a religion distinct from Judaism but rather as the truest form of Judaism. These Jewish Christians had all been circumcised as infants, or upon conversion to Judaism, and they also practiced the kosher dietary laws and rules of ritual purity prescribed in Mosaic legislation and rabbinic tradition. Further, they continued to worship at the temple in Jerusalem (Acts 3:1; 21:26) until its destruction by the Romans in AD<\/span> 70, and certain Jewish Christians continued to meet in synagogues (see Jas 2:2, nlt<\/span> mg).<\/p>\nWhile earliest Christianity began as a predominantly Jewish movement, it soon expanded into the Greco-Roman world. Jewish Christians were forced to leave Jerusalem as a result of persecutions (Acts 8:1; 11:19-24), and they proclaimed the gospel wherever they went. Philip was responsible for bringing the gospel to Samaria, where many Samaritans became Christians (8:4-25). On the Day of Pentecost, many Jews from places all over the Roman world became converts to the Christian faith (2:5-11). Presumably, when these newly converted Jewish Christians returned to their homes, they carried the gospel with them. Although the origin of the Christian community in Rome is shrouded in obscurity, this is probably how the gospel first came to Rome. One of the central concerns of Luke, the author of Acts, is to show how Christianity, which began as a small, persecuted sect of Judaism in Jerusalem, spread throughout the Roman world; in so doing, it was rejected by Jews and embraced by Gentiles. The major turning point in Acts is in chapter 10, where Peter is the means whereby the Roman centurion Cornelius, together with his entire household, accepted the gospel and began to manifest the gifts of the Holy Spirit. According to Acts 10:45, “The Jewish believers who came with Peter were amazed that the gift of the Holy Spirit had been poured out upon the Gentiles, too” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe growing number of gentile converts to Christianity forced Jewish Christians to face a very difficult problem: Must a Gentile first become a Jew in order to be a Christian? Some Jewish Christians gave a positive answer to this question, and these became known as the circumcision party (Acts 11:2; Gal 2:12). Others, such as Peter and Barnabas, and especially Paul, vigorously disagreed. While these two radically different points of view could have split the early church into two major factions, that possibility did not occur. Luke tells the story of how, after a successful first missionary journey (Acts 13:1–14:28), Paul and Barnabas reported to the church at Antioch how God had opened a door of faith to the Gentiles (Acts 14:27). Opposition from the Judaizers in the circumcision party was soon felt, however, since some of them had come to Antioch from Judea for the express purpose of advocating the idea that circumcision was absolutely necessary for salvation (15:1). Many Jewish Christians had, like Paul, once been Pharisees. These former Pharisees were particularly insistent that new converts who were Gentiles be circumcised and charged to keep the law of Moses (v 5). They were really demanding that Gentiles become converted to Judaism in order to be Christians.<\/p>\nPaul and Barnabas debated with members of the circumcision party before an assembly of apostles and elders in Jerusalem (Acts 15:4-12). The assembly, led by James the Just (the brother of Jesus), listened to both sides and decided to issue a compromise. A letter to the gentile churches was drafted in which it was recommended that gentile converts to Christianity adhere to only a few absolutely essential obligations: (1) abstention from meat sacrificed to idols, (2) abstention from eating blood or blood-saturated meat, and (3) abstention from unchastity (vv 23-29). These three obligations were probably singled out because they were thought to have been important features of those laws regarded as part of the covenant between God and Noah according to Jewish tradition. Since Noah was the ancestor of all mankind, Gentiles as well as Jews, such laws had universal validity. The Mosaic covenant, on the other hand, was incumbent only upon Jews, not upon Gentiles. For this reason the Jerusalem Council determined that abstention from meat sacrificed to idols, blood-saturated meat, and unchastity applied to all Christians, whereas the obligation of circumcision did not.<\/p>\nJudging from the remainder of the book of Acts, it might be supposed that the decision of the Jerusalem Council was satisfactory to the Judaizers of the circumcision party. However, from the details provided by Paul in many of his letters, we find that this was not the case. After Paul briefly summarizes the results of the Jerusalem Council for the Galatian Christians (Gal 2:1-10), he relates how, even after the Jerusalem Council, the Judaizers of the circumcision party were sufficiently powerful to cause even Peter and Barnabas to temporarily isolate themselves from gentile Christians. (According to rabbinic purity laws, one would become religiously impure if one ate with Gentiles.) The major reason Paul wrote the Letter to the Galatians was to combat Judaizers who had apparently invaded the Christian communities in Galatia after his departure. These Judaizers appear to have successfully persuaded some of the Galatian Christians that salvation was available only for those who were circumcised and who kept the Mosaic law (5:12; 6:13). At least some of the problems experienced by the Corinthian church appear to have been caused by Judaizers (2 Cor 11:12–15, 22), and they had infected the Christian community at Philippi (Phil 3:2-3). Judaizers also appear to have made some progress in the church at Colosse. Therefore, according to Colossians 2:16-17, “Let no one pass judgment on you in questions of food and drink or with regard to a festival or a new moon or a sabbath. These are only a shadow of what is to come; but the substance belongs to Christ” (rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nOf all the early apostles and elders, Paul was the one who most consistently opposed the Judaizers’ view that Gentiles must first become Jews in order to be Christians. His dramatic conversion to Christianity, narrated three times in Acts (9:1-9; 22:6-16; 26:12-23) and occasionally referred to by Paul himself (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:11-17), convinced him that salvation could be achieved only through faith in Christ. Since Jesus was the only<\/em> way, all other means by which persons sought to obtain salvation were necessarily invalid and illegitimate. Paul was fully aware that it was not because of the fact that he was an observant Jew that he had become justified before God (Phil 3:2-11) but through his faith in Christ. Primarily because of the persistent activity of the Judaizers, Paul had to insist frequently on the invalidity of the law and the validity of faith as the means of being justified before God. This theme dominates his letters to the Romans and the Galatians.<\/p>\nJewish Christianity gradually withered and disappeared, and with it went the insistence of the Judaizers that Gentiles live according to Jewish customs and traditions in order to receive salvation. The center of Jewish Christianity had traditionally been Jerusalem. Just before the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple at the end of the Jewish revolt of AD<\/span> 66–70, many Jewish Christians fled to Pella in obedience to a divine revelation. The ill-fated revolt of Bar-Kochba (AD<\/span> 132–135) further weakened the movement, when Jewish Christians experienced persecution at the hands of the Jewish insurgents. Thereafter Jewish Christianity grew weaker and eventually disappeared. With its disappearance the persistent notion that Gentiles must first become Jews in order to be Christians also died.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; First Jewish Revolt; Galatians, Letter to the; Jerusalem Council; Jew; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JUDAIZERS* Christian Jews who, during the apostolic and early postapostolic periods, attempted to impose the Jewish way of life on gentile Christians. The Greek verb, which literally means “to Judaize,” is found only one time in the NT (Gal 2:14), where it actually means “to live according to Jewish customs and traditions.” In that passage Paul quotes part of a brief conversation he had with Peter several years earlier: “If you, though a Jew, live like a Gentile and not like a Jew, how can yo...","summary_en":"JUDAIZERS* Christian Jews who, during the apostolic and early postapostolic periods, attempted to impose the Jewish way of life on gentile Christians. The Greek verb, which literally means “to Judaize,” is found only one time in the NT (Gal 2:14), where it actually means “to live according to Jewish customs and traditions.” In that passage Paul quotes part of a brief conversation he had with Peter several years earlier: “If you, though a Jew, live like a Gentile and not like a Jew, how can yo...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30246,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter to the Philippians","title_en":"Letter to the Philippians","content_ro":"<h3>PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the<\/span><\/h3>\nOne of Paul’s Prison Epistles.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date and Origin<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Theological Themes<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nPhilippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary.<\/p>\nDate and Origin<\/p>\nWhile it is clear that Paul was writing from prison (Phil 1:12-13), it is not clear where he was imprisoned. The most likely possibility is Rome, in which case the date would be around AD<\/span> 62. But some have thought that all the journeys implied in 4:14 and 2:25-26 make such a distant place unlikely (the Philippians hear that Paul is in prison and send a gift by Epaphroditus; Epaphroditus hears in Rome that the Philippians have heard that he has been ill). So the alternatives of Ephesus (c. AD<\/span> 55) and Caesarea (c. AD<\/span> 58) have been proposed. We know that Paul was imprisoned in Caesarea (Acts 23:33-35), but the greeting “from those of Caesar’s household” is difficult to explain if it was written there, in spite of the coincidence of name. Ephesus is certainly near enough to Philippi for plenty of interchange, but no imprisonment is recorded in the account of Paul’s ministry there in Acts. So we would have to assume that Luke’s account in Acts 19 is not complete and that Paul had been placed in protective custody at the time of the riot (see esp. 19:30-31). But such an imprisonment could hardly have led Paul to wonder whether his time “to depart and be with Christ” had now come (Phil 1:23). At the time of writing, he was clearly facing a capital charge.<\/p>\nThe traditional location (Rome) seems the most satisfactory, especially when one reflects that Paul was imprisoned there for at least two years (Acts 28:30), and that it took about three weeks to travel from Rome to Philippi.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nPhilippi had the distinction of being a Roman colony (Acts 16:12), a privilege accorded to only a few cities outside Italy. Some 90 years before the gospel arrived there (c. AD<\/span> 50), the city had been greatly expanded by large numbers of Roman soldiers, who were settled there by their commanding officers. As a consequence, the town acquired its coveted status as a colony, which meant that for all intents and purposes its citizens were treated as if they lived in Italy, and the town had a fully Roman administration. Paul alludes to this status in Philippians 3:20, where he teaches that Christians likewise are citizens of another city, the heavenly one, while yet residents elsewhere. It was a rich and busy place, one of the main centers of life in Macedonia, and consequently was “home” to the adherents of many different religions, from both east and west. There was a strong Jewish community there, as well as pagans of many sorts.<\/p>\nTheological Themes<\/p>\nIn a sense Paul’s imprisonment is not just background material but lies at the heart of the letter’s message. In his imprisonment he was experiencing the abasement that he mentions in 4:12, using there the same word found in 2:8 to describe the self-humbling of Christ unto death. The pattern of the ministry of Jesus described in the great “hymn” of 2:6-11—humiliation followed by glorification—becomes the pattern of Paul’s own life and of the vision he holds out before the Philippians. So alongside abasement and suffering, joy is the other great theme of the letter. Within suffering and self-sacrifice, true joy is born. In fact, Philippians could justly be titled “The Epistle of Joy.” Other prominent themes include the gospel, the Day of the Lord, and in addition to the famous “hymn” in chapter 2, a comparison of Paul’s Jewish past with his present Christian experience (3:4-16).<\/p>\n\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting and Opening Prayer (1:1-11)<\/h5>\nIn the opening paragraph of his letter, Paul presents the themes that will be uppermost in his mind throughout. His personal warmth toward the Philippians is immediately striking: “I have you in my heart. . . . I long for all of you” (1:7-8), and this thought of outgoing and suffering love undergirds the whole letter. It is notable, too, that the letter begins and ends with the themes of “grace” and of “the saints” (1:1-2; 4:21-23). The grace of Christ, which reaches out to sinful people and transforms them, separating them from the world, occupies Paul throughout. “The saints” are the ones who, touched by that grace, are transformed in heart and mind, so that their love abounds more and more in knowledge and depth of insight (1:9).<\/p>\nTwo more great themes appear here. The Greek word phroneo<\/span>,<\/em> “to think,” is used more in Philippians than in any other letter of Paul, no fewer than nine times (as against seven in Romans). Unfortunately, it is not uniformly translated in the English versions, and so it is hard for the English reader to notice its repeated appearance and the emphasis on the right use of the mind that goes with it. But for Paul this is vital: the way we think is at the heart of the Christian life, and in these opening verses he makes it clear that the love he feels for the Philippians is actually the Christian way of thinking about them (v 7: literally, “It is right for me to think this way about you”). This leads naturally to another emphasis—growth. For the “Christian mind” does not appear overnight. So Paul prays that this mind may grow, giving the Philippians powers of discernment that will transform their character and prepare them for “the day of Christ” (vv 10-11; cf. v 6).<\/p>\nFinally, we note in this opening prayer the twin emphases on the gospel and on fellowship—linked in Paul’s prayer of thanksgiving for the Philippians’ partnership in the gospel (v 5; cf. v 7)—and also the introduction of the great theme of joy (v 4). All three are vital to the whole letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul and His Imprisonment: Christ Exalted (1:12-26)<\/h5>\nPaul writes about his own situation to present the heart of his message. For when he writes, “For me to live is Christ” (v 21), he means more than that his every waking moment is taken up by fellowship with his Lord and service for him. He means also that, in his own person and experience, he displays Christ and “lives” him. Later he will say, “Keep putting into practice all you learned from me and heard from me and saw me doing” (4:9, nlt<\/span>). Few Christian ministers would dare make such a claim today! Yet Paul believed that, as an apostle of Christ, it was his privilege not just to speak on Christ’s behalf but also to live out Christ’s life in his own person, even if that meant suffering and humiliation.<\/p>\nThere are two historical difficulties here. First, it is hard to reconstruct the situation to which Paul refers in 1:12-18. The church in Rome (if that is where he is) was clearly divided about his imprisonment—some believers actually being glad that he was behind bars. It seems as though they were prompted by his imprisonment to get on with preaching their own version of the gospel. Far from being upset by this, Paul is delighted! “What does it matter?” he asks (v 18). Whether by friend or foe, Christ is being proclaimed in a new way as a result of his imprisonment (v 14). He was normally quick to defend the purity of the Word proclaimed, so these rivals of Paul could not have been heretics.<\/p>\nThe other historical difficulty surrounds verses 19-26. At one moment Paul seems not to know what the outcome of imprisonment will be (vv 19-21). Yet he then suggests that he can choose whether to live or die (v 22), and finally tells the Philippians that he is sure he will remain alive (v 25). The best explanation is that Paul believed he had received a personal assurance from the Holy Spirit that his imprisonment would not end with his execution.<\/p>\nAt any rate, his attitude about his own death is most moving. He expected deliverance, whether by life or by death (vv 19-20), and had an unshakeable confidence that to die is “better by far” (v 23), because it means being “with Christ.” This section ends with a note of joy.<\/p>\n<h5>The Life Worthy of the Gospel (1:27–2:18)<\/h5>\nThis section ends with “joy,” just as the last did, and its whole message is summed up in the opening exhortation of verse 27. Paul wanted the Philippians to be people in whom there is no gap between profession and practice, in whom the gospel believed is the gospel lived. The section falls into four portions, which might be entitled as follows: (1) 1:27-30—the worthy life in a hostile world; (2) 2:1-4—the worthy life in Christian fellowship; (3) 2:5-11—the gospel that inspires us; (4) 2:12-18—priorities for lives worthy of the gospel.<\/p>\nPaul refused to let the Philippians feel that he was worse off than they. He wrote, “We are in this fight together. You have seen me suffer for him in the past, and you know that I am still in the midst of this great struggle” (1:30, nlt<\/span>). For suffering at the hands of a hostile world is part and parcel of Christian discipleship. If we profess to believe a gospel about one who, though equal with God, left aside the glory of heaven and submitted not just to incarnation but also to a horrible death (2:6-8), then we must think of suffering not as an unfortunate necessity but as a privilege! “For you have been given not only the privilege of trusting in Christ but also the privilege of suffering for him” (1:29, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe essential quality the believers need, in order to face successfully the hostility of the world, is unity. They must be “standing side by side, fighting together for the Good News” (1:27), and believing one gospel will produce a united front against the world—and not a purely defensive front, either. The theme of unity continues into chapter 2, where Paul turns to life within the fellowship (2:1-4), as if to say that external unity before the world will not be possible unless their hearts and minds are truly united in one love, spirit, and purpose (v 2), whatever their outward situation. Such a unity will come only if there is tenderness and compassion among them (v 1). The lovely progression in verse 1 reaches a climax with this phrase, and that in turn leads into the famous “hymn” in 2:6-11. Such tenderness will not find its home in their hearts unless they believe the gospel about which the hymn sings.<\/p>\nWhether 2:6-11 was in fact a real hymn, sung in the context of early Christian worship, is now impossible to know for sure. Certainly Paul’s language here takes on a hymnic quality, though it is not in poetic form. Many scholars have thought that Paul did not write these verses himself but was quoting a well-known piece of liturgy. All one can say for certain is that his language changes in style, and he expressed here ideas that are unique in his writings.<\/p>\nThe hymn blends in with its context beautifully, and in fact forms the core of the whole letter. For we see here how the experience of imprisonment and deliverance, and of suffering and joy, is an entering into the experience of Jesus himself, who died and rose, was humbled and glorified.<\/p>\n<h5>Two Worthy Examples and Friends (2:19-30)<\/h5>\nPaul again writes about his own situation and plans, but as before, this section is not just concerned with practical arrangements. On the face of it, he was simply explaining why he was sending the letter by the hand of Epaphroditus instead of Timothy. But actually he was holding them up as practical examples of the life lived by the gospel, about which he had just written. Timothy “genuinely cares about your welfare” (2:20), because, unlike everyone else, he did not seek his own interests but those of Jesus Christ (v 21). He lived the gospel! He was committed to the work of the gospel (v 22). And Epaphroditus was the same, though in a different way. His union with Jesus was expressed not so much in his self-giving service for the gospel and his fellow saints, as in the illness that he suffered and the pains of separation that he endured. Like Jesus, he put his life on the line (v 30), and like Jesus, he was restored to life again (v 27). Now he was to be restored to his beloved Philippians, and the joy that they would experience together would be a further outworking of the gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>Pressing Forward and Standing Firm (3:1–4:1)<\/h5>\nThis section also begins and ends on the note of joy (3:1; 4:1)—not accidentally. The way of the cross that Paul describes is also the way of joy (cf. Heb 12:2). It begins and ends also with the address “dear brothers and sisters,” and this, too, is not accidental, for once again in this passage Paul writes about himself, and once again the underlying thought is that his experience is typical and that his readers should expect and seek to see the same pattern in their lives. He wrote, “Dear brothers and sisters, pattern your lives after mine, and learn from those who follow our example” (3:17, nlt<\/span>). Having put forward Timothy and Epaphroditus as examples in 2:19-30, Paul now does the same with himself.<\/p>\nThe tone seems to change dramatically in 3:2, as Paul turns to warn the Philippians against “those dogs,” who are probably the same as those to whom he refers in 1:28 as “your enemies.” There, he was much concerned about the inner foundation of the Philippians’ stand against them, so he did not specify who they were. But now he examines them more closely, in order to show the Philippians that the Christian life entails a complete reversal of the values held by their opponents.<\/p>\nIt seems that they were Jews, the sort in Acts 17:5 who opposed Paul’s ministry in nearby Thessalonica. They believed that they were God’s chosen race, but Paul thought that was nothing more than placing confidence in the flesh (Phil 3:4). They thought they knew the way of righteousness—it is the way of rigorous and disciplined obedience to God’s law in every detail of life. But Paul thought that was to seek a righteousness of one’s own (v 9), having nothing to do with the righteousness that God wants to give. The true way to be God’s people, he movingly insists, is the way of self-renunciation, so that all he previously held dear as a Jew came to be seen as rubbish (v 8), considered as loss for the sake of Christ (v 7). The only way to attain righteousness is through faith in Christ (v 9), for Christians must become like him in his death if they are to know the power of his resurrection (v 10). For Paul, dying with Christ meant not just suffering imprisonment and many other indignities for Christ’s sake but also renouncing all the prized possessions that his Judaism had given him.<\/p>\n<h5>Thinking, Rejoicing, Sharing (4:2-23)<\/h5>\nAgain, the tone changes suddenly (both at 4:2 and at 4:10)—so much so that some scholars have suggested that Philippians was compiled by an editor using several different letters. But when Paul turns (in v 2) to address Euodia and Syntyche, he was not really changing the subject. The link with the last section is the same as that between 1:27-30 and the first paragraph in chapter 2: how can Christians expect to be able to hold their own in the face of some enemies of the cross of Christ (3:18) if they are disunited and at odds with each other? For if there is just one gospel, disharmony between Christians means that the gospel is not having its full effect. So Euodia and Syntyche are urged (literally) to “think the same thing in the Lord” (4:2), and are then reminded of how they once found a wonderful unity in striving side by side in the cause of the gospel (v 3).<\/p>\nThe agreement that Paul urges them to come to does not mean complete identity of opinions on all subjects. It means a oneness of heart in a common love for Christ and the gospel. In the rest of the letter Paul spells out what this oneness means in practice—both what it should mean and what it has meant for the Philippians. The use of the mind is vital, and in verses 4-9 Paul paints a picture of the Christian life in which careful and intelligent prayer (vv 6-7) and the deliberate directing of the mind toward “whatever is true and honorable” (v 8) will produce a life marked by the two qualities of peace and joy, whatever the circumstances.<\/p>\nThat leads to the final paragraph, in which Paul gives thanks that, in spite of the disharmony evident in one part of the Philippian church, the church as a whole has already displayed this true Christian “mind.” For they have shown their oneness with Paul in the cause of the gospel by sending him a gift by Epaphroditus. “You have done well to share with me in my present difficulty,” Paul writes (4:14), and our thoughts go back again to the hymn in 2:6-11. From the gospel about the one who came from heaven to bear our burdens comes this mutual sharing—and so does Paul’s wonderful attitude to his circumstances: “I know how to be humbled [the same word as in 2:8], and I know how to abound” (4:12). Joined to Christ, we do not anxiously seek provision for our needs (v 17; cf. v 6), but share with him and with others whatever humiliation and exaltation he sends, confident that God will meet all our needs “from his glorious riches, which have been given to us in Christ Jesus” (4:19, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Philippi.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the<\/span><\/h3>\nOne of Paul’s Prison Epistles.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date and Origin<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Theological Themes<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nPhilippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary.<\/p>\nDate and Origin<\/p>\nWhile it is clear that Paul was writing from prison (Phil 1:12-13), it is not clear where he was imprisoned. The most likely possibility is Rome, in which case the date would be around AD<\/span> 62. But some have thought that all the journeys implied in 4:14 and 2:25-26 make such a distant place unlikely (the Philippians hear that Paul is in prison and send a gift by Epaphroditus; Epaphroditus hears in Rome that the Philippians have heard that he has been ill). So the alternatives of Ephesus (c. AD<\/span> 55) and Caesarea (c. AD<\/span> 58) have been proposed. We know that Paul was imprisoned in Caesarea (Acts 23:33-35), but the greeting “from those of Caesar’s household” is difficult to explain if it was written there, in spite of the coincidence of name. Ephesus is certainly near enough to Philippi for plenty of interchange, but no imprisonment is recorded in the account of Paul’s ministry there in Acts. So we would have to assume that Luke’s account in Acts 19 is not complete and that Paul had been placed in protective custody at the time of the riot (see esp. 19:30-31). But such an imprisonment could hardly have led Paul to wonder whether his time “to depart and be with Christ” had now come (Phil 1:23). At the time of writing, he was clearly facing a capital charge.<\/p>\nThe traditional location (Rome) seems the most satisfactory, especially when one reflects that Paul was imprisoned there for at least two years (Acts 28:30), and that it took about three weeks to travel from Rome to Philippi.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nPhilippi had the distinction of being a Roman colony (Acts 16:12), a privilege accorded to only a few cities outside Italy. Some 90 years before the gospel arrived there (c. AD<\/span> 50), the city had been greatly expanded by large numbers of Roman soldiers, who were settled there by their commanding officers. As a consequence, the town acquired its coveted status as a colony, which meant that for all intents and purposes its citizens were treated as if they lived in Italy, and the town had a fully Roman administration. Paul alludes to this status in Philippians 3:20, where he teaches that Christians likewise are citizens of another city, the heavenly one, while yet residents elsewhere. It was a rich and busy place, one of the main centers of life in Macedonia, and consequently was “home” to the adherents of many different religions, from both east and west. There was a strong Jewish community there, as well as pagans of many sorts.<\/p>\nTheological Themes<\/p>\nIn a sense Paul’s imprisonment is not just background material but lies at the heart of the letter’s message. In his imprisonment he was experiencing the abasement that he mentions in 4:12, using there the same word found in 2:8 to describe the self-humbling of Christ unto death. The pattern of the ministry of Jesus described in the great “hymn” of 2:6-11—humiliation followed by glorification—becomes the pattern of Paul’s own life and of the vision he holds out before the Philippians. So alongside abasement and suffering, joy is the other great theme of the letter. Within suffering and self-sacrifice, true joy is born. In fact, Philippians could justly be titled “The Epistle of Joy.” Other prominent themes include the gospel, the Day of the Lord, and in addition to the famous “hymn” in chapter 2, a comparison of Paul’s Jewish past with his present Christian experience (3:4-16).<\/p>\n\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting and Opening Prayer (1:1-11)<\/h5>\nIn the opening paragraph of his letter, Paul presents the themes that will be uppermost in his mind throughout. His personal warmth toward the Philippians is immediately striking: “I have you in my heart. . . . I long for all of you” (1:7-8), and this thought of outgoing and suffering love undergirds the whole letter. It is notable, too, that the letter begins and ends with the themes of “grace” and of “the saints” (1:1-2; 4:21-23). The grace of Christ, which reaches out to sinful people and transforms them, separating them from the world, occupies Paul throughout. “The saints” are the ones who, touched by that grace, are transformed in heart and mind, so that their love abounds more and more in knowledge and depth of insight (1:9).<\/p>\nTwo more great themes appear here. The Greek word phroneo<\/span>,<\/em> “to think,” is used more in Philippians than in any other letter of Paul, no fewer than nine times (as against seven in Romans). Unfortunately, it is not uniformly translated in the English versions, and so it is hard for the English reader to notice its repeated appearance and the emphasis on the right use of the mind that goes with it. But for Paul this is vital: the way we think is at the heart of the Christian life, and in these opening verses he makes it clear that the love he feels for the Philippians is actually the Christian way of thinking about them (v 7: literally, “It is right for me to think this way about you”). This leads naturally to another emphasis—growth. For the “Christian mind” does not appear overnight. So Paul prays that this mind may grow, giving the Philippians powers of discernment that will transform their character and prepare them for “the day of Christ” (vv 10-11; cf. v 6).<\/p>\nFinally, we note in this opening prayer the twin emphases on the gospel and on fellowship—linked in Paul’s prayer of thanksgiving for the Philippians’ partnership in the gospel (v 5; cf. v 7)—and also the introduction of the great theme of joy (v 4). All three are vital to the whole letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul and His Imprisonment: Christ Exalted (1:12-26)<\/h5>\nPaul writes about his own situation to present the heart of his message. For when he writes, “For me to live is Christ” (v 21), he means more than that his every waking moment is taken up by fellowship with his Lord and service for him. He means also that, in his own person and experience, he displays Christ and “lives” him. Later he will say, “Keep putting into practice all you learned from me and heard from me and saw me doing” (4:9, nlt<\/span>). Few Christian ministers would dare make such a claim today! Yet Paul believed that, as an apostle of Christ, it was his privilege not just to speak on Christ’s behalf but also to live out Christ’s life in his own person, even if that meant suffering and humiliation.<\/p>\nThere are two historical difficulties here. First, it is hard to reconstruct the situation to which Paul refers in 1:12-18. The church in Rome (if that is where he is) was clearly divided about his imprisonment—some believers actually being glad that he was behind bars. It seems as though they were prompted by his imprisonment to get on with preaching their own version of the gospel. Far from being upset by this, Paul is delighted! “What does it matter?” he asks (v 18). Whether by friend or foe, Christ is being proclaimed in a new way as a result of his imprisonment (v 14). He was normally quick to defend the purity of the Word proclaimed, so these rivals of Paul could not have been heretics.<\/p>\nThe other historical difficulty surrounds verses 19-26. At one moment Paul seems not to know what the outcome of imprisonment will be (vv 19-21). Yet he then suggests that he can choose whether to live or die (v 22), and finally tells the Philippians that he is sure he will remain alive (v 25). The best explanation is that Paul believed he had received a personal assurance from the Holy Spirit that his imprisonment would not end with his execution.<\/p>\nAt any rate, his attitude about his own death is most moving. He expected deliverance, whether by life or by death (vv 19-20), and had an unshakeable confidence that to die is “better by far” (v 23), because it means being “with Christ.” This section ends with a note of joy.<\/p>\n<h5>The Life Worthy of the Gospel (1:27–2:18)<\/h5>\nThis section ends with “joy,” just as the last did, and its whole message is summed up in the opening exhortation of verse 27. Paul wanted the Philippians to be people in whom there is no gap between profession and practice, in whom the gospel believed is the gospel lived. The section falls into four portions, which might be entitled as follows: (1) 1:27-30—the worthy life in a hostile world; (2) 2:1-4—the worthy life in Christian fellowship; (3) 2:5-11—the gospel that inspires us; (4) 2:12-18—priorities for lives worthy of the gospel.<\/p>\nPaul refused to let the Philippians feel that he was worse off than they. He wrote, “We are in this fight together. You have seen me suffer for him in the past, and you know that I am still in the midst of this great struggle” (1:30, nlt<\/span>). For suffering at the hands of a hostile world is part and parcel of Christian discipleship. If we profess to believe a gospel about one who, though equal with God, left aside the glory of heaven and submitted not just to incarnation but also to a horrible death (2:6-8), then we must think of suffering not as an unfortunate necessity but as a privilege! “For you have been given not only the privilege of trusting in Christ but also the privilege of suffering for him” (1:29, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe essential quality the believers need, in order to face successfully the hostility of the world, is unity. They must be “standing side by side, fighting together for the Good News” (1:27), and believing one gospel will produce a united front against the world—and not a purely defensive front, either. The theme of unity continues into chapter 2, where Paul turns to life within the fellowship (2:1-4), as if to say that external unity before the world will not be possible unless their hearts and minds are truly united in one love, spirit, and purpose (v 2), whatever their outward situation. Such a unity will come only if there is tenderness and compassion among them (v 1). The lovely progression in verse 1 reaches a climax with this phrase, and that in turn leads into the famous “hymn” in 2:6-11. Such tenderness will not find its home in their hearts unless they believe the gospel about which the hymn sings.<\/p>\nWhether 2:6-11 was in fact a real hymn, sung in the context of early Christian worship, is now impossible to know for sure. Certainly Paul’s language here takes on a hymnic quality, though it is not in poetic form. Many scholars have thought that Paul did not write these verses himself but was quoting a well-known piece of liturgy. All one can say for certain is that his language changes in style, and he expressed here ideas that are unique in his writings.<\/p>\nThe hymn blends in with its context beautifully, and in fact forms the core of the whole letter. For we see here how the experience of imprisonment and deliverance, and of suffering and joy, is an entering into the experience of Jesus himself, who died and rose, was humbled and glorified.<\/p>\n<h5>Two Worthy Examples and Friends (2:19-30)<\/h5>\nPaul again writes about his own situation and plans, but as before, this section is not just concerned with practical arrangements. On the face of it, he was simply explaining why he was sending the letter by the hand of Epaphroditus instead of Timothy. But actually he was holding them up as practical examples of the life lived by the gospel, about which he had just written. Timothy “genuinely cares about your welfare” (2:20), because, unlike everyone else, he did not seek his own interests but those of Jesus Christ (v 21). He lived the gospel! He was committed to the work of the gospel (v 22). And Epaphroditus was the same, though in a different way. His union with Jesus was expressed not so much in his self-giving service for the gospel and his fellow saints, as in the illness that he suffered and the pains of separation that he endured. Like Jesus, he put his life on the line (v 30), and like Jesus, he was restored to life again (v 27). Now he was to be restored to his beloved Philippians, and the joy that they would experience together would be a further outworking of the gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>Pressing Forward and Standing Firm (3:1–4:1)<\/h5>\nThis section also begins and ends on the note of joy (3:1; 4:1)—not accidentally. The way of the cross that Paul describes is also the way of joy (cf. Heb 12:2). It begins and ends also with the address “dear brothers and sisters,” and this, too, is not accidental, for once again in this passage Paul writes about himself, and once again the underlying thought is that his experience is typical and that his readers should expect and seek to see the same pattern in their lives. He wrote, “Dear brothers and sisters, pattern your lives after mine, and learn from those who follow our example” (3:17, nlt<\/span>). Having put forward Timothy and Epaphroditus as examples in 2:19-30, Paul now does the same with himself.<\/p>\nThe tone seems to change dramatically in 3:2, as Paul turns to warn the Philippians against “those dogs,” who are probably the same as those to whom he refers in 1:28 as “your enemies.” There, he was much concerned about the inner foundation of the Philippians’ stand against them, so he did not specify who they were. But now he examines them more closely, in order to show the Philippians that the Christian life entails a complete reversal of the values held by their opponents.<\/p>\nIt seems that they were Jews, the sort in Acts 17:5 who opposed Paul’s ministry in nearby Thessalonica. They believed that they were God’s chosen race, but Paul thought that was nothing more than placing confidence in the flesh (Phil 3:4). They thought they knew the way of righteousness—it is the way of rigorous and disciplined obedience to God’s law in every detail of life. But Paul thought that was to seek a righteousness of one’s own (v 9), having nothing to do with the righteousness that God wants to give. The true way to be God’s people, he movingly insists, is the way of self-renunciation, so that all he previously held dear as a Jew came to be seen as rubbish (v 8), considered as loss for the sake of Christ (v 7). The only way to attain righteousness is through faith in Christ (v 9), for Christians must become like him in his death if they are to know the power of his resurrection (v 10). For Paul, dying with Christ meant not just suffering imprisonment and many other indignities for Christ’s sake but also renouncing all the prized possessions that his Judaism had given him.<\/p>\n<h5>Thinking, Rejoicing, Sharing (4:2-23)<\/h5>\nAgain, the tone changes suddenly (both at 4:2 and at 4:10)—so much so that some scholars have suggested that Philippians was compiled by an editor using several different letters. But when Paul turns (in v 2) to address Euodia and Syntyche, he was not really changing the subject. The link with the last section is the same as that between 1:27-30 and the first paragraph in chapter 2: how can Christians expect to be able to hold their own in the face of some enemies of the cross of Christ (3:18) if they are disunited and at odds with each other? For if there is just one gospel, disharmony between Christians means that the gospel is not having its full effect. So Euodia and Syntyche are urged (literally) to “think the same thing in the Lord” (4:2), and are then reminded of how they once found a wonderful unity in striving side by side in the cause of the gospel (v 3).<\/p>\nThe agreement that Paul urges them to come to does not mean complete identity of opinions on all subjects. It means a oneness of heart in a common love for Christ and the gospel. In the rest of the letter Paul spells out what this oneness means in practice—both what it should mean and what it has meant for the Philippians. The use of the mind is vital, and in verses 4-9 Paul paints a picture of the Christian life in which careful and intelligent prayer (vv 6-7) and the deliberate directing of the mind toward “whatever is true and honorable” (v 8) will produce a life marked by the two qualities of peace and joy, whatever the circumstances.<\/p>\nThat leads to the final paragraph, in which Paul gives thanks that, in spite of the disharmony evident in one part of the Philippian church, the church as a whole has already displayed this true Christian “mind.” For they have shown their oneness with Paul in the cause of the gospel by sending him a gift by Epaphroditus. “You have done well to share with me in my present difficulty,” Paul writes (4:14), and our thoughts go back again to the hymn in 2:6-11. From the gospel about the one who came from heaven to bear our burdens comes this mutual sharing—and so does Paul’s wonderful attitude to his circumstances: “I know how to be humbled [the same word as in 2:8], and I know how to abound” (4:12). Joined to Christ, we do not anxiously seek provision for our needs (v 17; cf. v 6), but share with him and with others whatever humiliation and exaltation he sends, confident that God will meet all our needs “from his glorious riches, which have been given to us in Christ Jesus” (4:19, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Philippi.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the One of Paul’s Prison Epistles. Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Theological Themes • Content Author Philippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary. Date and Origin While it is clear ...","summary_en":"PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the One of Paul’s Prison Epistles. Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Theological Themes • Content Author Philippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary. Date and Origin While it is clear ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":58257,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:2","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:2","content_ro":"3:2-11<\/strong> Paul warns the believers against being influenced by Jewish Christians who argued that circumcision is necessary for salvation. He then talks about his own conversion from Judaism to Christ.<\/p>","content_en":"3:2-11<\/strong> Paul warns the believers against being influenced by Jewish Christians who argued that circumcision is necessary for salvation. He then talks about his own conversion from Judaism to Christ.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:2-11 Paul warns the believers against being influenced by Jewish Christians who argued that circumcision is necessary for salvation. He then talks about his own conversion from Judaism to Christ.","summary_en":"3:2-11 Paul warns the believers against being influenced by Jewish Christians who argued that circumcision is necessary for salvation. He then talks about his own conversion from Judaism to Christ.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":58258,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:2","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:2","content_ro":"3:2<\/strong> those dogs, . . . those mutilators:<\/em> Here Paul reverses the traditional Jewish practice of referring to Gentiles as dogs<\/em> (cp. Mark 7:27-28). Paul’s strongest insults are directed against Jews who preached that Gentiles must be circumcised in order to be saved (cp. 2 Cor 11:13-15; Gal 1:6-9; 5:1-6, 12).<\/p>","content_en":"3:2<\/strong> those dogs, . . . those mutilators:<\/em> Here Paul reverses the traditional Jewish practice of referring to Gentiles as dogs<\/em> (cp. Mark 7:27-28). Paul’s strongest insults are directed against Jews who preached that Gentiles must be circumcised in order to be saved (cp. 2 Cor 11:13-15; Gal 1:6-9; 5:1-6, 12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:2 those dogs, . . . those mutilators: Here Paul reverses the traditional Jewish practice of referring to Gentiles as dogs (cp. Mark 7:27-28). Paul’s strongest insults are directed against Jews who preached that Gentiles must be circumcised in order to be saved (cp. 2 Cor 11:13-15; Gal 1:6-9; 5:1-6, 12).","summary_en":"3:2 those dogs, . . . those mutilators: Here Paul reverses the traditional Jewish practice of referring to Gentiles as dogs (cp. Mark 7:27-28). Paul’s strongest insults are directed against Jews who preached that Gentiles must be circumcised in order to be saved (cp. 2 Cor 11:13-15; Gal 1:6-9; 5:1-6, 12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85883,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:2","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:2","content_ro":"3:2-11<\/strong> Paul warns the believers against being influenced by Jewish Christians who argued that circumcision is necessary for salvation. He then talks about his own conversion from Judaism to Christ.<\/p>","content_en":"3:2-11<\/strong> Paul warns the believers against being influenced by Jewish Christians who argued that circumcision is necessary for salvation. He then talks about his own conversion from Judaism to Christ.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:2-11 Paul warns the believers against being influenced by Jewish Christians who argued that circumcision is necessary for salvation. He then talks about his own conversion from Judaism to Christ.","summary_en":"3:2-11 Paul warns the believers against being influenced by Jewish Christians who argued that circumcision is necessary for salvation. He then talks about his own conversion from Judaism to Christ.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85884,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:2","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:2","content_ro":"3:2<\/strong> those dogs, . . . those mutilators:<\/em> Here Paul reverses the traditional Jewish practice of referring to Gentiles as dogs<\/em> (cp. Mark 7:27-28). Paul’s strongest insults are directed against Jews who preached that Gentiles must be circumcised in order to be saved (cp. 2 Cor 11:13-15; Gal 1:6-9; 5:1-6, 12).<\/p>","content_en":"3:2<\/strong> those dogs, . . . those mutilators:<\/em> Here Paul reverses the traditional Jewish practice of referring to Gentiles as dogs<\/em> (cp. Mark 7:27-28). Paul’s strongest insults are directed against Jews who preached that Gentiles must be circumcised in order to be saved (cp. 2 Cor 11:13-15; Gal 1:6-9; 5:1-6, 12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:2 those dogs, . . . those mutilators: Here Paul reverses the traditional Jewish practice of referring to Gentiles as dogs (cp. Mark 7:27-28). Paul’s strongest insults are directed against Jews who preached that Gentiles must be circumcised in order to be saved (cp. 2 Cor 11:13-15; Gal 1:6-9; 5:1-6, 12).","summary_en":"3:2 those dogs, . . . those mutilators: Here Paul reverses the traditional Jewish practice of referring to Gentiles as dogs (cp. Mark 7:27-28). Paul’s strongest insults are directed against Jews who preached that Gentiles must be circumcised in order to be saved (cp. 2 Cor 11:13-15; Gal 1:6-9; 5:1-6, 12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113509,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:2","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:2","content_ro":"3:2-11<\/strong> Paul warns the believers against being influenced by Jewish Christians who argued that circumcision is necessary for salvation. He then talks about his own conversion from Judaism to Christ.<\/p>","content_en":"3:2-11<\/strong> Paul warns the believers against being influenced by Jewish Christians who argued that circumcision is necessary for salvation. He then talks about his own conversion from Judaism to Christ.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:2-11 Paul warns the believers against being influenced by Jewish Christians who argued that circumcision is necessary for salvation. He then talks about his own conversion from Judaism to Christ.","summary_en":"3:2-11 Paul warns the believers against being influenced by Jewish Christians who argued that circumcision is necessary for salvation. He then talks about his own conversion from Judaism to Christ.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113510,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:2","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:2","content_ro":"3:2<\/strong> those dogs, . . . those mutilators:<\/em> Here Paul reverses the traditional Jewish practice of referring to Gentiles as dogs<\/em> (cp. Mark 7:27-28). Paul’s strongest insults are directed against Jews who preached that Gentiles must be circumcised in order to be saved (cp. 2 Cor 11:13-15; Gal 1:6-9; 5:1-6, 12).<\/p>","content_en":"3:2<\/strong> those dogs, . . . those mutilators:<\/em> Here Paul reverses the traditional Jewish practice of referring to Gentiles as dogs<\/em> (cp. Mark 7:27-28). Paul’s strongest insults are directed against Jews who preached that Gentiles must be circumcised in order to be saved (cp. 2 Cor 11:13-15; Gal 1:6-9; 5:1-6, 12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:2 those dogs, . . . those mutilators: Here Paul reverses the traditional Jewish practice of referring to Gentiles as dogs (cp. Mark 7:27-28). Paul’s strongest insults are directed against Jews who preached that Gentiles must be circumcised in order to be saved (cp. 2 Cor 11:13-15; Gal 1:6-9; 5:1-6, 12).","summary_en":"3:2 those dogs, . . . those mutilators: Here Paul reverses the traditional Jewish practice of referring to Gentiles as dogs (cp. Mark 7:27-28). Paul’s strongest insults are directed against Jews who preached that Gentiles must be circumcised in order to be saved (cp. 2 Cor 11:13-15; Gal 1:6-9; 5:1-6, 12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141135,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:2","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:2","content_ro":"3:2-11<\/strong> Paul warns the believers against being influenced by Jewish Christians who argued that circumcision is necessary for salvation. He then talks about his own conversion from Judaism to Christ.<\/p>","content_en":"3:2-11<\/strong> Paul warns the believers against being influenced by Jewish Christians who argued that circumcision is necessary for salvation. He then talks about his own conversion from Judaism to Christ.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:2-11 Paul warns the believers against being influenced by Jewish Christians who argued that circumcision is necessary for salvation. He then talks about his own conversion from Judaism to Christ.","summary_en":"3:2-11 Paul warns the believers against being influenced by Jewish Christians who argued that circumcision is necessary for salvation. He then talks about his own conversion from Judaism to Christ.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141136,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:2","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:2","content_ro":"3:2<\/strong> those dogs, . . . those mutilators:<\/em> Here Paul reverses the traditional Jewish practice of referring to Gentiles as dogs<\/em> (cp. Mark 7:27-28). Paul’s strongest insults are directed against Jews who preached that Gentiles must be circumcised in order to be saved (cp. 2 Cor 11:13-15; Gal 1:6-9; 5:1-6, 12).<\/p>","content_en":"3:2<\/strong> those dogs, . . . those mutilators:<\/em> Here Paul reverses the traditional Jewish practice of referring to Gentiles as dogs<\/em> (cp. Mark 7:27-28). Paul’s strongest insults are directed against Jews who preached that Gentiles must be circumcised in order to be saved (cp. 2 Cor 11:13-15; Gal 1:6-9; 5:1-6, 12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:2 those dogs, . . . those mutilators: Here Paul reverses the traditional Jewish practice of referring to Gentiles as dogs (cp. Mark 7:27-28). Paul’s strongest insults are directed against Jews who preached that Gentiles must be circumcised in order to be saved (cp. 2 Cor 11:13-15; Gal 1:6-9; 5:1-6, 12).","summary_en":"3:2 those dogs, . . . those mutilators: Here Paul reverses the traditional Jewish practice of referring to Gentiles as dogs (cp. Mark 7:27-28). Paul’s strongest insults are directed against Jews who preached that Gentiles must be circumcised in order to be saved (cp. 2 Cor 11:13-15; Gal 1:6-9; 5:1-6, 12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":59946,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\nCircumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\nGod chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\nAlthough circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\nCircumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\nCircumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\nWhen Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\nCircumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\nGod chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\nAlthough circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\nCircumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\nCircumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\nWhen Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","summary_en":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87572,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\nCircumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\nGod chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\nAlthough circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\nCircumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\nCircumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\nWhen Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\nCircumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\nGod chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\nAlthough circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\nCircumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\nCircumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\nWhen Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","summary_en":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115198,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\nCircumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\nGod chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\nAlthough circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\nCircumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\nCircumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\nWhen Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\nCircumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\nGod chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\nAlthough circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\nCircumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\nCircumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\nWhen Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","summary_en":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":142824,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\nCircumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\nGod chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\nAlthough circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\nCircumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\nCircumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\nWhen Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\nCircumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\nGod chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\nAlthough circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\nCircumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\nCircumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\nWhen Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","summary_en":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":3707,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Baptism","title_en":"Baptism","content_ro":"<h3>BAPTISM<\/h3>\nTerm generally meaning “to dip” or “immerse,” but representing a group of words employed to signify a religious rite for ritual cleansing. In the NT it became the rite of initiation into the Christian community, and it was interpreted theologically as a dying and rising with Christ.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• The Baptism of John<\/p>\n• The Baptism of Jesus<\/p>\n• Jesus’ Resurrection Command to Baptize<\/p>\n• Baptism in the Early Church<\/p>\n• The Theology of Baptism in Paul’s and Peter’s Epistles<\/p>\nThe Baptism of John<\/p>\nJohn preached a “baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins” (Lk 3:3). The origins of his rite are difficult to trace. Some have claimed that his baptism modeled that practiced by those at Qumran; others have urged that his baptism modeled that practiced by Jews when initiating proselytes to Judaism. The members of the Qumran community viewed themselves as the covenant community of the last days and so dwelt in the desert, living an ascetic life and immersing themselves daily in acts of ceremonial cleansing. At the same time they taught that internal repentance must accompany the external act (1 QS 2:3). Its sacramental nature is seen in the fact that only a full member of the community could practice it, and then only after two probationary years (1 QS 5:6). Converts from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of the Gentile background.<\/p>\nJohn’s baptism both parallels and differs with these forms of baptism. The genesis of his baptism may be found in the prophetic acted-out parable, which not only symbolized God’s message but also intended to bring it about. John’s practice had several theological ramifications: (1) It was intimately connected with radical repentance, not only of the Gentile but astoundingly (to his contemporaries) also of the Jew. (2) It was eschatological at the core, preparing for the Messiah, who would baptize with the Holy Spirit and with fire (Mt 3:11), and therefore looked to the final separation between God’s people and the wicked at the eschaton (i.e., “the End,” cf. Mt 3:12). (3) It symbolized moral purification and so prepared the people for the coming kingdom (Mt 3:2; Lk 3:7-14). In spite of the obvious connection between John’s ceremony and the early church, we cannot posit absolute dependence. In fact, it disappeared from Jesus’ ministry. At first, Jesus allowed his disciples to continue the rite (Jn 3:22), but later he seemingly discontinued the practice (Jn 4:1-3), probably for the following reasons: (1) John’s message was functional, while Jesus’ was personal\/ontological. (2) John’s was forward-looking, expecting the coming kingdom, while Jesus’ was backward-looking, celebrating that event. (3) John’s was an interim practice, while Jesus’ was sacramental. Jesus’ ministry fulfilled John’s, so he severed himself from the latter’s modus operandi.<\/p>\nThe Baptism of Jesus<\/p>\nThis event has its genesis in a complex interplay of motives, divine and human, within the messianic consciousness of Jesus (see Mk 1:9-11 and parallels). For John it was Jesus’ stamp of approval upon his message and ministry. Jesus was in continuity with John’s kingdom proclamation. For Jesus, it was also an anointing that signified the inauguration of his messianic ministry. As seen in God’s “heavenly voice” of Mark 1:11 and parallels, this has two aspects: (1) The voice alludes to Psalm 2:7, establishing Jesus’ unique sonship. (2) It alludes to Isaiah 42:1, establishing him as the messianic “servant of Yahweh.” (This is discussed at greater length in the article below.)<\/p>\nJesus’ Resurrection Command to Baptize<\/p>\nHere we find the true basis of the church’s practice (Mt 28:19). As already stated, the disciples stopped employing it, so it is here that we see the institution reconstituted as an ordinance based on the death and resurrection of Christ. It was no longer a forward-looking phenomenon but had now become a realized activity centering on the gospel message, certified by the risen Christ who is exalted to universal lordship. It also is an essential aspect of the discipling activity, as seen in the use of the participle “baptizing” after the main verb “make disciples.” Finally we might note that the act signifies the entrance of the believer “into” union with (literally “into the name of”) the triune Godhead.<\/p>\nBaptism in the Early Church<\/p>\nActs 2:38 shows that baptism was a sacral institution from the very beginning. This takes it back to the earliest days of the church. In the primitive church it was an important part of the salvation process (Acts 2:38, “repent and be baptized”) and was accomplished via confession and prayer “in the name of Jesus Christ” (Acts 2:38; 8:16; 10:48; 19:5). Probably there was a question-and-answer period in which the believer confessed his faith and dedicated himself to Christ. The result was reception into and identification with the messianic community of the new covenant, signifying both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 5:31; 10:43; 13:38; 26:18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (Lk 3:16; Acts 2:38, 41; 9:17; 10:47-48; 11:16-17; 19:5-7). See<\/em> Baptism of Fire; Baptism of Jesus; Baptism of the Spirit.<\/p>\n\nThe Theology of Baptism in Paul’s and Peter’s Epistles<\/p>\nPaul’s basic statement is found in Galatians 3:27, “baptized into Christ.” The rite of baptism is christological at the heart, signifying union with Christ. This is clarified further by Romans 6:3-8, which equates baptism with dying and rising (cf. Col 2:12-13). At the same time baptism is related to the Spirit; 1 Corinthians 12:13 connects “baptism by the one Spirit” with being “given that same Spirit.” Many see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” by the Spirit (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13; 4:30). This leads us to the eschatological dimension of baptism. In its relation to the present work of Christ and the Spirit, it externalizes the outpouring of salvation in the age of fulfillment, because it is the initiatory rite signifying the believer’s entrance into the blessings of the new age (Ti 3:5).<\/p>\nThere is also a definite link between baptism and the OT covenants. The major connection is with the Abrahamic, especially with the circumcision that characterized it. Paul in Colossians 2:11-12 combines Jewish circumcision with Christian baptism as pictures of the redemptive work of Christ. The debate today centers on the degree of continuity between them—does baptism perform the same function in the New Covenant, i.e., forensic and imputative? Whatever the theological ramifications, Paul at least cannot be made to say this. Rather, he borrows here the Judeo-Christian imagery of the “circumcision of the heart” (Dt 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3). Christians experience the fulfillment of that which circumcision merely prefigured, a spiritual, totally efficacious reality.<\/p>\nBaptism is also related to the Noahic covenant in 1 Peter 3:19-21. There Noah’s deliverance through the waters is considered a picture of the effects of baptism. The debate centers on the meaning of “baptism now saves you.” The answer is connected with the thrust of the ensuing clarification, “an appeal to God for a clear conscience” (rsv<\/span>, lit. “of a good conscience”). While the developed dialogue between the sacramental and baptist views is considered below, we will simply comment here that the interpretation “appeal by<\/em> a good conscience” best fits the emphatic position of this phrase and the picture in this verse of a pledging convert. Baptism is the seal of the salvation covenant, which itself has been accomplished beforehand by the act of Christ and the faith decision of the individual.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BAPTISM<\/h3>\nTerm generally meaning “to dip” or “immerse,” but representing a group of words employed to signify a religious rite for ritual cleansing. In the NT it became the rite of initiation into the Christian community, and it was interpreted theologically as a dying and rising with Christ.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• The Baptism of John<\/p>\n• The Baptism of Jesus<\/p>\n• Jesus’ Resurrection Command to Baptize<\/p>\n• Baptism in the Early Church<\/p>\n• The Theology of Baptism in Paul’s and Peter’s Epistles<\/p>\nThe Baptism of John<\/p>\nJohn preached a “baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins” (Lk 3:3). The origins of his rite are difficult to trace. Some have claimed that his baptism modeled that practiced by those at Qumran; others have urged that his baptism modeled that practiced by Jews when initiating proselytes to Judaism. The members of the Qumran community viewed themselves as the covenant community of the last days and so dwelt in the desert, living an ascetic life and immersing themselves daily in acts of ceremonial cleansing. At the same time they taught that internal repentance must accompany the external act (1 QS 2:3). Its sacramental nature is seen in the fact that only a full member of the community could practice it, and then only after two probationary years (1 QS 5:6). Converts from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of the Gentile background.<\/p>\nJohn’s baptism both parallels and differs with these forms of baptism. The genesis of his baptism may be found in the prophetic acted-out parable, which not only symbolized God’s message but also intended to bring it about. John’s practice had several theological ramifications: (1) It was intimately connected with radical repentance, not only of the Gentile but astoundingly (to his contemporaries) also of the Jew. (2) It was eschatological at the core, preparing for the Messiah, who would baptize with the Holy Spirit and with fire (Mt 3:11), and therefore looked to the final separation between God’s people and the wicked at the eschaton (i.e., “the End,” cf. Mt 3:12). (3) It symbolized moral purification and so prepared the people for the coming kingdom (Mt 3:2; Lk 3:7-14). In spite of the obvious connection between John’s ceremony and the early church, we cannot posit absolute dependence. In fact, it disappeared from Jesus’ ministry. At first, Jesus allowed his disciples to continue the rite (Jn 3:22), but later he seemingly discontinued the practice (Jn 4:1-3), probably for the following reasons: (1) John’s message was functional, while Jesus’ was personal\/ontological. (2) John’s was forward-looking, expecting the coming kingdom, while Jesus’ was backward-looking, celebrating that event. (3) John’s was an interim practice, while Jesus’ was sacramental. Jesus’ ministry fulfilled John’s, so he severed himself from the latter’s modus operandi.<\/p>\nThe Baptism of Jesus<\/p>\nThis event has its genesis in a complex interplay of motives, divine and human, within the messianic consciousness of Jesus (see Mk 1:9-11 and parallels). For John it was Jesus’ stamp of approval upon his message and ministry. Jesus was in continuity with John’s kingdom proclamation. For Jesus, it was also an anointing that signified the inauguration of his messianic ministry. As seen in God’s “heavenly voice” of Mark 1:11 and parallels, this has two aspects: (1) The voice alludes to Psalm 2:7, establishing Jesus’ unique sonship. (2) It alludes to Isaiah 42:1, establishing him as the messianic “servant of Yahweh.” (This is discussed at greater length in the article below.)<\/p>\nJesus’ Resurrection Command to Baptize<\/p>\nHere we find the true basis of the church’s practice (Mt 28:19). As already stated, the disciples stopped employing it, so it is here that we see the institution reconstituted as an ordinance based on the death and resurrection of Christ. It was no longer a forward-looking phenomenon but had now become a realized activity centering on the gospel message, certified by the risen Christ who is exalted to universal lordship. It also is an essential aspect of the discipling activity, as seen in the use of the participle “baptizing” after the main verb “make disciples.” Finally we might note that the act signifies the entrance of the believer “into” union with (literally “into the name of”) the triune Godhead.<\/p>\nBaptism in the Early Church<\/p>\nActs 2:38 shows that baptism was a sacral institution from the very beginning. This takes it back to the earliest days of the church. In the primitive church it was an important part of the salvation process (Acts 2:38, “repent and be baptized”) and was accomplished via confession and prayer “in the name of Jesus Christ” (Acts 2:38; 8:16; 10:48; 19:5). Probably there was a question-and-answer period in which the believer confessed his faith and dedicated himself to Christ. The result was reception into and identification with the messianic community of the new covenant, signifying both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 5:31; 10:43; 13:38; 26:18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (Lk 3:16; Acts 2:38, 41; 9:17; 10:47-48; 11:16-17; 19:5-7). See<\/em> Baptism of Fire; Baptism of Jesus; Baptism of the Spirit.<\/p>\n\nThe Theology of Baptism in Paul’s and Peter’s Epistles<\/p>\nPaul’s basic statement is found in Galatians 3:27, “baptized into Christ.” The rite of baptism is christological at the heart, signifying union with Christ. This is clarified further by Romans 6:3-8, which equates baptism with dying and rising (cf. Col 2:12-13). At the same time baptism is related to the Spirit; 1 Corinthians 12:13 connects “baptism by the one Spirit” with being “given that same Spirit.” Many see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” by the Spirit (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13; 4:30). This leads us to the eschatological dimension of baptism. In its relation to the present work of Christ and the Spirit, it externalizes the outpouring of salvation in the age of fulfillment, because it is the initiatory rite signifying the believer’s entrance into the blessings of the new age (Ti 3:5).<\/p>\nThere is also a definite link between baptism and the OT covenants. The major connection is with the Abrahamic, especially with the circumcision that characterized it. Paul in Colossians 2:11-12 combines Jewish circumcision with Christian baptism as pictures of the redemptive work of Christ. The debate today centers on the degree of continuity between them—does baptism perform the same function in the New Covenant, i.e., forensic and imputative? Whatever the theological ramifications, Paul at least cannot be made to say this. Rather, he borrows here the Judeo-Christian imagery of the “circumcision of the heart” (Dt 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3). Christians experience the fulfillment of that which circumcision merely prefigured, a spiritual, totally efficacious reality.<\/p>\nBaptism is also related to the Noahic covenant in 1 Peter 3:19-21. There Noah’s deliverance through the waters is considered a picture of the effects of baptism. The debate centers on the meaning of “baptism now saves you.” The answer is connected with the thrust of the ensuing clarification, “an appeal to God for a clear conscience” (rsv<\/span>, lit. “of a good conscience”). While the developed dialogue between the sacramental and baptist views is considered below, we will simply comment here that the interpretation “appeal by<\/em> a good conscience” best fits the emphatic position of this phrase and the picture in this verse of a pledging convert. Baptism is the seal of the salvation covenant, which itself has been accomplished beforehand by the act of Christ and the faith decision of the individual.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BAPTISM Term generally meaning “to dip” or “immerse,” but representing a group of words employed to signify a religious rite for ritual cleansing. In the NT it became the rite of initiation into the Christian community, and it was interpreted theologically as a dying and rising with Christ. Preview • The Baptism of John • The Baptism of Jesus • Jesus’ Resurrection Command to Baptize • Baptism in the Early Church • The Theology of Baptism in Paul’s and Peter’s Epistles The Baptism of John John...","summary_en":"BAPTISM Term generally meaning “to dip” or “immerse,” but representing a group of words employed to signify a religious rite for ritual cleansing. In the NT it became the rite of initiation into the Christian community, and it was interpreted theologically as a dying and rising with Christ. Preview • The Baptism of John • The Baptism of Jesus • Jesus’ Resurrection Command to Baptize • Baptism in the Early Church • The Theology of Baptism in Paul’s and Peter’s Epistles The Baptism of John John...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":12411,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Flesh","title_en":"Flesh","content_ro":"<h3>FLESH<\/h3>\nThe body; the physical being of humans; the human person and human existence; the carnal nature of humans.<\/p>\nIn the Old Testament<\/p>\nTerm commonly used to designate the material stuff of the body, whether of people (Gn 40:19) or of animals (Lv 6:27). However, “flesh” is used in the OT with a variety of meanings. Sometimes it is used as equivalent for the whole body (Prv 14:30), and the meaning is extended to designate the whole person (“my flesh also shall rest in hope,” Ps 16:9, kjv<\/span>). This idea leads to the union of two different persons, man and wife as “one flesh” (Gn 2:24), and a man can say of his relatives, “I am your bone and your flesh” (Jgs 9:2). The idea of flesh as the whole person leads to the expression “all flesh,” denoting the totality of humankind, sometimes including also the animal world.<\/p>\nPerhaps the most distinctive use of “flesh” in the OT is found in those passages where it designates human weakness and frailty over against God. “My spirit shall not abide in man for ever, for he is flesh” (Gn 6:3, rsv<\/span>). In Psalm 78:39, God attributes sin to the fact that men are but flesh. In 2 Chronicles 32:8 the arm of flesh of the king of Assyria (i.e., his weakness) is contrasted with the all-powerful God. The one who puts trust in God need not fear what “flesh” can do (Ps 56:4), but the one who puts trust in human flesh instead of in God is under a curse (Jer 17:5). In Isaiah 31:3 flesh is contrasted with spirit, as weakness is with strength.<\/p>\nHowever, nowhere in the OT is flesh viewed as sinful. Flesh is conceived as being created by God of the dust of the earth (Gn 2:7), and as God’s creation, it is good.<\/p>\nIn the New Testament<\/p>\nPaul ascribes many—often unique—definitions to the word “flesh” (Greek sarx<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Flesh as the Stuff of the Body<\/h5>\n“Flesh” is frequently used to describe the tissues that constitute the body. There are different kinds of flesh—“of men,” “of animals,” “of birds,” “of fish” (1 Cor 15:39). Pain and suffering may be experienced in the flesh (2 Cor 12:7). Circumcision is done in the flesh (Rom 2:28). While “flesh” in such references is not sinful, it is corruptible and cannot inherit the kingdom of God (1 Cor 15:50). Jesus’ body was also a body of flesh (Col 1:22).<\/p>\n<h5>Flesh as the Body Itself<\/h5>\nBy a natural transition, the part is used for the whole, and in many places “flesh” is synonymous with the body as a whole rather than designating the fleshy part of the body. Paul may thus speak either of being absent in the body (1 Cor 5:3) or in the flesh (Col 2:5). Paul can say that the life of Jesus may be manifested in our body or in our mortal flesh (2 Cor 4:10-11). “He who joins himself to a prostitute becomes one body with her. For, as it is written, ‘The two shall become one flesh’ ” (1 Cor 6:16, rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Flesh as Person with Reference to Origin<\/h5>\nFollowing OT usage, “flesh” was used by Paul to refer not merely to the stuff of the body or to the body itself, but concretely to the person as constituted by flesh. In this usage the word may refer to the person’s human relationship, the physical origin and the natural ties that bind one to other humans. Paul speaks of his kinsmen “according to the flesh,” his fellow Jews (Rom 9:3, kjv<\/span>), and even uses “my flesh” (11:14, kjv<\/span>) as a synonym for these kinsmen. The “children of the flesh” (9:8) are those born by natural generation in contrast to those born as a result of divine intervention. Christ was descended from David according to the flesh (1:3). The phrase does not designate the source merely of his bodily life but of his entire human existence, including both his body and his human spirit.<\/p>\n<h5>Flesh as Human Existence<\/h5>\nAnother use of “flesh” simply designates human existence. As long as a person lives in the body, that one is “in the flesh.” Thus, Paul can speak of the life that he lives “in the flesh” as lived by faith in the Son of God (Gal 2:20, rsv<\/span>). Referring to Jesus’ earthly ministry, Paul says that he abolished “in the flesh” the enmity between Jew and Gentile (Eph 2:15). Peter has the same meaning when he speaks of Jesus having been put to death “in the flesh” (1 Pt 3:18). So also John: “Jesus Christ is come in the flesh” (1 Jn 4:2). This usage is reflected most notably in the Johannine saying “The Word became flesh and dwelt among us” (Jn 1:14).<\/p>\n<h5>Flesh as Human Existence in Terms of Outward Presentation<\/h5>\n“Flesh” also extends beyond humans in their bodily life to include other factors crucial to human existence. Thus, “confidence in the flesh” (Phil 3:3, rsv<\/span>) does not mean confidence in the body but confidence in the whole complex of the outward realm of human existence. It includes Paul’s Jewish ancestry, his strict religious training, his zeal, and his prominence in Jewish religious circles. The phrase to “glory after the flesh” (2 Cor 11:18, kjv<\/span>) is rendered “boast about their human achievements” in the nlt<\/span>. A good showing “in the flesh” is practically synonymous with worldly prominence (Gal 6:11-14). The Judaizers insisted upon circumcision to promote a sense of prideful attainment in the religious life so that they might have a ground of glorying. But these external distinctions and grounds for glorying no longer appealed to Paul, because the world had been crucified to him and he to the world.<\/p>\n“Flesh” is also used of outward relationships, as when describing the social ties existing between slave and master (Eph 6:5; Col 3:22; Phlm 1:16). “In the flesh” also describes the realm of marital relationships, which entails certain troublesome problems (1 Cor 7:28).<\/p>\nThis usage illuminates an otherwise difficult saying, “Henceforth know we no man after the flesh; yea, though we have known Christ after the flesh, yet now henceforth know we him no more” (2 Cor 5:16, kjv<\/span>). The rsv<\/span> correctly renders the phrase “from a human point of view.” The verse does not mean that Paul had heard and seen Jesus in Jerusalem at some previous time and had gained some acquaintance with Christ “after the flesh.” “After the flesh” modifies the verb “to know,” not the noun “Christ.” Before his conversion, Paul knew all people “after the flesh”; that is, he judged them by worldly, human standards. To know Christ “after the flesh” means to look at him through merely human eyes. As a Jew, Paul had felt that Jesus was a deluded messianic pretender. According to the Jewish understanding, the Messiah was to reign over the earth as a Davidic king, save his people Israel, and punish the hated Gentiles. But Paul surrendered this false human view and came to know Christ as he really is—the incarnate Son of God, the Savior of all who believe. As a Christian, Paul no longer judged others according to the flesh.<\/p>\n<h5>Flesh as Fallen Humanity<\/h5>\nWhen Paul says that “flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of God” (1 Cor 15:50, rsv<\/span>), he does not mean that humans cannot inherit the kingdom of God but rather that human fallenness cannot; as the next clause shows, “neither does corruption inherit incorruption.” The weak, fallen, corruptible body cannot inherit the kingdom of God; there must be a change; the “corruptible must put on incorruption, and this mortal must put on immortality” (1 Cor 15:53, kjv<\/span>). This is not the salvation of the soul or spirit but the exchange of one kind of body for another that is suited to the final glorious kingdom of God.<\/p>\nWhen Peter confessed the messiahship of Jesus, Jesus replied, “Flesh and blood has not revealed this to you, but my Father who is in heaven” (Mt 16:17, rsv<\/span>). The meaning of this verse is obvious. This knowledge of Jesus’ messiahship was not a human deduction; it could be achieved only by divine revelation.<\/p>\n<h5>Flesh as Sinful Humanity<\/h5>\nThere remains a group of ethical references that are distinctly Pauline. The most important feature of this usage is that man is seen not only as fallen and weak before God, but as fallen and sinful. Flesh is contrasted with human spirit regenerated by the divine Spirit, and without the aid of the Spirit, one cannot please God. The most vivid passage is the first part of Romans 8, where Paul sharply contrasts those who are “in the flesh” with those who are “in the Spirit.” To be “in the Spirit” in this sense does not mean to be in a state of ecstasy but to be living one’s life in that spiritual realm that is controlled by the Spirit of God. Those who are “in the flesh,” that is, unregenerate, cannot please God. There are two contrasting and mutually exclusive realms: “in the flesh” and “in the Spirit.” To be “in the Spirit” means to be indwelt by God’s Holy Spirit, that is, to be a regenerate person.<\/p>\nIn Romans 7–8 Paul makes it clear that the unregenerate person cannot please God by loving and serving him as God requires. Thus, the Law was unable to make mankind truly righteous, because the flesh is weak (8:2). To live after the flesh is death; to live after the Spirit is life (8:6). Elsewhere Paul says, “For I know that in me (that is, in my flesh,) dwelleth no good thing” (7:18, kjv<\/span>). Flesh here cannot be the physical flesh, for the body of flesh is the temple of the Spirit (1 Cor 6:19) and a member of Christ (6:15) and is to be the means of glorifying God (6:20). Paul, therefore, means that in his unregenerate nature there dwells none of the goodness that God demands.<\/p>\nWhile Paul makes a sharp and absolute contrast between being “in the flesh” (unregenerate) and “in the Spirit” (regenerate), when one becomes regenerate and comes to be “in the Spirit,” that person is no longer in the flesh, but the flesh is still in him. In fact, there remains in the believer a struggle between the flesh and the Spirit. Writing to people who are “in the Spirit,” Paul says, “For the flesh lusteth [strives] against the Spirit, and the Spirit against the flesh: and these are contrary the one to the other: so that ye cannot do the things that ye would” (Gal 5:17, kjv<\/span>). Because the Christian life is the battleground of these two opposing principles, it is impossible to be the perfect person that one would wish to be.<\/p>\nThe same situation is reflected in 1 Corinthians 2:14–3:3 where Paul describes three classes of people: the “natural” (2:14, kjv<\/span>); the “carnal,” that is, fleshly man (3:1, 3, kjv<\/span>); and the “spiritual man” (3:1, kjv<\/span>). The “natural man” is unregenerate. Those who are “in the flesh” (Rom 8:9) have devoted the whole of their life to the human level and hence are unable to know the things of God. “Spiritual man” refers to those whose life is ruled by the Spirit of God, so that the fruits of the Spirit (Gal 5:22-23) are evident in their life. Between these two there is a third class—those who are “fleshly” yet who are babes in Christ. Therefore, they must be “in the Spirit,” yet they do not walk “according to the Spirit.” Because they are “babes in Christ,” the Spirit of God dwells in them, yet the Holy Spirit is not allowed to have full control over them, and they are still walking “like men” (1 Cor 3:3), manifesting the works of the flesh in jealousy and strife.<\/p>\n<h5>Works of the Flesh<\/h5>\nIn Galatians 5:19-23 Paul contrasts the life in the flesh and the life in the Spirit: “Now the works of the flesh are manifest, which are these: adultery, fornication, uncleanness, lasciviousness, idolatry, witchcraft, hatred, variance, emulations, wrath, strife, seditions, heresies, envyings, murders, drunkenness, revellings, and such like” (Gal 5:19-21, kjv<\/span>). The important thing to note about this list is that while some of these are sins of bodily and sexual appetite, others are religious sins—idolatry, witchcraft—and several are sins “of the spirit,” that is, of the disposition—hatred, variance, emulations, wrath, strife. The words “seditions” and “heresies” refer not to theological heresies but to a factious, divisive spirit. This proves conclusively that for Paul the “flesh” is not synonymous with the body but includes the whole person, with all the inner attitudes and disposition.<\/p>\n<h5>Victory over the Flesh<\/h5>\nWhile a struggle remains in the Christian between the Spirit and the flesh, Paul knows of a way of victory for the Spirit. The flesh of the body comes within the sphere of sanctification (1 Thes 5:23), but the flesh as the unregenerate human nature can only be put to death.<\/p>\nThis is called the tension between the objective and the subjective. Because certain things have happened in Christ (objective), certain inevitable results should accrue (subjective). In Paul’s view, the flesh has already been put to death in the death of Christ. Those who belong to Christ have already crucified the flesh with its passions and desires (Gal 5:24). Paul elsewhere says, “I have been crucified with Christ” (2:20) and “our old self was crucified with him” (Rom 6:6). Such references make it clear that “flesh” and the “self” are in some ways to be identified. This identity is further supported in the teaching about crucifixion, for Paul means the same thing by the crucifixion of the flesh that he means when he says, “How shall we, that are dead to sin, live any longer therein? We were baptized into his death. We are buried with him by baptism into death” (vv 1-4). It is I myself who have died with Christ.<\/p>\nThis crucifixion and death of the flesh does not, however, work automatically. It is an event that must be appropriated by faith. This involves two aspects. First, believers are to recognize that the flesh has been crucified with Christ. “Reckon ye also yourselves to be dead indeed unto sin, but alive unto God through Jesus Christ our Lord” (Rom 6:11, kjv<\/span>). One cannot consider the self dead with Christ to sin unless that person has actually died and been crucified with Christ, but because this has already happened at the moment of saving faith, it can be put into daily practice. Those who have died with Christ are to “mortify [put to death] the deeds of the body” (8:13, kjv<\/span>). “Body” is here used as a vehicle for the works of the “flesh”—the sensual life of the unregenerate nature. Those who have been brought from death into life are to yield their members to God as instruments of righteousness (6:13). One who has died with Christ is to “mortify” (kjv<\/span>), that is, put to death what is earthly—fornication, uncleanness, covetousness (Col 3:5). Having already put off the old nature and put on the new, the believer is to put on compassion, kindness, lowliness and the like.<\/p>\nVictory over the flesh is sometimes described as walking in the Spirit. “Walk by the Spirit, and do not gratify the desires of the flesh” (Gal 5:16, rsv<\/span>; cf. Rom 8:4). Walking in the Spirit means to live each moment under the control of the Holy Spirit.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Body; Sin.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FLESH<\/h3>\nThe body; the physical being of humans; the human person and human existence; the carnal nature of humans.<\/p>\nIn the Old Testament<\/p>\nTerm commonly used to designate the material stuff of the body, whether of people (Gn 40:19) or of animals (Lv 6:27). However, “flesh” is used in the OT with a variety of meanings. Sometimes it is used as equivalent for the whole body (Prv 14:30), and the meaning is extended to designate the whole person (“my flesh also shall rest in hope,” Ps 16:9, kjv<\/span>). This idea leads to the union of two different persons, man and wife as “one flesh” (Gn 2:24), and a man can say of his relatives, “I am your bone and your flesh” (Jgs 9:2). The idea of flesh as the whole person leads to the expression “all flesh,” denoting the totality of humankind, sometimes including also the animal world.<\/p>\nPerhaps the most distinctive use of “flesh” in the OT is found in those passages where it designates human weakness and frailty over against God. “My spirit shall not abide in man for ever, for he is flesh” (Gn 6:3, rsv<\/span>). In Psalm 78:39, God attributes sin to the fact that men are but flesh. In 2 Chronicles 32:8 the arm of flesh of the king of Assyria (i.e., his weakness) is contrasted with the all-powerful God. The one who puts trust in God need not fear what “flesh” can do (Ps 56:4), but the one who puts trust in human flesh instead of in God is under a curse (Jer 17:5). In Isaiah 31:3 flesh is contrasted with spirit, as weakness is with strength.<\/p>\nHowever, nowhere in the OT is flesh viewed as sinful. Flesh is conceived as being created by God of the dust of the earth (Gn 2:7), and as God’s creation, it is good.<\/p>\nIn the New Testament<\/p>\nPaul ascribes many—often unique—definitions to the word “flesh” (Greek sarx<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Flesh as the Stuff of the Body<\/h5>\n“Flesh” is frequently used to describe the tissues that constitute the body. There are different kinds of flesh—“of men,” “of animals,” “of birds,” “of fish” (1 Cor 15:39). Pain and suffering may be experienced in the flesh (2 Cor 12:7). Circumcision is done in the flesh (Rom 2:28). While “flesh” in such references is not sinful, it is corruptible and cannot inherit the kingdom of God (1 Cor 15:50). Jesus’ body was also a body of flesh (Col 1:22).<\/p>\n<h5>Flesh as the Body Itself<\/h5>\nBy a natural transition, the part is used for the whole, and in many places “flesh” is synonymous with the body as a whole rather than designating the fleshy part of the body. Paul may thus speak either of being absent in the body (1 Cor 5:3) or in the flesh (Col 2:5). Paul can say that the life of Jesus may be manifested in our body or in our mortal flesh (2 Cor 4:10-11). “He who joins himself to a prostitute becomes one body with her. For, as it is written, ‘The two shall become one flesh’ ” (1 Cor 6:16, rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>Flesh as Person with Reference to Origin<\/h5>\nFollowing OT usage, “flesh” was used by Paul to refer not merely to the stuff of the body or to the body itself, but concretely to the person as constituted by flesh. In this usage the word may refer to the person’s human relationship, the physical origin and the natural ties that bind one to other humans. Paul speaks of his kinsmen “according to the flesh,” his fellow Jews (Rom 9:3, kjv<\/span>), and even uses “my flesh” (11:14, kjv<\/span>) as a synonym for these kinsmen. The “children of the flesh” (9:8) are those born by natural generation in contrast to those born as a result of divine intervention. Christ was descended from David according to the flesh (1:3). The phrase does not designate the source merely of his bodily life but of his entire human existence, including both his body and his human spirit.<\/p>\n<h5>Flesh as Human Existence<\/h5>\nAnother use of “flesh” simply designates human existence. As long as a person lives in the body, that one is “in the flesh.” Thus, Paul can speak of the life that he lives “in the flesh” as lived by faith in the Son of God (Gal 2:20, rsv<\/span>). Referring to Jesus’ earthly ministry, Paul says that he abolished “in the flesh” the enmity between Jew and Gentile (Eph 2:15). Peter has the same meaning when he speaks of Jesus having been put to death “in the flesh” (1 Pt 3:18). So also John: “Jesus Christ is come in the flesh” (1 Jn 4:2). This usage is reflected most notably in the Johannine saying “The Word became flesh and dwelt among us” (Jn 1:14).<\/p>\n<h5>Flesh as Human Existence in Terms of Outward Presentation<\/h5>\n“Flesh” also extends beyond humans in their bodily life to include other factors crucial to human existence. Thus, “confidence in the flesh” (Phil 3:3, rsv<\/span>) does not mean confidence in the body but confidence in the whole complex of the outward realm of human existence. It includes Paul’s Jewish ancestry, his strict religious training, his zeal, and his prominence in Jewish religious circles. The phrase to “glory after the flesh” (2 Cor 11:18, kjv<\/span>) is rendered “boast about their human achievements” in the nlt<\/span>. A good showing “in the flesh” is practically synonymous with worldly prominence (Gal 6:11-14). The Judaizers insisted upon circumcision to promote a sense of prideful attainment in the religious life so that they might have a ground of glorying. But these external distinctions and grounds for glorying no longer appealed to Paul, because the world had been crucified to him and he to the world.<\/p>\n“Flesh” is also used of outward relationships, as when describing the social ties existing between slave and master (Eph 6:5; Col 3:22; Phlm 1:16). “In the flesh” also describes the realm of marital relationships, which entails certain troublesome problems (1 Cor 7:28).<\/p>\nThis usage illuminates an otherwise difficult saying, “Henceforth know we no man after the flesh; yea, though we have known Christ after the flesh, yet now henceforth know we him no more” (2 Cor 5:16, kjv<\/span>). The rsv<\/span> correctly renders the phrase “from a human point of view.” The verse does not mean that Paul had heard and seen Jesus in Jerusalem at some previous time and had gained some acquaintance with Christ “after the flesh.” “After the flesh” modifies the verb “to know,” not the noun “Christ.” Before his conversion, Paul knew all people “after the flesh”; that is, he judged them by worldly, human standards. To know Christ “after the flesh” means to look at him through merely human eyes. As a Jew, Paul had felt that Jesus was a deluded messianic pretender. According to the Jewish understanding, the Messiah was to reign over the earth as a Davidic king, save his people Israel, and punish the hated Gentiles. But Paul surrendered this false human view and came to know Christ as he really is—the incarnate Son of God, the Savior of all who believe. As a Christian, Paul no longer judged others according to the flesh.<\/p>\n<h5>Flesh as Fallen Humanity<\/h5>\nWhen Paul says that “flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of God” (1 Cor 15:50, rsv<\/span>), he does not mean that humans cannot inherit the kingdom of God but rather that human fallenness cannot; as the next clause shows, “neither does corruption inherit incorruption.” The weak, fallen, corruptible body cannot inherit the kingdom of God; there must be a change; the “corruptible must put on incorruption, and this mortal must put on immortality” (1 Cor 15:53, kjv<\/span>). This is not the salvation of the soul or spirit but the exchange of one kind of body for another that is suited to the final glorious kingdom of God.<\/p>\nWhen Peter confessed the messiahship of Jesus, Jesus replied, “Flesh and blood has not revealed this to you, but my Father who is in heaven” (Mt 16:17, rsv<\/span>). The meaning of this verse is obvious. This knowledge of Jesus’ messiahship was not a human deduction; it could be achieved only by divine revelation.<\/p>\n<h5>Flesh as Sinful Humanity<\/h5>\nThere remains a group of ethical references that are distinctly Pauline. The most important feature of this usage is that man is seen not only as fallen and weak before God, but as fallen and sinful. Flesh is contrasted with human spirit regenerated by the divine Spirit, and without the aid of the Spirit, one cannot please God. The most vivid passage is the first part of Romans 8, where Paul sharply contrasts those who are “in the flesh” with those who are “in the Spirit.” To be “in the Spirit” in this sense does not mean to be in a state of ecstasy but to be living one’s life in that spiritual realm that is controlled by the Spirit of God. Those who are “in the flesh,” that is, unregenerate, cannot please God. There are two contrasting and mutually exclusive realms: “in the flesh” and “in the Spirit.” To be “in the Spirit” means to be indwelt by God’s Holy Spirit, that is, to be a regenerate person.<\/p>\nIn Romans 7–8 Paul makes it clear that the unregenerate person cannot please God by loving and serving him as God requires. Thus, the Law was unable to make mankind truly righteous, because the flesh is weak (8:2). To live after the flesh is death; to live after the Spirit is life (8:6). Elsewhere Paul says, “For I know that in me (that is, in my flesh,) dwelleth no good thing” (7:18, kjv<\/span>). Flesh here cannot be the physical flesh, for the body of flesh is the temple of the Spirit (1 Cor 6:19) and a member of Christ (6:15) and is to be the means of glorifying God (6:20). Paul, therefore, means that in his unregenerate nature there dwells none of the goodness that God demands.<\/p>\nWhile Paul makes a sharp and absolute contrast between being “in the flesh” (unregenerate) and “in the Spirit” (regenerate), when one becomes regenerate and comes to be “in the Spirit,” that person is no longer in the flesh, but the flesh is still in him. In fact, there remains in the believer a struggle between the flesh and the Spirit. Writing to people who are “in the Spirit,” Paul says, “For the flesh lusteth [strives] against the Spirit, and the Spirit against the flesh: and these are contrary the one to the other: so that ye cannot do the things that ye would” (Gal 5:17, kjv<\/span>). Because the Christian life is the battleground of these two opposing principles, it is impossible to be the perfect person that one would wish to be.<\/p>\nThe same situation is reflected in 1 Corinthians 2:14–3:3 where Paul describes three classes of people: the “natural” (2:14, kjv<\/span>); the “carnal,” that is, fleshly man (3:1, 3, kjv<\/span>); and the “spiritual man” (3:1, kjv<\/span>). The “natural man” is unregenerate. Those who are “in the flesh” (Rom 8:9) have devoted the whole of their life to the human level and hence are unable to know the things of God. “Spiritual man” refers to those whose life is ruled by the Spirit of God, so that the fruits of the Spirit (Gal 5:22-23) are evident in their life. Between these two there is a third class—those who are “fleshly” yet who are babes in Christ. Therefore, they must be “in the Spirit,” yet they do not walk “according to the Spirit.” Because they are “babes in Christ,” the Spirit of God dwells in them, yet the Holy Spirit is not allowed to have full control over them, and they are still walking “like men” (1 Cor 3:3), manifesting the works of the flesh in jealousy and strife.<\/p>\n<h5>Works of the Flesh<\/h5>\nIn Galatians 5:19-23 Paul contrasts the life in the flesh and the life in the Spirit: “Now the works of the flesh are manifest, which are these: adultery, fornication, uncleanness, lasciviousness, idolatry, witchcraft, hatred, variance, emulations, wrath, strife, seditions, heresies, envyings, murders, drunkenness, revellings, and such like” (Gal 5:19-21, kjv<\/span>). The important thing to note about this list is that while some of these are sins of bodily and sexual appetite, others are religious sins—idolatry, witchcraft—and several are sins “of the spirit,” that is, of the disposition—hatred, variance, emulations, wrath, strife. The words “seditions” and “heresies” refer not to theological heresies but to a factious, divisive spirit. This proves conclusively that for Paul the “flesh” is not synonymous with the body but includes the whole person, with all the inner attitudes and disposition.<\/p>\n<h5>Victory over the Flesh<\/h5>\nWhile a struggle remains in the Christian between the Spirit and the flesh, Paul knows of a way of victory for the Spirit. The flesh of the body comes within the sphere of sanctification (1 Thes 5:23), but the flesh as the unregenerate human nature can only be put to death.<\/p>\nThis is called the tension between the objective and the subjective. Because certain things have happened in Christ (objective), certain inevitable results should accrue (subjective). In Paul’s view, the flesh has already been put to death in the death of Christ. Those who belong to Christ have already crucified the flesh with its passions and desires (Gal 5:24). Paul elsewhere says, “I have been crucified with Christ” (2:20) and “our old self was crucified with him” (Rom 6:6). Such references make it clear that “flesh” and the “self” are in some ways to be identified. This identity is further supported in the teaching about crucifixion, for Paul means the same thing by the crucifixion of the flesh that he means when he says, “How shall we, that are dead to sin, live any longer therein? We were baptized into his death. We are buried with him by baptism into death” (vv 1-4). It is I myself who have died with Christ.<\/p>\nThis crucifixion and death of the flesh does not, however, work automatically. It is an event that must be appropriated by faith. This involves two aspects. First, believers are to recognize that the flesh has been crucified with Christ. “Reckon ye also yourselves to be dead indeed unto sin, but alive unto God through Jesus Christ our Lord” (Rom 6:11, kjv<\/span>). One cannot consider the self dead with Christ to sin unless that person has actually died and been crucified with Christ, but because this has already happened at the moment of saving faith, it can be put into daily practice. Those who have died with Christ are to “mortify [put to death] the deeds of the body” (8:13, kjv<\/span>). “Body” is here used as a vehicle for the works of the “flesh”—the sensual life of the unregenerate nature. Those who have been brought from death into life are to yield their members to God as instruments of righteousness (6:13). One who has died with Christ is to “mortify” (kjv<\/span>), that is, put to death what is earthly—fornication, uncleanness, covetousness (Col 3:5). Having already put off the old nature and put on the new, the believer is to put on compassion, kindness, lowliness and the like.<\/p>\nVictory over the flesh is sometimes described as walking in the Spirit. “Walk by the Spirit, and do not gratify the desires of the flesh” (Gal 5:16, rsv<\/span>; cf. Rom 8:4). Walking in the Spirit means to live each moment under the control of the Holy Spirit.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Body; Sin.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FLESH The body; the physical being of humans; the human person and human existence; the carnal nature of humans. In the Old Testament Term commonly used to designate the material stuff of the body, whether of people (Gn 40:19) or of animals (Lv 6:27). However, “flesh” is used in the OT with a variety of meanings. Sometimes it is used as equivalent for the whole body (Prv 14:30), and the meaning is extended to designate the whole person (“my flesh also shall rest in hope,” Ps 16:9, kjv). This ...","summary_en":"FLESH The body; the physical being of humans; the human person and human existence; the carnal nature of humans. In the Old Testament Term commonly used to designate the material stuff of the body, whether of people (Gn 40:19) or of animals (Lv 6:27). However, “flesh” is used in the OT with a variety of meanings. Sometimes it is used as equivalent for the whole body (Prv 14:30), and the meaning is extended to designate the whole person (“my flesh also shall rest in hope,” Ps 16:9, kjv). This ...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":19782,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jew","title_en":"Jew","content_ro":"<h3>JEW<\/h3>\nJudean, belonging to Judah. The short form of the English word was developed from the French. The underlying Hebrew word is used first in 2 Kings 16:6 as a national term, meaning citizens of Judah. It came into general use in the period of Jeremiah just before the exile (late sixth century BC<\/span>; see Jer 32:12). It reflects a growing sense of national identity among foreign nations in an international world. In Jeremiah 34:9, a statement concerning the national principle that an individual citizen had the right to freedom from slavery uses the term “Jew.” In Jeremiah 52:28 it is poignantly used in giving the number of deported citizens.<\/p>\nOnce the people were in exile, the term’s national meaning was expanded with a religious one. The Jews were different from surrounding peoples in that they preserved a living religious tradition of one true God. A Jewish-Gentile polarization developed. Thus in Daniel 3:8-12 certain Jews are accused of deviating from otherwise acceptable Babylonian religious practices. The book of Esther is concerned with the problem of Jewish identity and survival in a hostile alien environment. Esther 8:17 speaks of Gentiles declaring themselves Jews in the religious sense of becoming proselytes.<\/p>\nAfter the exile, the strongly religious meaning of “Jew” is expressed in the prophecy of Zechariah 8:23 that the Jew would be courted by Gentiles because God was with him. In Ezra 4:12 the term “Jews” is the national designation of the returned exiles, as it is in the book of Nehemiah (e.g., Neh 1:2; 4:2). In Nehemiah 13:24 there is a consciousness of the social exclusiveness of the Jews: on religious grounds, marriage to foreigners is deplored.<\/p>\nIn the NT “Jew” continues to have the same national and\/or religious meaning. Culturally, Jews have religious and other customs that NT documents addressed to Gentiles find it necessary to explain (Mk 7:3; Jn 5:1; 19:40). Jews are contrasted with Gentiles (Acts 11:19), Samaritans (Jn 4:9, 22), and proselytes (Acts 2:10). Jewish Christians can be called “Jews” (Gal 2:13), but there is an increasing stress on the religious distinctions between Jew and Christian. In Romans 2:17-29 Paul gives an interesting theological analysis of the term “Jew.” He is at pains to emphasize that the true meaning of the word lies not in outward religious profession but in an inward attitude to God. Paul was doubtless thinking of the inadequacy of his own life as a Jew before he was converted to the Christian faith (cf. Phil 3:3-6). His mention of “praise” in Romans 2:29 is the climax of the passage. It is a forceful play on words: in Hebrew, Judah means praise (Gn 29:35; cf. 49:8).<\/p>\nThe apostle Paul is here moving in the direction of regarding Christianity as the true heir of the faith of the OT. Revelation 2:9 and 3:9 express similar sentiments: to be truly a Jew is much more than a matter of birth and synagogue observance. Underlying these passages in both Revelation and Romans is obviously the issue of the messianic claims of Jesus (cf. Rom 9:3-5; 10:1-4). The NT bears sad testimony to the opposition of Jews to the Christian message. The gospel proved a cause of offense to the Jews (1 Cor 1:23). Paul himself, despite his claim of impeccable Jewish credentials (Acts 26:4-7), found himself the object of bitter Jewish attacks (21:11; 23:12, 27). Revelation 2:9 and 3:9 describe the Jews’ opposition as satanic: they were carrying out the work of God’s adversary, Satan.<\/p>\nThese negative overtones are especially attached to the use of the word “Jew” in John’s Gospel. It is found some 70 times, versus about five or six instances in each of the synoptic Gospels. Some passages, such as those already cited, have no associations of hostility. But in most cases the fourth Gospel uses “Jews” in the sense of the religious authorities, especially those in Jerusalem, who were hostile to Jesus (see, e.g., Jn 5:18; 9:18; 11:8; 18:36). It is noteworthy that in 9:22 the parents of the blind man, clearly Jews themselves, are said, literally, to fear the investigating Jews. In 18:14 “Jews” stands for the chief priests and Pharisees of 18:3. It must be emphasized that the author, who was obviously a Jew himself, was not expressing an anti-Semitic viewpoint as such. He condemned not race or people but those who opposed Jesus. He gladly acknowledged that some Jews put their faith in Jesus (8:31; 11:45: 12:11). Nathanael is featured as a type of the Christian Jew, a true Israelite “in whom is no guile” (1:47; cf. v 31; see Gn 27:35; 32:28).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Diaspora of the Jews; Israel, History of; Judaism; Judaizers; Pharisees; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JEW<\/h3>\nJudean, belonging to Judah. The short form of the English word was developed from the French. The underlying Hebrew word is used first in 2 Kings 16:6 as a national term, meaning citizens of Judah. It came into general use in the period of Jeremiah just before the exile (late sixth century BC<\/span>; see Jer 32:12). It reflects a growing sense of national identity among foreign nations in an international world. In Jeremiah 34:9, a statement concerning the national principle that an individual citizen had the right to freedom from slavery uses the term “Jew.” In Jeremiah 52:28 it is poignantly used in giving the number of deported citizens.<\/p>\nOnce the people were in exile, the term’s national meaning was expanded with a religious one. The Jews were different from surrounding peoples in that they preserved a living religious tradition of one true God. A Jewish-Gentile polarization developed. Thus in Daniel 3:8-12 certain Jews are accused of deviating from otherwise acceptable Babylonian religious practices. The book of Esther is concerned with the problem of Jewish identity and survival in a hostile alien environment. Esther 8:17 speaks of Gentiles declaring themselves Jews in the religious sense of becoming proselytes.<\/p>\nAfter the exile, the strongly religious meaning of “Jew” is expressed in the prophecy of Zechariah 8:23 that the Jew would be courted by Gentiles because God was with him. In Ezra 4:12 the term “Jews” is the national designation of the returned exiles, as it is in the book of Nehemiah (e.g., Neh 1:2; 4:2). In Nehemiah 13:24 there is a consciousness of the social exclusiveness of the Jews: on religious grounds, marriage to foreigners is deplored.<\/p>\nIn the NT “Jew” continues to have the same national and\/or religious meaning. Culturally, Jews have religious and other customs that NT documents addressed to Gentiles find it necessary to explain (Mk 7:3; Jn 5:1; 19:40). Jews are contrasted with Gentiles (Acts 11:19), Samaritans (Jn 4:9, 22), and proselytes (Acts 2:10). Jewish Christians can be called “Jews” (Gal 2:13), but there is an increasing stress on the religious distinctions between Jew and Christian. In Romans 2:17-29 Paul gives an interesting theological analysis of the term “Jew.” He is at pains to emphasize that the true meaning of the word lies not in outward religious profession but in an inward attitude to God. Paul was doubtless thinking of the inadequacy of his own life as a Jew before he was converted to the Christian faith (cf. Phil 3:3-6). His mention of “praise” in Romans 2:29 is the climax of the passage. It is a forceful play on words: in Hebrew, Judah means praise (Gn 29:35; cf. 49:8).<\/p>\nThe apostle Paul is here moving in the direction of regarding Christianity as the true heir of the faith of the OT. Revelation 2:9 and 3:9 express similar sentiments: to be truly a Jew is much more than a matter of birth and synagogue observance. Underlying these passages in both Revelation and Romans is obviously the issue of the messianic claims of Jesus (cf. Rom 9:3-5; 10:1-4). The NT bears sad testimony to the opposition of Jews to the Christian message. The gospel proved a cause of offense to the Jews (1 Cor 1:23). Paul himself, despite his claim of impeccable Jewish credentials (Acts 26:4-7), found himself the object of bitter Jewish attacks (21:11; 23:12, 27). Revelation 2:9 and 3:9 describe the Jews’ opposition as satanic: they were carrying out the work of God’s adversary, Satan.<\/p>\nThese negative overtones are especially attached to the use of the word “Jew” in John’s Gospel. It is found some 70 times, versus about five or six instances in each of the synoptic Gospels. Some passages, such as those already cited, have no associations of hostility. But in most cases the fourth Gospel uses “Jews” in the sense of the religious authorities, especially those in Jerusalem, who were hostile to Jesus (see, e.g., Jn 5:18; 9:18; 11:8; 18:36). It is noteworthy that in 9:22 the parents of the blind man, clearly Jews themselves, are said, literally, to fear the investigating Jews. In 18:14 “Jews” stands for the chief priests and Pharisees of 18:3. It must be emphasized that the author, who was obviously a Jew himself, was not expressing an anti-Semitic viewpoint as such. He condemned not race or people but those who opposed Jesus. He gladly acknowledged that some Jews put their faith in Jesus (8:31; 11:45: 12:11). Nathanael is featured as a type of the Christian Jew, a true Israelite “in whom is no guile” (1:47; cf. v 31; see Gn 27:35; 32:28).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Diaspora of the Jews; Israel, History of; Judaism; Judaizers; Pharisees; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JEW Judean, belonging to Judah. The short form of the English word was developed from the French. The underlying Hebrew word is used first in 2 Kings 16:6 as a national term, meaning citizens of Judah. It came into general use in the period of Jeremiah just before the exile (late sixth century BC; see Jer 32:12). It reflects a growing sense of national identity among foreign nations in an international world. In Jeremiah 34:9, a statement concerning the national principle that an individual c...","summary_en":"JEW Judean, belonging to Judah. The short form of the English word was developed from the French. The underlying Hebrew word is used first in 2 Kings 16:6 as a national term, meaning citizens of Judah. It came into general use in the period of Jeremiah just before the exile (late sixth century BC; see Jer 32:12). It reflects a growing sense of national identity among foreign nations in an international world. In Jeremiah 34:9, a statement concerning the national principle that an individual c...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29840,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"First Letter of Peter","title_en":"First Letter of Peter","content_ro":"<h3>PETER, First Letter of<\/span><\/h3>\nFirst of two general epistles authored by Peter.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Destination, Origin, Date<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nThe author says he is the apostle Peter (1 Pt 1:1), a witness of Christ’s sufferings (5:1)—thus one of the original apostles chosen by Jesus (Mk 3:14-19) as an authoritative spokesman. Also known as Simon and Cephas, Peter probably saw and felt Jesus’ last hours of suffering more keenly than any of the other apostles (14:54) because he had denied Jesus three times (vv 66-72). In 1 Peter the sufferings of Jesus are mentioned at least four times (1 Pt 1:11; 2:23; 4:1; 5:1).<\/p>\nPeter was known as the apostle to the Jews, just as Paul was the apostle to the Gentiles (Gal 2:7). Since Peter was a traveling missionary (1 Cor 1:12; 9:5), he could have actually visited the Asia Minor churches to whom this letter was sent.<\/p>\nThat Peter had been with Jesus during his earthly ministry may help account for the strong influence of Jesus’ teaching in 1 Peter. Except for James, 1 Peter probably echoes more of Jesus’ words than any other NT letter. The chart below presents similarities between Peter’s words and Jesus’ words in the Gospels:<\/p>\n\nSome scholars think the Greek of this letter is too good to have been written by a former fisherman whose native language was Aramaic; that the doctrine is too much like Paul’s to have been written by an apostle whose position was different from Paul’s; and that someone wrote the letter after Peter’s death and used his name to give apostolic weight to it.<\/p>\nOther scholars answer that if the author wanted to give authority to a letter whose teaching resembles Paul’s, he would have used Paul’s name, not Peter’s; that most Galileans probably learned Greek as well as Aramaic early in life; and that there is no evidence that the teaching of Peter and Paul fundamentally differed. When Paul rebuked Peter (Gal 2:11-14), it was due to a temporary lapse in conduct, not a basic disagreement in teaching. Besides, some key doctrines of Paul are missing from 1 Peter (e.g., justification), and those similar to Paul’s were the common possession of all the early churches. We may reasonably conclude that the apostle Peter authored this letter. However, it seems quite clear that Silas (otherwise know as Silvanus) helped Peter write this epistle (1 Pt 5:12), which means (1) he functioned as an amanuensis (secretary) for Peter, (2) he translated Peter’s letter (from Aramaic to Greek) as Peter dictated it, or (3) he composed a letter based on Peter’s thoughts.<\/p>\nDestination, Origin, Date<\/p>\nThe people to whom 1 Peter is addressed lived in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia. These Roman provinces covered all but the southernmost part of Asia Minor, the bulk of modern Turkey.<\/p>\nChristianity may have been brought back by pilgrim Jews converted in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost (cf. Acts 2:9). More likely, these churches included some founded by Paul on his first and second missionary journeys, and others by unknown missionaries. Peter does not explicitly include himself among “those who preached to you” (1 Pt 1:12).<\/p>\nWhether the readers were Christian Jews or converted pagan Gentiles is not known. First Peter 1:1 reads: “to God’s chosen people who are living as foreigners in the lands of Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, the province of Asia, and Bithynia” (nlt<\/span>). That the readers are in some sense exiles is confirmed by 1:17 and 2:11. These verses could refer to a literal exile of Jews outside of Palestine or to a spiritual exile of all believers on earth because their true home is in heaven. No one denies that there was (and is) a literal Jewish dispersion (Diaspora). Peter, viewing the church as the true Israel (cf. Rom 2:29; Gal 6:16; Phil 3:3), may simply have transferred the language of exile from the nation Israel onto the church. The phrase used by Peter in 1 Peter 2:11 is almost identical to the one in Hebrews 11:13 (cf. Gn 23:4; Ps 39:12).<\/p>\nAgainst the view that construes the dispersion of 1 Peter 1:1 as Christians (Jew and Gentile), rather than Jews only, one may argue that Peter was specifically the apostle to the Jews (Gal 2:7) and that the use of so much OT in 1 Peter demands a Jewish readership. But there is evidence that Peter did not restrict his ministry to Jews (1 Cor 1:12; Gal 2:12), and the use of the OT is not surprising even if the readers were not Jews, because so many Gentile God-fearers (like Cornelius, Acts 10:2) were familiar with the OT.<\/p>\nWhether the readers were Jews or mainly Gentiles is decided by several texts that reflect the pagan background of the readers. Peter says in 1 Peter 2:10 that his readers were once “not a people,” a reference to Hosea 2:23 (cf. Rom 9:25). Then in 1 Peter 4:3 Peter describes their past “immorality and lust, their feasting and drunkenness and wild parties, and their terrible worship of idols” (nlt<\/span>). This does not describe unbelieving Jews, whose problem was not gross immorality but hypocrisy and legalism. Thus the recipients of this letter must have included many Gentile Christians in Asia Minor, characterized as aliens and strangers in the world.<\/p>\nMost scholars think 1 Peter was written from Rome. The clue is found in 5:13: “She who is in Babylon, chosen together with you, sends you her greetings” (niv<\/span>). Babylon (which had come to symbolize a big, powerful, evil city) was substituted as a kind of code name for Rome in much early Christian literature (e.g., Rv 14:8; 16:19; 17:5; 18:2, 10, 21; cf. Sibyllene 5:143, 159).<\/p>\nThe date of 1 Peter is probably AD<\/span> 64 or 65 (see next section).<\/p>\n\nBackground<\/p>\nWhile other NT writings refer now and then to Christian suffering, 1 Peter is preoccupied with it. How Christians should conduct themselves when abused is often discussed (1 Pt 1:3-7; 2:12, 20-23; 3:13-17; 4:12-19; 5:9-10). Official state persecution cannot be clearly affirmed; abuses seem to be the common lot of all Christians everywhere (5:9). Cruel masters may sometimes abuse their Christian servants (2:18-20); Christian wives may have to endure harsh, unbelieving husbands (3:1-6); and in general, people are on the lookout to revile Christians as wrongdoers (2:12; 3:9, 16; 4:15-16).<\/p>\nEven though no official state persecution is in view, the letter apparently indicates that there is something worse on the horizon (4:12-19). Peter seems to sense that the present tension between believers and their society could flare into something much worse.<\/p>\nEarly church tradition says that Peter was crucified in Rome during Nero’s persecution, and there is no good reason to doubt it. Moreover, since 1 Peter was written from Rome, and since 4:12 and 17 imply an impending crisis like the one that struck the Christians in Rome in AD<\/span> 65, we may suppose that this letter was written not long before Nero began to oppress the Christians in Rome. According to the historian Tacitus, Nero blamed the Christians for burning Rome, in order to squelch the rumor that he himself had done it (so that he could build a greater city). His relentless persecution of Christians had not yet broken out when 1 Peter was written (cf. 2:14; 3:13), but Peter may have seen it coming and may have wanted to prepare the churches outside Rome, should the holocaust reach them, too. Nero’s persecution apparently did not affect the Christians in the provinces outside Rome, but that does not diminish the value of Peter’s letter, because mostly it deals with how Christians should relate to their society and how they should respond when abuse and suffering come.<\/p>\nIf this is a correct picture of the background of 1 Peter, its date would be the early to mid 60s, since the fire of Rome broke out on July 19, AD<\/span> 64, and the persecution occurred later that year or in the spring of 65.<\/p>\nPurpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\nThe main purpose of 1 Peter is to exhort Christians to conduct themselves properly among the community of believers (3:8; 5:1-7), but especially in non-Christian society (2:12), testifying clearly to their hope in Christ (3:1, 15) for God’s glory. The letter aims to help Christians understand and endure the abuses that often come from relationships with non-Christians (1:6-7; 2:12, 18-25; 3:9, 14-17; 4:1-5, 12-19; 5:8-10).<\/p>\nPeter’s exhortation is based on the good news of God’s salvation through the death, resurrection, and second coming of Christ. God is merciful (1:3; 2:10), “the God of all grace” (4:10; 5:12), and there is hope in grace’s ultimate display at Christ’s coming (1:13). God foreknew and determined (1:2, 20; 2:8) a plan of redemption by which to create a holy people for his own possession (2:9-10). Accordingly, Christ was sent into the world to accomplish this redemption for the sake of God’s elect (1:20). Although he was “chosen and precious” to God, he was “rejected by men” (2:4) who did not believe him (v 7). But his sufferings (1:11; 4:1, 13; 5:1) were not a meaningless tragedy; they were for the sake of his people (2:21, 24; 3:18), to redeem them with his precious blood from their empty way of life (1:18-19).<\/p>\nPut to death in the flesh, he was “made alive by the Spirit” (3:18), raised from the dead and glorified (1:21; 2:7), and holds the place of authority at God’s right hand (3:22). Further still, we must try to explain the link between the good news of God’s saving activity and our good conduct. The good news must be proclaimed if it is to change anybody’s life. This proclamation happens in the power of God’s Holy Spirit (1:12). It is not merely a “newscast” but is “the living and abiding word of God” (1:23; cf. 4:11), by which God calls his people into being and summons them “out of darkness and into his wonderful light” (2:9; cf. 1:15), “to his eternal glory in Christ” (5:10). This change is described in 1 Peter as a “new birth” (1:3, 23); what distinguishes a newborn person is the “living hope” that he has in Christ (1:3, 13).<\/p>\nThis hope, grounded in Christ’s resurrection and his sure return, transforms behavior (1:13-15). No longer will we have to seek satisfaction and fulfillment in harmful, unloving ways, but rather by entrusting our souls to a faithful Creator (4:19; 5:7), we can endure unjust suffering patiently (2:20), not return evil for evil (3:9), and seek to extend the mercy of God to others in doing good (2:12, 15; 3:11, 16; 4:19).<\/p>\nLively Christian hope does not lead us out<\/em> of non-Christian society but rather changes our behavior in<\/em> it. Christians are addressed as citizens of the state (2:13-17), as slaves of cruel masters (vv 18-25), and as wives of unbelieving husbands (3:1-6). By living as new and hopeful persons in<\/em> the institutions of society, others see our good deeds and give glory to our Father in heaven (2:12; cf. Mt 5:16).<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>1:1–2<\/h5>\nThis section describes God’s election of his people, which is often translated using three prepositional phrases.<\/p>\nFirst, it is “according to the foreknowledge of God” (niv<\/span>). This means more than God’s knowing ahead of time whom he would elect. As in 1:20, foreknowledge probably also includes God’s purpose (cf. Am 3:2; Acts 2:23; Rom 8:28-30; 11:2; 1 Cor 8:3; Gal 4:9).<\/p>\nSecond, the election is “by the sanctifying work of the Spirit” (nasb<\/span>). Election involves the Spirit’s effectual work in making a person obedient to the gospel (see Rom 1:5). In Ephesians 1:4 election is described as “before the foundation of the world” (kjv<\/span>).<\/p>\nThird, our election is “for obedience to Jesus Christ and for sprinkling with his blood” (rsv<\/span>). The latter probably refers to the moral effect of Christ’s death in purifying our conscience and our behavior as we trust in him (see Heb 9:13-14).<\/p>\nThus, the elect people of God have their origin in the eternal, purposed foreknowledge of God; owe their call and conversion to the work of the Holy Spirit; and have as their goal in life obedience to God (cf. 1 Pt 1:14).<\/p>\n<h5>1:3-12<\/h5>\nThis section describes how tremendously valuable salvation is—a vast inheritance, absolutely perfect, never diminishing in beauty or worth (v 4), the goal of our faith (v 9), the basis of inexpressible joy (vv 6-8). Searched into and desired by the holy prophets of old, it is so amazing that even angels desire to peer into it (vv 10-12).<\/p>\nIt originates in the great mercy of God and was made available to people through the resurrection of Jesus from the dead (v 3). Even though a future<\/em> inheritance is ready to be revealed in the last time (v 5), it offers many present<\/em> spiritual benefits for those who trust in Christ. One of them is the promise of God’s present power to cause the believer to persevere in faith (v 5). This does not mean Christians escape hardship; it may be necessary that they suffer (v 6). If so, they should not grumble but see suffering as a refining fire for their good, because it burns away false dependencies and leaves only the pure gold of genuine faith (v 7). So suffering may be an important preparation for the full experience of salvation, since it is faith alone that will be blessed in the end.<\/p>\nFaith is not the same as sight, for believers have never seen Jesus, yet they trust him and love him (v 8). There are good grounds for hope (3:15), founded mainly on the resurrection of Jesus (1:3)—a real historical event.<\/p>\n<h5>1:13-25<\/h5>\nPeter now gives a command: hope fully in the grace coming to you at the revelation of Christ (v 13), and lead a new life of obedience to God (vv 14-15). Hope is an intense desire for something and a confidence that it will come. So Peter was commanding the churches to desire<\/em> Christ strongly and be assured of his glory and his coming. Thus, believers must use their minds and keep clearheaded (sober) about what is truly valuable in life (v 13). Full hope in Christ always results in holiness of life. If we delight in being God’s children (v 14), we will surely imitate our Father (vv 15-16; cf. Lv 19:2).<\/p>\nBut there is another motivation for good conduct: fear of God, who judges each person according to his or her works (1 Pt 1:17). While Peter motivates with fear, he also assures us that we have been redeemed from our futile conduct with the precious blood of Christ (vv 18-19). We are saved by faith, not by good works. Probably Peter means us to fear God’s displeasure with unbelief. When the letter says he will judge our works, it probably means that he will look for evidences of obedient, loving conduct, which is the sure sign of hope and faith. If we are lacking in this, fear of his judgment should drive us back to God’s mercy, where we can have peace and joy, which in turn lead to love.<\/p>\nThis love is commanded toward believers in verse 22. Hope is not mentioned in verses 22-25, but it is implied when Peter says we are born anew through the abiding<\/em> Word of God. Since “the word of the Lord abides forever” (v 25 = Is 40:6-8), those whose life depends on it will abide forever.<\/p>\n<h5>2:1-10<\/h5>\nThis passage is filled with OT quotations and imagery, as shown in the following chart:<\/p>\n\nVerses 9 and 10 indicate that Peter considered the Christian church a new Israel. He probably saw the experience of the church in the world as that of an exile<\/em> like the Jews in Babylonian exile (1:1, 17; 2:11), and considered conversion as a kind of exodus<\/em> out of the darkness of an old futile life into God’s light, like the Jewish exodus out of Egypt.<\/p>\nVerses 6-8 show that Jesus is a precious jewel for some but a stumbling stone for unbelievers. Behind that stands God’s inscrutable predestination (v 8). Those who trust him are chosen (v 9; cf. 1:1) as a royal priesthood (see below on 2:5), as a nation having God’s own holy character (cf. 1:14-15), and as a people cherished as God’s special possession. All of this is not due to our merit but to God’s mercy (v 10).<\/p>\nVerses 1-3 are again a command—to desire the kindness of Christ that we have tasted through the milk of the Word and so to grow stronger in faith or to hope fully in the grace of Christ.<\/p>\nVerses 4-5 portray a complex, mixed metaphor that pictures Christ as a living stone and the church both as a spiritual house of stones and as a priesthood. The church is, on the one hand, a dwelling place for God (cf. 1 Cor 3:16; Eph 2:21-22), and on the other, a group of ministers in that dwelling who offer God the sacrifices of obedience (cf. Rom 12:1-2).<\/p>\n<h5>2:11-12<\/h5>\nThis is the central concern of the letter. Since Christians are exiles in this world, they must not share the same desires as unbelievers. Such fleshly desires are ephemeral and destroy the soul that follows them. Instead, God’s new people should devote themselves to good deeds, even though people may slander them, for this will ultimately cause people to glorify God. The sequence, again, is changed desires, changed behavior, God glorified (cf. Mt 5:16).<\/p>\n<h5>2:13-17<\/h5>\nChristians should show proper respect to everyone (vv 13-14). That Christ died for sinners is a very humbling truth that forbids Christians to be arrogant or to think that they do not owe others love (cf. Rom 13:8-10). Rather, they are adjured to count others better than themselves (Mk 10:44; Phil 2:3).<\/p>\nPeter declares, then, that believers should be subject to the king and to the civil authorities under him. They should positively devote themselves to doing good so that those who say Christianity makes no difference in life will be silenced.<\/p>\nHowever, subjection to the state is not absolute, for Christians are first and foremost slaves of God. It is out of freedom that they acknowledge the propriety of a God-ordained state to preserve orderly life. Because Christians serve God first, and the king is merely God’s creature, subjection to him is a subjection for the Lord’s sake, not the king’s sake.<\/p>\n<h5>2:18-25<\/h5>\nChristian slaves have consciences oriented toward and shaped by God (v 19). They also have experienced his grace and are here told to rely on it by enduring unjust suffering patiently. They are not to strike back: they were called to live this way because Jesus suffered for them<\/em> and because he suffered as an example.<\/em> Verses 21-23 describe the example. Verses 24-25 describe Christ’s redemption and its effects. That is, Jesus not only modeled the life of nonretaliation but also enabled his followers to live this way by dying for<\/em> them that they might live for righteousness (v 24). Only when Christians are secure and content in the hope Christ achieved for them<\/em> can they have the freedom and inclination to follow his costly example. When believers are tempted to take vengeance into their own hands, they should recall that even Jesus entrusted himself to God, who judges justly (v 23; cf. Rom 12:19-20).<\/p>\n<h5>3:1-7<\/h5>\nHere are six verses for wives and one for husbands. How shall a believing wife win her unbelieving husband (v 1)? Peter warns against preoccupation with making the body more attractive (v 3). Instead, he stresses the adornment of the heart with a meek and tranquil spirit (v 4), accompanied by pure, loving conduct (v 2), which may win the husband “without talk” (v 1). This is not a call to mindless subservience but to poise, to free and confident service in love. The wife is not to be afraid even of an abusive husband (v 6). But how? By following Sarah’s example of hoping<\/em> in God (v 5). So it is again said that hope transforms life and enables believers to be subject to others. The wife is bound first to the Lord and only secondarily to her husband. Like the slave, the Christian wife will use her God-oriented conscience (2:16) to decide when, for Christ’s sake, she cannot follow the lead of her husband.<\/p>\nHusbands are admonished in verse 7 to bring their relationships to their wives into conformity with natural and revealed truth. The natural<\/em> truth is that women are physically weaker. This does not mean that they are inferior mentally or emotionally. It is a simple statement of observed fact: women’s bodies are not as strong as men’s. In a culture without all kinds of automatic devices, physical strength was much more crucial for survival and comfort than it is today. So the man is urged to use his superior strength for the sake of his wife. The revealed<\/em> truth is that the wife is an “equal partner in God’s gift of new life,” to be honored and respected.<\/p>\n<h5>3:8-12<\/h5>\nThis concludes the section 2:13–3:12 and admonishes the whole church first to love the brotherhood (3:8) and then to love the hostile outsider (vv 9-12). Verse 9 recalls Jesus’ behavior and his commands (Lk 6:27-36). Not only are Christians to endure abuse patiently (1 Pt 2:19-20), they are also to react positively and “bless” those who revile them (3:9). To bless means to wish them well and turn the wish into a prayer. Believers’ real desire for their enemies is that they be converted and come to share in the blessing that the Christian will inherit (vv 1, 9). Psalm 34:12-16 is brought in to support the logic of verse 9. If Christians want to inherit the blessing of salvation (1:4-5; 3:9), they must bless those who revile them. This does not mean they earn<\/em> their salvation but that salvation is the goal of faith (1:9), and true faith always makes a person loving.<\/p>\n<h5>3:13-17<\/h5>\nGenerally speaking, when Christians do good, they will not be harmed for it (v 13). Nevertheless, it may be God’s will that Christians suffer for doing good (v 17) and that is far better than suffering for doing evil. It is better not only because they ought never do evil but also because they are “blessed” when they suffer for righteousness’ sake (v 14; cf. 4:14; Mt 5:10-12). So instead of being afraid of people, believers should fear displeasing Christ and be at peace in his faithfulness (cf. 1 Pt 3:14-15 with Is 8:12-13). Thus, their consciences will be clear and believers will be freed so that when they explain the reason for their hope, even their demeanor will bear witness to its truth (cf. 1 Pt 3:15 with 1:3). The Christians’ abusers may be put to shame (v 16) and be won over (3:1) and give glory to God (2:12).<\/p>\n<h5>3:18-22<\/h5>\nSimilar to 2:21-25 and 1:18-21, this unit affirms Peter’s call for patient suffering. Since Christ died once for all for mankind’s sins and thus freed everyone from guilt and opened a way into the fellowship of the merciful God, believers should be able to bear unjust suffering meekly. Refusing to bear undeserved suffering would be a mark of unbelief in the all-faithful Creator (4:19) who cares for his children and wants to bear their anxieties for them (5:7).<\/p>\nJust as in the days of Noah, only a few were saved (cf. 3:1, 20; 4:17), so now only a few were being saved in Peter’s hostile generation, through baptism (3:18-21). Peter defined very carefully in what sense he meant that baptism saves—not by the cleansing function of the water, but rather by the resurrection of Jesus Christ and the pledge of a good conscience toward God (v 21).<\/p>\n<h5>4:1-6<\/h5>\nChristians should live according to the will of God (cf. 1:14; 2:1-2, 11-12, 15). This will mean a break with the behavior of their unbelieving friends and will probably result in being slandered (4:4). But this should not cause believers to avenge themselves, for God will take care of judgment (v 5).<\/p>\nBelievers have this command (v 1): “So then, since Christ suffered physical pain, you must arm yourselves with the same attitude he had, and be ready to suffer, too. For if you are willing to suffer for Christ, you have decided to stop sinning” (nlt<\/span>). Some have taken this to mean that through a process of suffering we are increasingly sanctified; however, if suffering here refers to dying (as the parallel with 3:18 and the “therefore” of 4:1 suggest), then probably verse 1 is to be understood along the lines of Romans 6:6, 10-11.<\/p>\nFirst Peter 4:6 is difficult. Some think it refers to the same preaching referred to in 3:19. Another, perhaps preferable, interpretation is that there is no preaching to the dead here but rather a preaching of the gospel to those who subsequently died. That is, those who heard the gospel, believed, and then died did not hear the gospel in vain. For the purpose of the preaching was that, while from a merely human standpoint these believers have been judged in the flesh (i.e., have died), from the divine standpoint they live in the Spirit. The purpose of verse 6 is thus a great encouragement to live by God’s will, even when former friends scorn the Christian hope by pointing out that even Christians die.<\/p>\n<h5>4:7-11<\/h5>\nActivity among believers in the church is again the theme here. Peter saw contemporary events as the beginning of the end (vv 7, 17). This gave an earnestness to his exhortation that believers keep their minds clear and sober for prayer.<\/p>\nBy steadily drawing upon God in prayer, Christians find the help they need to love each other and to overlook many offensive things (cf. Eph 4:1-3). This love should manifest itself in joyful hospitality, especially important in times of persecution (1 Pt 4:9), and should move believers to use all their varied gifts and talents to build each other up in faith (v 10). Two examples are given: speaking and ministering (the work of the preacher and the work of the deacon). Most important in speaking and ministering is to recognize what the goal of these gifts is and how to reach that goal. The goal is “that in all things God may be praised” (v 11). This may be done by recognizing that he gives the strength for service and the words for edifying speech.<\/p>\n<h5>4:12-19<\/h5>\nHere the situation of suffering and bearing reproach for being Christians is again in view. The prospect of a “painful trial” (v 12) is impending (cf. 1:6-7). Peter saw these sufferings (probably from hostile associates rather than official state persecution) as God’s judgment on the world, beginning with the church (vv 17-18; cf. Prv 11:31). But God’s judgment on the church is not punitive but purgative (1 Pt 4:14; cf. 1:6-7).<\/p>\nPeter gives a reminder that suffering is a normal Christian experience (v 19; cf. 3:14; Acts 14:22; 1 Thes 3:3) and that Christ himself was so mistreated (1 Pt 2:21-25; Mt 10:25). Christians are encouraged to entrust their souls to a faithful Creator (1 Pt 4:19), to rejoice (v 13), and to persevere in doing good (v 19), thereby glorifying God (v 16). When believers respond to suffering in this way, they are blessed (v 14), for God manifests himself to them in an intimate and reassuring way.<\/p>\n<h5>5:1-7<\/h5>\nAgain (as in 3:8; 4:7-11) Peter treats relations within the church. He tells the elders how to be good shepherds of the flock (5:1-4), the younger people how to treat their elders (v 5), and everyone how to be humble toward each other.<\/p>\nPeter reminds believers that God opposes the proud but gives grace to the lowly (v 5; cf. Mt 23:12; Jas 4:6), whom he will exalt in the age to come (1 Pt 5:6; cf. Lk 14:11; 18:14; Jas 4:10). Most important, God invites his people to throw all their anxieties on him because he cares for them (1 Pt 5:7; cf. Ps 55:22; Mt 6:25-30).<\/p>\nThe young people who are thus made humble will be subject to their elders and respect them (1 Pt 5:5). The elders who are thus made humble will not lord it over the flock (v 3) or be greedy or begrudging in their service (v 2), but will lead the flock by a humble example.<\/p>\n<h5>5:8-11<\/h5>\nPeter returns to his concern with suffering. Suffering is the universal lot of believers (v 9; cf. 4:12). Although in one sense willed by God (1:6; 3:17; 4:19), it is used by Satan to try to destroy their faith. So Peter appeals to the church to be wakeful and sober (5:8; cf. 1:13; 4:7) so that they can resist the lion by faith.<\/p>\n<h5>5:12-14<\/h5>\nIn conclusion, Peter describes his “brief” writing as an exhortation and a testimony concerning the true grace of God. So the letter is not a call for hard labor for God; rather, it is a call to recognize, enjoy, and live by the hard labor that God graciously has exerted and will exert for his children. As was noted above, the letter was written by Silas (Greek Silvanus<\/span>,<\/em> probably the same person as in Acts 16:25; 1 Thes 1:1; 2 Thes 1:1). It was written from Rome, and greetings were sent from Mark (probably the Gospel writer and former missionary companion of Paul—Acts 13:13; 15:37; 2 Tm 4:11) and the whole church. Peter’s last word is to invoke peace upon the churches and to urge them to keep the affection warm among themselves.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Suffering; Peter, the Apostle; Spirits in Prison.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PETER, First Letter of<\/span><\/h3>\nFirst of two general epistles authored by Peter.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Destination, Origin, Date<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nThe author says he is the apostle Peter (1 Pt 1:1), a witness of Christ’s sufferings (5:1)—thus one of the original apostles chosen by Jesus (Mk 3:14-19) as an authoritative spokesman. Also known as Simon and Cephas, Peter probably saw and felt Jesus’ last hours of suffering more keenly than any of the other apostles (14:54) because he had denied Jesus three times (vv 66-72). In 1 Peter the sufferings of Jesus are mentioned at least four times (1 Pt 1:11; 2:23; 4:1; 5:1).<\/p>\nPeter was known as the apostle to the Jews, just as Paul was the apostle to the Gentiles (Gal 2:7). Since Peter was a traveling missionary (1 Cor 1:12; 9:5), he could have actually visited the Asia Minor churches to whom this letter was sent.<\/p>\nThat Peter had been with Jesus during his earthly ministry may help account for the strong influence of Jesus’ teaching in 1 Peter. Except for James, 1 Peter probably echoes more of Jesus’ words than any other NT letter. The chart below presents similarities between Peter’s words and Jesus’ words in the Gospels:<\/p>\n\nSome scholars think the Greek of this letter is too good to have been written by a former fisherman whose native language was Aramaic; that the doctrine is too much like Paul’s to have been written by an apostle whose position was different from Paul’s; and that someone wrote the letter after Peter’s death and used his name to give apostolic weight to it.<\/p>\nOther scholars answer that if the author wanted to give authority to a letter whose teaching resembles Paul’s, he would have used Paul’s name, not Peter’s; that most Galileans probably learned Greek as well as Aramaic early in life; and that there is no evidence that the teaching of Peter and Paul fundamentally differed. When Paul rebuked Peter (Gal 2:11-14), it was due to a temporary lapse in conduct, not a basic disagreement in teaching. Besides, some key doctrines of Paul are missing from 1 Peter (e.g., justification), and those similar to Paul’s were the common possession of all the early churches. We may reasonably conclude that the apostle Peter authored this letter. However, it seems quite clear that Silas (otherwise know as Silvanus) helped Peter write this epistle (1 Pt 5:12), which means (1) he functioned as an amanuensis (secretary) for Peter, (2) he translated Peter’s letter (from Aramaic to Greek) as Peter dictated it, or (3) he composed a letter based on Peter’s thoughts.<\/p>\nDestination, Origin, Date<\/p>\nThe people to whom 1 Peter is addressed lived in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia. These Roman provinces covered all but the southernmost part of Asia Minor, the bulk of modern Turkey.<\/p>\nChristianity may have been brought back by pilgrim Jews converted in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost (cf. Acts 2:9). More likely, these churches included some founded by Paul on his first and second missionary journeys, and others by unknown missionaries. Peter does not explicitly include himself among “those who preached to you” (1 Pt 1:12).<\/p>\nWhether the readers were Christian Jews or converted pagan Gentiles is not known. First Peter 1:1 reads: “to God’s chosen people who are living as foreigners in the lands of Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, the province of Asia, and Bithynia” (nlt<\/span>). That the readers are in some sense exiles is confirmed by 1:17 and 2:11. These verses could refer to a literal exile of Jews outside of Palestine or to a spiritual exile of all believers on earth because their true home is in heaven. No one denies that there was (and is) a literal Jewish dispersion (Diaspora). Peter, viewing the church as the true Israel (cf. Rom 2:29; Gal 6:16; Phil 3:3), may simply have transferred the language of exile from the nation Israel onto the church. The phrase used by Peter in 1 Peter 2:11 is almost identical to the one in Hebrews 11:13 (cf. Gn 23:4; Ps 39:12).<\/p>\nAgainst the view that construes the dispersion of 1 Peter 1:1 as Christians (Jew and Gentile), rather than Jews only, one may argue that Peter was specifically the apostle to the Jews (Gal 2:7) and that the use of so much OT in 1 Peter demands a Jewish readership. But there is evidence that Peter did not restrict his ministry to Jews (1 Cor 1:12; Gal 2:12), and the use of the OT is not surprising even if the readers were not Jews, because so many Gentile God-fearers (like Cornelius, Acts 10:2) were familiar with the OT.<\/p>\nWhether the readers were Jews or mainly Gentiles is decided by several texts that reflect the pagan background of the readers. Peter says in 1 Peter 2:10 that his readers were once “not a people,” a reference to Hosea 2:23 (cf. Rom 9:25). Then in 1 Peter 4:3 Peter describes their past “immorality and lust, their feasting and drunkenness and wild parties, and their terrible worship of idols” (nlt<\/span>). This does not describe unbelieving Jews, whose problem was not gross immorality but hypocrisy and legalism. Thus the recipients of this letter must have included many Gentile Christians in Asia Minor, characterized as aliens and strangers in the world.<\/p>\nMost scholars think 1 Peter was written from Rome. The clue is found in 5:13: “She who is in Babylon, chosen together with you, sends you her greetings” (niv<\/span>). Babylon (which had come to symbolize a big, powerful, evil city) was substituted as a kind of code name for Rome in much early Christian literature (e.g., Rv 14:8; 16:19; 17:5; 18:2, 10, 21; cf. Sibyllene 5:143, 159).<\/p>\nThe date of 1 Peter is probably AD<\/span> 64 or 65 (see next section).<\/p>\n\nBackground<\/p>\nWhile other NT writings refer now and then to Christian suffering, 1 Peter is preoccupied with it. How Christians should conduct themselves when abused is often discussed (1 Pt 1:3-7; 2:12, 20-23; 3:13-17; 4:12-19; 5:9-10). Official state persecution cannot be clearly affirmed; abuses seem to be the common lot of all Christians everywhere (5:9). Cruel masters may sometimes abuse their Christian servants (2:18-20); Christian wives may have to endure harsh, unbelieving husbands (3:1-6); and in general, people are on the lookout to revile Christians as wrongdoers (2:12; 3:9, 16; 4:15-16).<\/p>\nEven though no official state persecution is in view, the letter apparently indicates that there is something worse on the horizon (4:12-19). Peter seems to sense that the present tension between believers and their society could flare into something much worse.<\/p>\nEarly church tradition says that Peter was crucified in Rome during Nero’s persecution, and there is no good reason to doubt it. Moreover, since 1 Peter was written from Rome, and since 4:12 and 17 imply an impending crisis like the one that struck the Christians in Rome in AD<\/span> 65, we may suppose that this letter was written not long before Nero began to oppress the Christians in Rome. According to the historian Tacitus, Nero blamed the Christians for burning Rome, in order to squelch the rumor that he himself had done it (so that he could build a greater city). His relentless persecution of Christians had not yet broken out when 1 Peter was written (cf. 2:14; 3:13), but Peter may have seen it coming and may have wanted to prepare the churches outside Rome, should the holocaust reach them, too. Nero’s persecution apparently did not affect the Christians in the provinces outside Rome, but that does not diminish the value of Peter’s letter, because mostly it deals with how Christians should relate to their society and how they should respond when abuse and suffering come.<\/p>\nIf this is a correct picture of the background of 1 Peter, its date would be the early to mid 60s, since the fire of Rome broke out on July 19, AD<\/span> 64, and the persecution occurred later that year or in the spring of 65.<\/p>\nPurpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\nThe main purpose of 1 Peter is to exhort Christians to conduct themselves properly among the community of believers (3:8; 5:1-7), but especially in non-Christian society (2:12), testifying clearly to their hope in Christ (3:1, 15) for God’s glory. The letter aims to help Christians understand and endure the abuses that often come from relationships with non-Christians (1:6-7; 2:12, 18-25; 3:9, 14-17; 4:1-5, 12-19; 5:8-10).<\/p>\nPeter’s exhortation is based on the good news of God’s salvation through the death, resurrection, and second coming of Christ. God is merciful (1:3; 2:10), “the God of all grace” (4:10; 5:12), and there is hope in grace’s ultimate display at Christ’s coming (1:13). God foreknew and determined (1:2, 20; 2:8) a plan of redemption by which to create a holy people for his own possession (2:9-10). Accordingly, Christ was sent into the world to accomplish this redemption for the sake of God’s elect (1:20). Although he was “chosen and precious” to God, he was “rejected by men” (2:4) who did not believe him (v 7). But his sufferings (1:11; 4:1, 13; 5:1) were not a meaningless tragedy; they were for the sake of his people (2:21, 24; 3:18), to redeem them with his precious blood from their empty way of life (1:18-19).<\/p>\nPut to death in the flesh, he was “made alive by the Spirit” (3:18), raised from the dead and glorified (1:21; 2:7), and holds the place of authority at God’s right hand (3:22). Further still, we must try to explain the link between the good news of God’s saving activity and our good conduct. The good news must be proclaimed if it is to change anybody’s life. This proclamation happens in the power of God’s Holy Spirit (1:12). It is not merely a “newscast” but is “the living and abiding word of God” (1:23; cf. 4:11), by which God calls his people into being and summons them “out of darkness and into his wonderful light” (2:9; cf. 1:15), “to his eternal glory in Christ” (5:10). This change is described in 1 Peter as a “new birth” (1:3, 23); what distinguishes a newborn person is the “living hope” that he has in Christ (1:3, 13).<\/p>\nThis hope, grounded in Christ’s resurrection and his sure return, transforms behavior (1:13-15). No longer will we have to seek satisfaction and fulfillment in harmful, unloving ways, but rather by entrusting our souls to a faithful Creator (4:19; 5:7), we can endure unjust suffering patiently (2:20), not return evil for evil (3:9), and seek to extend the mercy of God to others in doing good (2:12, 15; 3:11, 16; 4:19).<\/p>\nLively Christian hope does not lead us out<\/em> of non-Christian society but rather changes our behavior in<\/em> it. Christians are addressed as citizens of the state (2:13-17), as slaves of cruel masters (vv 18-25), and as wives of unbelieving husbands (3:1-6). By living as new and hopeful persons in<\/em> the institutions of society, others see our good deeds and give glory to our Father in heaven (2:12; cf. Mt 5:16).<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>1:1–2<\/h5>\nThis section describes God’s election of his people, which is often translated using three prepositional phrases.<\/p>\nFirst, it is “according to the foreknowledge of God” (niv<\/span>). This means more than God’s knowing ahead of time whom he would elect. As in 1:20, foreknowledge probably also includes God’s purpose (cf. Am 3:2; Acts 2:23; Rom 8:28-30; 11:2; 1 Cor 8:3; Gal 4:9).<\/p>\nSecond, the election is “by the sanctifying work of the Spirit” (nasb<\/span>). Election involves the Spirit’s effectual work in making a person obedient to the gospel (see Rom 1:5). In Ephesians 1:4 election is described as “before the foundation of the world” (kjv<\/span>).<\/p>\nThird, our election is “for obedience to Jesus Christ and for sprinkling with his blood” (rsv<\/span>). The latter probably refers to the moral effect of Christ’s death in purifying our conscience and our behavior as we trust in him (see Heb 9:13-14).<\/p>\nThus, the elect people of God have their origin in the eternal, purposed foreknowledge of God; owe their call and conversion to the work of the Holy Spirit; and have as their goal in life obedience to God (cf. 1 Pt 1:14).<\/p>\n<h5>1:3-12<\/h5>\nThis section describes how tremendously valuable salvation is—a vast inheritance, absolutely perfect, never diminishing in beauty or worth (v 4), the goal of our faith (v 9), the basis of inexpressible joy (vv 6-8). Searched into and desired by the holy prophets of old, it is so amazing that even angels desire to peer into it (vv 10-12).<\/p>\nIt originates in the great mercy of God and was made available to people through the resurrection of Jesus from the dead (v 3). Even though a future<\/em> inheritance is ready to be revealed in the last time (v 5), it offers many present<\/em> spiritual benefits for those who trust in Christ. One of them is the promise of God’s present power to cause the believer to persevere in faith (v 5). This does not mean Christians escape hardship; it may be necessary that they suffer (v 6). If so, they should not grumble but see suffering as a refining fire for their good, because it burns away false dependencies and leaves only the pure gold of genuine faith (v 7). So suffering may be an important preparation for the full experience of salvation, since it is faith alone that will be blessed in the end.<\/p>\nFaith is not the same as sight, for believers have never seen Jesus, yet they trust him and love him (v 8). There are good grounds for hope (3:15), founded mainly on the resurrection of Jesus (1:3)—a real historical event.<\/p>\n<h5>1:13-25<\/h5>\nPeter now gives a command: hope fully in the grace coming to you at the revelation of Christ (v 13), and lead a new life of obedience to God (vv 14-15). Hope is an intense desire for something and a confidence that it will come. So Peter was commanding the churches to desire<\/em> Christ strongly and be assured of his glory and his coming. Thus, believers must use their minds and keep clearheaded (sober) about what is truly valuable in life (v 13). Full hope in Christ always results in holiness of life. If we delight in being God’s children (v 14), we will surely imitate our Father (vv 15-16; cf. Lv 19:2).<\/p>\nBut there is another motivation for good conduct: fear of God, who judges each person according to his or her works (1 Pt 1:17). While Peter motivates with fear, he also assures us that we have been redeemed from our futile conduct with the precious blood of Christ (vv 18-19). We are saved by faith, not by good works. Probably Peter means us to fear God’s displeasure with unbelief. When the letter says he will judge our works, it probably means that he will look for evidences of obedient, loving conduct, which is the sure sign of hope and faith. If we are lacking in this, fear of his judgment should drive us back to God’s mercy, where we can have peace and joy, which in turn lead to love.<\/p>\nThis love is commanded toward believers in verse 22. Hope is not mentioned in verses 22-25, but it is implied when Peter says we are born anew through the abiding<\/em> Word of God. Since “the word of the Lord abides forever” (v 25 = Is 40:6-8), those whose life depends on it will abide forever.<\/p>\n<h5>2:1-10<\/h5>\nThis passage is filled with OT quotations and imagery, as shown in the following chart:<\/p>\n\nVerses 9 and 10 indicate that Peter considered the Christian church a new Israel. He probably saw the experience of the church in the world as that of an exile<\/em> like the Jews in Babylonian exile (1:1, 17; 2:11), and considered conversion as a kind of exodus<\/em> out of the darkness of an old futile life into God’s light, like the Jewish exodus out of Egypt.<\/p>\nVerses 6-8 show that Jesus is a precious jewel for some but a stumbling stone for unbelievers. Behind that stands God’s inscrutable predestination (v 8). Those who trust him are chosen (v 9; cf. 1:1) as a royal priesthood (see below on 2:5), as a nation having God’s own holy character (cf. 1:14-15), and as a people cherished as God’s special possession. All of this is not due to our merit but to God’s mercy (v 10).<\/p>\nVerses 1-3 are again a command—to desire the kindness of Christ that we have tasted through the milk of the Word and so to grow stronger in faith or to hope fully in the grace of Christ.<\/p>\nVerses 4-5 portray a complex, mixed metaphor that pictures Christ as a living stone and the church both as a spiritual house of stones and as a priesthood. The church is, on the one hand, a dwelling place for God (cf. 1 Cor 3:16; Eph 2:21-22), and on the other, a group of ministers in that dwelling who offer God the sacrifices of obedience (cf. Rom 12:1-2).<\/p>\n<h5>2:11-12<\/h5>\nThis is the central concern of the letter. Since Christians are exiles in this world, they must not share the same desires as unbelievers. Such fleshly desires are ephemeral and destroy the soul that follows them. Instead, God’s new people should devote themselves to good deeds, even though people may slander them, for this will ultimately cause people to glorify God. The sequence, again, is changed desires, changed behavior, God glorified (cf. Mt 5:16).<\/p>\n<h5>2:13-17<\/h5>\nChristians should show proper respect to everyone (vv 13-14). That Christ died for sinners is a very humbling truth that forbids Christians to be arrogant or to think that they do not owe others love (cf. Rom 13:8-10). Rather, they are adjured to count others better than themselves (Mk 10:44; Phil 2:3).<\/p>\nPeter declares, then, that believers should be subject to the king and to the civil authorities under him. They should positively devote themselves to doing good so that those who say Christianity makes no difference in life will be silenced.<\/p>\nHowever, subjection to the state is not absolute, for Christians are first and foremost slaves of God. It is out of freedom that they acknowledge the propriety of a God-ordained state to preserve orderly life. Because Christians serve God first, and the king is merely God’s creature, subjection to him is a subjection for the Lord’s sake, not the king’s sake.<\/p>\n<h5>2:18-25<\/h5>\nChristian slaves have consciences oriented toward and shaped by God (v 19). They also have experienced his grace and are here told to rely on it by enduring unjust suffering patiently. They are not to strike back: they were called to live this way because Jesus suffered for them<\/em> and because he suffered as an example.<\/em> Verses 21-23 describe the example. Verses 24-25 describe Christ’s redemption and its effects. That is, Jesus not only modeled the life of nonretaliation but also enabled his followers to live this way by dying for<\/em> them that they might live for righteousness (v 24). Only when Christians are secure and content in the hope Christ achieved for them<\/em> can they have the freedom and inclination to follow his costly example. When believers are tempted to take vengeance into their own hands, they should recall that even Jesus entrusted himself to God, who judges justly (v 23; cf. Rom 12:19-20).<\/p>\n<h5>3:1-7<\/h5>\nHere are six verses for wives and one for husbands. How shall a believing wife win her unbelieving husband (v 1)? Peter warns against preoccupation with making the body more attractive (v 3). Instead, he stresses the adornment of the heart with a meek and tranquil spirit (v 4), accompanied by pure, loving conduct (v 2), which may win the husband “without talk” (v 1). This is not a call to mindless subservience but to poise, to free and confident service in love. The wife is not to be afraid even of an abusive husband (v 6). But how? By following Sarah’s example of hoping<\/em> in God (v 5). So it is again said that hope transforms life and enables believers to be subject to others. The wife is bound first to the Lord and only secondarily to her husband. Like the slave, the Christian wife will use her God-oriented conscience (2:16) to decide when, for Christ’s sake, she cannot follow the lead of her husband.<\/p>\nHusbands are admonished in verse 7 to bring their relationships to their wives into conformity with natural and revealed truth. The natural<\/em> truth is that women are physically weaker. This does not mean that they are inferior mentally or emotionally. It is a simple statement of observed fact: women’s bodies are not as strong as men’s. In a culture without all kinds of automatic devices, physical strength was much more crucial for survival and comfort than it is today. So the man is urged to use his superior strength for the sake of his wife. The revealed<\/em> truth is that the wife is an “equal partner in God’s gift of new life,” to be honored and respected.<\/p>\n<h5>3:8-12<\/h5>\nThis concludes the section 2:13–3:12 and admonishes the whole church first to love the brotherhood (3:8) and then to love the hostile outsider (vv 9-12). Verse 9 recalls Jesus’ behavior and his commands (Lk 6:27-36). Not only are Christians to endure abuse patiently (1 Pt 2:19-20), they are also to react positively and “bless” those who revile them (3:9). To bless means to wish them well and turn the wish into a prayer. Believers’ real desire for their enemies is that they be converted and come to share in the blessing that the Christian will inherit (vv 1, 9). Psalm 34:12-16 is brought in to support the logic of verse 9. If Christians want to inherit the blessing of salvation (1:4-5; 3:9), they must bless those who revile them. This does not mean they earn<\/em> their salvation but that salvation is the goal of faith (1:9), and true faith always makes a person loving.<\/p>\n<h5>3:13-17<\/h5>\nGenerally speaking, when Christians do good, they will not be harmed for it (v 13). Nevertheless, it may be God’s will that Christians suffer for doing good (v 17) and that is far better than suffering for doing evil. It is better not only because they ought never do evil but also because they are “blessed” when they suffer for righteousness’ sake (v 14; cf. 4:14; Mt 5:10-12). So instead of being afraid of people, believers should fear displeasing Christ and be at peace in his faithfulness (cf. 1 Pt 3:14-15 with Is 8:12-13). Thus, their consciences will be clear and believers will be freed so that when they explain the reason for their hope, even their demeanor will bear witness to its truth (cf. 1 Pt 3:15 with 1:3). The Christians’ abusers may be put to shame (v 16) and be won over (3:1) and give glory to God (2:12).<\/p>\n<h5>3:18-22<\/h5>\nSimilar to 2:21-25 and 1:18-21, this unit affirms Peter’s call for patient suffering. Since Christ died once for all for mankind’s sins and thus freed everyone from guilt and opened a way into the fellowship of the merciful God, believers should be able to bear unjust suffering meekly. Refusing to bear undeserved suffering would be a mark of unbelief in the all-faithful Creator (4:19) who cares for his children and wants to bear their anxieties for them (5:7).<\/p>\nJust as in the days of Noah, only a few were saved (cf. 3:1, 20; 4:17), so now only a few were being saved in Peter’s hostile generation, through baptism (3:18-21). Peter defined very carefully in what sense he meant that baptism saves—not by the cleansing function of the water, but rather by the resurrection of Jesus Christ and the pledge of a good conscience toward God (v 21).<\/p>\n<h5>4:1-6<\/h5>\nChristians should live according to the will of God (cf. 1:14; 2:1-2, 11-12, 15). This will mean a break with the behavior of their unbelieving friends and will probably result in being slandered (4:4). But this should not cause believers to avenge themselves, for God will take care of judgment (v 5).<\/p>\nBelievers have this command (v 1): “So then, since Christ suffered physical pain, you must arm yourselves with the same attitude he had, and be ready to suffer, too. For if you are willing to suffer for Christ, you have decided to stop sinning” (nlt<\/span>). Some have taken this to mean that through a process of suffering we are increasingly sanctified; however, if suffering here refers to dying (as the parallel with 3:18 and the “therefore” of 4:1 suggest), then probably verse 1 is to be understood along the lines of Romans 6:6, 10-11.<\/p>\nFirst Peter 4:6 is difficult. Some think it refers to the same preaching referred to in 3:19. Another, perhaps preferable, interpretation is that there is no preaching to the dead here but rather a preaching of the gospel to those who subsequently died. That is, those who heard the gospel, believed, and then died did not hear the gospel in vain. For the purpose of the preaching was that, while from a merely human standpoint these believers have been judged in the flesh (i.e., have died), from the divine standpoint they live in the Spirit. The purpose of verse 6 is thus a great encouragement to live by God’s will, even when former friends scorn the Christian hope by pointing out that even Christians die.<\/p>\n<h5>4:7-11<\/h5>\nActivity among believers in the church is again the theme here. Peter saw contemporary events as the beginning of the end (vv 7, 17). This gave an earnestness to his exhortation that believers keep their minds clear and sober for prayer.<\/p>\nBy steadily drawing upon God in prayer, Christians find the help they need to love each other and to overlook many offensive things (cf. Eph 4:1-3). This love should manifest itself in joyful hospitality, especially important in times of persecution (1 Pt 4:9), and should move believers to use all their varied gifts and talents to build each other up in faith (v 10). Two examples are given: speaking and ministering (the work of the preacher and the work of the deacon). Most important in speaking and ministering is to recognize what the goal of these gifts is and how to reach that goal. The goal is “that in all things God may be praised” (v 11). This may be done by recognizing that he gives the strength for service and the words for edifying speech.<\/p>\n<h5>4:12-19<\/h5>\nHere the situation of suffering and bearing reproach for being Christians is again in view. The prospect of a “painful trial” (v 12) is impending (cf. 1:6-7). Peter saw these sufferings (probably from hostile associates rather than official state persecution) as God’s judgment on the world, beginning with the church (vv 17-18; cf. Prv 11:31). But God’s judgment on the church is not punitive but purgative (1 Pt 4:14; cf. 1:6-7).<\/p>\nPeter gives a reminder that suffering is a normal Christian experience (v 19; cf. 3:14; Acts 14:22; 1 Thes 3:3) and that Christ himself was so mistreated (1 Pt 2:21-25; Mt 10:25). Christians are encouraged to entrust their souls to a faithful Creator (1 Pt 4:19), to rejoice (v 13), and to persevere in doing good (v 19), thereby glorifying God (v 16). When believers respond to suffering in this way, they are blessed (v 14), for God manifests himself to them in an intimate and reassuring way.<\/p>\n<h5>5:1-7<\/h5>\nAgain (as in 3:8; 4:7-11) Peter treats relations within the church. He tells the elders how to be good shepherds of the flock (5:1-4), the younger people how to treat their elders (v 5), and everyone how to be humble toward each other.<\/p>\nPeter reminds believers that God opposes the proud but gives grace to the lowly (v 5; cf. Mt 23:12; Jas 4:6), whom he will exalt in the age to come (1 Pt 5:6; cf. Lk 14:11; 18:14; Jas 4:10). Most important, God invites his people to throw all their anxieties on him because he cares for them (1 Pt 5:7; cf. Ps 55:22; Mt 6:25-30).<\/p>\nThe young people who are thus made humble will be subject to their elders and respect them (1 Pt 5:5). The elders who are thus made humble will not lord it over the flock (v 3) or be greedy or begrudging in their service (v 2), but will lead the flock by a humble example.<\/p>\n<h5>5:8-11<\/h5>\nPeter returns to his concern with suffering. Suffering is the universal lot of believers (v 9; cf. 4:12). Although in one sense willed by God (1:6; 3:17; 4:19), it is used by Satan to try to destroy their faith. So Peter appeals to the church to be wakeful and sober (5:8; cf. 1:13; 4:7) so that they can resist the lion by faith.<\/p>\n<h5>5:12-14<\/h5>\nIn conclusion, Peter describes his “brief” writing as an exhortation and a testimony concerning the true grace of God. So the letter is not a call for hard labor for God; rather, it is a call to recognize, enjoy, and live by the hard labor that God graciously has exerted and will exert for his children. As was noted above, the letter was written by Silas (Greek Silvanus<\/span>,<\/em> probably the same person as in Acts 16:25; 1 Thes 1:1; 2 Thes 1:1). It was written from Rome, and greetings were sent from Mark (probably the Gospel writer and former missionary companion of Paul—Acts 13:13; 15:37; 2 Tm 4:11) and the whole church. Peter’s last word is to invoke peace upon the churches and to urge them to keep the affection warm among themselves.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Suffering; Peter, the Apostle; Spirits in Prison.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PETER, First Letter of First of two general epistles authored by Peter. Preview • Author • Destination, Origin, Date • Background • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author The author says he is the apostle Peter (1 Pt 1:1), a witness of Christ’s sufferings (5:1)—thus one of the original apostles chosen by Jesus (Mk 3:14-19) as an authoritative spokesman. Also known as Simon and Cephas, Peter probably saw and felt Jesus’ last hours of suffering more keenly than any of the other apost...","summary_en":"PETER, First Letter of First of two general epistles authored by Peter. Preview • Author • Destination, Origin, Date • Background • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author The author says he is the apostle Peter (1 Pt 1:1), a witness of Christ’s sufferings (5:1)—thus one of the original apostles chosen by Jesus (Mk 3:14-19) as an authoritative spokesman. Also known as Simon and Cephas, Peter probably saw and felt Jesus’ last hours of suffering more keenly than any of the other apost...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":58259,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:3","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:3","content_ro":"3:3<\/strong> Circumcision was understood as identifying the true people of God (see Gen 17:10-14), but those who put their trust in Christ are the ones who are truly circumcised<\/em> in heart (see Rom 2:28-29; cp. Jer 4:4; Eph 2:11; Col 2:11-13).<\/p>","content_en":"3:3<\/strong> Circumcision was understood as identifying the true people of God (see Gen 17:10-14), but those who put their trust in Christ are the ones who are truly circumcised<\/em> in heart (see Rom 2:28-29; cp. Jer 4:4; Eph 2:11; Col 2:11-13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:3 Circumcision was understood as identifying the true people of God (see Gen 17:10-14), but those who put their trust in Christ are the ones who are truly circumcised in heart (see Rom 2:28-29; cp. Jer 4:4; Eph 2:11; Col 2:11-13).","summary_en":"3:3 Circumcision was understood as identifying the true people of God (see Gen 17:10-14), but those who put their trust in Christ are the ones who are truly circumcised in heart (see Rom 2:28-29; cp. Jer 4:4; Eph 2:11; Col 2:11-13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85885,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:3","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:3","content_ro":"3:3<\/strong> Circumcision was understood as identifying the true people of God (see Gen 17:10-14), but those who put their trust in Christ are the ones who are truly circumcised<\/em> in heart (see Rom 2:28-29; cp. Jer 4:4; Eph 2:11; Col 2:11-13).<\/p>","content_en":"3:3<\/strong> Circumcision was understood as identifying the true people of God (see Gen 17:10-14), but those who put their trust in Christ are the ones who are truly circumcised<\/em> in heart (see Rom 2:28-29; cp. Jer 4:4; Eph 2:11; Col 2:11-13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:3 Circumcision was understood as identifying the true people of God (see Gen 17:10-14), but those who put their trust in Christ are the ones who are truly circumcised in heart (see Rom 2:28-29; cp. Jer 4:4; Eph 2:11; Col 2:11-13).","summary_en":"3:3 Circumcision was understood as identifying the true people of God (see Gen 17:10-14), but those who put their trust in Christ are the ones who are truly circumcised in heart (see Rom 2:28-29; cp. Jer 4:4; Eph 2:11; Col 2:11-13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113511,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:3","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:3","content_ro":"3:3<\/strong> Circumcision was understood as identifying the true people of God (see Gen 17:10-14), but those who put their trust in Christ are the ones who are truly circumcised<\/em> in heart (see Rom 2:28-29; cp. Jer 4:4; Eph 2:11; Col 2:11-13).<\/p>","content_en":"3:3<\/strong> Circumcision was understood as identifying the true people of God (see Gen 17:10-14), but those who put their trust in Christ are the ones who are truly circumcised<\/em> in heart (see Rom 2:28-29; cp. Jer 4:4; Eph 2:11; Col 2:11-13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:3 Circumcision was understood as identifying the true people of God (see Gen 17:10-14), but those who put their trust in Christ are the ones who are truly circumcised in heart (see Rom 2:28-29; cp. Jer 4:4; Eph 2:11; Col 2:11-13).","summary_en":"3:3 Circumcision was understood as identifying the true people of God (see Gen 17:10-14), but those who put their trust in Christ are the ones who are truly circumcised in heart (see Rom 2:28-29; cp. Jer 4:4; Eph 2:11; Col 2:11-13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141137,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:3","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:3","content_ro":"3:3<\/strong> Circumcision was understood as identifying the true people of God (see Gen 17:10-14), but those who put their trust in Christ are the ones who are truly circumcised<\/em> in heart (see Rom 2:28-29; cp. Jer 4:4; Eph 2:11; Col 2:11-13).<\/p>","content_en":"3:3<\/strong> Circumcision was understood as identifying the true people of God (see Gen 17:10-14), but those who put their trust in Christ are the ones who are truly circumcised<\/em> in heart (see Rom 2:28-29; cp. Jer 4:4; Eph 2:11; Col 2:11-13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:3 Circumcision was understood as identifying the true people of God (see Gen 17:10-14), but those who put their trust in Christ are the ones who are truly circumcised in heart (see Rom 2:28-29; cp. Jer 4:4; Eph 2:11; Col 2:11-13).","summary_en":"3:3 Circumcision was understood as identifying the true people of God (see Gen 17:10-14), but those who put their trust in Christ are the ones who are truly circumcised in heart (see Rom 2:28-29; cp. Jer 4:4; Eph 2:11; Col 2:11-13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":61569,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Pure Worship","title_en":"Pure Worship","content_ro":"<h3>Pure Worship<\/h3>\nFrom the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship.<\/p>\nWhen Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord<\/span>” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper manner and dedicating the Temple to the Lord (8:1-11; see Deut 16:13-17). In all of this, Solomon kept the requirements laid down in the law (see, e.g., Exod 25:10-22), which were intended to keep Israel’s worship purely focused on the Lord and his word.<\/p>\nUnfortunately, people tend to worship according to their own inclinations rather than according to God’s instructions, and Israel was no different. In his later years, Solomon turned away from the Lord to other gods (1 Kgs 11:4-8). After Solomon’s death, Jeroboam established a competing, idolatrous religion in the northern kingdom, in clear violation of God’s law (14:9-10, 15-16). False worship characterized the northern kingdom throughout its history (e.g., 15:26; 16:13, 25-26, 30-33; 21:25-26). Meanwhile, in Judah, the southern kingdom, tolerance for local pagan altars became a persistent spiritual distraction (15:14; 22:43). Neither Judah nor Israel remained pure in their worship of the Lord.<\/p>\nThere is one God, and God’s people must worship only him (1 Kgs 8:23; see Deut 5:7, 9; 6:4; John 14:6; Acts 4:12). Our worship must come from a pure heart; we must remain completely faithful to the Lord in dedicated service to him (1 Kgs 15:14; 17:1; see Deut 10:12, 20; Ps 24:3-4; Matt 4:10; John 4:24). Our daily and weekly worship of God should have a sense of God’s presence, which will be a source of genuine joy (1 Kgs 8:56; cp. Ps 63:1-3; Phil 4:4). Just as Israel’s Temple was a sanctuary intended to attract all people (1 Kgs 8:41-43), believers, who are the temple of the living God (1 Cor 3:16-17), are to live so as to attract and motivate others to desire to know the Lord and worship him (Matt 5:16; Acts 2:40-47; 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 2:12). Our whole lives should include daily worship of Christ, acknowledging him as Lord (1 Pet 3:15). And we must not let any idol take God’s place in our hearts (1 Jn 5:21).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:20; Exod 4:31; 25:10-22; Lev 1:1–8:36; Deut 5:7-9; 6:4-9; 10:12, 20; 16:13-17; 26:1-15; 1 Kgs 5:3-5; Pss 24:3-6; 51:1-19; Hos 6:6; 14:1-2; Mic 6:6-8; Matt 4:10; 5:16; 6:1-18; John 4:19-24; 5:23; 14:6; Acts 2:40-47; Rom 12:1-2; 1 Cor 3:16-17; 14:1-40; Phil 3:3; Heb 10:1-25; 1 Pet 3:15; 1 Jn 5:21; Rev 5:9-13; 15:3<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Pure Worship<\/h3>\nFrom the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship.<\/p>\nWhen Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord<\/span>” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper manner and dedicating the Temple to the Lord (8:1-11; see Deut 16:13-17). In all of this, Solomon kept the requirements laid down in the law (see, e.g., Exod 25:10-22), which were intended to keep Israel’s worship purely focused on the Lord and his word.<\/p>\nUnfortunately, people tend to worship according to their own inclinations rather than according to God’s instructions, and Israel was no different. In his later years, Solomon turned away from the Lord to other gods (1 Kgs 11:4-8). After Solomon’s death, Jeroboam established a competing, idolatrous religion in the northern kingdom, in clear violation of God’s law (14:9-10, 15-16). False worship characterized the northern kingdom throughout its history (e.g., 15:26; 16:13, 25-26, 30-33; 21:25-26). Meanwhile, in Judah, the southern kingdom, tolerance for local pagan altars became a persistent spiritual distraction (15:14; 22:43). Neither Judah nor Israel remained pure in their worship of the Lord.<\/p>\nThere is one God, and God’s people must worship only him (1 Kgs 8:23; see Deut 5:7, 9; 6:4; John 14:6; Acts 4:12). Our worship must come from a pure heart; we must remain completely faithful to the Lord in dedicated service to him (1 Kgs 15:14; 17:1; see Deut 10:12, 20; Ps 24:3-4; Matt 4:10; John 4:24). Our daily and weekly worship of God should have a sense of God’s presence, which will be a source of genuine joy (1 Kgs 8:56; cp. Ps 63:1-3; Phil 4:4). Just as Israel’s Temple was a sanctuary intended to attract all people (1 Kgs 8:41-43), believers, who are the temple of the living God (1 Cor 3:16-17), are to live so as to attract and motivate others to desire to know the Lord and worship him (Matt 5:16; Acts 2:40-47; 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 2:12). Our whole lives should include daily worship of Christ, acknowledging him as Lord (1 Pet 3:15). And we must not let any idol take God’s place in our hearts (1 Jn 5:21).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:20; Exod 4:31; 25:10-22; Lev 1:1–8:36; Deut 5:7-9; 6:4-9; 10:12, 20; 16:13-17; 26:1-15; 1 Kgs 5:3-5; Pss 24:3-6; 51:1-19; Hos 6:6; 14:1-2; Mic 6:6-8; Matt 4:10; 5:16; 6:1-18; John 4:19-24; 5:23; 14:6; Acts 2:40-47; Rom 12:1-2; 1 Cor 3:16-17; 14:1-40; Phil 3:3; Heb 10:1-25; 1 Pet 3:15; 1 Jn 5:21; Rev 5:9-13; 15:3<\/p>","summary_ro":"Pure Worship From the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship. When Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper mann...","summary_en":"Pure Worship From the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship. When Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper mann...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66209,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Baptism","title_en":"Baptism","content_ro":"<h3>Baptism<\/h3>\nBaptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of their Gentile background. This ritual cleansing was often done in special baths created for purification, called mikvahs. Mikvahs were located at many synagogues, and the Temple in Jerusalem had a large number of mikvahs, which suggests that those who approached for worship would ritually bathe.<\/p>\nJohn preached “that people should be baptized to show that they had repented of their sins and turned to God to be forgiven” (Luke 3:3). John’s baptism was an aspect of his role in preparing people’s hearts to receive the Messiah (Luke 3:4-6), and those who had received his baptism and repented of their sins were those who were prepared for Jesus’ message (Luke 7:29-30).<\/p>\nAfter his resurrection, Jesus commanded his disciples to baptize new converts (Matt 28:19). Christian baptism is understood as dying and rising with Christ, signifying the death of the old life and the beginning of the new (Rom 6:1-4; Col 2:12) and also signifying a Christian’s spiritual union with Christ (Gal 3:27) and with his church. Baptism thus became the rite of initiation in the Christian community. For this reason, many interpreters see baptism as the Christian equivalent of circumcision, the rite that initiated membership into the nation of Israel under the old covenant (see Col 2:11-12). Whatever the connection with OT circumcision, baptism signifies a changed heart and a clean conscience that come from God’s forgiveness (1 Pet 3:21; cp. Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3).<\/p>\nAs a ritual cleansing, Christian baptism signifies both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 10:43; 13:38; 26:17-18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (2:38; 9:17-18; 10:47-48; 11:15-17; 19:5-7; Luke 3:16). Many interpreters see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” of the Spirit, whose presence is a “guarantee” of the eternal inheritance that awaits God’s faithful people (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Titus 3:5).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 3:6-16; 21:25; 28:19; Mark 1:4-9; 10:38-39; 11:30; 16:16; Luke 3:3-22; 7:29-30; 12:50; 20:4; John 1:25-36; 3:22-23, 26; 4:1-2; 10:40; Acts 1:5, 22; 2:38, 41; 8:12-13, 16-17, 36-38; 9:18; 10:37, 47-48; 11:16; 13:24; 16:15, 33; 18:8, 25; 19:1-7; 22:16; Rom 6:3-4; 1 Cor 1:13-17; 10:2; 12:13; 15:29; Gal 3:27; Eph 4:5; Col 2:12; Heb 6:2; 1 Pet 3:21; 1 Jn 5:6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Baptism<\/h3>\nBaptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of their Gentile background. This ritual cleansing was often done in special baths created for purification, called mikvahs. Mikvahs were located at many synagogues, and the Temple in Jerusalem had a large number of mikvahs, which suggests that those who approached for worship would ritually bathe.<\/p>\nJohn preached “that people should be baptized to show that they had repented of their sins and turned to God to be forgiven” (Luke 3:3). John’s baptism was an aspect of his role in preparing people’s hearts to receive the Messiah (Luke 3:4-6), and those who had received his baptism and repented of their sins were those who were prepared for Jesus’ message (Luke 7:29-30).<\/p>\nAfter his resurrection, Jesus commanded his disciples to baptize new converts (Matt 28:19). Christian baptism is understood as dying and rising with Christ, signifying the death of the old life and the beginning of the new (Rom 6:1-4; Col 2:12) and also signifying a Christian’s spiritual union with Christ (Gal 3:27) and with his church. Baptism thus became the rite of initiation in the Christian community. For this reason, many interpreters see baptism as the Christian equivalent of circumcision, the rite that initiated membership into the nation of Israel under the old covenant (see Col 2:11-12). Whatever the connection with OT circumcision, baptism signifies a changed heart and a clean conscience that come from God’s forgiveness (1 Pet 3:21; cp. Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3).<\/p>\nAs a ritual cleansing, Christian baptism signifies both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 10:43; 13:38; 26:17-18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (2:38; 9:17-18; 10:47-48; 11:15-17; 19:5-7; Luke 3:16). Many interpreters see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” of the Spirit, whose presence is a “guarantee” of the eternal inheritance that awaits God’s faithful people (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Titus 3:5).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 3:6-16; 21:25; 28:19; Mark 1:4-9; 10:38-39; 11:30; 16:16; Luke 3:3-22; 7:29-30; 12:50; 20:4; John 1:25-36; 3:22-23, 26; 4:1-2; 10:40; Acts 1:5, 22; 2:38, 41; 8:12-13, 16-17, 36-38; 9:18; 10:37, 47-48; 11:16; 13:24; 16:15, 33; 18:8, 25; 19:1-7; 22:16; Rom 6:3-4; 1 Cor 1:13-17; 10:2; 12:13; 15:29; Gal 3:27; Eph 4:5; Col 2:12; Heb 6:2; 1 Pet 3:21; 1 Jn 5:6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Baptism Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a...","summary_en":"Baptism Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89195,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Pure Worship","title_en":"Pure Worship","content_ro":"<h3>Pure Worship<\/h3>\nFrom the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship.<\/p>\nWhen Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord<\/span>” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper manner and dedicating the Temple to the Lord (8:1-11; see Deut 16:13-17). In all of this, Solomon kept the requirements laid down in the law (see, e.g., Exod 25:10-22), which were intended to keep Israel’s worship purely focused on the Lord and his word.<\/p>\nUnfortunately, people tend to worship according to their own inclinations rather than according to God’s instructions, and Israel was no different. In his later years, Solomon turned away from the Lord to other gods (1 Kgs 11:4-8). After Solomon’s death, Jeroboam established a competing, idolatrous religion in the northern kingdom, in clear violation of God’s law (14:9-10, 15-16). False worship characterized the northern kingdom throughout its history (e.g., 15:26; 16:13, 25-26, 30-33; 21:25-26). Meanwhile, in Judah, the southern kingdom, tolerance for local pagan altars became a persistent spiritual distraction (15:14; 22:43). Neither Judah nor Israel remained pure in their worship of the Lord.<\/p>\nThere is one God, and God’s people must worship only him (1 Kgs 8:23; see Deut 5:7, 9; 6:4; John 14:6; Acts 4:12). Our worship must come from a pure heart; we must remain completely faithful to the Lord in dedicated service to him (1 Kgs 15:14; 17:1; see Deut 10:12, 20; Ps 24:3-4; Matt 4:10; John 4:24). Our daily and weekly worship of God should have a sense of God’s presence, which will be a source of genuine joy (1 Kgs 8:56; cp. Ps 63:1-3; Phil 4:4). Just as Israel’s Temple was a sanctuary intended to attract all people (1 Kgs 8:41-43), believers, who are the temple of the living God (1 Cor 3:16-17), are to live so as to attract and motivate others to desire to know the Lord and worship him (Matt 5:16; Acts 2:40-47; 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 2:12). Our whole lives should include daily worship of Christ, acknowledging him as Lord (1 Pet 3:15). And we must not let any idol take God’s place in our hearts (1 Jn 5:21).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:20; Exod 4:31; 25:10-22; Lev 1:1–8:36; Deut 5:7-9; 6:4-9; 10:12, 20; 16:13-17; 26:1-15; 1 Kgs 5:3-5; Pss 24:3-6; 51:1-19; Hos 6:6; 14:1-2; Mic 6:6-8; Matt 4:10; 5:16; 6:1-18; John 4:19-24; 5:23; 14:6; Acts 2:40-47; Rom 12:1-2; 1 Cor 3:16-17; 14:1-40; Phil 3:3; Heb 10:1-25; 1 Pet 3:15; 1 Jn 5:21; Rev 5:9-13; 15:3<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Pure Worship<\/h3>\nFrom the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship.<\/p>\nWhen Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord<\/span>” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper manner and dedicating the Temple to the Lord (8:1-11; see Deut 16:13-17). In all of this, Solomon kept the requirements laid down in the law (see, e.g., Exod 25:10-22), which were intended to keep Israel’s worship purely focused on the Lord and his word.<\/p>\nUnfortunately, people tend to worship according to their own inclinations rather than according to God’s instructions, and Israel was no different. In his later years, Solomon turned away from the Lord to other gods (1 Kgs 11:4-8). After Solomon’s death, Jeroboam established a competing, idolatrous religion in the northern kingdom, in clear violation of God’s law (14:9-10, 15-16). False worship characterized the northern kingdom throughout its history (e.g., 15:26; 16:13, 25-26, 30-33; 21:25-26). Meanwhile, in Judah, the southern kingdom, tolerance for local pagan altars became a persistent spiritual distraction (15:14; 22:43). Neither Judah nor Israel remained pure in their worship of the Lord.<\/p>\nThere is one God, and God’s people must worship only him (1 Kgs 8:23; see Deut 5:7, 9; 6:4; John 14:6; Acts 4:12). Our worship must come from a pure heart; we must remain completely faithful to the Lord in dedicated service to him (1 Kgs 15:14; 17:1; see Deut 10:12, 20; Ps 24:3-4; Matt 4:10; John 4:24). Our daily and weekly worship of God should have a sense of God’s presence, which will be a source of genuine joy (1 Kgs 8:56; cp. Ps 63:1-3; Phil 4:4). Just as Israel’s Temple was a sanctuary intended to attract all people (1 Kgs 8:41-43), believers, who are the temple of the living God (1 Cor 3:16-17), are to live so as to attract and motivate others to desire to know the Lord and worship him (Matt 5:16; Acts 2:40-47; 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 2:12). Our whole lives should include daily worship of Christ, acknowledging him as Lord (1 Pet 3:15). And we must not let any idol take God’s place in our hearts (1 Jn 5:21).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:20; Exod 4:31; 25:10-22; Lev 1:1–8:36; Deut 5:7-9; 6:4-9; 10:12, 20; 16:13-17; 26:1-15; 1 Kgs 5:3-5; Pss 24:3-6; 51:1-19; Hos 6:6; 14:1-2; Mic 6:6-8; Matt 4:10; 5:16; 6:1-18; John 4:19-24; 5:23; 14:6; Acts 2:40-47; Rom 12:1-2; 1 Cor 3:16-17; 14:1-40; Phil 3:3; Heb 10:1-25; 1 Pet 3:15; 1 Jn 5:21; Rev 5:9-13; 15:3<\/p>","summary_ro":"Pure Worship From the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship. When Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper mann...","summary_en":"Pure Worship From the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship. When Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper mann...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":93835,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Baptism","title_en":"Baptism","content_ro":"<h3>Baptism<\/h3>\nBaptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of their Gentile background. This ritual cleansing was often done in special baths created for purification, called mikvahs. Mikvahs were located at many synagogues, and the Temple in Jerusalem had a large number of mikvahs, which suggests that those who approached for worship would ritually bathe.<\/p>\nJohn preached “that people should be baptized to show that they had repented of their sins and turned to God to be forgiven” (Luke 3:3). John’s baptism was an aspect of his role in preparing people’s hearts to receive the Messiah (Luke 3:4-6), and those who had received his baptism and repented of their sins were those who were prepared for Jesus’ message (Luke 7:29-30).<\/p>\nAfter his resurrection, Jesus commanded his disciples to baptize new converts (Matt 28:19). Christian baptism is understood as dying and rising with Christ, signifying the death of the old life and the beginning of the new (Rom 6:1-4; Col 2:12) and also signifying a Christian’s spiritual union with Christ (Gal 3:27) and with his church. Baptism thus became the rite of initiation in the Christian community. For this reason, many interpreters see baptism as the Christian equivalent of circumcision, the rite that initiated membership into the nation of Israel under the old covenant (see Col 2:11-12). Whatever the connection with OT circumcision, baptism signifies a changed heart and a clean conscience that come from God’s forgiveness (1 Pet 3:21; cp. Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3).<\/p>\nAs a ritual cleansing, Christian baptism signifies both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 10:43; 13:38; 26:17-18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (2:38; 9:17-18; 10:47-48; 11:15-17; 19:5-7; Luke 3:16). Many interpreters see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” of the Spirit, whose presence is a “guarantee” of the eternal inheritance that awaits God’s faithful people (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Titus 3:5).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 3:6-16; 21:25; 28:19; Mark 1:4-9; 10:38-39; 11:30; 16:16; Luke 3:3-22; 7:29-30; 12:50; 20:4; John 1:25-36; 3:22-23, 26; 4:1-2; 10:40; Acts 1:5, 22; 2:38, 41; 8:12-13, 16-17, 36-38; 9:18; 10:37, 47-48; 11:16; 13:24; 16:15, 33; 18:8, 25; 19:1-7; 22:16; Rom 6:3-4; 1 Cor 1:13-17; 10:2; 12:13; 15:29; Gal 3:27; Eph 4:5; Col 2:12; Heb 6:2; 1 Pet 3:21; 1 Jn 5:6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Baptism<\/h3>\nBaptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of their Gentile background. This ritual cleansing was often done in special baths created for purification, called mikvahs. Mikvahs were located at many synagogues, and the Temple in Jerusalem had a large number of mikvahs, which suggests that those who approached for worship would ritually bathe.<\/p>\nJohn preached “that people should be baptized to show that they had repented of their sins and turned to God to be forgiven” (Luke 3:3). John’s baptism was an aspect of his role in preparing people’s hearts to receive the Messiah (Luke 3:4-6), and those who had received his baptism and repented of their sins were those who were prepared for Jesus’ message (Luke 7:29-30).<\/p>\nAfter his resurrection, Jesus commanded his disciples to baptize new converts (Matt 28:19). Christian baptism is understood as dying and rising with Christ, signifying the death of the old life and the beginning of the new (Rom 6:1-4; Col 2:12) and also signifying a Christian’s spiritual union with Christ (Gal 3:27) and with his church. Baptism thus became the rite of initiation in the Christian community. For this reason, many interpreters see baptism as the Christian equivalent of circumcision, the rite that initiated membership into the nation of Israel under the old covenant (see Col 2:11-12). Whatever the connection with OT circumcision, baptism signifies a changed heart and a clean conscience that come from God’s forgiveness (1 Pet 3:21; cp. Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3).<\/p>\nAs a ritual cleansing, Christian baptism signifies both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 10:43; 13:38; 26:17-18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (2:38; 9:17-18; 10:47-48; 11:15-17; 19:5-7; Luke 3:16). Many interpreters see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” of the Spirit, whose presence is a “guarantee” of the eternal inheritance that awaits God’s faithful people (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Titus 3:5).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 3:6-16; 21:25; 28:19; Mark 1:4-9; 10:38-39; 11:30; 16:16; Luke 3:3-22; 7:29-30; 12:50; 20:4; John 1:25-36; 3:22-23, 26; 4:1-2; 10:40; Acts 1:5, 22; 2:38, 41; 8:12-13, 16-17, 36-38; 9:18; 10:37, 47-48; 11:16; 13:24; 16:15, 33; 18:8, 25; 19:1-7; 22:16; Rom 6:3-4; 1 Cor 1:13-17; 10:2; 12:13; 15:29; Gal 3:27; Eph 4:5; Col 2:12; Heb 6:2; 1 Pet 3:21; 1 Jn 5:6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Baptism Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a...","summary_en":"Baptism Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116821,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Pure Worship","title_en":"Pure Worship","content_ro":"<h3>Pure Worship<\/h3>\nFrom the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship.<\/p>\nWhen Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord<\/span>” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper manner and dedicating the Temple to the Lord (8:1-11; see Deut 16:13-17). In all of this, Solomon kept the requirements laid down in the law (see, e.g., Exod 25:10-22), which were intended to keep Israel’s worship purely focused on the Lord and his word.<\/p>\nUnfortunately, people tend to worship according to their own inclinations rather than according to God’s instructions, and Israel was no different. In his later years, Solomon turned away from the Lord to other gods (1 Kgs 11:4-8). After Solomon’s death, Jeroboam established a competing, idolatrous religion in the northern kingdom, in clear violation of God’s law (14:9-10, 15-16). False worship characterized the northern kingdom throughout its history (e.g., 15:26; 16:13, 25-26, 30-33; 21:25-26). Meanwhile, in Judah, the southern kingdom, tolerance for local pagan altars became a persistent spiritual distraction (15:14; 22:43). Neither Judah nor Israel remained pure in their worship of the Lord.<\/p>\nThere is one God, and God’s people must worship only him (1 Kgs 8:23; see Deut 5:7, 9; 6:4; John 14:6; Acts 4:12). Our worship must come from a pure heart; we must remain completely faithful to the Lord in dedicated service to him (1 Kgs 15:14; 17:1; see Deut 10:12, 20; Ps 24:3-4; Matt 4:10; John 4:24). Our daily and weekly worship of God should have a sense of God’s presence, which will be a source of genuine joy (1 Kgs 8:56; cp. Ps 63:1-3; Phil 4:4). Just as Israel’s Temple was a sanctuary intended to attract all people (1 Kgs 8:41-43), believers, who are the temple of the living God (1 Cor 3:16-17), are to live so as to attract and motivate others to desire to know the Lord and worship him (Matt 5:16; Acts 2:40-47; 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 2:12). Our whole lives should include daily worship of Christ, acknowledging him as Lord (1 Pet 3:15). And we must not let any idol take God’s place in our hearts (1 Jn 5:21).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:20; Exod 4:31; 25:10-22; Lev 1:1–8:36; Deut 5:7-9; 6:4-9; 10:12, 20; 16:13-17; 26:1-15; 1 Kgs 5:3-5; Pss 24:3-6; 51:1-19; Hos 6:6; 14:1-2; Mic 6:6-8; Matt 4:10; 5:16; 6:1-18; John 4:19-24; 5:23; 14:6; Acts 2:40-47; Rom 12:1-2; 1 Cor 3:16-17; 14:1-40; Phil 3:3; Heb 10:1-25; 1 Pet 3:15; 1 Jn 5:21; Rev 5:9-13; 15:3<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Pure Worship<\/h3>\nFrom the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship.<\/p>\nWhen Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord<\/span>” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper manner and dedicating the Temple to the Lord (8:1-11; see Deut 16:13-17). In all of this, Solomon kept the requirements laid down in the law (see, e.g., Exod 25:10-22), which were intended to keep Israel’s worship purely focused on the Lord and his word.<\/p>\nUnfortunately, people tend to worship according to their own inclinations rather than according to God’s instructions, and Israel was no different. In his later years, Solomon turned away from the Lord to other gods (1 Kgs 11:4-8). After Solomon’s death, Jeroboam established a competing, idolatrous religion in the northern kingdom, in clear violation of God’s law (14:9-10, 15-16). False worship characterized the northern kingdom throughout its history (e.g., 15:26; 16:13, 25-26, 30-33; 21:25-26). Meanwhile, in Judah, the southern kingdom, tolerance for local pagan altars became a persistent spiritual distraction (15:14; 22:43). Neither Judah nor Israel remained pure in their worship of the Lord.<\/p>\nThere is one God, and God’s people must worship only him (1 Kgs 8:23; see Deut 5:7, 9; 6:4; John 14:6; Acts 4:12). Our worship must come from a pure heart; we must remain completely faithful to the Lord in dedicated service to him (1 Kgs 15:14; 17:1; see Deut 10:12, 20; Ps 24:3-4; Matt 4:10; John 4:24). Our daily and weekly worship of God should have a sense of God’s presence, which will be a source of genuine joy (1 Kgs 8:56; cp. Ps 63:1-3; Phil 4:4). Just as Israel’s Temple was a sanctuary intended to attract all people (1 Kgs 8:41-43), believers, who are the temple of the living God (1 Cor 3:16-17), are to live so as to attract and motivate others to desire to know the Lord and worship him (Matt 5:16; Acts 2:40-47; 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 2:12). Our whole lives should include daily worship of Christ, acknowledging him as Lord (1 Pet 3:15). And we must not let any idol take God’s place in our hearts (1 Jn 5:21).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:20; Exod 4:31; 25:10-22; Lev 1:1–8:36; Deut 5:7-9; 6:4-9; 10:12, 20; 16:13-17; 26:1-15; 1 Kgs 5:3-5; Pss 24:3-6; 51:1-19; Hos 6:6; 14:1-2; Mic 6:6-8; Matt 4:10; 5:16; 6:1-18; John 4:19-24; 5:23; 14:6; Acts 2:40-47; Rom 12:1-2; 1 Cor 3:16-17; 14:1-40; Phil 3:3; Heb 10:1-25; 1 Pet 3:15; 1 Jn 5:21; Rev 5:9-13; 15:3<\/p>","summary_ro":"Pure Worship From the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship. When Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper mann...","summary_en":"Pure Worship From the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship. When Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper mann...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121461,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Baptism","title_en":"Baptism","content_ro":"<h3>Baptism<\/h3>\nBaptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of their Gentile background. This ritual cleansing was often done in special baths created for purification, called mikvahs. Mikvahs were located at many synagogues, and the Temple in Jerusalem had a large number of mikvahs, which suggests that those who approached for worship would ritually bathe.<\/p>\nJohn preached “that people should be baptized to show that they had repented of their sins and turned to God to be forgiven” (Luke 3:3). John’s baptism was an aspect of his role in preparing people’s hearts to receive the Messiah (Luke 3:4-6), and those who had received his baptism and repented of their sins were those who were prepared for Jesus’ message (Luke 7:29-30).<\/p>\nAfter his resurrection, Jesus commanded his disciples to baptize new converts (Matt 28:19). Christian baptism is understood as dying and rising with Christ, signifying the death of the old life and the beginning of the new (Rom 6:1-4; Col 2:12) and also signifying a Christian’s spiritual union with Christ (Gal 3:27) and with his church. Baptism thus became the rite of initiation in the Christian community. For this reason, many interpreters see baptism as the Christian equivalent of circumcision, the rite that initiated membership into the nation of Israel under the old covenant (see Col 2:11-12). Whatever the connection with OT circumcision, baptism signifies a changed heart and a clean conscience that come from God’s forgiveness (1 Pet 3:21; cp. Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3).<\/p>\nAs a ritual cleansing, Christian baptism signifies both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 10:43; 13:38; 26:17-18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (2:38; 9:17-18; 10:47-48; 11:15-17; 19:5-7; Luke 3:16). Many interpreters see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” of the Spirit, whose presence is a “guarantee” of the eternal inheritance that awaits God’s faithful people (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Titus 3:5).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 3:6-16; 21:25; 28:19; Mark 1:4-9; 10:38-39; 11:30; 16:16; Luke 3:3-22; 7:29-30; 12:50; 20:4; John 1:25-36; 3:22-23, 26; 4:1-2; 10:40; Acts 1:5, 22; 2:38, 41; 8:12-13, 16-17, 36-38; 9:18; 10:37, 47-48; 11:16; 13:24; 16:15, 33; 18:8, 25; 19:1-7; 22:16; Rom 6:3-4; 1 Cor 1:13-17; 10:2; 12:13; 15:29; Gal 3:27; Eph 4:5; Col 2:12; Heb 6:2; 1 Pet 3:21; 1 Jn 5:6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Baptism<\/h3>\nBaptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of their Gentile background. This ritual cleansing was often done in special baths created for purification, called mikvahs. Mikvahs were located at many synagogues, and the Temple in Jerusalem had a large number of mikvahs, which suggests that those who approached for worship would ritually bathe.<\/p>\nJohn preached “that people should be baptized to show that they had repented of their sins and turned to God to be forgiven” (Luke 3:3). John’s baptism was an aspect of his role in preparing people’s hearts to receive the Messiah (Luke 3:4-6), and those who had received his baptism and repented of their sins were those who were prepared for Jesus’ message (Luke 7:29-30).<\/p>\nAfter his resurrection, Jesus commanded his disciples to baptize new converts (Matt 28:19). Christian baptism is understood as dying and rising with Christ, signifying the death of the old life and the beginning of the new (Rom 6:1-4; Col 2:12) and also signifying a Christian’s spiritual union with Christ (Gal 3:27) and with his church. Baptism thus became the rite of initiation in the Christian community. For this reason, many interpreters see baptism as the Christian equivalent of circumcision, the rite that initiated membership into the nation of Israel under the old covenant (see Col 2:11-12). Whatever the connection with OT circumcision, baptism signifies a changed heart and a clean conscience that come from God’s forgiveness (1 Pet 3:21; cp. Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3).<\/p>\nAs a ritual cleansing, Christian baptism signifies both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 10:43; 13:38; 26:17-18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (2:38; 9:17-18; 10:47-48; 11:15-17; 19:5-7; Luke 3:16). Many interpreters see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” of the Spirit, whose presence is a “guarantee” of the eternal inheritance that awaits God’s faithful people (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Titus 3:5).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 3:6-16; 21:25; 28:19; Mark 1:4-9; 10:38-39; 11:30; 16:16; Luke 3:3-22; 7:29-30; 12:50; 20:4; John 1:25-36; 3:22-23, 26; 4:1-2; 10:40; Acts 1:5, 22; 2:38, 41; 8:12-13, 16-17, 36-38; 9:18; 10:37, 47-48; 11:16; 13:24; 16:15, 33; 18:8, 25; 19:1-7; 22:16; Rom 6:3-4; 1 Cor 1:13-17; 10:2; 12:13; 15:29; Gal 3:27; Eph 4:5; Col 2:12; Heb 6:2; 1 Pet 3:21; 1 Jn 5:6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Baptism Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a...","summary_en":"Baptism Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":144447,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Pure Worship","title_en":"Pure Worship","content_ro":"<h3>Pure Worship<\/h3>\nFrom the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship.<\/p>\nWhen Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord<\/span>” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper manner and dedicating the Temple to the Lord (8:1-11; see Deut 16:13-17). In all of this, Solomon kept the requirements laid down in the law (see, e.g., Exod 25:10-22), which were intended to keep Israel’s worship purely focused on the Lord and his word.<\/p>\nUnfortunately, people tend to worship according to their own inclinations rather than according to God’s instructions, and Israel was no different. In his later years, Solomon turned away from the Lord to other gods (1 Kgs 11:4-8). After Solomon’s death, Jeroboam established a competing, idolatrous religion in the northern kingdom, in clear violation of God’s law (14:9-10, 15-16). False worship characterized the northern kingdom throughout its history (e.g., 15:26; 16:13, 25-26, 30-33; 21:25-26). Meanwhile, in Judah, the southern kingdom, tolerance for local pagan altars became a persistent spiritual distraction (15:14; 22:43). Neither Judah nor Israel remained pure in their worship of the Lord.<\/p>\nThere is one God, and God’s people must worship only him (1 Kgs 8:23; see Deut 5:7, 9; 6:4; John 14:6; Acts 4:12). Our worship must come from a pure heart; we must remain completely faithful to the Lord in dedicated service to him (1 Kgs 15:14; 17:1; see Deut 10:12, 20; Ps 24:3-4; Matt 4:10; John 4:24). Our daily and weekly worship of God should have a sense of God’s presence, which will be a source of genuine joy (1 Kgs 8:56; cp. Ps 63:1-3; Phil 4:4). Just as Israel’s Temple was a sanctuary intended to attract all people (1 Kgs 8:41-43), believers, who are the temple of the living God (1 Cor 3:16-17), are to live so as to attract and motivate others to desire to know the Lord and worship him (Matt 5:16; Acts 2:40-47; 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 2:12). Our whole lives should include daily worship of Christ, acknowledging him as Lord (1 Pet 3:15). And we must not let any idol take God’s place in our hearts (1 Jn 5:21).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:20; Exod 4:31; 25:10-22; Lev 1:1–8:36; Deut 5:7-9; 6:4-9; 10:12, 20; 16:13-17; 26:1-15; 1 Kgs 5:3-5; Pss 24:3-6; 51:1-19; Hos 6:6; 14:1-2; Mic 6:6-8; Matt 4:10; 5:16; 6:1-18; John 4:19-24; 5:23; 14:6; Acts 2:40-47; Rom 12:1-2; 1 Cor 3:16-17; 14:1-40; Phil 3:3; Heb 10:1-25; 1 Pet 3:15; 1 Jn 5:21; Rev 5:9-13; 15:3<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Pure Worship<\/h3>\nFrom the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship.<\/p>\nWhen Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord<\/span>” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper manner and dedicating the Temple to the Lord (8:1-11; see Deut 16:13-17). In all of this, Solomon kept the requirements laid down in the law (see, e.g., Exod 25:10-22), which were intended to keep Israel’s worship purely focused on the Lord and his word.<\/p>\nUnfortunately, people tend to worship according to their own inclinations rather than according to God’s instructions, and Israel was no different. In his later years, Solomon turned away from the Lord to other gods (1 Kgs 11:4-8). After Solomon’s death, Jeroboam established a competing, idolatrous religion in the northern kingdom, in clear violation of God’s law (14:9-10, 15-16). False worship characterized the northern kingdom throughout its history (e.g., 15:26; 16:13, 25-26, 30-33; 21:25-26). Meanwhile, in Judah, the southern kingdom, tolerance for local pagan altars became a persistent spiritual distraction (15:14; 22:43). Neither Judah nor Israel remained pure in their worship of the Lord.<\/p>\nThere is one God, and God’s people must worship only him (1 Kgs 8:23; see Deut 5:7, 9; 6:4; John 14:6; Acts 4:12). Our worship must come from a pure heart; we must remain completely faithful to the Lord in dedicated service to him (1 Kgs 15:14; 17:1; see Deut 10:12, 20; Ps 24:3-4; Matt 4:10; John 4:24). Our daily and weekly worship of God should have a sense of God’s presence, which will be a source of genuine joy (1 Kgs 8:56; cp. Ps 63:1-3; Phil 4:4). Just as Israel’s Temple was a sanctuary intended to attract all people (1 Kgs 8:41-43), believers, who are the temple of the living God (1 Cor 3:16-17), are to live so as to attract and motivate others to desire to know the Lord and worship him (Matt 5:16; Acts 2:40-47; 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 2:12). Our whole lives should include daily worship of Christ, acknowledging him as Lord (1 Pet 3:15). And we must not let any idol take God’s place in our hearts (1 Jn 5:21).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:20; Exod 4:31; 25:10-22; Lev 1:1–8:36; Deut 5:7-9; 6:4-9; 10:12, 20; 16:13-17; 26:1-15; 1 Kgs 5:3-5; Pss 24:3-6; 51:1-19; Hos 6:6; 14:1-2; Mic 6:6-8; Matt 4:10; 5:16; 6:1-18; John 4:19-24; 5:23; 14:6; Acts 2:40-47; Rom 12:1-2; 1 Cor 3:16-17; 14:1-40; Phil 3:3; Heb 10:1-25; 1 Pet 3:15; 1 Jn 5:21; Rev 5:9-13; 15:3<\/p>","summary_ro":"Pure Worship From the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship. When Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper mann...","summary_en":"Pure Worship From the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship. When Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper mann...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149087,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Baptism","title_en":"Baptism","content_ro":"<h3>Baptism<\/h3>\nBaptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of their Gentile background. This ritual cleansing was often done in special baths created for purification, called mikvahs. Mikvahs were located at many synagogues, and the Temple in Jerusalem had a large number of mikvahs, which suggests that those who approached for worship would ritually bathe.<\/p>\nJohn preached “that people should be baptized to show that they had repented of their sins and turned to God to be forgiven” (Luke 3:3). John’s baptism was an aspect of his role in preparing people’s hearts to receive the Messiah (Luke 3:4-6), and those who had received his baptism and repented of their sins were those who were prepared for Jesus’ message (Luke 7:29-30).<\/p>\nAfter his resurrection, Jesus commanded his disciples to baptize new converts (Matt 28:19). Christian baptism is understood as dying and rising with Christ, signifying the death of the old life and the beginning of the new (Rom 6:1-4; Col 2:12) and also signifying a Christian’s spiritual union with Christ (Gal 3:27) and with his church. Baptism thus became the rite of initiation in the Christian community. For this reason, many interpreters see baptism as the Christian equivalent of circumcision, the rite that initiated membership into the nation of Israel under the old covenant (see Col 2:11-12). Whatever the connection with OT circumcision, baptism signifies a changed heart and a clean conscience that come from God’s forgiveness (1 Pet 3:21; cp. Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3).<\/p>\nAs a ritual cleansing, Christian baptism signifies both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 10:43; 13:38; 26:17-18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (2:38; 9:17-18; 10:47-48; 11:15-17; 19:5-7; Luke 3:16). Many interpreters see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” of the Spirit, whose presence is a “guarantee” of the eternal inheritance that awaits God’s faithful people (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Titus 3:5).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 3:6-16; 21:25; 28:19; Mark 1:4-9; 10:38-39; 11:30; 16:16; Luke 3:3-22; 7:29-30; 12:50; 20:4; John 1:25-36; 3:22-23, 26; 4:1-2; 10:40; Acts 1:5, 22; 2:38, 41; 8:12-13, 16-17, 36-38; 9:18; 10:37, 47-48; 11:16; 13:24; 16:15, 33; 18:8, 25; 19:1-7; 22:16; Rom 6:3-4; 1 Cor 1:13-17; 10:2; 12:13; 15:29; Gal 3:27; Eph 4:5; Col 2:12; Heb 6:2; 1 Pet 3:21; 1 Jn 5:6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Baptism<\/h3>\nBaptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of their Gentile background. This ritual cleansing was often done in special baths created for purification, called mikvahs. Mikvahs were located at many synagogues, and the Temple in Jerusalem had a large number of mikvahs, which suggests that those who approached for worship would ritually bathe.<\/p>\nJohn preached “that people should be baptized to show that they had repented of their sins and turned to God to be forgiven” (Luke 3:3). John’s baptism was an aspect of his role in preparing people’s hearts to receive the Messiah (Luke 3:4-6), and those who had received his baptism and repented of their sins were those who were prepared for Jesus’ message (Luke 7:29-30).<\/p>\nAfter his resurrection, Jesus commanded his disciples to baptize new converts (Matt 28:19). Christian baptism is understood as dying and rising with Christ, signifying the death of the old life and the beginning of the new (Rom 6:1-4; Col 2:12) and also signifying a Christian’s spiritual union with Christ (Gal 3:27) and with his church. Baptism thus became the rite of initiation in the Christian community. For this reason, many interpreters see baptism as the Christian equivalent of circumcision, the rite that initiated membership into the nation of Israel under the old covenant (see Col 2:11-12). Whatever the connection with OT circumcision, baptism signifies a changed heart and a clean conscience that come from God’s forgiveness (1 Pet 3:21; cp. Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3).<\/p>\nAs a ritual cleansing, Christian baptism signifies both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 10:43; 13:38; 26:17-18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (2:38; 9:17-18; 10:47-48; 11:15-17; 19:5-7; Luke 3:16). Many interpreters see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” of the Spirit, whose presence is a “guarantee” of the eternal inheritance that awaits God’s faithful people (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Titus 3:5).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 3:6-16; 21:25; 28:19; Mark 1:4-9; 10:38-39; 11:30; 16:16; Luke 3:3-22; 7:29-30; 12:50; 20:4; John 1:25-36; 3:22-23, 26; 4:1-2; 10:40; Acts 1:5, 22; 2:38, 41; 8:12-13, 16-17, 36-38; 9:18; 10:37, 47-48; 11:16; 13:24; 16:15, 33; 18:8, 25; 19:1-7; 22:16; Rom 6:3-4; 1 Cor 1:13-17; 10:2; 12:13; 15:29; Gal 3:27; Eph 4:5; Col 2:12; Heb 6:2; 1 Pet 3:21; 1 Jn 5:6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Baptism Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a...","summary_en":"Baptism Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"4":[{"id":6682,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>CIRCUMCISION<\/h3>\nSurgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after birth on nearly all newborn males in North America. Outside of Judaism the procedure no longer carries religious significance.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n• Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n• Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\nCircumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\nThe rite of circumcision is far older than the Hebrew people. Cave paintings give evidence that it was practiced in prehistoric times. Egyptian temple drawings show that the operation was common in 4000 BC<\/span> and probably earlier. Peoples practicing circumcision lived on almost every continent. The rite was observed among Central and South American Indians, Polynesians, the peoples of New Guinea, many Australian and African tribes, Egyptians, and pre-Islamic Arabs. The rite is not mentioned in the Koran, but because Muhammad was circumcised, tradition dictates that male Muslims follow the ancient custom. Arab ancestry is traced to Abraham through Ishmael (Gn 17:20), so a common age for Muslim circumcisions is 13, because Ishmael was circumcised at that age (v 25).<\/p>\nAmong the West Semitic people, the Ammonites, Edomites, Midianites, Moabites, and Phoenicians all practiced circumcision (Jer 9:25-26). The Philistines, however, did not (Jgs 14:3; 15:18; 1 Sm 14:6; 17:26, 36; 18:25, 27; 31:4; 2 Sm 1:20; 3:14; 1 Chr 10:4).<\/p>\nYoung men were usually circumcised at puberty, evidently in preparation for marriage and entrance into full tribal responsibilities. The Hebrews were the only ancient practitioners of circumcision to observe the rite in infancy, thus freeing it from association with fertility rituals.<\/p>\nCircumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\nIn the Bible the practice of circumcision began in Genesis 17 as a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham. God promised Abraham a land and, through a son yet to be conceived, numerous descendants, from whom kings would come. Blessings would come upon Abraham and through him to all nations (Gn 12:1-3). After the covenant was formally inaugurated (ch 15), God sealed it, ordering Abraham to be circumcised along with all the males in his household (17:9-13).<\/p>\nCircumcision was to be an expression of faith that God’s promises would be realized. Because Abraham’s faith had lapsed (Gn 16) even after he had seen the awesome display of God’s majesty (15:9-17), a permanent reminder of God’s covenant promises was placed on his body and the bodies of his male descendants (17:11). This sign was so closely related to God’s covenant promise that the rite itself could be termed the “covenant” (Gn 17:10; Acts 7:8).<\/p>\nCircumcision was to be performed on the eighth day after birth (Gn 17:12; Lv 12:1-3; see Gn 21:4; Lk 1:59; 2:21; Acts 7:8; Phil 3:5), customarily by the boy’s father (Gn 17:23; 21:4; Acts 7:8), at which time a name would be given (Lk 1:59; 2:21). Flint knives were used in the early days (Ex 4:25; Jos 5:2-3). Later, the rite was carried out by a trained practitioner called a mohel<\/span>.<\/em> Medical research has determined that prothrombin, a substance in the blood that aids in clotting, is present in greater quantity on the eighth day than at any other time in life.<\/p>\n<h5>Theological Meaning<\/h5>\nCircumcision had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning Abraham’s descendants (Gn 17:9-12). Because it was applied to the reproductive organ, the sign involved the propagation of the race. Its application to the eight-day-old infant demonstrates the gracious character of God’s promise to Abraham’s descendants and indicates that God’s people are in need of cleansing grace from birth (Lv 12:1-3). The promises of the covenant were reaffirmed to each generation before the recipients were able to respond in either faith or unbelief; nothing in the hearts of the chosen people could either bring about or thwart the ultimate fulfillment of the promises given to Abraham and his posterity.<\/p>\nCircumcision also had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning the land (Gn 17:8). The land was God’s holy possession, and the Israelites had to be holy to possess it. When Joseph and his descendants were in Egypt, they continued to circumcise their sons. But following the great sin at Mt Sinai after the exodus, the unbelieving Israelites failed to place the covenant sign upon their children as they wandered in the wilderness. Because the new generation had not been circumcised, the people were unprepared to enter the Promised Land. Therefore, God ordered Joshua to circumcise the men of Israel. The people’s obedient response was an act of faith, since the armies of the enemy were camped nearby as the Israelite warriors lay incapacitated by the surgery (Jos 5:2-9).<\/p>\nFrom the beginning, participation in the covenant promises was open to persons outside Abraham’s household (Gn 17:12-13). Exodus 12:43-49 gives non-Israelites the opportunity to participate in the Passover if they are willing to fulfill the same stipulation placed upon the Jews—that of circumcision.<\/p>\nThe provision for admission to God’s people by reception of the covenant sign was abused by Jacob’s sons when circumcision was made a precondition for intermarriage with the Shechemites. While the Shechemites were disabled by their wounds, Simeon and Levi killed them, plundering the city to exact retribution for the rape of their sister Dinah (Gn 34).<\/p>\nThe sign of the covenant was not to be treated lightly. The penalty of excommunication rested upon the uncircumcised (Gn 17:14). The strange incident recorded in Exodus 4:24-26 seems to have been God’s reminder to Moses of the stipulations of the covenant made with Abraham. Moses had proved an unfaithful servant of the Lord by neglecting to circumcise his son but was rescued from judgment when his wife Zipporah took a flint rock and circumcised the boy, throwing the bloody foreskin at her husband’s feet.<\/p>\n\nCircumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\nJohn the Baptist was circumcised, as were Jesus and Paul (Lk 1:59; 2:21; Phil 3:5). Jesus recognized the cleansing significance of circumcision (Jn 7:22-23), contrasting the rite with his healing ministry that made a man completely well and therefore ceremonially “clean.” Just before he was stoned, Stephen referred to the covenant of circumcision, charging that his Jewish accusers, like their ancestors, were stiff-necked and uncircumcised in heart and ears, always resisting the Holy Spirit (Acts 7:8, 51).<\/p>\nFor a time the first Christians continued to participate in the Jewish rites and customs, even attending the services of the temple (Acts 3:1; 5:21, 42). As Gentiles came to Christ, controversy arose between those who said that participation in the covenant community required circumcision and those who believed the rite was unnecessary. It was argued that since the covenant promise of the Messiah was given to the Jews, Gentiles must first be circumcised and become Jews before they could receive salvation in Christ.<\/p>\nIn the time of Christ, many Jews misunderstood the significance of circumcision, believing that the physical act was necessary for and a guarantee of salvation. Thus for Jews the observance became not only a symbol of religious privilege but also a source of racial pride (Phil 3:4-6). These Jews associated the ceremony with the Mosaic law rather than the promise to Abraham (Jn 7:22; Acts 15:1). Because Greeks and Romans did not practice circumcision, Jews had come to be called “the circumcision” (kjv<\/span> Acts 10:45; 11:2; Rom 15:8; Gal 2:7-9; Eph 2:11; Ti 1:10), and following OT practice (Ez 28:10; 31:18; 32:19-32), Gentiles were termed “the uncircumcision” (kjv<\/span> Gal 2:7; Eph 2:11).<\/p>\nWhile visiting Caesarea, Jewish believers were amazed to realize that uncircumcised Gentiles received the purifying gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts 10:44-48). Moses had promised that God would circumcise the hearts of his people to love the Lord with heart and soul (Dt 30:6), and Ezekiel had prophesied that the Lord would sprinkle clean water on his people, giving them a new heart and putting his Spirit within them (Ez 36:25-27). As these Jewish believers saw the prophecy that God would pour out his Spirit upon all flesh (Jl 2:28; Acts 2:17) being fulfilled, they realized that the inward reality symbolized by circumcision could be accomplished without the physical sign. Thus, the gentile believers were immediately baptized.<\/p>\nNot all the Jewish believers were immediately willing to accept Gentiles into the church. When Peter returned to Jerusalem after his visit to Caesarea, “the circumcision party” criticized him. But after telling how the Spirit had fallen upon the Gentiles, Peter declared that he could not stand against God. At this the Jewish believers were silenced and glorified God that repentance unto life had been granted to Gentiles (Acts 11:1-3, 15:8).<\/p>\nCertain “Judaizers” of the Pharisaic party taught the Christians in Antioch that circumcision was necessary for salvation (Acts 15:1, 5). After debating these persons, Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles and elders (v 2). Peter argued that God had given the Spirit to Gentiles and “cleansed their hearts by faith,” affirming that “we believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus, just as they will” (vv 8-9, 11, rsv<\/span>). Therefore, James and the other Jerusalem leaders agreed that circumcision should not be imposed on the Gentiles (vv 13-21).<\/p>\nIt was decided that Peter, James, and John would be entrusted with the gospel to “the circumcised,” while Paul and Barnabas would preach to “the uncircumcised” (Gal 2:7-9). Because of his evangelistic policy to be “all things to all people” with respect to spiritually indifferent matters of custom (1 Cor 9:19-23), Paul had Timothy circumcised. Timothy was reckoned by Jews as one of their race because his mother was Jewish (Acts 16:1-2). But Paul resisted attempts to have Titus circumcised, since he was a Gentile (Gal 2:3). Paul apparently allowed Jewish believers to circumcise their sons (Acts 21:21).<\/p>\nYet Paul charged that those who argued that the Galatian Christians must be circumcised and keep the law did not keep it themselves but wanted to boast in the Galatians’ flesh and avoid persecution for the cross of Christ (Gal 6:12-13)—persecution Paul was willing to bear (5:11). Granting for the sake of argument the Pharisaic assumption that salvation could be merited by keeping the law, Paul declared that those who received circumcision must obey every other Jewish law (vv 2-3). Christ would be “of no advantage” to those who “would be justified by the law”; this attempt at works righteousness would evidence that the Galatians were “severed from Christ,” having “fallen from grace” (vv 2-4). These Christians were being tempted to turn to “a different gospel” (1:6-7).<\/p>\nBecause of the serious threat the Judaizers posed to the gospel of free grace, Paul wished that those who unsettled the Galatians would “mutilate themselves” (Gal 5:12). He termed the Judaizers “dogs” and “evil workers” (kjv<\/span> “concision”), asserting that Christians are “the true circumcision,” because they worship God in spirit and glory in Christ Jesus, putting no confidence in human works to merit salvation (Phil 3:2-3).<\/p>\nPaul taught that circumcision was indeed of value to Jews, for it was the sign that to them had been committed the “oracles of God,” that is, God’s word concerning the promise of salvation (Rom 3:1-3). He reminded the prideful Ephesians that as Gentiles they had once been “strangers to the covenants of promise,” not bearing the covenant sign in their flesh (Eph 2:11-12; see Col 2:13). Likewise, Jews had no cause for pride, for disobedience could cause outward circumcision to be counted as uncircumcision (Rom 2:25).<\/p>\nPaul and the other apostles followed Moses and the OT prophets in teaching that true circumcision was a matter of the heart. The teaching of the NT goes further to affirm that a faithful believer, though physically uncircumcised, is regarded by God as circumcised, “for he is not a real Jew who is one outwardly, nor is true circumcision something external and physical” (Rom 2:28, rsv<\/span>). Both Jews and Gentiles are saved by grace (Acts 15:11), and circumcised and uncircumcised alike are justified on the ground of their faith, apart from works of the law (Rom 3:28-30).<\/p>\nAbraham served as an example of a person whose faith was reckoned to him as righteousness (Rom 4:3; see Gn 15:6). Paul argued that both Gentiles and Jews are justified by faith, because Abraham was accounted righteous before he was circumcised. Abraham did not receive circumcision to obtain righteousness, but as a sign or seal of the righteousness that he had by faith while he was still uncircumcised. Thus, Abraham is the father of all who believe without being circumcised, as well as those who are circumcised but also follow the example of Abraham’s faith (Rom 4:9-12; see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Baptism; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Uncircumcision.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CIRCUMCISION<\/h3>\nSurgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after birth on nearly all newborn males in North America. Outside of Judaism the procedure no longer carries religious significance.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n• Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n• Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\nCircumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\nThe rite of circumcision is far older than the Hebrew people. Cave paintings give evidence that it was practiced in prehistoric times. Egyptian temple drawings show that the operation was common in 4000 BC<\/span> and probably earlier. Peoples practicing circumcision lived on almost every continent. The rite was observed among Central and South American Indians, Polynesians, the peoples of New Guinea, many Australian and African tribes, Egyptians, and pre-Islamic Arabs. The rite is not mentioned in the Koran, but because Muhammad was circumcised, tradition dictates that male Muslims follow the ancient custom. Arab ancestry is traced to Abraham through Ishmael (Gn 17:20), so a common age for Muslim circumcisions is 13, because Ishmael was circumcised at that age (v 25).<\/p>\nAmong the West Semitic people, the Ammonites, Edomites, Midianites, Moabites, and Phoenicians all practiced circumcision (Jer 9:25-26). The Philistines, however, did not (Jgs 14:3; 15:18; 1 Sm 14:6; 17:26, 36; 18:25, 27; 31:4; 2 Sm 1:20; 3:14; 1 Chr 10:4).<\/p>\nYoung men were usually circumcised at puberty, evidently in preparation for marriage and entrance into full tribal responsibilities. The Hebrews were the only ancient practitioners of circumcision to observe the rite in infancy, thus freeing it from association with fertility rituals.<\/p>\nCircumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\nIn the Bible the practice of circumcision began in Genesis 17 as a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham. God promised Abraham a land and, through a son yet to be conceived, numerous descendants, from whom kings would come. Blessings would come upon Abraham and through him to all nations (Gn 12:1-3). After the covenant was formally inaugurated (ch 15), God sealed it, ordering Abraham to be circumcised along with all the males in his household (17:9-13).<\/p>\nCircumcision was to be an expression of faith that God’s promises would be realized. Because Abraham’s faith had lapsed (Gn 16) even after he had seen the awesome display of God’s majesty (15:9-17), a permanent reminder of God’s covenant promises was placed on his body and the bodies of his male descendants (17:11). This sign was so closely related to God’s covenant promise that the rite itself could be termed the “covenant” (Gn 17:10; Acts 7:8).<\/p>\nCircumcision was to be performed on the eighth day after birth (Gn 17:12; Lv 12:1-3; see Gn 21:4; Lk 1:59; 2:21; Acts 7:8; Phil 3:5), customarily by the boy’s father (Gn 17:23; 21:4; Acts 7:8), at which time a name would be given (Lk 1:59; 2:21). Flint knives were used in the early days (Ex 4:25; Jos 5:2-3). Later, the rite was carried out by a trained practitioner called a mohel<\/span>.<\/em> Medical research has determined that prothrombin, a substance in the blood that aids in clotting, is present in greater quantity on the eighth day than at any other time in life.<\/p>\n<h5>Theological Meaning<\/h5>\nCircumcision had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning Abraham’s descendants (Gn 17:9-12). Because it was applied to the reproductive organ, the sign involved the propagation of the race. Its application to the eight-day-old infant demonstrates the gracious character of God’s promise to Abraham’s descendants and indicates that God’s people are in need of cleansing grace from birth (Lv 12:1-3). The promises of the covenant were reaffirmed to each generation before the recipients were able to respond in either faith or unbelief; nothing in the hearts of the chosen people could either bring about or thwart the ultimate fulfillment of the promises given to Abraham and his posterity.<\/p>\nCircumcision also had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning the land (Gn 17:8). The land was God’s holy possession, and the Israelites had to be holy to possess it. When Joseph and his descendants were in Egypt, they continued to circumcise their sons. But following the great sin at Mt Sinai after the exodus, the unbelieving Israelites failed to place the covenant sign upon their children as they wandered in the wilderness. Because the new generation had not been circumcised, the people were unprepared to enter the Promised Land. Therefore, God ordered Joshua to circumcise the men of Israel. The people’s obedient response was an act of faith, since the armies of the enemy were camped nearby as the Israelite warriors lay incapacitated by the surgery (Jos 5:2-9).<\/p>\nFrom the beginning, participation in the covenant promises was open to persons outside Abraham’s household (Gn 17:12-13). Exodus 12:43-49 gives non-Israelites the opportunity to participate in the Passover if they are willing to fulfill the same stipulation placed upon the Jews—that of circumcision.<\/p>\nThe provision for admission to God’s people by reception of the covenant sign was abused by Jacob’s sons when circumcision was made a precondition for intermarriage with the Shechemites. While the Shechemites were disabled by their wounds, Simeon and Levi killed them, plundering the city to exact retribution for the rape of their sister Dinah (Gn 34).<\/p>\nThe sign of the covenant was not to be treated lightly. The penalty of excommunication rested upon the uncircumcised (Gn 17:14). The strange incident recorded in Exodus 4:24-26 seems to have been God’s reminder to Moses of the stipulations of the covenant made with Abraham. Moses had proved an unfaithful servant of the Lord by neglecting to circumcise his son but was rescued from judgment when his wife Zipporah took a flint rock and circumcised the boy, throwing the bloody foreskin at her husband’s feet.<\/p>\n\nCircumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\nJohn the Baptist was circumcised, as were Jesus and Paul (Lk 1:59; 2:21; Phil 3:5). Jesus recognized the cleansing significance of circumcision (Jn 7:22-23), contrasting the rite with his healing ministry that made a man completely well and therefore ceremonially “clean.” Just before he was stoned, Stephen referred to the covenant of circumcision, charging that his Jewish accusers, like their ancestors, were stiff-necked and uncircumcised in heart and ears, always resisting the Holy Spirit (Acts 7:8, 51).<\/p>\nFor a time the first Christians continued to participate in the Jewish rites and customs, even attending the services of the temple (Acts 3:1; 5:21, 42). As Gentiles came to Christ, controversy arose between those who said that participation in the covenant community required circumcision and those who believed the rite was unnecessary. It was argued that since the covenant promise of the Messiah was given to the Jews, Gentiles must first be circumcised and become Jews before they could receive salvation in Christ.<\/p>\nIn the time of Christ, many Jews misunderstood the significance of circumcision, believing that the physical act was necessary for and a guarantee of salvation. Thus for Jews the observance became not only a symbol of religious privilege but also a source of racial pride (Phil 3:4-6). These Jews associated the ceremony with the Mosaic law rather than the promise to Abraham (Jn 7:22; Acts 15:1). Because Greeks and Romans did not practice circumcision, Jews had come to be called “the circumcision” (kjv<\/span> Acts 10:45; 11:2; Rom 15:8; Gal 2:7-9; Eph 2:11; Ti 1:10), and following OT practice (Ez 28:10; 31:18; 32:19-32), Gentiles were termed “the uncircumcision” (kjv<\/span> Gal 2:7; Eph 2:11).<\/p>\nWhile visiting Caesarea, Jewish believers were amazed to realize that uncircumcised Gentiles received the purifying gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts 10:44-48). Moses had promised that God would circumcise the hearts of his people to love the Lord with heart and soul (Dt 30:6), and Ezekiel had prophesied that the Lord would sprinkle clean water on his people, giving them a new heart and putting his Spirit within them (Ez 36:25-27). As these Jewish believers saw the prophecy that God would pour out his Spirit upon all flesh (Jl 2:28; Acts 2:17) being fulfilled, they realized that the inward reality symbolized by circumcision could be accomplished without the physical sign. Thus, the gentile believers were immediately baptized.<\/p>\nNot all the Jewish believers were immediately willing to accept Gentiles into the church. When Peter returned to Jerusalem after his visit to Caesarea, “the circumcision party” criticized him. But after telling how the Spirit had fallen upon the Gentiles, Peter declared that he could not stand against God. At this the Jewish believers were silenced and glorified God that repentance unto life had been granted to Gentiles (Acts 11:1-3, 15:8).<\/p>\nCertain “Judaizers” of the Pharisaic party taught the Christians in Antioch that circumcision was necessary for salvation (Acts 15:1, 5). After debating these persons, Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles and elders (v 2). Peter argued that God had given the Spirit to Gentiles and “cleansed their hearts by faith,” affirming that “we believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus, just as they will” (vv 8-9, 11, rsv<\/span>). Therefore, James and the other Jerusalem leaders agreed that circumcision should not be imposed on the Gentiles (vv 13-21).<\/p>\nIt was decided that Peter, James, and John would be entrusted with the gospel to “the circumcised,” while Paul and Barnabas would preach to “the uncircumcised” (Gal 2:7-9). Because of his evangelistic policy to be “all things to all people” with respect to spiritually indifferent matters of custom (1 Cor 9:19-23), Paul had Timothy circumcised. Timothy was reckoned by Jews as one of their race because his mother was Jewish (Acts 16:1-2). But Paul resisted attempts to have Titus circumcised, since he was a Gentile (Gal 2:3). Paul apparently allowed Jewish believers to circumcise their sons (Acts 21:21).<\/p>\nYet Paul charged that those who argued that the Galatian Christians must be circumcised and keep the law did not keep it themselves but wanted to boast in the Galatians’ flesh and avoid persecution for the cross of Christ (Gal 6:12-13)—persecution Paul was willing to bear (5:11). Granting for the sake of argument the Pharisaic assumption that salvation could be merited by keeping the law, Paul declared that those who received circumcision must obey every other Jewish law (vv 2-3). Christ would be “of no advantage” to those who “would be justified by the law”; this attempt at works righteousness would evidence that the Galatians were “severed from Christ,” having “fallen from grace” (vv 2-4). These Christians were being tempted to turn to “a different gospel” (1:6-7).<\/p>\nBecause of the serious threat the Judaizers posed to the gospel of free grace, Paul wished that those who unsettled the Galatians would “mutilate themselves” (Gal 5:12). He termed the Judaizers “dogs” and “evil workers” (kjv<\/span> “concision”), asserting that Christians are “the true circumcision,” because they worship God in spirit and glory in Christ Jesus, putting no confidence in human works to merit salvation (Phil 3:2-3).<\/p>\nPaul taught that circumcision was indeed of value to Jews, for it was the sign that to them had been committed the “oracles of God,” that is, God’s word concerning the promise of salvation (Rom 3:1-3). He reminded the prideful Ephesians that as Gentiles they had once been “strangers to the covenants of promise,” not bearing the covenant sign in their flesh (Eph 2:11-12; see Col 2:13). Likewise, Jews had no cause for pride, for disobedience could cause outward circumcision to be counted as uncircumcision (Rom 2:25).<\/p>\nPaul and the other apostles followed Moses and the OT prophets in teaching that true circumcision was a matter of the heart. The teaching of the NT goes further to affirm that a faithful believer, though physically uncircumcised, is regarded by God as circumcised, “for he is not a real Jew who is one outwardly, nor is true circumcision something external and physical” (Rom 2:28, rsv<\/span>). Both Jews and Gentiles are saved by grace (Acts 15:11), and circumcised and uncircumcised alike are justified on the ground of their faith, apart from works of the law (Rom 3:28-30).<\/p>\nAbraham served as an example of a person whose faith was reckoned to him as righteousness (Rom 4:3; see Gn 15:6). Paul argued that both Gentiles and Jews are justified by faith, because Abraham was accounted righteous before he was circumcised. Abraham did not receive circumcision to obtain righteousness, but as a sign or seal of the righteousness that he had by faith while he was still uncircumcised. Thus, Abraham is the father of all who believe without being circumcised, as well as those who are circumcised but also follow the example of Abraham’s faith (Rom 4:9-12; see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Baptism; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Uncircumcision.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CIRCUMCISION Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after bi...","summary_en":"CIRCUMCISION Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after bi...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30214,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter to the Philippians","title_en":"Letter to the Philippians","content_ro":"<h3>PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the<\/span><\/h3>\nOne of Paul’s Prison Epistles.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date and Origin<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Theological Themes<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nPhilippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary.<\/p>\nDate and Origin<\/p>\nWhile it is clear that Paul was writing from prison (Phil 1:12-13), it is not clear where he was imprisoned. The most likely possibility is Rome, in which case the date would be around AD<\/span> 62. But some have thought that all the journeys implied in 4:14 and 2:25-26 make such a distant place unlikely (the Philippians hear that Paul is in prison and send a gift by Epaphroditus; Epaphroditus hears in Rome that the Philippians have heard that he has been ill). So the alternatives of Ephesus (c. AD<\/span> 55) and Caesarea (c. AD<\/span> 58) have been proposed. We know that Paul was imprisoned in Caesarea (Acts 23:33-35), but the greeting “from those of Caesar’s household” is difficult to explain if it was written there, in spite of the coincidence of name. Ephesus is certainly near enough to Philippi for plenty of interchange, but no imprisonment is recorded in the account of Paul’s ministry there in Acts. So we would have to assume that Luke’s account in Acts 19 is not complete and that Paul had been placed in protective custody at the time of the riot (see esp. 19:30-31). But such an imprisonment could hardly have led Paul to wonder whether his time “to depart and be with Christ” had now come (Phil 1:23). At the time of writing, he was clearly facing a capital charge.<\/p>\nThe traditional location (Rome) seems the most satisfactory, especially when one reflects that Paul was imprisoned there for at least two years (Acts 28:30), and that it took about three weeks to travel from Rome to Philippi.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nPhilippi had the distinction of being a Roman colony (Acts 16:12), a privilege accorded to only a few cities outside Italy. Some 90 years before the gospel arrived there (c. AD<\/span> 50), the city had been greatly expanded by large numbers of Roman soldiers, who were settled there by their commanding officers. As a consequence, the town acquired its coveted status as a colony, which meant that for all intents and purposes its citizens were treated as if they lived in Italy, and the town had a fully Roman administration. Paul alludes to this status in Philippians 3:20, where he teaches that Christians likewise are citizens of another city, the heavenly one, while yet residents elsewhere. It was a rich and busy place, one of the main centers of life in Macedonia, and consequently was “home” to the adherents of many different religions, from both east and west. There was a strong Jewish community there, as well as pagans of many sorts.<\/p>\nTheological Themes<\/p>\nIn a sense Paul’s imprisonment is not just background material but lies at the heart of the letter’s message. In his imprisonment he was experiencing the abasement that he mentions in 4:12, using there the same word found in 2:8 to describe the self-humbling of Christ unto death. The pattern of the ministry of Jesus described in the great “hymn” of 2:6-11—humiliation followed by glorification—becomes the pattern of Paul’s own life and of the vision he holds out before the Philippians. So alongside abasement and suffering, joy is the other great theme of the letter. Within suffering and self-sacrifice, true joy is born. In fact, Philippians could justly be titled “The Epistle of Joy.” Other prominent themes include the gospel, the Day of the Lord, and in addition to the famous “hymn” in chapter 2, a comparison of Paul’s Jewish past with his present Christian experience (3:4-16).<\/p>\n\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting and Opening Prayer (1:1-11)<\/h5>\nIn the opening paragraph of his letter, Paul presents the themes that will be uppermost in his mind throughout. His personal warmth toward the Philippians is immediately striking: “I have you in my heart. . . . I long for all of you” (1:7-8), and this thought of outgoing and suffering love undergirds the whole letter. It is notable, too, that the letter begins and ends with the themes of “grace” and of “the saints” (1:1-2; 4:21-23). The grace of Christ, which reaches out to sinful people and transforms them, separating them from the world, occupies Paul throughout. “The saints” are the ones who, touched by that grace, are transformed in heart and mind, so that their love abounds more and more in knowledge and depth of insight (1:9).<\/p>\nTwo more great themes appear here. The Greek word phroneo<\/span>,<\/em> “to think,” is used more in Philippians than in any other letter of Paul, no fewer than nine times (as against seven in Romans). Unfortunately, it is not uniformly translated in the English versions, and so it is hard for the English reader to notice its repeated appearance and the emphasis on the right use of the mind that goes with it. But for Paul this is vital: the way we think is at the heart of the Christian life, and in these opening verses he makes it clear that the love he feels for the Philippians is actually the Christian way of thinking about them (v 7: literally, “It is right for me to think this way about you”). This leads naturally to another emphasis—growth. For the “Christian mind” does not appear overnight. So Paul prays that this mind may grow, giving the Philippians powers of discernment that will transform their character and prepare them for “the day of Christ” (vv 10-11; cf. v 6).<\/p>\nFinally, we note in this opening prayer the twin emphases on the gospel and on fellowship—linked in Paul’s prayer of thanksgiving for the Philippians’ partnership in the gospel (v 5; cf. v 7)—and also the introduction of the great theme of joy (v 4). All three are vital to the whole letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul and His Imprisonment: Christ Exalted (1:12-26)<\/h5>\nPaul writes about his own situation to present the heart of his message. For when he writes, “For me to live is Christ” (v 21), he means more than that his every waking moment is taken up by fellowship with his Lord and service for him. He means also that, in his own person and experience, he displays Christ and “lives” him. Later he will say, “Keep putting into practice all you learned from me and heard from me and saw me doing” (4:9, nlt<\/span>). Few Christian ministers would dare make such a claim today! Yet Paul believed that, as an apostle of Christ, it was his privilege not just to speak on Christ’s behalf but also to live out Christ’s life in his own person, even if that meant suffering and humiliation.<\/p>\nThere are two historical difficulties here. First, it is hard to reconstruct the situation to which Paul refers in 1:12-18. The church in Rome (if that is where he is) was clearly divided about his imprisonment—some believers actually being glad that he was behind bars. It seems as though they were prompted by his imprisonment to get on with preaching their own version of the gospel. Far from being upset by this, Paul is delighted! “What does it matter?” he asks (v 18). Whether by friend or foe, Christ is being proclaimed in a new way as a result of his imprisonment (v 14). He was normally quick to defend the purity of the Word proclaimed, so these rivals of Paul could not have been heretics.<\/p>\nThe other historical difficulty surrounds verses 19-26. At one moment Paul seems not to know what the outcome of imprisonment will be (vv 19-21). Yet he then suggests that he can choose whether to live or die (v 22), and finally tells the Philippians that he is sure he will remain alive (v 25). The best explanation is that Paul believed he had received a personal assurance from the Holy Spirit that his imprisonment would not end with his execution.<\/p>\nAt any rate, his attitude about his own death is most moving. He expected deliverance, whether by life or by death (vv 19-20), and had an unshakeable confidence that to die is “better by far” (v 23), because it means being “with Christ.” This section ends with a note of joy.<\/p>\n<h5>The Life Worthy of the Gospel (1:27–2:18)<\/h5>\nThis section ends with “joy,” just as the last did, and its whole message is summed up in the opening exhortation of verse 27. Paul wanted the Philippians to be people in whom there is no gap between profession and practice, in whom the gospel believed is the gospel lived. The section falls into four portions, which might be entitled as follows: (1) 1:27-30—the worthy life in a hostile world; (2) 2:1-4—the worthy life in Christian fellowship; (3) 2:5-11—the gospel that inspires us; (4) 2:12-18—priorities for lives worthy of the gospel.<\/p>\nPaul refused to let the Philippians feel that he was worse off than they. He wrote, “We are in this fight together. You have seen me suffer for him in the past, and you know that I am still in the midst of this great struggle” (1:30, nlt<\/span>). For suffering at the hands of a hostile world is part and parcel of Christian discipleship. If we profess to believe a gospel about one who, though equal with God, left aside the glory of heaven and submitted not just to incarnation but also to a horrible death (2:6-8), then we must think of suffering not as an unfortunate necessity but as a privilege! “For you have been given not only the privilege of trusting in Christ but also the privilege of suffering for him” (1:29, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe essential quality the believers need, in order to face successfully the hostility of the world, is unity. They must be “standing side by side, fighting together for the Good News” (1:27), and believing one gospel will produce a united front against the world—and not a purely defensive front, either. The theme of unity continues into chapter 2, where Paul turns to life within the fellowship (2:1-4), as if to say that external unity before the world will not be possible unless their hearts and minds are truly united in one love, spirit, and purpose (v 2), whatever their outward situation. Such a unity will come only if there is tenderness and compassion among them (v 1). The lovely progression in verse 1 reaches a climax with this phrase, and that in turn leads into the famous “hymn” in 2:6-11. Such tenderness will not find its home in their hearts unless they believe the gospel about which the hymn sings.<\/p>\nWhether 2:6-11 was in fact a real hymn, sung in the context of early Christian worship, is now impossible to know for sure. Certainly Paul’s language here takes on a hymnic quality, though it is not in poetic form. Many scholars have thought that Paul did not write these verses himself but was quoting a well-known piece of liturgy. All one can say for certain is that his language changes in style, and he expressed here ideas that are unique in his writings.<\/p>\nThe hymn blends in with its context beautifully, and in fact forms the core of the whole letter. For we see here how the experience of imprisonment and deliverance, and of suffering and joy, is an entering into the experience of Jesus himself, who died and rose, was humbled and glorified.<\/p>\n<h5>Two Worthy Examples and Friends (2:19-30)<\/h5>\nPaul again writes about his own situation and plans, but as before, this section is not just concerned with practical arrangements. On the face of it, he was simply explaining why he was sending the letter by the hand of Epaphroditus instead of Timothy. But actually he was holding them up as practical examples of the life lived by the gospel, about which he had just written. Timothy “genuinely cares about your welfare” (2:20), because, unlike everyone else, he did not seek his own interests but those of Jesus Christ (v 21). He lived the gospel! He was committed to the work of the gospel (v 22). And Epaphroditus was the same, though in a different way. His union with Jesus was expressed not so much in his self-giving service for the gospel and his fellow saints, as in the illness that he suffered and the pains of separation that he endured. Like Jesus, he put his life on the line (v 30), and like Jesus, he was restored to life again (v 27). Now he was to be restored to his beloved Philippians, and the joy that they would experience together would be a further outworking of the gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>Pressing Forward and Standing Firm (3:1–4:1)<\/h5>\nThis section also begins and ends on the note of joy (3:1; 4:1)—not accidentally. The way of the cross that Paul describes is also the way of joy (cf. Heb 12:2). It begins and ends also with the address “dear brothers and sisters,” and this, too, is not accidental, for once again in this passage Paul writes about himself, and once again the underlying thought is that his experience is typical and that his readers should expect and seek to see the same pattern in their lives. He wrote, “Dear brothers and sisters, pattern your lives after mine, and learn from those who follow our example” (3:17, nlt<\/span>). Having put forward Timothy and Epaphroditus as examples in 2:19-30, Paul now does the same with himself.<\/p>\nThe tone seems to change dramatically in 3:2, as Paul turns to warn the Philippians against “those dogs,” who are probably the same as those to whom he refers in 1:28 as “your enemies.” There, he was much concerned about the inner foundation of the Philippians’ stand against them, so he did not specify who they were. But now he examines them more closely, in order to show the Philippians that the Christian life entails a complete reversal of the values held by their opponents.<\/p>\nIt seems that they were Jews, the sort in Acts 17:5 who opposed Paul’s ministry in nearby Thessalonica. They believed that they were God’s chosen race, but Paul thought that was nothing more than placing confidence in the flesh (Phil 3:4). They thought they knew the way of righteousness—it is the way of rigorous and disciplined obedience to God’s law in every detail of life. But Paul thought that was to seek a righteousness of one’s own (v 9), having nothing to do with the righteousness that God wants to give. The true way to be God’s people, he movingly insists, is the way of self-renunciation, so that all he previously held dear as a Jew came to be seen as rubbish (v 8), considered as loss for the sake of Christ (v 7). The only way to attain righteousness is through faith in Christ (v 9), for Christians must become like him in his death if they are to know the power of his resurrection (v 10). For Paul, dying with Christ meant not just suffering imprisonment and many other indignities for Christ’s sake but also renouncing all the prized possessions that his Judaism had given him.<\/p>\n<h5>Thinking, Rejoicing, Sharing (4:2-23)<\/h5>\nAgain, the tone changes suddenly (both at 4:2 and at 4:10)—so much so that some scholars have suggested that Philippians was compiled by an editor using several different letters. But when Paul turns (in v 2) to address Euodia and Syntyche, he was not really changing the subject. The link with the last section is the same as that between 1:27-30 and the first paragraph in chapter 2: how can Christians expect to be able to hold their own in the face of some enemies of the cross of Christ (3:18) if they are disunited and at odds with each other? For if there is just one gospel, disharmony between Christians means that the gospel is not having its full effect. So Euodia and Syntyche are urged (literally) to “think the same thing in the Lord” (4:2), and are then reminded of how they once found a wonderful unity in striving side by side in the cause of the gospel (v 3).<\/p>\nThe agreement that Paul urges them to come to does not mean complete identity of opinions on all subjects. It means a oneness of heart in a common love for Christ and the gospel. In the rest of the letter Paul spells out what this oneness means in practice—both what it should mean and what it has meant for the Philippians. The use of the mind is vital, and in verses 4-9 Paul paints a picture of the Christian life in which careful and intelligent prayer (vv 6-7) and the deliberate directing of the mind toward “whatever is true and honorable” (v 8) will produce a life marked by the two qualities of peace and joy, whatever the circumstances.<\/p>\nThat leads to the final paragraph, in which Paul gives thanks that, in spite of the disharmony evident in one part of the Philippian church, the church as a whole has already displayed this true Christian “mind.” For they have shown their oneness with Paul in the cause of the gospel by sending him a gift by Epaphroditus. “You have done well to share with me in my present difficulty,” Paul writes (4:14), and our thoughts go back again to the hymn in 2:6-11. From the gospel about the one who came from heaven to bear our burdens comes this mutual sharing—and so does Paul’s wonderful attitude to his circumstances: “I know how to be humbled [the same word as in 2:8], and I know how to abound” (4:12). Joined to Christ, we do not anxiously seek provision for our needs (v 17; cf. v 6), but share with him and with others whatever humiliation and exaltation he sends, confident that God will meet all our needs “from his glorious riches, which have been given to us in Christ Jesus” (4:19, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Philippi.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the<\/span><\/h3>\nOne of Paul’s Prison Epistles.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date and Origin<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Theological Themes<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nPhilippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary.<\/p>\nDate and Origin<\/p>\nWhile it is clear that Paul was writing from prison (Phil 1:12-13), it is not clear where he was imprisoned. The most likely possibility is Rome, in which case the date would be around AD<\/span> 62. But some have thought that all the journeys implied in 4:14 and 2:25-26 make such a distant place unlikely (the Philippians hear that Paul is in prison and send a gift by Epaphroditus; Epaphroditus hears in Rome that the Philippians have heard that he has been ill). So the alternatives of Ephesus (c. AD<\/span> 55) and Caesarea (c. AD<\/span> 58) have been proposed. We know that Paul was imprisoned in Caesarea (Acts 23:33-35), but the greeting “from those of Caesar’s household” is difficult to explain if it was written there, in spite of the coincidence of name. Ephesus is certainly near enough to Philippi for plenty of interchange, but no imprisonment is recorded in the account of Paul’s ministry there in Acts. So we would have to assume that Luke’s account in Acts 19 is not complete and that Paul had been placed in protective custody at the time of the riot (see esp. 19:30-31). But such an imprisonment could hardly have led Paul to wonder whether his time “to depart and be with Christ” had now come (Phil 1:23). At the time of writing, he was clearly facing a capital charge.<\/p>\nThe traditional location (Rome) seems the most satisfactory, especially when one reflects that Paul was imprisoned there for at least two years (Acts 28:30), and that it took about three weeks to travel from Rome to Philippi.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nPhilippi had the distinction of being a Roman colony (Acts 16:12), a privilege accorded to only a few cities outside Italy. Some 90 years before the gospel arrived there (c. AD<\/span> 50), the city had been greatly expanded by large numbers of Roman soldiers, who were settled there by their commanding officers. As a consequence, the town acquired its coveted status as a colony, which meant that for all intents and purposes its citizens were treated as if they lived in Italy, and the town had a fully Roman administration. Paul alludes to this status in Philippians 3:20, where he teaches that Christians likewise are citizens of another city, the heavenly one, while yet residents elsewhere. It was a rich and busy place, one of the main centers of life in Macedonia, and consequently was “home” to the adherents of many different religions, from both east and west. There was a strong Jewish community there, as well as pagans of many sorts.<\/p>\nTheological Themes<\/p>\nIn a sense Paul’s imprisonment is not just background material but lies at the heart of the letter’s message. In his imprisonment he was experiencing the abasement that he mentions in 4:12, using there the same word found in 2:8 to describe the self-humbling of Christ unto death. The pattern of the ministry of Jesus described in the great “hymn” of 2:6-11—humiliation followed by glorification—becomes the pattern of Paul’s own life and of the vision he holds out before the Philippians. So alongside abasement and suffering, joy is the other great theme of the letter. Within suffering and self-sacrifice, true joy is born. In fact, Philippians could justly be titled “The Epistle of Joy.” Other prominent themes include the gospel, the Day of the Lord, and in addition to the famous “hymn” in chapter 2, a comparison of Paul’s Jewish past with his present Christian experience (3:4-16).<\/p>\n\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting and Opening Prayer (1:1-11)<\/h5>\nIn the opening paragraph of his letter, Paul presents the themes that will be uppermost in his mind throughout. His personal warmth toward the Philippians is immediately striking: “I have you in my heart. . . . I long for all of you” (1:7-8), and this thought of outgoing and suffering love undergirds the whole letter. It is notable, too, that the letter begins and ends with the themes of “grace” and of “the saints” (1:1-2; 4:21-23). The grace of Christ, which reaches out to sinful people and transforms them, separating them from the world, occupies Paul throughout. “The saints” are the ones who, touched by that grace, are transformed in heart and mind, so that their love abounds more and more in knowledge and depth of insight (1:9).<\/p>\nTwo more great themes appear here. The Greek word phroneo<\/span>,<\/em> “to think,” is used more in Philippians than in any other letter of Paul, no fewer than nine times (as against seven in Romans). Unfortunately, it is not uniformly translated in the English versions, and so it is hard for the English reader to notice its repeated appearance and the emphasis on the right use of the mind that goes with it. But for Paul this is vital: the way we think is at the heart of the Christian life, and in these opening verses he makes it clear that the love he feels for the Philippians is actually the Christian way of thinking about them (v 7: literally, “It is right for me to think this way about you”). This leads naturally to another emphasis—growth. For the “Christian mind” does not appear overnight. So Paul prays that this mind may grow, giving the Philippians powers of discernment that will transform their character and prepare them for “the day of Christ” (vv 10-11; cf. v 6).<\/p>\nFinally, we note in this opening prayer the twin emphases on the gospel and on fellowship—linked in Paul’s prayer of thanksgiving for the Philippians’ partnership in the gospel (v 5; cf. v 7)—and also the introduction of the great theme of joy (v 4). All three are vital to the whole letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul and His Imprisonment: Christ Exalted (1:12-26)<\/h5>\nPaul writes about his own situation to present the heart of his message. For when he writes, “For me to live is Christ” (v 21), he means more than that his every waking moment is taken up by fellowship with his Lord and service for him. He means also that, in his own person and experience, he displays Christ and “lives” him. Later he will say, “Keep putting into practice all you learned from me and heard from me and saw me doing” (4:9, nlt<\/span>). Few Christian ministers would dare make such a claim today! Yet Paul believed that, as an apostle of Christ, it was his privilege not just to speak on Christ’s behalf but also to live out Christ’s life in his own person, even if that meant suffering and humiliation.<\/p>\nThere are two historical difficulties here. First, it is hard to reconstruct the situation to which Paul refers in 1:12-18. The church in Rome (if that is where he is) was clearly divided about his imprisonment—some believers actually being glad that he was behind bars. It seems as though they were prompted by his imprisonment to get on with preaching their own version of the gospel. Far from being upset by this, Paul is delighted! “What does it matter?” he asks (v 18). Whether by friend or foe, Christ is being proclaimed in a new way as a result of his imprisonment (v 14). He was normally quick to defend the purity of the Word proclaimed, so these rivals of Paul could not have been heretics.<\/p>\nThe other historical difficulty surrounds verses 19-26. At one moment Paul seems not to know what the outcome of imprisonment will be (vv 19-21). Yet he then suggests that he can choose whether to live or die (v 22), and finally tells the Philippians that he is sure he will remain alive (v 25). The best explanation is that Paul believed he had received a personal assurance from the Holy Spirit that his imprisonment would not end with his execution.<\/p>\nAt any rate, his attitude about his own death is most moving. He expected deliverance, whether by life or by death (vv 19-20), and had an unshakeable confidence that to die is “better by far” (v 23), because it means being “with Christ.” This section ends with a note of joy.<\/p>\n<h5>The Life Worthy of the Gospel (1:27–2:18)<\/h5>\nThis section ends with “joy,” just as the last did, and its whole message is summed up in the opening exhortation of verse 27. Paul wanted the Philippians to be people in whom there is no gap between profession and practice, in whom the gospel believed is the gospel lived. The section falls into four portions, which might be entitled as follows: (1) 1:27-30—the worthy life in a hostile world; (2) 2:1-4—the worthy life in Christian fellowship; (3) 2:5-11—the gospel that inspires us; (4) 2:12-18—priorities for lives worthy of the gospel.<\/p>\nPaul refused to let the Philippians feel that he was worse off than they. He wrote, “We are in this fight together. You have seen me suffer for him in the past, and you know that I am still in the midst of this great struggle” (1:30, nlt<\/span>). For suffering at the hands of a hostile world is part and parcel of Christian discipleship. If we profess to believe a gospel about one who, though equal with God, left aside the glory of heaven and submitted not just to incarnation but also to a horrible death (2:6-8), then we must think of suffering not as an unfortunate necessity but as a privilege! “For you have been given not only the privilege of trusting in Christ but also the privilege of suffering for him” (1:29, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe essential quality the believers need, in order to face successfully the hostility of the world, is unity. They must be “standing side by side, fighting together for the Good News” (1:27), and believing one gospel will produce a united front against the world—and not a purely defensive front, either. The theme of unity continues into chapter 2, where Paul turns to life within the fellowship (2:1-4), as if to say that external unity before the world will not be possible unless their hearts and minds are truly united in one love, spirit, and purpose (v 2), whatever their outward situation. Such a unity will come only if there is tenderness and compassion among them (v 1). The lovely progression in verse 1 reaches a climax with this phrase, and that in turn leads into the famous “hymn” in 2:6-11. Such tenderness will not find its home in their hearts unless they believe the gospel about which the hymn sings.<\/p>\nWhether 2:6-11 was in fact a real hymn, sung in the context of early Christian worship, is now impossible to know for sure. Certainly Paul’s language here takes on a hymnic quality, though it is not in poetic form. Many scholars have thought that Paul did not write these verses himself but was quoting a well-known piece of liturgy. All one can say for certain is that his language changes in style, and he expressed here ideas that are unique in his writings.<\/p>\nThe hymn blends in with its context beautifully, and in fact forms the core of the whole letter. For we see here how the experience of imprisonment and deliverance, and of suffering and joy, is an entering into the experience of Jesus himself, who died and rose, was humbled and glorified.<\/p>\n<h5>Two Worthy Examples and Friends (2:19-30)<\/h5>\nPaul again writes about his own situation and plans, but as before, this section is not just concerned with practical arrangements. On the face of it, he was simply explaining why he was sending the letter by the hand of Epaphroditus instead of Timothy. But actually he was holding them up as practical examples of the life lived by the gospel, about which he had just written. Timothy “genuinely cares about your welfare” (2:20), because, unlike everyone else, he did not seek his own interests but those of Jesus Christ (v 21). He lived the gospel! He was committed to the work of the gospel (v 22). And Epaphroditus was the same, though in a different way. His union with Jesus was expressed not so much in his self-giving service for the gospel and his fellow saints, as in the illness that he suffered and the pains of separation that he endured. Like Jesus, he put his life on the line (v 30), and like Jesus, he was restored to life again (v 27). Now he was to be restored to his beloved Philippians, and the joy that they would experience together would be a further outworking of the gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>Pressing Forward and Standing Firm (3:1–4:1)<\/h5>\nThis section also begins and ends on the note of joy (3:1; 4:1)—not accidentally. The way of the cross that Paul describes is also the way of joy (cf. Heb 12:2). It begins and ends also with the address “dear brothers and sisters,” and this, too, is not accidental, for once again in this passage Paul writes about himself, and once again the underlying thought is that his experience is typical and that his readers should expect and seek to see the same pattern in their lives. He wrote, “Dear brothers and sisters, pattern your lives after mine, and learn from those who follow our example” (3:17, nlt<\/span>). Having put forward Timothy and Epaphroditus as examples in 2:19-30, Paul now does the same with himself.<\/p>\nThe tone seems to change dramatically in 3:2, as Paul turns to warn the Philippians against “those dogs,” who are probably the same as those to whom he refers in 1:28 as “your enemies.” There, he was much concerned about the inner foundation of the Philippians’ stand against them, so he did not specify who they were. But now he examines them more closely, in order to show the Philippians that the Christian life entails a complete reversal of the values held by their opponents.<\/p>\nIt seems that they were Jews, the sort in Acts 17:5 who opposed Paul’s ministry in nearby Thessalonica. They believed that they were God’s chosen race, but Paul thought that was nothing more than placing confidence in the flesh (Phil 3:4). They thought they knew the way of righteousness—it is the way of rigorous and disciplined obedience to God’s law in every detail of life. But Paul thought that was to seek a righteousness of one’s own (v 9), having nothing to do with the righteousness that God wants to give. The true way to be God’s people, he movingly insists, is the way of self-renunciation, so that all he previously held dear as a Jew came to be seen as rubbish (v 8), considered as loss for the sake of Christ (v 7). The only way to attain righteousness is through faith in Christ (v 9), for Christians must become like him in his death if they are to know the power of his resurrection (v 10). For Paul, dying with Christ meant not just suffering imprisonment and many other indignities for Christ’s sake but also renouncing all the prized possessions that his Judaism had given him.<\/p>\n<h5>Thinking, Rejoicing, Sharing (4:2-23)<\/h5>\nAgain, the tone changes suddenly (both at 4:2 and at 4:10)—so much so that some scholars have suggested that Philippians was compiled by an editor using several different letters. But when Paul turns (in v 2) to address Euodia and Syntyche, he was not really changing the subject. The link with the last section is the same as that between 1:27-30 and the first paragraph in chapter 2: how can Christians expect to be able to hold their own in the face of some enemies of the cross of Christ (3:18) if they are disunited and at odds with each other? For if there is just one gospel, disharmony between Christians means that the gospel is not having its full effect. So Euodia and Syntyche are urged (literally) to “think the same thing in the Lord” (4:2), and are then reminded of how they once found a wonderful unity in striving side by side in the cause of the gospel (v 3).<\/p>\nThe agreement that Paul urges them to come to does not mean complete identity of opinions on all subjects. It means a oneness of heart in a common love for Christ and the gospel. In the rest of the letter Paul spells out what this oneness means in practice—both what it should mean and what it has meant for the Philippians. The use of the mind is vital, and in verses 4-9 Paul paints a picture of the Christian life in which careful and intelligent prayer (vv 6-7) and the deliberate directing of the mind toward “whatever is true and honorable” (v 8) will produce a life marked by the two qualities of peace and joy, whatever the circumstances.<\/p>\nThat leads to the final paragraph, in which Paul gives thanks that, in spite of the disharmony evident in one part of the Philippian church, the church as a whole has already displayed this true Christian “mind.” For they have shown their oneness with Paul in the cause of the gospel by sending him a gift by Epaphroditus. “You have done well to share with me in my present difficulty,” Paul writes (4:14), and our thoughts go back again to the hymn in 2:6-11. From the gospel about the one who came from heaven to bear our burdens comes this mutual sharing—and so does Paul’s wonderful attitude to his circumstances: “I know how to be humbled [the same word as in 2:8], and I know how to abound” (4:12). Joined to Christ, we do not anxiously seek provision for our needs (v 17; cf. v 6), but share with him and with others whatever humiliation and exaltation he sends, confident that God will meet all our needs “from his glorious riches, which have been given to us in Christ Jesus” (4:19, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Philippi.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the One of Paul’s Prison Epistles. Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Theological Themes • Content Author Philippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary. Date and Origin While it is clear ...","summary_en":"PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the One of Paul’s Prison Epistles. Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Theological Themes • Content Author Philippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary. Date and Origin While it is clear ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":58260,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:4","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:4","content_ro":"3:4<\/strong> in my own effort<\/em> (literally in the flesh<\/em>): Paul uses flesh<\/em> here for self-reliance and human effort in contrast to reliance on Christ and empowerment by the Spirit.<\/p>","content_en":"3:4<\/strong> in my own effort<\/em> (literally in the flesh<\/em>): Paul uses flesh<\/em> here for self-reliance and human effort in contrast to reliance on Christ and empowerment by the Spirit.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:4 in my own effort (literally in the flesh): Paul uses flesh here for self-reliance and human effort in contrast to reliance on Christ and empowerment by the Spirit.","summary_en":"3:4 in my own effort (literally in the flesh): Paul uses flesh here for self-reliance and human effort in contrast to reliance on Christ and empowerment by the Spirit.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85886,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:4","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:4","content_ro":"3:4<\/strong> in my own effort<\/em> (literally in the flesh<\/em>): Paul uses flesh<\/em> here for self-reliance and human effort in contrast to reliance on Christ and empowerment by the Spirit.<\/p>","content_en":"3:4<\/strong> in my own effort<\/em> (literally in the flesh<\/em>): Paul uses flesh<\/em> here for self-reliance and human effort in contrast to reliance on Christ and empowerment by the Spirit.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:4 in my own effort (literally in the flesh): Paul uses flesh here for self-reliance and human effort in contrast to reliance on Christ and empowerment by the Spirit.","summary_en":"3:4 in my own effort (literally in the flesh): Paul uses flesh here for self-reliance and human effort in contrast to reliance on Christ and empowerment by the Spirit.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113512,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:4","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:4","content_ro":"3:4<\/strong> in my own effort<\/em> (literally in the flesh<\/em>): Paul uses flesh<\/em> here for self-reliance and human effort in contrast to reliance on Christ and empowerment by the Spirit.<\/p>","content_en":"3:4<\/strong> in my own effort<\/em> (literally in the flesh<\/em>): Paul uses flesh<\/em> here for self-reliance and human effort in contrast to reliance on Christ and empowerment by the Spirit.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:4 in my own effort (literally in the flesh): Paul uses flesh here for self-reliance and human effort in contrast to reliance on Christ and empowerment by the Spirit.","summary_en":"3:4 in my own effort (literally in the flesh): Paul uses flesh here for self-reliance and human effort in contrast to reliance on Christ and empowerment by the Spirit.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141138,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:4","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:4","content_ro":"3:4<\/strong> in my own effort<\/em> (literally in the flesh<\/em>): Paul uses flesh<\/em> here for self-reliance and human effort in contrast to reliance on Christ and empowerment by the Spirit.<\/p>","content_en":"3:4<\/strong> in my own effort<\/em> (literally in the flesh<\/em>): Paul uses flesh<\/em> here for self-reliance and human effort in contrast to reliance on Christ and empowerment by the Spirit.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:4 in my own effort (literally in the flesh): Paul uses flesh here for self-reliance and human effort in contrast to reliance on Christ and empowerment by the Spirit.","summary_en":"3:4 in my own effort (literally in the flesh): Paul uses flesh here for self-reliance and human effort in contrast to reliance on Christ and empowerment by the Spirit.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":42084,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"The Pharisees","title_en":"The Pharisees","content_ro":"<h3>The Pharisees<\/h3>\nThe Pharisees were one of three major Jewish sects, along with the Sadducees and the Essenes. The Pharisees comprised a non-political lay movement within Judaism. They arose from the hasidim<\/em> (pious ones), who opposed the syncretizing (combining together) of Greek culture and religion with Judaism in the second century BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nThe Pharisees attempted, by rigorous examination of the details of the Old Testament law, to make the law accessible and practical to people seeking to be obedient Jews. They taught strict adherence to the law, not only the written law of Moses (torah<\/em>), but also the oral traditions which they claimed Moses had passed down to them. Their goal was to defend the written law against any possible infringement. They were God-fearing and law-abiding people. They were known for passing their interpretations from generation to generation by word of mouth, establishing an oral tradition concerning legal matters. They made the law applicable by extracting from it specific guidelines for many possible situations. They argued that if the law were obeyed by all, the nation would be purged of sin and God would establish his Kingdom over all the nations. This gave their concern for obedience a goal in the future. The traditions of the Pharisees developed into the rabbinic writings known as the Mishnah<\/em> and the Talmud<\/em>.<\/p>\nAlthough the Pharisees were small in number, their influence on Israel was widespread (see Matt 15:12-14; see also Josephus, War<\/em> 2.8.14; Antiquities<\/em> 13.10.5). The primary influence of the Pharisees was in the local synagogue communities, while the Sadducees were more influential in the worship at the Temple in Jerusalem and in the Sanhedrin, the Jewish high council.<\/p>\nUnlike the Sadducees, the Pharisees had a strong belief in the resurrection of the dead (see Acts 23:6-8). After the destruction of Jerusalem in AD<\/span> 70, the Pharisees provided leadership and direction for the people of Israel.<\/p>\nJesus often came into conflict with the Pharisees, accusing them of hypocrisy and of elevating human rules over God’s righteous standards. Jesus opposed the Pharisees because they were leading people away from God’s plan for redemption. They were the theological shepherds of Israel, but Jesus castigated them as hypocrites for their perversions of doctrine and practice (see Matt 23). And the Pharisees were antagonistic toward Jesus, rejecting both him and his work, largely because of his shocking disregard of their traditions (see e.g., Matt 15:1-20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 3:7; 5:20; 9:10-14, 34; 12:1-14, 22-24, 38-40; 15:1-14; 16:1-12; 19:3; 21:45; 22:15, 34; 23:1-7, 13-31; 27:62-64; Mark 2:23-25; 3:1-6; 7:1-13; 8:11-12; 12:13-17; Luke 5:17-21, 29-32; 6:6-11; 7:28-30, 36-49; 11:37-54; 12:1-3; 13:31; 14:1-6; 15:1-2; 16:13-15; 17:20-21; 18:9-14; 19:38-40; John 1:24-25; 3:1; 7:31-32, 45-52; 8:3-10, 13; 9:13-34, 40; 11:46-57; 12:17-19, 42; 18:3; Acts 5:27-40; 15:5; 23:6-10; 26:4-5; Phil 3:5-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Pharisees<\/h3>\nThe Pharisees were one of three major Jewish sects, along with the Sadducees and the Essenes. The Pharisees comprised a non-political lay movement within Judaism. They arose from the hasidim<\/em> (pious ones), who opposed the syncretizing (combining together) of Greek culture and religion with Judaism in the second century BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nThe Pharisees attempted, by rigorous examination of the details of the Old Testament law, to make the law accessible and practical to people seeking to be obedient Jews. They taught strict adherence to the law, not only the written law of Moses (torah<\/em>), but also the oral traditions which they claimed Moses had passed down to them. Their goal was to defend the written law against any possible infringement. They were God-fearing and law-abiding people. They were known for passing their interpretations from generation to generation by word of mouth, establishing an oral tradition concerning legal matters. They made the law applicable by extracting from it specific guidelines for many possible situations. They argued that if the law were obeyed by all, the nation would be purged of sin and God would establish his Kingdom over all the nations. This gave their concern for obedience a goal in the future. The traditions of the Pharisees developed into the rabbinic writings known as the Mishnah<\/em> and the Talmud<\/em>.<\/p>\nAlthough the Pharisees were small in number, their influence on Israel was widespread (see Matt 15:12-14; see also Josephus, War<\/em> 2.8.14; Antiquities<\/em> 13.10.5). The primary influence of the Pharisees was in the local synagogue communities, while the Sadducees were more influential in the worship at the Temple in Jerusalem and in the Sanhedrin, the Jewish high council.<\/p>\nUnlike the Sadducees, the Pharisees had a strong belief in the resurrection of the dead (see Acts 23:6-8). After the destruction of Jerusalem in AD<\/span> 70, the Pharisees provided leadership and direction for the people of Israel.<\/p>\nJesus often came into conflict with the Pharisees, accusing them of hypocrisy and of elevating human rules over God’s righteous standards. Jesus opposed the Pharisees because they were leading people away from God’s plan for redemption. They were the theological shepherds of Israel, but Jesus castigated them as hypocrites for their perversions of doctrine and practice (see Matt 23). And the Pharisees were antagonistic toward Jesus, rejecting both him and his work, largely because of his shocking disregard of their traditions (see e.g., Matt 15:1-20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 3:7; 5:20; 9:10-14, 34; 12:1-14, 22-24, 38-40; 15:1-14; 16:1-12; 19:3; 21:45; 22:15, 34; 23:1-7, 13-31; 27:62-64; Mark 2:23-25; 3:1-6; 7:1-13; 8:11-12; 12:13-17; Luke 5:17-21, 29-32; 6:6-11; 7:28-30, 36-49; 11:37-54; 12:1-3; 13:31; 14:1-6; 15:1-2; 16:13-15; 17:20-21; 18:9-14; 19:38-40; John 1:24-25; 3:1; 7:31-32, 45-52; 8:3-10, 13; 9:13-34, 40; 11:46-57; 12:17-19, 42; 18:3; Acts 5:27-40; 15:5; 23:6-10; 26:4-5; Phil 3:5-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Pharisees The Pharisees were one of three major Jewish sects, along with the Sadducees and the Essenes. The Pharisees comprised a non-political lay movement within Judaism. They arose from the hasidim (pious ones), who opposed the syncretizing (combining together) of Greek culture and religion with Judaism in the second century BC. The Pharisees attempted, by rigorous examination of the details of the Old Testament law, to make the law accessible and practical to people seeking to be obed...","summary_en":"The Pharisees The Pharisees were one of three major Jewish sects, along with the Sadducees and the Essenes. The Pharisees comprised a non-political lay movement within Judaism. They arose from the hasidim (pious ones), who opposed the syncretizing (combining together) of Greek culture and religion with Judaism in the second century BC. The Pharisees attempted, by rigorous examination of the details of the Old Testament law, to make the law accessible and practical to people seeking to be obed...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":69710,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"The Pharisees","title_en":"The Pharisees","content_ro":"<h3>The Pharisees<\/h3>\nThe Pharisees were one of three major Jewish sects, along with the Sadducees and the Essenes. The Pharisees comprised a non-political lay movement within Judaism. They arose from the hasidim<\/em> (pious ones), who opposed the syncretizing (combining together) of Greek culture and religion with Judaism in the second century BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nThe Pharisees attempted, by rigorous examination of the details of the Old Testament law, to make the law accessible and practical to people seeking to be obedient Jews. They taught strict adherence to the law, not only the written law of Moses (torah<\/em>), but also the oral traditions which they claimed Moses had passed down to them. Their goal was to defend the written law against any possible infringement. They were God-fearing and law-abiding people. They were known for passing their interpretations from generation to generation by word of mouth, establishing an oral tradition concerning legal matters. They made the law applicable by extracting from it specific guidelines for many possible situations. They argued that if the law were obeyed by all, the nation would be purged of sin and God would establish his Kingdom over all the nations. This gave their concern for obedience a goal in the future. The traditions of the Pharisees developed into the rabbinic writings known as the Mishnah<\/em> and the Talmud<\/em>.<\/p>\nAlthough the Pharisees were small in number, their influence on Israel was widespread (see Matt 15:12-14; see also Josephus, War<\/em> 2.8.14; Antiquities<\/em> 13.10.5). The primary influence of the Pharisees was in the local synagogue communities, while the Sadducees were more influential in the worship at the Temple in Jerusalem and in the Sanhedrin, the Jewish high council.<\/p>\nUnlike the Sadducees, the Pharisees had a strong belief in the resurrection of the dead (see Acts 23:6-8). After the destruction of Jerusalem in AD<\/span> 70, the Pharisees provided leadership and direction for the people of Israel.<\/p>\nJesus often came into conflict with the Pharisees, accusing them of hypocrisy and of elevating human rules over God’s righteous standards. Jesus opposed the Pharisees because they were leading people away from God’s plan for redemption. They were the theological shepherds of Israel, but Jesus castigated them as hypocrites for their perversions of doctrine and practice (see Matt 23). And the Pharisees were antagonistic toward Jesus, rejecting both him and his work, largely because of his shocking disregard of their traditions (see e.g., Matt 15:1-20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 3:7; 5:20; 9:10-14, 34; 12:1-14, 22-24, 38-40; 15:1-14; 16:1-12; 19:3; 21:45; 22:15, 34; 23:1-7, 13-31; 27:62-64; Mark 2:23-25; 3:1-6; 7:1-13; 8:11-12; 12:13-17; Luke 5:17-21, 29-32; 6:6-11; 7:28-30, 36-49; 11:37-54; 12:1-3; 13:31; 14:1-6; 15:1-2; 16:13-15; 17:20-21; 18:9-14; 19:38-40; John 1:24-25; 3:1; 7:31-32, 45-52; 8:3-10, 13; 9:13-34, 40; 11:46-57; 12:17-19, 42; 18:3; Acts 5:27-40; 15:5; 23:6-10; 26:4-5; Phil 3:5-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Pharisees<\/h3>\nThe Pharisees were one of three major Jewish sects, along with the Sadducees and the Essenes. The Pharisees comprised a non-political lay movement within Judaism. They arose from the hasidim<\/em> (pious ones), who opposed the syncretizing (combining together) of Greek culture and religion with Judaism in the second century BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nThe Pharisees attempted, by rigorous examination of the details of the Old Testament law, to make the law accessible and practical to people seeking to be obedient Jews. They taught strict adherence to the law, not only the written law of Moses (torah<\/em>), but also the oral traditions which they claimed Moses had passed down to them. Their goal was to defend the written law against any possible infringement. They were God-fearing and law-abiding people. They were known for passing their interpretations from generation to generation by word of mouth, establishing an oral tradition concerning legal matters. They made the law applicable by extracting from it specific guidelines for many possible situations. They argued that if the law were obeyed by all, the nation would be purged of sin and God would establish his Kingdom over all the nations. This gave their concern for obedience a goal in the future. The traditions of the Pharisees developed into the rabbinic writings known as the Mishnah<\/em> and the Talmud<\/em>.<\/p>\nAlthough the Pharisees were small in number, their influence on Israel was widespread (see Matt 15:12-14; see also Josephus, War<\/em> 2.8.14; Antiquities<\/em> 13.10.5). The primary influence of the Pharisees was in the local synagogue communities, while the Sadducees were more influential in the worship at the Temple in Jerusalem and in the Sanhedrin, the Jewish high council.<\/p>\nUnlike the Sadducees, the Pharisees had a strong belief in the resurrection of the dead (see Acts 23:6-8). After the destruction of Jerusalem in AD<\/span> 70, the Pharisees provided leadership and direction for the people of Israel.<\/p>\nJesus often came into conflict with the Pharisees, accusing them of hypocrisy and of elevating human rules over God’s righteous standards. Jesus opposed the Pharisees because they were leading people away from God’s plan for redemption. They were the theological shepherds of Israel, but Jesus castigated them as hypocrites for their perversions of doctrine and practice (see Matt 23). And the Pharisees were antagonistic toward Jesus, rejecting both him and his work, largely because of his shocking disregard of their traditions (see e.g., Matt 15:1-20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 3:7; 5:20; 9:10-14, 34; 12:1-14, 22-24, 38-40; 15:1-14; 16:1-12; 19:3; 21:45; 22:15, 34; 23:1-7, 13-31; 27:62-64; Mark 2:23-25; 3:1-6; 7:1-13; 8:11-12; 12:13-17; Luke 5:17-21, 29-32; 6:6-11; 7:28-30, 36-49; 11:37-54; 12:1-3; 13:31; 14:1-6; 15:1-2; 16:13-15; 17:20-21; 18:9-14; 19:38-40; John 1:24-25; 3:1; 7:31-32, 45-52; 8:3-10, 13; 9:13-34, 40; 11:46-57; 12:17-19, 42; 18:3; Acts 5:27-40; 15:5; 23:6-10; 26:4-5; Phil 3:5-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Pharisees The Pharisees were one of three major Jewish sects, along with the Sadducees and the Essenes. The Pharisees comprised a non-political lay movement within Judaism. They arose from the hasidim (pious ones), who opposed the syncretizing (combining together) of Greek culture and religion with Judaism in the second century BC. The Pharisees attempted, by rigorous examination of the details of the Old Testament law, to make the law accessible and practical to people seeking to be obed...","summary_en":"The Pharisees The Pharisees were one of three major Jewish sects, along with the Sadducees and the Essenes. The Pharisees comprised a non-political lay movement within Judaism. They arose from the hasidim (pious ones), who opposed the syncretizing (combining together) of Greek culture and religion with Judaism in the second century BC. The Pharisees attempted, by rigorous examination of the details of the Old Testament law, to make the law accessible and practical to people seeking to be obed...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97336,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"The Pharisees","title_en":"The Pharisees","content_ro":"<h3>The Pharisees<\/h3>\nThe Pharisees were one of three major Jewish sects, along with the Sadducees and the Essenes. The Pharisees comprised a non-political lay movement within Judaism. They arose from the hasidim<\/em> (pious ones), who opposed the syncretizing (combining together) of Greek culture and religion with Judaism in the second century BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nThe Pharisees attempted, by rigorous examination of the details of the Old Testament law, to make the law accessible and practical to people seeking to be obedient Jews. They taught strict adherence to the law, not only the written law of Moses (torah<\/em>), but also the oral traditions which they claimed Moses had passed down to them. Their goal was to defend the written law against any possible infringement. They were God-fearing and law-abiding people. They were known for passing their interpretations from generation to generation by word of mouth, establishing an oral tradition concerning legal matters. They made the law applicable by extracting from it specific guidelines for many possible situations. They argued that if the law were obeyed by all, the nation would be purged of sin and God would establish his Kingdom over all the nations. This gave their concern for obedience a goal in the future. The traditions of the Pharisees developed into the rabbinic writings known as the Mishnah<\/em> and the Talmud<\/em>.<\/p>\nAlthough the Pharisees were small in number, their influence on Israel was widespread (see Matt 15:12-14; see also Josephus, War<\/em> 2.8.14; Antiquities<\/em> 13.10.5). The primary influence of the Pharisees was in the local synagogue communities, while the Sadducees were more influential in the worship at the Temple in Jerusalem and in the Sanhedrin, the Jewish high council.<\/p>\nUnlike the Sadducees, the Pharisees had a strong belief in the resurrection of the dead (see Acts 23:6-8). After the destruction of Jerusalem in AD<\/span> 70, the Pharisees provided leadership and direction for the people of Israel.<\/p>\nJesus often came into conflict with the Pharisees, accusing them of hypocrisy and of elevating human rules over God’s righteous standards. Jesus opposed the Pharisees because they were leading people away from God’s plan for redemption. They were the theological shepherds of Israel, but Jesus castigated them as hypocrites for their perversions of doctrine and practice (see Matt 23). And the Pharisees were antagonistic toward Jesus, rejecting both him and his work, largely because of his shocking disregard of their traditions (see e.g., Matt 15:1-20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 3:7; 5:20; 9:10-14, 34; 12:1-14, 22-24, 38-40; 15:1-14; 16:1-12; 19:3; 21:45; 22:15, 34; 23:1-7, 13-31; 27:62-64; Mark 2:23-25; 3:1-6; 7:1-13; 8:11-12; 12:13-17; Luke 5:17-21, 29-32; 6:6-11; 7:28-30, 36-49; 11:37-54; 12:1-3; 13:31; 14:1-6; 15:1-2; 16:13-15; 17:20-21; 18:9-14; 19:38-40; John 1:24-25; 3:1; 7:31-32, 45-52; 8:3-10, 13; 9:13-34, 40; 11:46-57; 12:17-19, 42; 18:3; Acts 5:27-40; 15:5; 23:6-10; 26:4-5; Phil 3:5-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Pharisees<\/h3>\nThe Pharisees were one of three major Jewish sects, along with the Sadducees and the Essenes. The Pharisees comprised a non-political lay movement within Judaism. They arose from the hasidim<\/em> (pious ones), who opposed the syncretizing (combining together) of Greek culture and religion with Judaism in the second century BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nThe Pharisees attempted, by rigorous examination of the details of the Old Testament law, to make the law accessible and practical to people seeking to be obedient Jews. They taught strict adherence to the law, not only the written law of Moses (torah<\/em>), but also the oral traditions which they claimed Moses had passed down to them. Their goal was to defend the written law against any possible infringement. They were God-fearing and law-abiding people. They were known for passing their interpretations from generation to generation by word of mouth, establishing an oral tradition concerning legal matters. They made the law applicable by extracting from it specific guidelines for many possible situations. They argued that if the law were obeyed by all, the nation would be purged of sin and God would establish his Kingdom over all the nations. This gave their concern for obedience a goal in the future. The traditions of the Pharisees developed into the rabbinic writings known as the Mishnah<\/em> and the Talmud<\/em>.<\/p>\nAlthough the Pharisees were small in number, their influence on Israel was widespread (see Matt 15:12-14; see also Josephus, War<\/em> 2.8.14; Antiquities<\/em> 13.10.5). The primary influence of the Pharisees was in the local synagogue communities, while the Sadducees were more influential in the worship at the Temple in Jerusalem and in the Sanhedrin, the Jewish high council.<\/p>\nUnlike the Sadducees, the Pharisees had a strong belief in the resurrection of the dead (see Acts 23:6-8). After the destruction of Jerusalem in AD<\/span> 70, the Pharisees provided leadership and direction for the people of Israel.<\/p>\nJesus often came into conflict with the Pharisees, accusing them of hypocrisy and of elevating human rules over God’s righteous standards. Jesus opposed the Pharisees because they were leading people away from God’s plan for redemption. They were the theological shepherds of Israel, but Jesus castigated them as hypocrites for their perversions of doctrine and practice (see Matt 23). And the Pharisees were antagonistic toward Jesus, rejecting both him and his work, largely because of his shocking disregard of their traditions (see e.g., Matt 15:1-20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 3:7; 5:20; 9:10-14, 34; 12:1-14, 22-24, 38-40; 15:1-14; 16:1-12; 19:3; 21:45; 22:15, 34; 23:1-7, 13-31; 27:62-64; Mark 2:23-25; 3:1-6; 7:1-13; 8:11-12; 12:13-17; Luke 5:17-21, 29-32; 6:6-11; 7:28-30, 36-49; 11:37-54; 12:1-3; 13:31; 14:1-6; 15:1-2; 16:13-15; 17:20-21; 18:9-14; 19:38-40; John 1:24-25; 3:1; 7:31-32, 45-52; 8:3-10, 13; 9:13-34, 40; 11:46-57; 12:17-19, 42; 18:3; Acts 5:27-40; 15:5; 23:6-10; 26:4-5; Phil 3:5-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Pharisees The Pharisees were one of three major Jewish sects, along with the Sadducees and the Essenes. The Pharisees comprised a non-political lay movement within Judaism. They arose from the hasidim (pious ones), who opposed the syncretizing (combining together) of Greek culture and religion with Judaism in the second century BC. The Pharisees attempted, by rigorous examination of the details of the Old Testament law, to make the law accessible and practical to people seeking to be obed...","summary_en":"The Pharisees The Pharisees were one of three major Jewish sects, along with the Sadducees and the Essenes. The Pharisees comprised a non-political lay movement within Judaism. They arose from the hasidim (pious ones), who opposed the syncretizing (combining together) of Greek culture and religion with Judaism in the second century BC. The Pharisees attempted, by rigorous examination of the details of the Old Testament law, to make the law accessible and practical to people seeking to be obed...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124962,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"The Pharisees","title_en":"The Pharisees","content_ro":"<h3>The Pharisees<\/h3>\nThe Pharisees were one of three major Jewish sects, along with the Sadducees and the Essenes. The Pharisees comprised a non-political lay movement within Judaism. They arose from the hasidim<\/em> (pious ones), who opposed the syncretizing (combining together) of Greek culture and religion with Judaism in the second century BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nThe Pharisees attempted, by rigorous examination of the details of the Old Testament law, to make the law accessible and practical to people seeking to be obedient Jews. They taught strict adherence to the law, not only the written law of Moses (torah<\/em>), but also the oral traditions which they claimed Moses had passed down to them. Their goal was to defend the written law against any possible infringement. They were God-fearing and law-abiding people. They were known for passing their interpretations from generation to generation by word of mouth, establishing an oral tradition concerning legal matters. They made the law applicable by extracting from it specific guidelines for many possible situations. They argued that if the law were obeyed by all, the nation would be purged of sin and God would establish his Kingdom over all the nations. This gave their concern for obedience a goal in the future. The traditions of the Pharisees developed into the rabbinic writings known as the Mishnah<\/em> and the Talmud<\/em>.<\/p>\nAlthough the Pharisees were small in number, their influence on Israel was widespread (see Matt 15:12-14; see also Josephus, War<\/em> 2.8.14; Antiquities<\/em> 13.10.5). The primary influence of the Pharisees was in the local synagogue communities, while the Sadducees were more influential in the worship at the Temple in Jerusalem and in the Sanhedrin, the Jewish high council.<\/p>\nUnlike the Sadducees, the Pharisees had a strong belief in the resurrection of the dead (see Acts 23:6-8). After the destruction of Jerusalem in AD<\/span> 70, the Pharisees provided leadership and direction for the people of Israel.<\/p>\nJesus often came into conflict with the Pharisees, accusing them of hypocrisy and of elevating human rules over God’s righteous standards. Jesus opposed the Pharisees because they were leading people away from God’s plan for redemption. They were the theological shepherds of Israel, but Jesus castigated them as hypocrites for their perversions of doctrine and practice (see Matt 23). And the Pharisees were antagonistic toward Jesus, rejecting both him and his work, largely because of his shocking disregard of their traditions (see e.g., Matt 15:1-20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 3:7; 5:20; 9:10-14, 34; 12:1-14, 22-24, 38-40; 15:1-14; 16:1-12; 19:3; 21:45; 22:15, 34; 23:1-7, 13-31; 27:62-64; Mark 2:23-25; 3:1-6; 7:1-13; 8:11-12; 12:13-17; Luke 5:17-21, 29-32; 6:6-11; 7:28-30, 36-49; 11:37-54; 12:1-3; 13:31; 14:1-6; 15:1-2; 16:13-15; 17:20-21; 18:9-14; 19:38-40; John 1:24-25; 3:1; 7:31-32, 45-52; 8:3-10, 13; 9:13-34, 40; 11:46-57; 12:17-19, 42; 18:3; Acts 5:27-40; 15:5; 23:6-10; 26:4-5; Phil 3:5-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Pharisees<\/h3>\nThe Pharisees were one of three major Jewish sects, along with the Sadducees and the Essenes. The Pharisees comprised a non-political lay movement within Judaism. They arose from the hasidim<\/em> (pious ones), who opposed the syncretizing (combining together) of Greek culture and religion with Judaism in the second century BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nThe Pharisees attempted, by rigorous examination of the details of the Old Testament law, to make the law accessible and practical to people seeking to be obedient Jews. They taught strict adherence to the law, not only the written law of Moses (torah<\/em>), but also the oral traditions which they claimed Moses had passed down to them. Their goal was to defend the written law against any possible infringement. They were God-fearing and law-abiding people. They were known for passing their interpretations from generation to generation by word of mouth, establishing an oral tradition concerning legal matters. They made the law applicable by extracting from it specific guidelines for many possible situations. They argued that if the law were obeyed by all, the nation would be purged of sin and God would establish his Kingdom over all the nations. This gave their concern for obedience a goal in the future. The traditions of the Pharisees developed into the rabbinic writings known as the Mishnah<\/em> and the Talmud<\/em>.<\/p>\nAlthough the Pharisees were small in number, their influence on Israel was widespread (see Matt 15:12-14; see also Josephus, War<\/em> 2.8.14; Antiquities<\/em> 13.10.5). The primary influence of the Pharisees was in the local synagogue communities, while the Sadducees were more influential in the worship at the Temple in Jerusalem and in the Sanhedrin, the Jewish high council.<\/p>\nUnlike the Sadducees, the Pharisees had a strong belief in the resurrection of the dead (see Acts 23:6-8). After the destruction of Jerusalem in AD<\/span> 70, the Pharisees provided leadership and direction for the people of Israel.<\/p>\nJesus often came into conflict with the Pharisees, accusing them of hypocrisy and of elevating human rules over God’s righteous standards. Jesus opposed the Pharisees because they were leading people away from God’s plan for redemption. They were the theological shepherds of Israel, but Jesus castigated them as hypocrites for their perversions of doctrine and practice (see Matt 23). And the Pharisees were antagonistic toward Jesus, rejecting both him and his work, largely because of his shocking disregard of their traditions (see e.g., Matt 15:1-20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 3:7; 5:20; 9:10-14, 34; 12:1-14, 22-24, 38-40; 15:1-14; 16:1-12; 19:3; 21:45; 22:15, 34; 23:1-7, 13-31; 27:62-64; Mark 2:23-25; 3:1-6; 7:1-13; 8:11-12; 12:13-17; Luke 5:17-21, 29-32; 6:6-11; 7:28-30, 36-49; 11:37-54; 12:1-3; 13:31; 14:1-6; 15:1-2; 16:13-15; 17:20-21; 18:9-14; 19:38-40; John 1:24-25; 3:1; 7:31-32, 45-52; 8:3-10, 13; 9:13-34, 40; 11:46-57; 12:17-19, 42; 18:3; Acts 5:27-40; 15:5; 23:6-10; 26:4-5; Phil 3:5-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Pharisees The Pharisees were one of three major Jewish sects, along with the Sadducees and the Essenes. The Pharisees comprised a non-political lay movement within Judaism. They arose from the hasidim (pious ones), who opposed the syncretizing (combining together) of Greek culture and religion with Judaism in the second century BC. The Pharisees attempted, by rigorous examination of the details of the Old Testament law, to make the law accessible and practical to people seeking to be obed...","summary_en":"The Pharisees The Pharisees were one of three major Jewish sects, along with the Sadducees and the Essenes. The Pharisees comprised a non-political lay movement within Judaism. They arose from the hasidim (pious ones), who opposed the syncretizing (combining together) of Greek culture and religion with Judaism in the second century BC. The Pharisees attempted, by rigorous examination of the details of the Old Testament law, to make the law accessible and practical to people seeking to be obed...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":4337,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tribe of Benjamin","title_en":"Tribe of Benjamin","content_ro":"<h3>BENJAMIN, Tribe of<\/span><\/h3>\nOne of the smallest of the 12 tribes of Israel, made up of descendants of Jacob’s youngest son (Nm 1:36). In the OT the tribe is often referred to as simply “Benjamin.” Though small, the tribe of Benjamin played an important role in Israelite history, particularly in their conduct as great warriors (Jgs 20:13-16; 1 Chr 12:1-2).<\/p>\nAt the Israelite conquest of Canaan, after the tribes of Judah and Ephraim had received their territory, the first lot came to Benjamin. The tribe was allotted territory between Judah and Ephraim, a strip of land between Mt Ephraim and the Judean hills. The southern boundary with Judah was clearly defined: through the valley of Hinnom immediately south of Jerusalem to a point north of the Dead Sea. Its eastern limit was the Jordan, and its northern boundary with Ephraim ran from the Jordan to Bethel to Ataroth-addar south of Lower Beth-horon (Jos 18:11-20).<\/p>\nBenjamin’s territory extended about 28 miles (45.1 kilometers) from west to east and 12 miles (19.3 kilometers) north to south. It was hilly country, strategically located to control key passes, but with fertile hill basins. Among its hill settlements were the important towns of Jerusalem, Jericho, Bethel, Gibeon, Gibeah, and Mizpeh (Jos 18:21-28). Not all of its towns were immediately taken from their previous possessors; Jerusalem, for example, was in the hands of the Jebusites until David’s time. The environment bred a hardy race of highlanders, well described in Jacob’s blessing of Benjamin as “a wolf that prowls” (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\nEhud of Benjamin was one of the early judges in Canaan, a “deliverer” of the Israelites who killed Eglon, king of Moab (Jgs 3:15). Members of the tribe later helped Deborah and Barak defeat Sisera (5:14). The tribe continued to produce great men: political leaders (1 Chr 27:21), captains in Saul’s army (2 Sm 4:2) and David’s army (23:29), skilled archers (1 Chr 8:40), and overseers in Solomon’s labor force (1 Kgs 4:18).<\/p>\nLess noble traits were also shown by Benjamin’s descendants. Palti, a Benjaminite, was one of the scouts making a bad report when the 12 spies returned from the land of Canaan (Nm 13:1-2, 9, 31-33). The tribe as a whole displayed disobedience and lack of consistent courage by failing to clear their inheritance of Canaanites (Jgs 1:21). Following the custom of the day, the whole tribe defended the lewd treatment and murder of a concubine from another tribe by a few of their members (chs 19–20). That act of gross immorality united the other tribes against them, and the tribe of Benjamin was almost decimated. To keep the tribe from dying out, the other tribes allowed the Benjaminites to take captive several hundred women who then became their wives (Jgs 21).<\/p>\nBenjamin’s tribe proved to be dependable in various ways. During the exodus from Egypt, it took its place in the organization (Nm 1:11) and the army (2:22) and made its tribal offerings (7:60). It demonstrated remarkable loyalty to the throne, initially to Saul and his family (2 Sm 2:8-31). Later David received its faithful support, as did his descendants, for Benjamin remained with Judah, loyal to Solomon’s son Rehoboam when Jeroboam led a secession (1 Kgs 12:21-24).<\/p>\nOther men of Benjamin (often called Benjaminites) spoken of in the OT include Cush, of whom David sang (Ps 7 superscription); Jeremiah the prophet, who, though a Levite, lived within Benjamin’s tribe (Jer 1:1; 32:8); and Mordecai, uncle and adviser to Queen Esther (Est 2:5).<\/p>\nIn the NT the apostle Paul made no apologies for his ancestry, twice referring to himself as a Hebrew of Benjamin’s tribe (Rom 11:1; Phil 3:5). In his sermon at Antioch of Pisidia, Paul also mentioned Benjamin as the tribe of King Saul, in his brief account of Israel’s history (Acts 13:21). In one other NT reference Benjamin is named with the other 11 tribes in John’s apocalyptic vision (Rv 7:8). See<\/em> Benjamin (Person) #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BENJAMIN, Tribe of<\/span><\/h3>\nOne of the smallest of the 12 tribes of Israel, made up of descendants of Jacob’s youngest son (Nm 1:36). In the OT the tribe is often referred to as simply “Benjamin.” Though small, the tribe of Benjamin played an important role in Israelite history, particularly in their conduct as great warriors (Jgs 20:13-16; 1 Chr 12:1-2).<\/p>\nAt the Israelite conquest of Canaan, after the tribes of Judah and Ephraim had received their territory, the first lot came to Benjamin. The tribe was allotted territory between Judah and Ephraim, a strip of land between Mt Ephraim and the Judean hills. The southern boundary with Judah was clearly defined: through the valley of Hinnom immediately south of Jerusalem to a point north of the Dead Sea. Its eastern limit was the Jordan, and its northern boundary with Ephraim ran from the Jordan to Bethel to Ataroth-addar south of Lower Beth-horon (Jos 18:11-20).<\/p>\nBenjamin’s territory extended about 28 miles (45.1 kilometers) from west to east and 12 miles (19.3 kilometers) north to south. It was hilly country, strategically located to control key passes, but with fertile hill basins. Among its hill settlements were the important towns of Jerusalem, Jericho, Bethel, Gibeon, Gibeah, and Mizpeh (Jos 18:21-28). Not all of its towns were immediately taken from their previous possessors; Jerusalem, for example, was in the hands of the Jebusites until David’s time. The environment bred a hardy race of highlanders, well described in Jacob’s blessing of Benjamin as “a wolf that prowls” (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\nEhud of Benjamin was one of the early judges in Canaan, a “deliverer” of the Israelites who killed Eglon, king of Moab (Jgs 3:15). Members of the tribe later helped Deborah and Barak defeat Sisera (5:14). The tribe continued to produce great men: political leaders (1 Chr 27:21), captains in Saul’s army (2 Sm 4:2) and David’s army (23:29), skilled archers (1 Chr 8:40), and overseers in Solomon’s labor force (1 Kgs 4:18).<\/p>\nLess noble traits were also shown by Benjamin’s descendants. Palti, a Benjaminite, was one of the scouts making a bad report when the 12 spies returned from the land of Canaan (Nm 13:1-2, 9, 31-33). The tribe as a whole displayed disobedience and lack of consistent courage by failing to clear their inheritance of Canaanites (Jgs 1:21). Following the custom of the day, the whole tribe defended the lewd treatment and murder of a concubine from another tribe by a few of their members (chs 19–20). That act of gross immorality united the other tribes against them, and the tribe of Benjamin was almost decimated. To keep the tribe from dying out, the other tribes allowed the Benjaminites to take captive several hundred women who then became their wives (Jgs 21).<\/p>\nBenjamin’s tribe proved to be dependable in various ways. During the exodus from Egypt, it took its place in the organization (Nm 1:11) and the army (2:22) and made its tribal offerings (7:60). It demonstrated remarkable loyalty to the throne, initially to Saul and his family (2 Sm 2:8-31). Later David received its faithful support, as did his descendants, for Benjamin remained with Judah, loyal to Solomon’s son Rehoboam when Jeroboam led a secession (1 Kgs 12:21-24).<\/p>\nOther men of Benjamin (often called Benjaminites) spoken of in the OT include Cush, of whom David sang (Ps 7 superscription); Jeremiah the prophet, who, though a Levite, lived within Benjamin’s tribe (Jer 1:1; 32:8); and Mordecai, uncle and adviser to Queen Esther (Est 2:5).<\/p>\nIn the NT the apostle Paul made no apologies for his ancestry, twice referring to himself as a Hebrew of Benjamin’s tribe (Rom 11:1; Phil 3:5). In his sermon at Antioch of Pisidia, Paul also mentioned Benjamin as the tribe of King Saul, in his brief account of Israel’s history (Acts 13:21). In one other NT reference Benjamin is named with the other 11 tribes in John’s apocalyptic vision (Rv 7:8). See<\/em> Benjamin (Person) #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BENJAMIN, Tribe of One of the smallest of the 12 tribes of Israel, made up of descendants of Jacob’s youngest son (Nm 1:36). In the OT the tribe is often referred to as simply “Benjamin.” Though small, the tribe of Benjamin played an important role in Israelite history, particularly in their conduct as great warriors (Jgs 20:13-16; 1 Chr 12:1-2). At the Israelite conquest of Canaan, after the tribes of Judah and Ephraim had received their territory, the first lot came to Benjamin. The tribe w...","summary_en":"BENJAMIN, Tribe of One of the smallest of the 12 tribes of Israel, made up of descendants of Jacob’s youngest son (Nm 1:36). In the OT the tribe is often referred to as simply “Benjamin.” Though small, the tribe of Benjamin played an important role in Israelite history, particularly in their conduct as great warriors (Jgs 20:13-16; 1 Chr 12:1-2). At the Israelite conquest of Canaan, after the tribes of Judah and Ephraim had received their territory, the first lot came to Benjamin. The tribe w...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":6586,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Church","title_en":"Church","content_ro":"<h3>CHURCH<\/h3>\nA group or assembly of persons called together for a particular purpose. The term appears in only two verses in the Gospels (Mt 16:18; 18:17) but frequently in the book of Acts, most of the letters of Paul, as well as most of the remaining NT writings, especially the Revelation of John.<\/p>\nOne way of referring to the body of Israel in the OT was simply “the congregation.” Groups claiming to be the true Israel spiritually rather then naturally called themselves “the congregation.” The term was used by the writers of the Dead Sea Scrolls as well as by early Christians; it is the actual meaning of the word “church.” Christians often referred to themselves simply as the church or the congregation (with “of God” being understood). The term could be applied either to all believers in the world or to any local group of them. It meant the total presence of God’s people in a given location. That is why the NT often uses the singular “church” even when many groups of believers are included together (Acts 9:31; 2 Cor 1:1); the term “churches” is rarely found (Acts 15:41; 16:5). Each group or the whole group was the place where God was present (Mt 16:18; 18:17); God had purchased the congregation with the blood of his Son (Acts 20:28). The use of the word “church” in the NT is also somewhat dependent upon the Greek world. In the Greek world the word translated “church” designated an assembly<\/em> of people, a meeting, such as a regularly summoned political body, or simply a gathering<\/em> of people. The word is used in such a secular way in Acts 19:32, 39, 41.<\/p>\nThe specifically Christian usages of this concept vary considerably in the NT. (1) In analogy to the OT, it sometimes refers to a church meeting, as when Paul says to the Christians in Corinth: “When you meet as a church . . .” (1 Cor 11:18). This means that Christians are the people of God especially when they are gathered for worship. (2) In texts such as Matthew 18:17, Acts 5:11, 1 Corinthians 4:17, and Philippians 4:15, “church” refers to the entire group of Christians living in one place. Often, the local character of a Christian congregation is emphasized, as in the phrases, “the church in Jerusalem” (Acts 8:1), “in Corinth” (1 Cor 1:2), “in Thessalonica” (1 Thes 1:1). (3) In other texts, house assemblies of Christians are called churches, such as those who met in the house of Priscilla and Aquila (Rom 16:5; 1 Cor 16:19). (4) Throughout the NT, “the church” designates the universal church, to which all believers belong (see Acts 9:31; 1 Cor 6:4; Eph 1:22; Col 1:18). Jesus’ first word about the founding of the Christian movement in Matthew 16:18 has this larger meaning: “I will build my church, and the powers of death shall not prevail against it” (rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe church, both as a universal reality and in its local, concrete expression, is more specifically designated in Paul’s writings as “the church of God” (e.g., 1 Cor 1:2; 10:32) or “the churches of Christ” (Rom 16:16). In this way a common, secular Greek term receives its distinctive Christian meaning and sets the Christian assembly\/ gathering\/community apart from all other secular or religious groups.<\/p>\nIt is clear from the NT as a whole that the Christian community understood itself as the community of the end time, as the community called into being by God’s end-time act of revelation and divine presence in Jesus of Nazareth. So Paul tells the Christians in Corinth that they are those “upon whom the end of the ages has come” (1 Cor 10:11, rsv<\/span>). That is, God had visited his creation, had called out of both Judaism and the gentile world a new people, empowered by his Spirit to be present in the world, sharing the Good News (gospel) of his radical, unconditional love for his creation (Eph 2:11-22). The Gospels tell us that Jesus chose 12 disciples who became the foundation of this new people. The correspondence to the 12 tribes of Israel is clear, and it shows that the church was understood both as grounded in Judaism and as the fulfillment of God’s intention in calling Israel to become “a light to the nations, that my salvation may reach to the end of the earth” (Is 49:6, rsv<\/span>; Rom 11:1-5). It is this recognition that allows Paul to call this new Gentile-Jewish community, this new creation, “the Israel of God” (Gal 6:15-16). In this new community the traditional barriers of race, social standing, and sex—barriers that divided people from one another and categorized them into inferior and superior classes—are seen to be shattered: “There is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus” (Gal 3:28, niv<\/span>). This one entity is called “the body of Christ.”<\/p>\nPaul is alone among NT writers in speaking of the church as Christ’s body (Rom 12:5; 1 Cor 12:27; Eph 1:22-23; 4:12; see also 1 Cor 10:16-17; 12:12-13), or as “the body” of which Christ is the “head” (Eph 4:15; Col 1:18). The origin of this way of speaking about the church is not clear. Among a number of suggestions, two are particularly revealing about Paul’s thought: (1) The Damascus road experience. According to the accounts in Acts (9:3-7; 22:6-11; 26:12-18), Jesus identifies himself with his persecuted disciples. By persecuting these early Christians, Paul was actually fighting against Christ himself. It is possible that later reflection on this experience led Paul to the conviction that the living Christ was so identified with his community that it could be spoken of as his “body,” that is, the concrete expression of his real presence. (2) The Hebrew concept of corporate solidarity. Paul was a Hebrew of the Hebrews (Phil 3:5), and his thinking was thoroughly Jewish. In that context, the individual is largely thought of as intimately tied into the nation as a whole; the individual does not have real existence apart from the whole people. At the same time, the entire people can be seen as represented by one individual. Thus, “Israel” is both the name of one individual and the name of a whole people. The “servant” of Isaiah 42–53 can be both an individual (Is 42:1-4) and the nation of Israel (49:1-6). This idea of corporate solidarity (or personality) is the background for the intimate connection Paul makes between “the first Adam” and sinful humanity as well as between “the last (or second) Adam” (Christ) and renewed humanity (1 Cor 15:45-49; see also Rom 5:12-21).<\/p>\nThe reality of the intimate relation between Christ and his church is thus expressed by Paul as the organic unity and integration of the physical body (Rom 12:4-8; 1 Cor 12:12-27). For Paul, the Lord’s Supper is a specific manifestation of this reality: “The bread which we break, is it not a participation in the body of Christ? Because there is one bread, we who are many are one body, for we all partake of the one bread” (1 Cor 10:16b-17, rsv<\/span>). Since this is the case, Paul goes on to argue, all the functions of the body have their legitimate and rightful place. Division within the body (i.e., the church) reveals that there is something unhealthy within. It is this image of the church as the “body of Christ” that lies behind Paul’s repeated call for and insistence upon unity within the Christian community.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CHURCH<\/h3>\nA group or assembly of persons called together for a particular purpose. The term appears in only two verses in the Gospels (Mt 16:18; 18:17) but frequently in the book of Acts, most of the letters of Paul, as well as most of the remaining NT writings, especially the Revelation of John.<\/p>\nOne way of referring to the body of Israel in the OT was simply “the congregation.” Groups claiming to be the true Israel spiritually rather then naturally called themselves “the congregation.” The term was used by the writers of the Dead Sea Scrolls as well as by early Christians; it is the actual meaning of the word “church.” Christians often referred to themselves simply as the church or the congregation (with “of God” being understood). The term could be applied either to all believers in the world or to any local group of them. It meant the total presence of God’s people in a given location. That is why the NT often uses the singular “church” even when many groups of believers are included together (Acts 9:31; 2 Cor 1:1); the term “churches” is rarely found (Acts 15:41; 16:5). Each group or the whole group was the place where God was present (Mt 16:18; 18:17); God had purchased the congregation with the blood of his Son (Acts 20:28). The use of the word “church” in the NT is also somewhat dependent upon the Greek world. In the Greek world the word translated “church” designated an assembly<\/em> of people, a meeting, such as a regularly summoned political body, or simply a gathering<\/em> of people. The word is used in such a secular way in Acts 19:32, 39, 41.<\/p>\nThe specifically Christian usages of this concept vary considerably in the NT. (1) In analogy to the OT, it sometimes refers to a church meeting, as when Paul says to the Christians in Corinth: “When you meet as a church . . .” (1 Cor 11:18). This means that Christians are the people of God especially when they are gathered for worship. (2) In texts such as Matthew 18:17, Acts 5:11, 1 Corinthians 4:17, and Philippians 4:15, “church” refers to the entire group of Christians living in one place. Often, the local character of a Christian congregation is emphasized, as in the phrases, “the church in Jerusalem” (Acts 8:1), “in Corinth” (1 Cor 1:2), “in Thessalonica” (1 Thes 1:1). (3) In other texts, house assemblies of Christians are called churches, such as those who met in the house of Priscilla and Aquila (Rom 16:5; 1 Cor 16:19). (4) Throughout the NT, “the church” designates the universal church, to which all believers belong (see Acts 9:31; 1 Cor 6:4; Eph 1:22; Col 1:18). Jesus’ first word about the founding of the Christian movement in Matthew 16:18 has this larger meaning: “I will build my church, and the powers of death shall not prevail against it” (rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe church, both as a universal reality and in its local, concrete expression, is more specifically designated in Paul’s writings as “the church of God” (e.g., 1 Cor 1:2; 10:32) or “the churches of Christ” (Rom 16:16). In this way a common, secular Greek term receives its distinctive Christian meaning and sets the Christian assembly\/ gathering\/community apart from all other secular or religious groups.<\/p>\nIt is clear from the NT as a whole that the Christian community understood itself as the community of the end time, as the community called into being by God’s end-time act of revelation and divine presence in Jesus of Nazareth. So Paul tells the Christians in Corinth that they are those “upon whom the end of the ages has come” (1 Cor 10:11, rsv<\/span>). That is, God had visited his creation, had called out of both Judaism and the gentile world a new people, empowered by his Spirit to be present in the world, sharing the Good News (gospel) of his radical, unconditional love for his creation (Eph 2:11-22). The Gospels tell us that Jesus chose 12 disciples who became the foundation of this new people. The correspondence to the 12 tribes of Israel is clear, and it shows that the church was understood both as grounded in Judaism and as the fulfillment of God’s intention in calling Israel to become “a light to the nations, that my salvation may reach to the end of the earth” (Is 49:6, rsv<\/span>; Rom 11:1-5). It is this recognition that allows Paul to call this new Gentile-Jewish community, this new creation, “the Israel of God” (Gal 6:15-16). In this new community the traditional barriers of race, social standing, and sex—barriers that divided people from one another and categorized them into inferior and superior classes—are seen to be shattered: “There is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus” (Gal 3:28, niv<\/span>). This one entity is called “the body of Christ.”<\/p>\nPaul is alone among NT writers in speaking of the church as Christ’s body (Rom 12:5; 1 Cor 12:27; Eph 1:22-23; 4:12; see also 1 Cor 10:16-17; 12:12-13), or as “the body” of which Christ is the “head” (Eph 4:15; Col 1:18). The origin of this way of speaking about the church is not clear. Among a number of suggestions, two are particularly revealing about Paul’s thought: (1) The Damascus road experience. According to the accounts in Acts (9:3-7; 22:6-11; 26:12-18), Jesus identifies himself with his persecuted disciples. By persecuting these early Christians, Paul was actually fighting against Christ himself. It is possible that later reflection on this experience led Paul to the conviction that the living Christ was so identified with his community that it could be spoken of as his “body,” that is, the concrete expression of his real presence. (2) The Hebrew concept of corporate solidarity. Paul was a Hebrew of the Hebrews (Phil 3:5), and his thinking was thoroughly Jewish. In that context, the individual is largely thought of as intimately tied into the nation as a whole; the individual does not have real existence apart from the whole people. At the same time, the entire people can be seen as represented by one individual. Thus, “Israel” is both the name of one individual and the name of a whole people. The “servant” of Isaiah 42–53 can be both an individual (Is 42:1-4) and the nation of Israel (49:1-6). This idea of corporate solidarity (or personality) is the background for the intimate connection Paul makes between “the first Adam” and sinful humanity as well as between “the last (or second) Adam” (Christ) and renewed humanity (1 Cor 15:45-49; see also Rom 5:12-21).<\/p>\nThe reality of the intimate relation between Christ and his church is thus expressed by Paul as the organic unity and integration of the physical body (Rom 12:4-8; 1 Cor 12:12-27). For Paul, the Lord’s Supper is a specific manifestation of this reality: “The bread which we break, is it not a participation in the body of Christ? Because there is one bread, we who are many are one body, for we all partake of the one bread” (1 Cor 10:16b-17, rsv<\/span>). Since this is the case, Paul goes on to argue, all the functions of the body have their legitimate and rightful place. Division within the body (i.e., the church) reveals that there is something unhealthy within. It is this image of the church as the “body of Christ” that lies behind Paul’s repeated call for and insistence upon unity within the Christian community.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CHURCH A group or assembly of persons called together for a particular purpose. The term appears in only two verses in the Gospels (Mt 16:18; 18:17) but frequently in the book of Acts, most of the letters of Paul, as well as most of the remaining NT writings, especially the Revelation of John. One way of referring to the body of Israel in the OT was simply “the congregation.” Groups claiming to be the true Israel spiritually rather then naturally called themselves “the congregation.” The term...","summary_en":"CHURCH A group or assembly of persons called together for a particular purpose. The term appears in only two verses in the Gospels (Mt 16:18; 18:17) but frequently in the book of Acts, most of the letters of Paul, as well as most of the remaining NT writings, especially the Revelation of John. One way of referring to the body of Israel in the OT was simply “the congregation.” Groups claiming to be the true Israel spiritually rather then naturally called themselves “the congregation.” The term...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":6670,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>CIRCUMCISION<\/h3>\nSurgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after birth on nearly all newborn males in North America. Outside of Judaism the procedure no longer carries religious significance.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n• Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n• Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\nCircumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\nThe rite of circumcision is far older than the Hebrew people. Cave paintings give evidence that it was practiced in prehistoric times. Egyptian temple drawings show that the operation was common in 4000 BC<\/span> and probably earlier. Peoples practicing circumcision lived on almost every continent. The rite was observed among Central and South American Indians, Polynesians, the peoples of New Guinea, many Australian and African tribes, Egyptians, and pre-Islamic Arabs. The rite is not mentioned in the Koran, but because Muhammad was circumcised, tradition dictates that male Muslims follow the ancient custom. Arab ancestry is traced to Abraham through Ishmael (Gn 17:20), so a common age for Muslim circumcisions is 13, because Ishmael was circumcised at that age (v 25).<\/p>\nAmong the West Semitic people, the Ammonites, Edomites, Midianites, Moabites, and Phoenicians all practiced circumcision (Jer 9:25-26). The Philistines, however, did not (Jgs 14:3; 15:18; 1 Sm 14:6; 17:26, 36; 18:25, 27; 31:4; 2 Sm 1:20; 3:14; 1 Chr 10:4).<\/p>\nYoung men were usually circumcised at puberty, evidently in preparation for marriage and entrance into full tribal responsibilities. The Hebrews were the only ancient practitioners of circumcision to observe the rite in infancy, thus freeing it from association with fertility rituals.<\/p>\nCircumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\nIn the Bible the practice of circumcision began in Genesis 17 as a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham. God promised Abraham a land and, through a son yet to be conceived, numerous descendants, from whom kings would come. Blessings would come upon Abraham and through him to all nations (Gn 12:1-3). After the covenant was formally inaugurated (ch 15), God sealed it, ordering Abraham to be circumcised along with all the males in his household (17:9-13).<\/p>\nCircumcision was to be an expression of faith that God’s promises would be realized. Because Abraham’s faith had lapsed (Gn 16) even after he had seen the awesome display of God’s majesty (15:9-17), a permanent reminder of God’s covenant promises was placed on his body and the bodies of his male descendants (17:11). This sign was so closely related to God’s covenant promise that the rite itself could be termed the “covenant” (Gn 17:10; Acts 7:8).<\/p>\nCircumcision was to be performed on the eighth day after birth (Gn 17:12; Lv 12:1-3; see Gn 21:4; Lk 1:59; 2:21; Acts 7:8; Phil 3:5), customarily by the boy’s father (Gn 17:23; 21:4; Acts 7:8), at which time a name would be given (Lk 1:59; 2:21). Flint knives were used in the early days (Ex 4:25; Jos 5:2-3). Later, the rite was carried out by a trained practitioner called a mohel<\/span>.<\/em> Medical research has determined that prothrombin, a substance in the blood that aids in clotting, is present in greater quantity on the eighth day than at any other time in life.<\/p>\n<h5>Theological Meaning<\/h5>\nCircumcision had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning Abraham’s descendants (Gn 17:9-12). Because it was applied to the reproductive organ, the sign involved the propagation of the race. Its application to the eight-day-old infant demonstrates the gracious character of God’s promise to Abraham’s descendants and indicates that God’s people are in need of cleansing grace from birth (Lv 12:1-3). The promises of the covenant were reaffirmed to each generation before the recipients were able to respond in either faith or unbelief; nothing in the hearts of the chosen people could either bring about or thwart the ultimate fulfillment of the promises given to Abraham and his posterity.<\/p>\nCircumcision also had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning the land (Gn 17:8). The land was God’s holy possession, and the Israelites had to be holy to possess it. When Joseph and his descendants were in Egypt, they continued to circumcise their sons. But following the great sin at Mt Sinai after the exodus, the unbelieving Israelites failed to place the covenant sign upon their children as they wandered in the wilderness. Because the new generation had not been circumcised, the people were unprepared to enter the Promised Land. Therefore, God ordered Joshua to circumcise the men of Israel. The people’s obedient response was an act of faith, since the armies of the enemy were camped nearby as the Israelite warriors lay incapacitated by the surgery (Jos 5:2-9).<\/p>\nFrom the beginning, participation in the covenant promises was open to persons outside Abraham’s household (Gn 17:12-13). Exodus 12:43-49 gives non-Israelites the opportunity to participate in the Passover if they are willing to fulfill the same stipulation placed upon the Jews—that of circumcision.<\/p>\nThe provision for admission to God’s people by reception of the covenant sign was abused by Jacob’s sons when circumcision was made a precondition for intermarriage with the Shechemites. While the Shechemites were disabled by their wounds, Simeon and Levi killed them, plundering the city to exact retribution for the rape of their sister Dinah (Gn 34).<\/p>\nThe sign of the covenant was not to be treated lightly. The penalty of excommunication rested upon the uncircumcised (Gn 17:14). The strange incident recorded in Exodus 4:24-26 seems to have been God’s reminder to Moses of the stipulations of the covenant made with Abraham. Moses had proved an unfaithful servant of the Lord by neglecting to circumcise his son but was rescued from judgment when his wife Zipporah took a flint rock and circumcised the boy, throwing the bloody foreskin at her husband’s feet.<\/p>\n\nCircumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\nJohn the Baptist was circumcised, as were Jesus and Paul (Lk 1:59; 2:21; Phil 3:5). Jesus recognized the cleansing significance of circumcision (Jn 7:22-23), contrasting the rite with his healing ministry that made a man completely well and therefore ceremonially “clean.” Just before he was stoned, Stephen referred to the covenant of circumcision, charging that his Jewish accusers, like their ancestors, were stiff-necked and uncircumcised in heart and ears, always resisting the Holy Spirit (Acts 7:8, 51).<\/p>\nFor a time the first Christians continued to participate in the Jewish rites and customs, even attending the services of the temple (Acts 3:1; 5:21, 42). As Gentiles came to Christ, controversy arose between those who said that participation in the covenant community required circumcision and those who believed the rite was unnecessary. It was argued that since the covenant promise of the Messiah was given to the Jews, Gentiles must first be circumcised and become Jews before they could receive salvation in Christ.<\/p>\nIn the time of Christ, many Jews misunderstood the significance of circumcision, believing that the physical act was necessary for and a guarantee of salvation. Thus for Jews the observance became not only a symbol of religious privilege but also a source of racial pride (Phil 3:4-6). These Jews associated the ceremony with the Mosaic law rather than the promise to Abraham (Jn 7:22; Acts 15:1). Because Greeks and Romans did not practice circumcision, Jews had come to be called “the circumcision” (kjv<\/span> Acts 10:45; 11:2; Rom 15:8; Gal 2:7-9; Eph 2:11; Ti 1:10), and following OT practice (Ez 28:10; 31:18; 32:19-32), Gentiles were termed “the uncircumcision” (kjv<\/span> Gal 2:7; Eph 2:11).<\/p>\nWhile visiting Caesarea, Jewish believers were amazed to realize that uncircumcised Gentiles received the purifying gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts 10:44-48). Moses had promised that God would circumcise the hearts of his people to love the Lord with heart and soul (Dt 30:6), and Ezekiel had prophesied that the Lord would sprinkle clean water on his people, giving them a new heart and putting his Spirit within them (Ez 36:25-27). As these Jewish believers saw the prophecy that God would pour out his Spirit upon all flesh (Jl 2:28; Acts 2:17) being fulfilled, they realized that the inward reality symbolized by circumcision could be accomplished without the physical sign. Thus, the gentile believers were immediately baptized.<\/p>\nNot all the Jewish believers were immediately willing to accept Gentiles into the church. When Peter returned to Jerusalem after his visit to Caesarea, “the circumcision party” criticized him. But after telling how the Spirit had fallen upon the Gentiles, Peter declared that he could not stand against God. At this the Jewish believers were silenced and glorified God that repentance unto life had been granted to Gentiles (Acts 11:1-3, 15:8).<\/p>\nCertain “Judaizers” of the Pharisaic party taught the Christians in Antioch that circumcision was necessary for salvation (Acts 15:1, 5). After debating these persons, Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles and elders (v 2). Peter argued that God had given the Spirit to Gentiles and “cleansed their hearts by faith,” affirming that “we believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus, just as they will” (vv 8-9, 11, rsv<\/span>). Therefore, James and the other Jerusalem leaders agreed that circumcision should not be imposed on the Gentiles (vv 13-21).<\/p>\nIt was decided that Peter, James, and John would be entrusted with the gospel to “the circumcised,” while Paul and Barnabas would preach to “the uncircumcised” (Gal 2:7-9). Because of his evangelistic policy to be “all things to all people” with respect to spiritually indifferent matters of custom (1 Cor 9:19-23), Paul had Timothy circumcised. Timothy was reckoned by Jews as one of their race because his mother was Jewish (Acts 16:1-2). But Paul resisted attempts to have Titus circumcised, since he was a Gentile (Gal 2:3). Paul apparently allowed Jewish believers to circumcise their sons (Acts 21:21).<\/p>\nYet Paul charged that those who argued that the Galatian Christians must be circumcised and keep the law did not keep it themselves but wanted to boast in the Galatians’ flesh and avoid persecution for the cross of Christ (Gal 6:12-13)—persecution Paul was willing to bear (5:11). Granting for the sake of argument the Pharisaic assumption that salvation could be merited by keeping the law, Paul declared that those who received circumcision must obey every other Jewish law (vv 2-3). Christ would be “of no advantage” to those who “would be justified by the law”; this attempt at works righteousness would evidence that the Galatians were “severed from Christ,” having “fallen from grace” (vv 2-4). These Christians were being tempted to turn to “a different gospel” (1:6-7).<\/p>\nBecause of the serious threat the Judaizers posed to the gospel of free grace, Paul wished that those who unsettled the Galatians would “mutilate themselves” (Gal 5:12). He termed the Judaizers “dogs” and “evil workers” (kjv<\/span> “concision”), asserting that Christians are “the true circumcision,” because they worship God in spirit and glory in Christ Jesus, putting no confidence in human works to merit salvation (Phil 3:2-3).<\/p>\nPaul taught that circumcision was indeed of value to Jews, for it was the sign that to them had been committed the “oracles of God,” that is, God’s word concerning the promise of salvation (Rom 3:1-3). He reminded the prideful Ephesians that as Gentiles they had once been “strangers to the covenants of promise,” not bearing the covenant sign in their flesh (Eph 2:11-12; see Col 2:13). Likewise, Jews had no cause for pride, for disobedience could cause outward circumcision to be counted as uncircumcision (Rom 2:25).<\/p>\nPaul and the other apostles followed Moses and the OT prophets in teaching that true circumcision was a matter of the heart. The teaching of the NT goes further to affirm that a faithful believer, though physically uncircumcised, is regarded by God as circumcised, “for he is not a real Jew who is one outwardly, nor is true circumcision something external and physical” (Rom 2:28, rsv<\/span>). Both Jews and Gentiles are saved by grace (Acts 15:11), and circumcised and uncircumcised alike are justified on the ground of their faith, apart from works of the law (Rom 3:28-30).<\/p>\nAbraham served as an example of a person whose faith was reckoned to him as righteousness (Rom 4:3; see Gn 15:6). Paul argued that both Gentiles and Jews are justified by faith, because Abraham was accounted righteous before he was circumcised. Abraham did not receive circumcision to obtain righteousness, but as a sign or seal of the righteousness that he had by faith while he was still uncircumcised. Thus, Abraham is the father of all who believe without being circumcised, as well as those who are circumcised but also follow the example of Abraham’s faith (Rom 4:9-12; see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Baptism; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Uncircumcision.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CIRCUMCISION<\/h3>\nSurgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after birth on nearly all newborn males in North America. Outside of Judaism the procedure no longer carries religious significance.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n• Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n• Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\nCircumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\nThe rite of circumcision is far older than the Hebrew people. Cave paintings give evidence that it was practiced in prehistoric times. Egyptian temple drawings show that the operation was common in 4000 BC<\/span> and probably earlier. Peoples practicing circumcision lived on almost every continent. The rite was observed among Central and South American Indians, Polynesians, the peoples of New Guinea, many Australian and African tribes, Egyptians, and pre-Islamic Arabs. The rite is not mentioned in the Koran, but because Muhammad was circumcised, tradition dictates that male Muslims follow the ancient custom. Arab ancestry is traced to Abraham through Ishmael (Gn 17:20), so a common age for Muslim circumcisions is 13, because Ishmael was circumcised at that age (v 25).<\/p>\nAmong the West Semitic people, the Ammonites, Edomites, Midianites, Moabites, and Phoenicians all practiced circumcision (Jer 9:25-26). The Philistines, however, did not (Jgs 14:3; 15:18; 1 Sm 14:6; 17:26, 36; 18:25, 27; 31:4; 2 Sm 1:20; 3:14; 1 Chr 10:4).<\/p>\nYoung men were usually circumcised at puberty, evidently in preparation for marriage and entrance into full tribal responsibilities. The Hebrews were the only ancient practitioners of circumcision to observe the rite in infancy, thus freeing it from association with fertility rituals.<\/p>\nCircumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\nIn the Bible the practice of circumcision began in Genesis 17 as a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham. God promised Abraham a land and, through a son yet to be conceived, numerous descendants, from whom kings would come. Blessings would come upon Abraham and through him to all nations (Gn 12:1-3). After the covenant was formally inaugurated (ch 15), God sealed it, ordering Abraham to be circumcised along with all the males in his household (17:9-13).<\/p>\nCircumcision was to be an expression of faith that God’s promises would be realized. Because Abraham’s faith had lapsed (Gn 16) even after he had seen the awesome display of God’s majesty (15:9-17), a permanent reminder of God’s covenant promises was placed on his body and the bodies of his male descendants (17:11). This sign was so closely related to God’s covenant promise that the rite itself could be termed the “covenant” (Gn 17:10; Acts 7:8).<\/p>\nCircumcision was to be performed on the eighth day after birth (Gn 17:12; Lv 12:1-3; see Gn 21:4; Lk 1:59; 2:21; Acts 7:8; Phil 3:5), customarily by the boy’s father (Gn 17:23; 21:4; Acts 7:8), at which time a name would be given (Lk 1:59; 2:21). Flint knives were used in the early days (Ex 4:25; Jos 5:2-3). Later, the rite was carried out by a trained practitioner called a mohel<\/span>.<\/em> Medical research has determined that prothrombin, a substance in the blood that aids in clotting, is present in greater quantity on the eighth day than at any other time in life.<\/p>\n<h5>Theological Meaning<\/h5>\nCircumcision had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning Abraham’s descendants (Gn 17:9-12). Because it was applied to the reproductive organ, the sign involved the propagation of the race. Its application to the eight-day-old infant demonstrates the gracious character of God’s promise to Abraham’s descendants and indicates that God’s people are in need of cleansing grace from birth (Lv 12:1-3). The promises of the covenant were reaffirmed to each generation before the recipients were able to respond in either faith or unbelief; nothing in the hearts of the chosen people could either bring about or thwart the ultimate fulfillment of the promises given to Abraham and his posterity.<\/p>\nCircumcision also had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning the land (Gn 17:8). The land was God’s holy possession, and the Israelites had to be holy to possess it. When Joseph and his descendants were in Egypt, they continued to circumcise their sons. But following the great sin at Mt Sinai after the exodus, the unbelieving Israelites failed to place the covenant sign upon their children as they wandered in the wilderness. Because the new generation had not been circumcised, the people were unprepared to enter the Promised Land. Therefore, God ordered Joshua to circumcise the men of Israel. The people’s obedient response was an act of faith, since the armies of the enemy were camped nearby as the Israelite warriors lay incapacitated by the surgery (Jos 5:2-9).<\/p>\nFrom the beginning, participation in the covenant promises was open to persons outside Abraham’s household (Gn 17:12-13). Exodus 12:43-49 gives non-Israelites the opportunity to participate in the Passover if they are willing to fulfill the same stipulation placed upon the Jews—that of circumcision.<\/p>\nThe provision for admission to God’s people by reception of the covenant sign was abused by Jacob’s sons when circumcision was made a precondition for intermarriage with the Shechemites. While the Shechemites were disabled by their wounds, Simeon and Levi killed them, plundering the city to exact retribution for the rape of their sister Dinah (Gn 34).<\/p>\nThe sign of the covenant was not to be treated lightly. The penalty of excommunication rested upon the uncircumcised (Gn 17:14). The strange incident recorded in Exodus 4:24-26 seems to have been God’s reminder to Moses of the stipulations of the covenant made with Abraham. Moses had proved an unfaithful servant of the Lord by neglecting to circumcise his son but was rescued from judgment when his wife Zipporah took a flint rock and circumcised the boy, throwing the bloody foreskin at her husband’s feet.<\/p>\n\nCircumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\nJohn the Baptist was circumcised, as were Jesus and Paul (Lk 1:59; 2:21; Phil 3:5). Jesus recognized the cleansing significance of circumcision (Jn 7:22-23), contrasting the rite with his healing ministry that made a man completely well and therefore ceremonially “clean.” Just before he was stoned, Stephen referred to the covenant of circumcision, charging that his Jewish accusers, like their ancestors, were stiff-necked and uncircumcised in heart and ears, always resisting the Holy Spirit (Acts 7:8, 51).<\/p>\nFor a time the first Christians continued to participate in the Jewish rites and customs, even attending the services of the temple (Acts 3:1; 5:21, 42). As Gentiles came to Christ, controversy arose between those who said that participation in the covenant community required circumcision and those who believed the rite was unnecessary. It was argued that since the covenant promise of the Messiah was given to the Jews, Gentiles must first be circumcised and become Jews before they could receive salvation in Christ.<\/p>\nIn the time of Christ, many Jews misunderstood the significance of circumcision, believing that the physical act was necessary for and a guarantee of salvation. Thus for Jews the observance became not only a symbol of religious privilege but also a source of racial pride (Phil 3:4-6). These Jews associated the ceremony with the Mosaic law rather than the promise to Abraham (Jn 7:22; Acts 15:1). Because Greeks and Romans did not practice circumcision, Jews had come to be called “the circumcision” (kjv<\/span> Acts 10:45; 11:2; Rom 15:8; Gal 2:7-9; Eph 2:11; Ti 1:10), and following OT practice (Ez 28:10; 31:18; 32:19-32), Gentiles were termed “the uncircumcision” (kjv<\/span> Gal 2:7; Eph 2:11).<\/p>\nWhile visiting Caesarea, Jewish believers were amazed to realize that uncircumcised Gentiles received the purifying gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts 10:44-48). Moses had promised that God would circumcise the hearts of his people to love the Lord with heart and soul (Dt 30:6), and Ezekiel had prophesied that the Lord would sprinkle clean water on his people, giving them a new heart and putting his Spirit within them (Ez 36:25-27). As these Jewish believers saw the prophecy that God would pour out his Spirit upon all flesh (Jl 2:28; Acts 2:17) being fulfilled, they realized that the inward reality symbolized by circumcision could be accomplished without the physical sign. Thus, the gentile believers were immediately baptized.<\/p>\nNot all the Jewish believers were immediately willing to accept Gentiles into the church. When Peter returned to Jerusalem after his visit to Caesarea, “the circumcision party” criticized him. But after telling how the Spirit had fallen upon the Gentiles, Peter declared that he could not stand against God. At this the Jewish believers were silenced and glorified God that repentance unto life had been granted to Gentiles (Acts 11:1-3, 15:8).<\/p>\nCertain “Judaizers” of the Pharisaic party taught the Christians in Antioch that circumcision was necessary for salvation (Acts 15:1, 5). After debating these persons, Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles and elders (v 2). Peter argued that God had given the Spirit to Gentiles and “cleansed their hearts by faith,” affirming that “we believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus, just as they will” (vv 8-9, 11, rsv<\/span>). Therefore, James and the other Jerusalem leaders agreed that circumcision should not be imposed on the Gentiles (vv 13-21).<\/p>\nIt was decided that Peter, James, and John would be entrusted with the gospel to “the circumcised,” while Paul and Barnabas would preach to “the uncircumcised” (Gal 2:7-9). Because of his evangelistic policy to be “all things to all people” with respect to spiritually indifferent matters of custom (1 Cor 9:19-23), Paul had Timothy circumcised. Timothy was reckoned by Jews as one of their race because his mother was Jewish (Acts 16:1-2). But Paul resisted attempts to have Titus circumcised, since he was a Gentile (Gal 2:3). Paul apparently allowed Jewish believers to circumcise their sons (Acts 21:21).<\/p>\nYet Paul charged that those who argued that the Galatian Christians must be circumcised and keep the law did not keep it themselves but wanted to boast in the Galatians’ flesh and avoid persecution for the cross of Christ (Gal 6:12-13)—persecution Paul was willing to bear (5:11). Granting for the sake of argument the Pharisaic assumption that salvation could be merited by keeping the law, Paul declared that those who received circumcision must obey every other Jewish law (vv 2-3). Christ would be “of no advantage” to those who “would be justified by the law”; this attempt at works righteousness would evidence that the Galatians were “severed from Christ,” having “fallen from grace” (vv 2-4). These Christians were being tempted to turn to “a different gospel” (1:6-7).<\/p>\nBecause of the serious threat the Judaizers posed to the gospel of free grace, Paul wished that those who unsettled the Galatians would “mutilate themselves” (Gal 5:12). He termed the Judaizers “dogs” and “evil workers” (kjv<\/span> “concision”), asserting that Christians are “the true circumcision,” because they worship God in spirit and glory in Christ Jesus, putting no confidence in human works to merit salvation (Phil 3:2-3).<\/p>\nPaul taught that circumcision was indeed of value to Jews, for it was the sign that to them had been committed the “oracles of God,” that is, God’s word concerning the promise of salvation (Rom 3:1-3). He reminded the prideful Ephesians that as Gentiles they had once been “strangers to the covenants of promise,” not bearing the covenant sign in their flesh (Eph 2:11-12; see Col 2:13). Likewise, Jews had no cause for pride, for disobedience could cause outward circumcision to be counted as uncircumcision (Rom 2:25).<\/p>\nPaul and the other apostles followed Moses and the OT prophets in teaching that true circumcision was a matter of the heart. The teaching of the NT goes further to affirm that a faithful believer, though physically uncircumcised, is regarded by God as circumcised, “for he is not a real Jew who is one outwardly, nor is true circumcision something external and physical” (Rom 2:28, rsv<\/span>). Both Jews and Gentiles are saved by grace (Acts 15:11), and circumcised and uncircumcised alike are justified on the ground of their faith, apart from works of the law (Rom 3:28-30).<\/p>\nAbraham served as an example of a person whose faith was reckoned to him as righteousness (Rom 4:3; see Gn 15:6). Paul argued that both Gentiles and Jews are justified by faith, because Abraham was accounted righteous before he was circumcised. Abraham did not receive circumcision to obtain righteousness, but as a sign or seal of the righteousness that he had by faith while he was still uncircumcised. Thus, Abraham is the father of all who believe without being circumcised, as well as those who are circumcised but also follow the example of Abraham’s faith (Rom 4:9-12; see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Baptism; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Uncircumcision.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CIRCUMCISION Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after bi...","summary_en":"CIRCUMCISION Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after bi...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21071,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Judaism","title_en":"Judaism","content_ro":"<h3>JUDAISM<\/h3>\nReligion and culture of the Jewish people from the beginning of the postexilic period (538 BC<\/span>) to modern times. The term “Judaism” is derived from “Judah,” the name of the southern kingdom of ancient Israel, while “Jew” is a shortened form of “Judeans.”<\/p>\nThe Period of the Second Temple (515 BC<\/span>–AD<\/span> 70)<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Survey<\/h5>\nThe united kingdom of Israel under Saul, David, and Solomon came to an end shortly after the death of Solomon. Rehoboam, his son, provoked a revolt about 930 BC<\/span> on the part of the 10 northern tribes by levying unreasonably high taxes (1 Kgs 12). From that time on, the kingdoms of Israel (or Samaria, the northern kingdom) and Judah (the southern kingdom) maintained a separate existence. The northern kingdom fell to the Assyrians in 722 BC<\/span>, and thousands of captives, primarily members of the upper class, were exiled forcibly and taken to Assyria, where they presumably intermarried with the native population and disappeared from history. The kingdom of Judah survived as an independent state until 597 BC<\/span>, when it came under the control of the Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar. The temple was finally destroyed in 586 BC<\/span> and many captives were carried off to Babylonia, beginning a period of exile that was to last two generations. The Babylonians were defeated by Cyrus the Persian in 539 BC<\/span>, and the following year the king issued a decree permitting all captive peoples to return to the lands of their origin (2 Chr 36:22-23; Ezr 1). At least four waves of Jewish expatriates returned from Mesopotamia to Judea during the century following the decree of Cyrus, under such leaders as Sheshbazzar, Zerubbabel, Ezra, and Nehemiah. Many Jews, however, chose to remain in their adopted Mesopotamian homeland. The dedication of the second temple in the spring of 515 BC<\/span> provided a formal end to the exilic period of 70 years (Jer 29:10), and was a direct result of the prophetic exhortations of Haggai and Zechariah.<\/p>\nIn Judea the Jewish people were ruled by governors who held office at the pleasure of the Persian king. One of the earlier governors was Zerubabbel (Hg 1:1; 2:1-2), a descendant of David (1 Chr 3:10-19). In some way he shared rule with the high priest Jeshua ben Jehozadak. Palestine was part of one of the 20 satrapies of the Persian Empire, which lasted from 539 to 331 BC<\/span>, when it fell to the Greeks under Alexander the Great. Little is known about the historical developments in Palestine during most of the Persian period. When Alexander died in 323 BC<\/span>, his empire was divided up among his generals; Egypt and Palestine fell to Ptolemy I. The Ptolemies were benevolent despots who allowed the Jews of Palestine a measure of freedom and autonomy. After the battle of Paneion in 198 BC<\/span>, Palestine came under the rule of the Seleucid Empire, founded by Seleucus I, another of Alexander’s generals.<\/p>\nThe Seleucid Empire embraced a very large area with a diverse population, extending from Asia Minor and Palestine in the west to the borders of India on the east. Antiochus IV (Epiphanes) ascended the Seleucid throne in 175 BC<\/span> and attempted to unify his vast empire by Hellenizing it (i.e., by forcing the adoption of Greek language and culture). Local cultures and religions were forcibly suppressed as a result of this policy, and the Jewish state in Palestine was perhaps the hardest hit of all. In 167 BC<\/span> Antiochus IV dedicated the temple in Jerusalem to Olympian Zeus, sacrificed a sow on the altar, destroyed scrolls containing the Jewish Scriptures, and forbade the rite of circumcision. This repression triggered a revolt led by an aged priest named Mattathias and his sons. The Seleucids were repulsed, and finally in 164 BC<\/span> the temple was retaken by Mattathias’s son Judas the Maccabee (an epithet meaning “the hammer”). This Jewish victory has been commemorated annually by the festival of Hanukkah (“dedication”). Judas and his brothers, called Maccabees or Hasmoneans (Mattathias was of the house of Hasmon), and their descendants ruled Judea from 164 to 63 BC<\/span>, when Palestine fell to the Roman general Pompey. Thereafter, Palestine remained a vassal of Rome.<\/p>\nHyrcanus, a Hasmonean, was high priest after the conquest of Judea by the Romans, though Antipater (an Idumean) was the real power behind Hyrcanus. The sons of Antipater, Phasael and Herod, were governors of Jerusalem and Galilee, respectively. Upon the assassination of Antipater in 43 BC<\/span>, and through his connections in Rome, Herod (later called Herod the Great) was named king of Judea by the Roman senate; he reigned from 37 to 4 BC<\/span>. When he died, Palestine was divided up by the emperor Augustus (27 BC<\/span>–AD<\/span> 14) and placed under the governorship of three of Herod’s sons: Herod Archelaus (ethnarch of Judea, Idumea, and Samaria from 4 BC<\/span> to AD<\/span> 6), Herod Antipas (tetrarch of Galilee and Perea from 4 BC<\/span> to AD<\/span> 39), and Herod Philip (tetrarch of Batanea, Trachonitis, and other small states from 4 BC<\/span> to AD<\/span> 34). These territories were generally placed under Roman procurators after the sons of Herod had died or been deposed. For a brief period (AD<\/span> 41–44), Herod Agrippa I, the grandson of Herod the Great, ruled virtually the same territory as his grandfather. Upon his death (narrated in Acts 12:20-23), his territories were placed under Roman procurators. The greed and ineptitude of these procurators provoked the Jewish populace to rebel. The ill-fated Jewish revolt of AD<\/span> 66–73 resulted in the destruction of the second temple by the tenth Roman legion under Titus in AD<\/span> 70. The revolt was completely quelled in AD<\/span> 73, when more than 900 Jews under siege in the desert fortress of Masada near the Dead Sea committed mass suicide rather than fall into Roman hands. These tragic events ended permanently the temple cult and the priestly system in Judaism.<\/p>\n<h5>Social and Religious Developments<\/h5>\nThe Babylonian conquest of Judea and the destruction of the Solomonic temple in 586 BC<\/span> produced dramatic social and religious changes in Jewish life. The cessation of the temple cult struck a serious blow at the heart of the Israelite religion, since the Jerusalem temple alone was the legitimate and divinely appointed place for discharging much of the ritual requirement of the Mosaic law, chiefly the sacrificial cult. Even the three annual pilgrimage festivals, Succoth (Tabernacles), Pesach (Passover), and Shavuoth (Weeks) could no longer be observed by pious Jews who had remained in Judea after 586 BC<\/span>. When after 538 BC<\/span> many exiles chose to return to Judea, many others elected to remain in their new homeland. For the latter, the temple cult, even when reinstituted in 516 BC<\/span>, could no longer play a significant role in their religious lives.<\/p>\nDuring the exilic and early postexilic period, the peculiar Jewish institution of the synagogue (a Greek word meaning “gathering place”) began to evolve. The synagogue became such a popular and useful institution for Jewish communities outside Palestine that in the centuries after the dedication of the second temple they sprang up throughout Palestine, many in Jerusalem itself. By the end of the second temple period, the synagogue had come to play three important functions in Jewish life: it served as a house of prayer, a house of study, and a place of assembly. First-century AD<\/span> synagogue worship is illustrated in Luke 4:16-30 and Acts 13:13-42. The focus of the service was a reading of a selection from the Torah (Law of Moses), then one from the Haphtorah (Prophets). These readings were followed by a homily based on Scripture. Other elements in first-century AD<\/span> synagogue worship included the recitation of the Shema (“Hear, O Israel”), a combination of biblical passages including Deuteronomy 6:4-9; 11:13-21 and Numbers 15:37-41, and the Shemoneh Esreh (Eighteen Benedictions) called the Amidah (“standing”) because it was recited while standing upright. Jews also wore fringes on their garments in obedience to Numbers 15:38-39 (Mt 23:5), and phylacteries on their foreheads and left arms. Phylacteries are little boxes containing the portions of Scripture recited in Shema; they were used in literal fulfillment of the command in Deuteronomy 6:8. Archaeologists have discovered first-century phylacteries in the ruins of Masada.<\/p>\nOutside of Palestine, Mesopotamia became the second most important center of Judaism. The Babylonian Jewish community was known as the Golah (“captivity”), and its titular head was called the Resh Galuta or Exilarch (both terms mean “leader of the captivity”). By the end of the exilic period, the descendants of the ancient original captives had forgotten Hebrew and had adopted Aramaic, the international language of the ancient Near East and sister language to Hebrew, as their first language. Even in Palestine, Aramaic was the primary language spoken. Thus, when portions of Scripture were read in synagogue services in Hebrew, most of those present were unable to understand what was read. This problem was solved by providing a methurgeman (translator) who would translate orally short sections of Scripture. Eventually these targums (“translations”) were reduced to writing, beginning in the second century AD<\/span>.<\/p>\nBy the first century AD<\/span>, it had been estimated that there were from four to seven million Jews in the Greco-Roman world, perhaps three to four times the population of Palestine. Jews in lands outside of Palestine came to be known collectively as the Diaspora (“scattering”). After the Greeks dominated the Mediterranean world through Alexander and his successors, Greek became the common language throughout this region. Just as Mesopotamian Jews spoke Aramaic in place of Hebrew, so Jews in the Greco-Roman world came to speak Greek. By the middle of the third century BC<\/span>, Hellenistic Jews began to translate the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek. This translation, called the Septuagint (a term meaning “seventy,” based on a legend that it was translated simultaneously by seventy Jewish scholars), contained a more extensive canon of Scripture than that recognized by Palestinian Judaism. This reflects the more liberal attitudes of Hellenistic Jews.<\/p>\nDuring the second century BC<\/span>, most of the major sects within Palestinian Judaism came into being. The Hasidim (“pious”) were members of a religious association that aided the Hasmoneans in the revolt against the Seleucids (1 Macc 2:42; 7:13) but later opposed them when they claimed rights to the priesthood. Both the Pharisees and Essenes may have their origin in this religious sect. The Sadducees were perhaps connected with Zadok, a high priest appointed by David. Zadok’s descendants were regarded as the only legitimate priestly line; they were devoted above the Levites in Ezekiel 40–48. The Sadducees were a wealthy, aristocratic class that monopolized the high priesthood. They did not believe in angels, spirits, life after death, or the resurrection (Acts 23:8), nor did they accept the validity of the oral law as developed by the Pharisees. They left no writings and disappeared with the destruction of the temple in AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\nThe Pharisees (“separated ones”) first appear in our sources toward the end of the second century BC<\/span> and were involved primarily in political affairs. They represented the common people against the tyrannical Hasmonean ruler Alexander Janneus (103–76 BC<\/span>), who had hundreds of Pharisees executed in reprisal. By the first century AD<\/span>, the Pharisees seem wholly concerned with religious matters and were noted for the scrupulous observance of the Mosaic law as traditionally interpreted. On grounds of ritual purity, they separated themselves from other Jews who were not as scrupulous and who might contaminate them. Pharisees went about in groups called Haberim (“associates”) in which they were insulated from those who were lax religiously. In their zeal to remain faithful to the Mosaic law, the Pharisees developed an oral law (later erroneously attributed to Moses) that served as a fence around the Torah. This oral law was an interpretation and expansion of the 613 commands in the Mosaic law; it was finally compiled and reduced to written form as the Mishnah (“teaching”) in the late second century AD<\/span>. Paul (Acts 22:3; 23:6; 26:5; Phil 3:5) and many other early Christians were converts from Pharisaism (Acts 15:5). Pharisaic Judaism survived the destruction of Jerusalem in AD<\/span> 70 to form the rabbinic Judaism that dominated Jewish religious life from the second century AD<\/span> to modern times.<\/p>\nThe Essenes were another religious sect within Judaism that had its origins in the second century BC<\/span>. Like the Pharisees, the Essenes were concerned principally with maintaining ritual purity in obedience to the law of Moses. The Essenes lived and worked in Jewish society; they tried to influence people by the simple, altruistic life they followed. Some Essenes also lived in their own communities, to which they returned each night after work. There were numerous religious factions within Judaism, and one such group, which may only have had vague connections with the Essenes, established a community on the western shore of the Dead Sea. This group regarded itself as the true Israel and in the wilderness prepared for the final visitation of God by keeping themselves pure from all defilement. Many documents written by members of this sect were discovered in caves near the Dead Sea where they had been hidden just before the Romans destroyed the settlement. These documents, the Dead Sea Scrolls, have provided detailed information about this religious sect and its beliefs.<\/p>\nThe Zealots were another Jewish sect, who may be related to the Sicarii (“dagger men”). This group of political activists flourished from AD<\/span> 6 to 66. Regarding God alone as their sovereign, they attempted to overthrow the Romans and those who collaborated with them by violent means, including assassination. They helped to foment the Jewish revolt of AD<\/span> 66–73 and perished with Jerusalem in AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\nSocial class and status in first-century AD<\/span> Palestine were determined in accordance with the rules of ritual purity. The upper class comprised members of the religious establishment, such as the Sadducees, scribes, Pharisees, and Jerusalem priests. The Sanhedrin was a deliberative body whose membership was drawn from these groups. For all practical purposes there was no middle class. The lower class consisted primarily of the Am Ha Arez (“people of the land”)—Jews who were ignorant of the law through lack of education and who did not scrupulously observe those commandments with which they were familiar. The generally hostile attitude of the Pharisees toward the Am Ha Arez is expressed in John 7:49: “But this crowd, who do not know the law, are accursed” (rsv<\/span>). There was yet another social class in first-century Palestine, which can be designated as “untouchables.” This group was composed of Samaritans, tax collectors, prostitutes, shepherds, lepers, Gentiles, and perhaps worst of all, Jews who became as Gentiles (e.g., the prodigal son of Lk 15:11-32). The rules of ritual purity as generally observed prevented any form of social contact between the upper class and the untouchables, and made contacts with the Am Ha Arez highly undesirable. Against this background, the horror of the Pharisees over Jesus’ association with tax collectors and sinners is throughly understandable (Mk 2:15-17).<\/p>\nA further consequence of this religious criterion for determining social class and status was an uneasy tension between Jerusalem and the rural areas of Palestine, particularly Galilee, during the last two centuries of the second temple period. Those in Jerusalem regarded Galilee as a place where ignorance of the Torah was the rule (Jn 1:46). Jerusalem was primarily a religious center, whose major industry was the temple cult. The total population of Jerusalem in the first century AD<\/span> has been estimated at 25,000 to 40,000. Most of these were either artisans and craftsmen devoted to building and adorning the temple (still incomplete before it was destroyed; see Jn 2:20) or priests and Levites involved in the many ritual activities of the temple. Though Jews were expected to travel to Jerusalem for each of the three annual pilgrimage festivals, this requirement proved difficult for rural Palestinian farmers.<\/p>\nFurther, the tithe demanded by Mosaic command was only on the produce of the land, not upon wages or bartered goods. The rural farmers, therefore, bore the brunt of this taxation and quite naturally resented the privileged position of urban artisans, merchants, and priests who were not obliged to tithe. The temptation not to tithe the produce of the land was very great, and many farmers succumbed to it. Their untithed produce was not kosher, and thus to be avoided by those, like the Pharisees, who were religiously scrupulous. In addition to the first and second tithes demanded of farmers (the second tithe had to be spent in the vicinity of Jerusalem), it has been estimated that Roman tax levies amounted to 10 to 15 percent of an individual’s income. Religious taxes, together with Roman taxes, added up to a crushing tax burden of from 25 to 30 percent. The fact that the Jews finally revolted against their Roman oppressors in AD<\/span> 66 is not difficult to comprehend. Throughout the first century AD<\/span>, in fact, minor revolts in Palestine occurred with predictable frequency. Many of these occurred during the three annual pilgrimage festivals in Jerusalem, when the normal population of 25,000 to 40,000 swelled to 500,000 or more. These festivals provided ideal opportunities for uprisings, and the Romans were particularly alert for such eventualities. Jesus was executed during one such Passover festival because he was suspected of being a political revolutionary (Mk 15:26).<\/p>\nThe second temple period provided the setting for the rise and fall of apocalypticism within Judaism. Apocalypticism (from a Greek word meaning “revelation”) was a kind of eschatology (“account of final events”) that assumed that ideal conditions could not be restored on earth unless God first intervened climactically to destroy evil (particularly foreign oppressors) and vindicate the righteous (Israel). Apocalyptic visionaries composed many documents, called apocalypses, in which they attempted to read the signs of the times and predict the coming of the visitation of God. Since there was a widespread consciousness that the era of prophecy was over, these apocalyptists wrote not under their own names but under the names of ancient Israelite worthies, such as Moses, Abraham, Enoch, and Ezra. Among the more significant expectations of Jewish apocalypticism were (1) the coming of a Messiah; (2) the coming of a great period of tribulation, sometimes called the messianic woes; (3) the resurrection of the just; (4) the judgment of the wicked and the reward of the righteous. Apocalyptic beliefs probably provided the motivation for most—if not all—of the Jewish revolts against the Romans.<\/p>\n\nSome portions of the Hebrew Scriptures were still in the process of composition at the beginning of the second temple period. The last three prophetic books—Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi—were written from the end of the sixth century to the mid fifth century BC<\/span>. Later rabbis expressed the opinion that the Spirit of God had been taken from Israel when these prophets ceased their labors. The Chronicler ends his work by referring to the decree of Cyrus (538 BC<\/span>), and both Ezra-Nehemiah and Esther appear to have been written in the fifth century BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nThe second temple period witnessed not only the completion of those writings that were later regarded as inspired and authoritative in Judaism but also the full recognition of all 24 sacred books. Prior to the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC<\/span>, the Mosaic law had not been observed with any consistency (according to 2 Kgs 22 it had been mislaid for an unknown period of time), nor had the classical prophets always received appropriate recognition. But after 586 BC<\/span> the Torah occupied a position of unquestioned sanctity in the lives and thoughts of the Jewish people, replacing in many respects the temple cult even before its final dissolution in AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\nThe Jewish Scriptures are divided into three sections, designated by Jews with the acrostic “Tanak”: (1) Torah (“Law” or “Revelation”), (2) Nebi’im (“Prophets”), and (3) Kethubim (“Writings”). It is generally claimed that while the Law and Prophets enjoyed canonical status prior to the second century BC<\/span>, the Writings were finally declared canonical at the rabbinic council of Jamnia (c. AD<\/span> 90), though the historicity of this is disputed. The rabbis are thought to have discussed whether certain biblical books should continue to be part of Scripture. In reality, the Jewish canon of Scripture was fully defined from traditional usage by the first century BC<\/span>. The Law consisted of five books: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. The Prophets consisted of two sections, the Former Prophets (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings) and the Latter Prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the 12 Minor Prophets). The Writings included Chronicles, Ezra-Nehemiah, Esther, Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Lamentations, Ruth, and Daniel. The total number of books in this canon is 24, identical with the Protestant canon of 39 books, since Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, Ezra-Nehemiah, and the 12 are each counted as only one book. The Alexandrian canon of Hellenistic Judaism was more extensive, and the extra books (called Apocrypha by Protestants) are all found in the Roman Catholic OT canon of 46 books.<\/p>\nThe Talmudic Period (AD<\/span> 73–425)<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Survey<\/h5>\nAccording to Jewish legend, when the Romans were about to conquer Jerusalem in the revolt of AD<\/span> 66–73, a prominent Pharisee, Rabbi Johanan ben Zakkai, feigned death and his disciples were permitted to carry him out of the besieged city in a coffin. The more likely scenario is that he received permission from the Romans to move his school from Jerusalem to Jamnia, on the coast of Palestine. The temple cult and the priestly system had disappeared, and rabbinic academies such as that of Rabbi Johanan set themselves to the enormous task of reconstructing Judaism. The older Sanhedrin was reinstituted as the Beth Din (“Court of Law”), and Gamaliel II, a grandson of Hillel, who had presided over the old Sanhedrin, became its leader with the title Nasi (“prince”), or Patriarch. The patriarchate continued until AD<\/span> 425, when Emperor Theodosius II abolished the office upon the death of the last patriarch, Gamaliel VI. In Mesopotamia, Babylonian Judaism experienced a renaissance that lasted until the end of the fifth century AD<\/span>. This period was called the Age of the Gaonim (“excellencies”) after the heads of the two great rabbinic academies at Sura and Pumpeditha. It was there that the great Babylonian Talmud was compiled by the fifth century AD<\/span>.<\/p>\nIn AD<\/span> 115 various Jewish communities throughout the eastern Mediterranean, including Egypt, Cyprus, and Cyrene, revolted against the Roman emperor Trajan. Without exception these revolts were all put down by Roman legions. Finally, when the emperor Hadrian was on the brink of founding the new city of Aelia Capitolina on the site of old Jerusalem, the Jews again revolted in AD<\/span> 132, led by a self-proclaimed messiah, Simeon Bar Koziba, who was called Bar-Kochba (“Son of a Star”) by his followers as an allusion to the messianic passage in Numbers 24:17. Bar-Kochba was aided by the famous rabbinic scholar Akiba. This revolt, though initially successful, was put down by the Romans under Julius Severus in 135. Shortly thereafter, Hadrian issued a decree banning all Jews from the new Aelia Capitolina.<\/p>\n<h5>Social and Religious Developments<\/h5>\nDuring this period, the result of generations of rabbinical scholarship bore fruit with the compilation of the Babylonian and Jerusalem Talmuds. The rabbinic sages consciously saw themselves as the heirs of the ancient Israelite prophets, who in turn were the heirs of the Mosaic law. They distinguished consciously between their own legal interpretations of the Mosaic law (which they called Halakah, or “walking,” i.e., a guide for life), and the commands in the Torah itself (called Mitvah, or “commandment”). The oral law, developed through generations of rabbinic discussion, was finally compiled and written down through the efforts of the patriarch Judah ha-Nasi (c. AD<\/span> 135–220) during the last quarter of the second century AD<\/span> and became known as the Mishnah (“teaching”). This is a topical arrangement of rabbinic discussions on such subjects as the Sabbath, firstfruits, sacrifices, and women. The Mishnah became the basis for further rabbinic discussion in both Palestine and Babylonia. The decisions of sages who flourished after the writing of the Mishnah were compiled about AD<\/span> 450 in Palestine and about 500 in Babylonia. This second stage beyond the Mishnah was called the Gemara (meaning either “completion” or “repetition”). The Mishnah and the Babylonian Gemara make up the Babylonian Talmud, while the same Mishnah with the Jerusalem or Palestinian Gemara comprises the Jerusalem Talmud. Yet another type of rabbinic literature is the Midrashim (“interpretations”), which either follow the order of a particular biblical book or consist of homilies on particular biblical texts. The Targums, paraphrastic translations of Scripture into the Aramaic language, finally came to be written down beginning in the late second century AD<\/span>.<\/p>\nAfter the destruction of the temple, rabbinic Judaism concentrated on the religious significance of the Torah and elevated scholarship to the central role that it still plays in Judaism. Rabbinic Judaism gradually exerted its influence upon diaspora Judaism under the initial leadership of Rabbi Johanan until a kind of rabbinic orthodoxy emerged during the second century. Christianity was one of the major ideological foes of rabbinic Judaism. In order to purge Jewish Christians from their midst, the rabbis introduced an additional benediction to the eighteen benedictions customarily recited at synagogue services. This 19th benediction was a curse upon the minim<\/em> (Christians and other heretics), which Jewish Christians who attended synagogue services found impossible to recite. The line was firmly drawn between Judaism and Christianity by this device, which was employed late in the first century.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Dead Sea Scrolls; Essenes; Diaspora of the Jews; First Jewish Revolt; Israel, History of; Jew; Judah, Tribe of; Judaism; Pharisees; Philo, Judaeus; Postexilic Period; Sanhedrin; Talmud; Torah; Tradition; Tradition, Oral.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JUDAISM<\/h3>\nReligion and culture of the Jewish people from the beginning of the postexilic period (538 BC<\/span>) to modern times. The term “Judaism” is derived from “Judah,” the name of the southern kingdom of ancient Israel, while “Jew” is a shortened form of “Judeans.”<\/p>\nThe Period of the Second Temple (515 BC<\/span>–AD<\/span> 70)<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Survey<\/h5>\nThe united kingdom of Israel under Saul, David, and Solomon came to an end shortly after the death of Solomon. Rehoboam, his son, provoked a revolt about 930 BC<\/span> on the part of the 10 northern tribes by levying unreasonably high taxes (1 Kgs 12). From that time on, the kingdoms of Israel (or Samaria, the northern kingdom) and Judah (the southern kingdom) maintained a separate existence. The northern kingdom fell to the Assyrians in 722 BC<\/span>, and thousands of captives, primarily members of the upper class, were exiled forcibly and taken to Assyria, where they presumably intermarried with the native population and disappeared from history. The kingdom of Judah survived as an independent state until 597 BC<\/span>, when it came under the control of the Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar. The temple was finally destroyed in 586 BC<\/span> and many captives were carried off to Babylonia, beginning a period of exile that was to last two generations. The Babylonians were defeated by Cyrus the Persian in 539 BC<\/span>, and the following year the king issued a decree permitting all captive peoples to return to the lands of their origin (2 Chr 36:22-23; Ezr 1). At least four waves of Jewish expatriates returned from Mesopotamia to Judea during the century following the decree of Cyrus, under such leaders as Sheshbazzar, Zerubbabel, Ezra, and Nehemiah. Many Jews, however, chose to remain in their adopted Mesopotamian homeland. The dedication of the second temple in the spring of 515 BC<\/span> provided a formal end to the exilic period of 70 years (Jer 29:10), and was a direct result of the prophetic exhortations of Haggai and Zechariah.<\/p>\nIn Judea the Jewish people were ruled by governors who held office at the pleasure of the Persian king. One of the earlier governors was Zerubabbel (Hg 1:1; 2:1-2), a descendant of David (1 Chr 3:10-19). In some way he shared rule with the high priest Jeshua ben Jehozadak. Palestine was part of one of the 20 satrapies of the Persian Empire, which lasted from 539 to 331 BC<\/span>, when it fell to the Greeks under Alexander the Great. Little is known about the historical developments in Palestine during most of the Persian period. When Alexander died in 323 BC<\/span>, his empire was divided up among his generals; Egypt and Palestine fell to Ptolemy I. The Ptolemies were benevolent despots who allowed the Jews of Palestine a measure of freedom and autonomy. After the battle of Paneion in 198 BC<\/span>, Palestine came under the rule of the Seleucid Empire, founded by Seleucus I, another of Alexander’s generals.<\/p>\nThe Seleucid Empire embraced a very large area with a diverse population, extending from Asia Minor and Palestine in the west to the borders of India on the east. Antiochus IV (Epiphanes) ascended the Seleucid throne in 175 BC<\/span> and attempted to unify his vast empire by Hellenizing it (i.e., by forcing the adoption of Greek language and culture). Local cultures and religions were forcibly suppressed as a result of this policy, and the Jewish state in Palestine was perhaps the hardest hit of all. In 167 BC<\/span> Antiochus IV dedicated the temple in Jerusalem to Olympian Zeus, sacrificed a sow on the altar, destroyed scrolls containing the Jewish Scriptures, and forbade the rite of circumcision. This repression triggered a revolt led by an aged priest named Mattathias and his sons. The Seleucids were repulsed, and finally in 164 BC<\/span> the temple was retaken by Mattathias’s son Judas the Maccabee (an epithet meaning “the hammer”). This Jewish victory has been commemorated annually by the festival of Hanukkah (“dedication”). Judas and his brothers, called Maccabees or Hasmoneans (Mattathias was of the house of Hasmon), and their descendants ruled Judea from 164 to 63 BC<\/span>, when Palestine fell to the Roman general Pompey. Thereafter, Palestine remained a vassal of Rome.<\/p>\nHyrcanus, a Hasmonean, was high priest after the conquest of Judea by the Romans, though Antipater (an Idumean) was the real power behind Hyrcanus. The sons of Antipater, Phasael and Herod, were governors of Jerusalem and Galilee, respectively. Upon the assassination of Antipater in 43 BC<\/span>, and through his connections in Rome, Herod (later called Herod the Great) was named king of Judea by the Roman senate; he reigned from 37 to 4 BC<\/span>. When he died, Palestine was divided up by the emperor Augustus (27 BC<\/span>–AD<\/span> 14) and placed under the governorship of three of Herod’s sons: Herod Archelaus (ethnarch of Judea, Idumea, and Samaria from 4 BC<\/span> to AD<\/span> 6), Herod Antipas (tetrarch of Galilee and Perea from 4 BC<\/span> to AD<\/span> 39), and Herod Philip (tetrarch of Batanea, Trachonitis, and other small states from 4 BC<\/span> to AD<\/span> 34). These territories were generally placed under Roman procurators after the sons of Herod had died or been deposed. For a brief period (AD<\/span> 41–44), Herod Agrippa I, the grandson of Herod the Great, ruled virtually the same territory as his grandfather. Upon his death (narrated in Acts 12:20-23), his territories were placed under Roman procurators. The greed and ineptitude of these procurators provoked the Jewish populace to rebel. The ill-fated Jewish revolt of AD<\/span> 66–73 resulted in the destruction of the second temple by the tenth Roman legion under Titus in AD<\/span> 70. The revolt was completely quelled in AD<\/span> 73, when more than 900 Jews under siege in the desert fortress of Masada near the Dead Sea committed mass suicide rather than fall into Roman hands. These tragic events ended permanently the temple cult and the priestly system in Judaism.<\/p>\n<h5>Social and Religious Developments<\/h5>\nThe Babylonian conquest of Judea and the destruction of the Solomonic temple in 586 BC<\/span> produced dramatic social and religious changes in Jewish life. The cessation of the temple cult struck a serious blow at the heart of the Israelite religion, since the Jerusalem temple alone was the legitimate and divinely appointed place for discharging much of the ritual requirement of the Mosaic law, chiefly the sacrificial cult. Even the three annual pilgrimage festivals, Succoth (Tabernacles), Pesach (Passover), and Shavuoth (Weeks) could no longer be observed by pious Jews who had remained in Judea after 586 BC<\/span>. When after 538 BC<\/span> many exiles chose to return to Judea, many others elected to remain in their new homeland. For the latter, the temple cult, even when reinstituted in 516 BC<\/span>, could no longer play a significant role in their religious lives.<\/p>\nDuring the exilic and early postexilic period, the peculiar Jewish institution of the synagogue (a Greek word meaning “gathering place”) began to evolve. The synagogue became such a popular and useful institution for Jewish communities outside Palestine that in the centuries after the dedication of the second temple they sprang up throughout Palestine, many in Jerusalem itself. By the end of the second temple period, the synagogue had come to play three important functions in Jewish life: it served as a house of prayer, a house of study, and a place of assembly. First-century AD<\/span> synagogue worship is illustrated in Luke 4:16-30 and Acts 13:13-42. The focus of the service was a reading of a selection from the Torah (Law of Moses), then one from the Haphtorah (Prophets). These readings were followed by a homily based on Scripture. Other elements in first-century AD<\/span> synagogue worship included the recitation of the Shema (“Hear, O Israel”), a combination of biblical passages including Deuteronomy 6:4-9; 11:13-21 and Numbers 15:37-41, and the Shemoneh Esreh (Eighteen Benedictions) called the Amidah (“standing”) because it was recited while standing upright. Jews also wore fringes on their garments in obedience to Numbers 15:38-39 (Mt 23:5), and phylacteries on their foreheads and left arms. Phylacteries are little boxes containing the portions of Scripture recited in Shema; they were used in literal fulfillment of the command in Deuteronomy 6:8. Archaeologists have discovered first-century phylacteries in the ruins of Masada.<\/p>\nOutside of Palestine, Mesopotamia became the second most important center of Judaism. The Babylonian Jewish community was known as the Golah (“captivity”), and its titular head was called the Resh Galuta or Exilarch (both terms mean “leader of the captivity”). By the end of the exilic period, the descendants of the ancient original captives had forgotten Hebrew and had adopted Aramaic, the international language of the ancient Near East and sister language to Hebrew, as their first language. Even in Palestine, Aramaic was the primary language spoken. Thus, when portions of Scripture were read in synagogue services in Hebrew, most of those present were unable to understand what was read. This problem was solved by providing a methurgeman (translator) who would translate orally short sections of Scripture. Eventually these targums (“translations”) were reduced to writing, beginning in the second century AD<\/span>.<\/p>\nBy the first century AD<\/span>, it had been estimated that there were from four to seven million Jews in the Greco-Roman world, perhaps three to four times the population of Palestine. Jews in lands outside of Palestine came to be known collectively as the Diaspora (“scattering”). After the Greeks dominated the Mediterranean world through Alexander and his successors, Greek became the common language throughout this region. Just as Mesopotamian Jews spoke Aramaic in place of Hebrew, so Jews in the Greco-Roman world came to speak Greek. By the middle of the third century BC<\/span>, Hellenistic Jews began to translate the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek. This translation, called the Septuagint (a term meaning “seventy,” based on a legend that it was translated simultaneously by seventy Jewish scholars), contained a more extensive canon of Scripture than that recognized by Palestinian Judaism. This reflects the more liberal attitudes of Hellenistic Jews.<\/p>\nDuring the second century BC<\/span>, most of the major sects within Palestinian Judaism came into being. The Hasidim (“pious”) were members of a religious association that aided the Hasmoneans in the revolt against the Seleucids (1 Macc 2:42; 7:13) but later opposed them when they claimed rights to the priesthood. Both the Pharisees and Essenes may have their origin in this religious sect. The Sadducees were perhaps connected with Zadok, a high priest appointed by David. Zadok’s descendants were regarded as the only legitimate priestly line; they were devoted above the Levites in Ezekiel 40–48. The Sadducees were a wealthy, aristocratic class that monopolized the high priesthood. They did not believe in angels, spirits, life after death, or the resurrection (Acts 23:8), nor did they accept the validity of the oral law as developed by the Pharisees. They left no writings and disappeared with the destruction of the temple in AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\nThe Pharisees (“separated ones”) first appear in our sources toward the end of the second century BC<\/span> and were involved primarily in political affairs. They represented the common people against the tyrannical Hasmonean ruler Alexander Janneus (103–76 BC<\/span>), who had hundreds of Pharisees executed in reprisal. By the first century AD<\/span>, the Pharisees seem wholly concerned with religious matters and were noted for the scrupulous observance of the Mosaic law as traditionally interpreted. On grounds of ritual purity, they separated themselves from other Jews who were not as scrupulous and who might contaminate them. Pharisees went about in groups called Haberim (“associates”) in which they were insulated from those who were lax religiously. In their zeal to remain faithful to the Mosaic law, the Pharisees developed an oral law (later erroneously attributed to Moses) that served as a fence around the Torah. This oral law was an interpretation and expansion of the 613 commands in the Mosaic law; it was finally compiled and reduced to written form as the Mishnah (“teaching”) in the late second century AD<\/span>. Paul (Acts 22:3; 23:6; 26:5; Phil 3:5) and many other early Christians were converts from Pharisaism (Acts 15:5). Pharisaic Judaism survived the destruction of Jerusalem in AD<\/span> 70 to form the rabbinic Judaism that dominated Jewish religious life from the second century AD<\/span> to modern times.<\/p>\nThe Essenes were another religious sect within Judaism that had its origins in the second century BC<\/span>. Like the Pharisees, the Essenes were concerned principally with maintaining ritual purity in obedience to the law of Moses. The Essenes lived and worked in Jewish society; they tried to influence people by the simple, altruistic life they followed. Some Essenes also lived in their own communities, to which they returned each night after work. There were numerous religious factions within Judaism, and one such group, which may only have had vague connections with the Essenes, established a community on the western shore of the Dead Sea. This group regarded itself as the true Israel and in the wilderness prepared for the final visitation of God by keeping themselves pure from all defilement. Many documents written by members of this sect were discovered in caves near the Dead Sea where they had been hidden just before the Romans destroyed the settlement. These documents, the Dead Sea Scrolls, have provided detailed information about this religious sect and its beliefs.<\/p>\nThe Zealots were another Jewish sect, who may be related to the Sicarii (“dagger men”). This group of political activists flourished from AD<\/span> 6 to 66. Regarding God alone as their sovereign, they attempted to overthrow the Romans and those who collaborated with them by violent means, including assassination. They helped to foment the Jewish revolt of AD<\/span> 66–73 and perished with Jerusalem in AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\nSocial class and status in first-century AD<\/span> Palestine were determined in accordance with the rules of ritual purity. The upper class comprised members of the religious establishment, such as the Sadducees, scribes, Pharisees, and Jerusalem priests. The Sanhedrin was a deliberative body whose membership was drawn from these groups. For all practical purposes there was no middle class. The lower class consisted primarily of the Am Ha Arez (“people of the land”)—Jews who were ignorant of the law through lack of education and who did not scrupulously observe those commandments with which they were familiar. The generally hostile attitude of the Pharisees toward the Am Ha Arez is expressed in John 7:49: “But this crowd, who do not know the law, are accursed” (rsv<\/span>). There was yet another social class in first-century Palestine, which can be designated as “untouchables.” This group was composed of Samaritans, tax collectors, prostitutes, shepherds, lepers, Gentiles, and perhaps worst of all, Jews who became as Gentiles (e.g., the prodigal son of Lk 15:11-32). The rules of ritual purity as generally observed prevented any form of social contact between the upper class and the untouchables, and made contacts with the Am Ha Arez highly undesirable. Against this background, the horror of the Pharisees over Jesus’ association with tax collectors and sinners is throughly understandable (Mk 2:15-17).<\/p>\nA further consequence of this religious criterion for determining social class and status was an uneasy tension between Jerusalem and the rural areas of Palestine, particularly Galilee, during the last two centuries of the second temple period. Those in Jerusalem regarded Galilee as a place where ignorance of the Torah was the rule (Jn 1:46). Jerusalem was primarily a religious center, whose major industry was the temple cult. The total population of Jerusalem in the first century AD<\/span> has been estimated at 25,000 to 40,000. Most of these were either artisans and craftsmen devoted to building and adorning the temple (still incomplete before it was destroyed; see Jn 2:20) or priests and Levites involved in the many ritual activities of the temple. Though Jews were expected to travel to Jerusalem for each of the three annual pilgrimage festivals, this requirement proved difficult for rural Palestinian farmers.<\/p>\nFurther, the tithe demanded by Mosaic command was only on the produce of the land, not upon wages or bartered goods. The rural farmers, therefore, bore the brunt of this taxation and quite naturally resented the privileged position of urban artisans, merchants, and priests who were not obliged to tithe. The temptation not to tithe the produce of the land was very great, and many farmers succumbed to it. Their untithed produce was not kosher, and thus to be avoided by those, like the Pharisees, who were religiously scrupulous. In addition to the first and second tithes demanded of farmers (the second tithe had to be spent in the vicinity of Jerusalem), it has been estimated that Roman tax levies amounted to 10 to 15 percent of an individual’s income. Religious taxes, together with Roman taxes, added up to a crushing tax burden of from 25 to 30 percent. The fact that the Jews finally revolted against their Roman oppressors in AD<\/span> 66 is not difficult to comprehend. Throughout the first century AD<\/span>, in fact, minor revolts in Palestine occurred with predictable frequency. Many of these occurred during the three annual pilgrimage festivals in Jerusalem, when the normal population of 25,000 to 40,000 swelled to 500,000 or more. These festivals provided ideal opportunities for uprisings, and the Romans were particularly alert for such eventualities. Jesus was executed during one such Passover festival because he was suspected of being a political revolutionary (Mk 15:26).<\/p>\nThe second temple period provided the setting for the rise and fall of apocalypticism within Judaism. Apocalypticism (from a Greek word meaning “revelation”) was a kind of eschatology (“account of final events”) that assumed that ideal conditions could not be restored on earth unless God first intervened climactically to destroy evil (particularly foreign oppressors) and vindicate the righteous (Israel). Apocalyptic visionaries composed many documents, called apocalypses, in which they attempted to read the signs of the times and predict the coming of the visitation of God. Since there was a widespread consciousness that the era of prophecy was over, these apocalyptists wrote not under their own names but under the names of ancient Israelite worthies, such as Moses, Abraham, Enoch, and Ezra. Among the more significant expectations of Jewish apocalypticism were (1) the coming of a Messiah; (2) the coming of a great period of tribulation, sometimes called the messianic woes; (3) the resurrection of the just; (4) the judgment of the wicked and the reward of the righteous. Apocalyptic beliefs probably provided the motivation for most—if not all—of the Jewish revolts against the Romans.<\/p>\n\nSome portions of the Hebrew Scriptures were still in the process of composition at the beginning of the second temple period. The last three prophetic books—Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi—were written from the end of the sixth century to the mid fifth century BC<\/span>. Later rabbis expressed the opinion that the Spirit of God had been taken from Israel when these prophets ceased their labors. The Chronicler ends his work by referring to the decree of Cyrus (538 BC<\/span>), and both Ezra-Nehemiah and Esther appear to have been written in the fifth century BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nThe second temple period witnessed not only the completion of those writings that were later regarded as inspired and authoritative in Judaism but also the full recognition of all 24 sacred books. Prior to the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC<\/span>, the Mosaic law had not been observed with any consistency (according to 2 Kgs 22 it had been mislaid for an unknown period of time), nor had the classical prophets always received appropriate recognition. But after 586 BC<\/span> the Torah occupied a position of unquestioned sanctity in the lives and thoughts of the Jewish people, replacing in many respects the temple cult even before its final dissolution in AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\nThe Jewish Scriptures are divided into three sections, designated by Jews with the acrostic “Tanak”: (1) Torah (“Law” or “Revelation”), (2) Nebi’im (“Prophets”), and (3) Kethubim (“Writings”). It is generally claimed that while the Law and Prophets enjoyed canonical status prior to the second century BC<\/span>, the Writings were finally declared canonical at the rabbinic council of Jamnia (c. AD<\/span> 90), though the historicity of this is disputed. The rabbis are thought to have discussed whether certain biblical books should continue to be part of Scripture. In reality, the Jewish canon of Scripture was fully defined from traditional usage by the first century BC<\/span>. The Law consisted of five books: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. The Prophets consisted of two sections, the Former Prophets (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings) and the Latter Prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the 12 Minor Prophets). The Writings included Chronicles, Ezra-Nehemiah, Esther, Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Lamentations, Ruth, and Daniel. The total number of books in this canon is 24, identical with the Protestant canon of 39 books, since Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, Ezra-Nehemiah, and the 12 are each counted as only one book. The Alexandrian canon of Hellenistic Judaism was more extensive, and the extra books (called Apocrypha by Protestants) are all found in the Roman Catholic OT canon of 46 books.<\/p>\nThe Talmudic Period (AD<\/span> 73–425)<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Survey<\/h5>\nAccording to Jewish legend, when the Romans were about to conquer Jerusalem in the revolt of AD<\/span> 66–73, a prominent Pharisee, Rabbi Johanan ben Zakkai, feigned death and his disciples were permitted to carry him out of the besieged city in a coffin. The more likely scenario is that he received permission from the Romans to move his school from Jerusalem to Jamnia, on the coast of Palestine. The temple cult and the priestly system had disappeared, and rabbinic academies such as that of Rabbi Johanan set themselves to the enormous task of reconstructing Judaism. The older Sanhedrin was reinstituted as the Beth Din (“Court of Law”), and Gamaliel II, a grandson of Hillel, who had presided over the old Sanhedrin, became its leader with the title Nasi (“prince”), or Patriarch. The patriarchate continued until AD<\/span> 425, when Emperor Theodosius II abolished the office upon the death of the last patriarch, Gamaliel VI. In Mesopotamia, Babylonian Judaism experienced a renaissance that lasted until the end of the fifth century AD<\/span>. This period was called the Age of the Gaonim (“excellencies”) after the heads of the two great rabbinic academies at Sura and Pumpeditha. It was there that the great Babylonian Talmud was compiled by the fifth century AD<\/span>.<\/p>\nIn AD<\/span> 115 various Jewish communities throughout the eastern Mediterranean, including Egypt, Cyprus, and Cyrene, revolted against the Roman emperor Trajan. Without exception these revolts were all put down by Roman legions. Finally, when the emperor Hadrian was on the brink of founding the new city of Aelia Capitolina on the site of old Jerusalem, the Jews again revolted in AD<\/span> 132, led by a self-proclaimed messiah, Simeon Bar Koziba, who was called Bar-Kochba (“Son of a Star”) by his followers as an allusion to the messianic passage in Numbers 24:17. Bar-Kochba was aided by the famous rabbinic scholar Akiba. This revolt, though initially successful, was put down by the Romans under Julius Severus in 135. Shortly thereafter, Hadrian issued a decree banning all Jews from the new Aelia Capitolina.<\/p>\n<h5>Social and Religious Developments<\/h5>\nDuring this period, the result of generations of rabbinical scholarship bore fruit with the compilation of the Babylonian and Jerusalem Talmuds. The rabbinic sages consciously saw themselves as the heirs of the ancient Israelite prophets, who in turn were the heirs of the Mosaic law. They distinguished consciously between their own legal interpretations of the Mosaic law (which they called Halakah, or “walking,” i.e., a guide for life), and the commands in the Torah itself (called Mitvah, or “commandment”). The oral law, developed through generations of rabbinic discussion, was finally compiled and written down through the efforts of the patriarch Judah ha-Nasi (c. AD<\/span> 135–220) during the last quarter of the second century AD<\/span> and became known as the Mishnah (“teaching”). This is a topical arrangement of rabbinic discussions on such subjects as the Sabbath, firstfruits, sacrifices, and women. The Mishnah became the basis for further rabbinic discussion in both Palestine and Babylonia. The decisions of sages who flourished after the writing of the Mishnah were compiled about AD<\/span> 450 in Palestine and about 500 in Babylonia. This second stage beyond the Mishnah was called the Gemara (meaning either “completion” or “repetition”). The Mishnah and the Babylonian Gemara make up the Babylonian Talmud, while the same Mishnah with the Jerusalem or Palestinian Gemara comprises the Jerusalem Talmud. Yet another type of rabbinic literature is the Midrashim (“interpretations”), which either follow the order of a particular biblical book or consist of homilies on particular biblical texts. The Targums, paraphrastic translations of Scripture into the Aramaic language, finally came to be written down beginning in the late second century AD<\/span>.<\/p>\nAfter the destruction of the temple, rabbinic Judaism concentrated on the religious significance of the Torah and elevated scholarship to the central role that it still plays in Judaism. Rabbinic Judaism gradually exerted its influence upon diaspora Judaism under the initial leadership of Rabbi Johanan until a kind of rabbinic orthodoxy emerged during the second century. Christianity was one of the major ideological foes of rabbinic Judaism. In order to purge Jewish Christians from their midst, the rabbis introduced an additional benediction to the eighteen benedictions customarily recited at synagogue services. This 19th benediction was a curse upon the minim<\/em> (Christians and other heretics), which Jewish Christians who attended synagogue services found impossible to recite. The line was firmly drawn between Judaism and Christianity by this device, which was employed late in the first century.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Dead Sea Scrolls; Essenes; Diaspora of the Jews; First Jewish Revolt; Israel, History of; Jew; Judah, Tribe of; Judaism; Pharisees; Philo, Judaeus; Postexilic Period; Sanhedrin; Talmud; Torah; Tradition; Tradition, Oral.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JUDAISM Religion and culture of the Jewish people from the beginning of the postexilic period (538 BC) to modern times. The term “Judaism” is derived from “Judah,” the name of the southern kingdom of ancient Israel, while “Jew” is a shortened form of “Judeans.” The Period of the Second Temple (515 BC–AD 70) Historical Survey The united kingdom of Israel under Saul, David, and Solomon came to an end shortly after the death of Solomon. Rehoboam, his son, provoked a revolt about 930 BC on the pa...","summary_en":"JUDAISM Religion and culture of the Jewish people from the beginning of the postexilic period (538 BC) to modern times. The term “Judaism” is derived from “Judah,” the name of the southern kingdom of ancient Israel, while “Jew” is a shortened form of “Judeans.” The Period of the Second Temple (515 BC–AD 70) Historical Survey The united kingdom of Israel under Saul, David, and Solomon came to an end shortly after the death of Solomon. Rehoboam, his son, provoked a revolt about 930 BC on the pa...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":24419,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"John Mark","title_en":"John Mark","content_ro":"<h3>MARK, John<\/h3>\nCousin of Barnabas; companion to both Paul and Peter; author of the second Gospel.<\/p>\nA member of a Jewish family in Jerusalem who were early believers in Jesus Christ, John Mark had both a Jewish and a Roman name. The Roman name Mark was perhaps a badge of Roman citizenship, as in Paul’s case, or was adopted when he left Jerusalem to serve the gentile church in Antioch (Acts 12:25). When an angel of the Lord freed Peter from prison, the apostle went directly to “the house of Mary, the mother of John whose other name was Mark” (v 12, nrsv<\/span>). This house, described as having an outer gate, being of adequate size to accommodate a gathering of many believers and served by a slave named Rhoda (vv 12-13), was obviously the dwelling of a wealthy family. By the time of this event (c. AD<\/span> 44), Mark may have already been converted through the personal influence of Peter (1 Pt 5:13). The fact that he was chosen to accompany Barnabas and Saul (Paul) to Antioch indicates that Mark was held in high esteem by the church in Jerusalem (Acts 12:25).<\/p>\nJohn Mark accompanied Barnabas and Saul to assist them on their evangelistic expedition (Acts 13:5). He soon left the apostles, however, and returned to Jerusalem (v 13). Scripture does not reveal the cause of this desertion. Perhaps the rigors and hardships of the journey overwhelmed the young man. Another possible explanation was that at Paphos, shortly into the journey, Paul stepped to the front as leader and spokesman (v 13). Thereafter, Acts (with the natural exception of 15:12, 25) speaks of Paul and Barnabas rather than Barnabas and Paul. Perhaps it offended Mark to see his kinsman Barnabas, who had preceded Paul in the faith (4:36-37) and had ushered him into the apostles’ fellowship (9:27), take second place in the work of the gospel. But there may have been a deeper and more significant cause for Mark’s withdrawal. Like Paul, Mark was “a Hebrew born of Hebrews” (Phil 3:5, nrsv<\/span>). Because of this, Mark may have objected to Paul’s offer of salvation to the Gentiles based only on faith without the prerequisite of keeping the Jewish law. It is noteworthy that the Bible uses only the Hebrew name John when recording Mark’s presence on the gospel journey (Acts 13:5) and his departure at Perga in Pamphylia (v 13). Also important is the fact that John Mark returned, not to the gentile church in Antioch, the site of his former service, but to the Jewish church in Jerusalem (v 13). Luke’s history records that “the disagreement [between Paul and Barnabas over Mark] became so sharp that they parted company” (Acts 15:39, nrsv<\/span>). Nothing stirred Paul’s feelings more than the question of justification by faith, and Barnabas had demonstrated his weakness on this point (Gal 2:13). Therefore, it may have been the cause of their separation: Barnabas and Mark to Cyprus, and Paul and Silas into Asia Minor to strengthen the new churches (Acts 15:39-41).<\/p>\nAbout 11 years pass before Mark again appears in the biblical record. In Colossians 4:10 and Philemon 1:24, he is in Rome with “Paul the aged,” who is there as “a prisoner of Jesus Christ” (Phlm 1:19). The fracture had been healed, such that Paul says that Mark and others are “the only ones of the circumcision [the Jews] among my co-workers for the kingdom of God” (Col 4:11, nrsv<\/span>). Paul, in his last epistle, pays Mark his final tribute. He tells Timothy, “Do your best to come to me soon. . . . Only Luke is with me. Get Mark and bring him with you, for he is useful in my ministry” (2 Tm 4:9, 11, nrsv<\/span>). Although all had deserted Paul in his trial before Caesar Nero (v 16), Mark, who in his youth had also deserted the apostle, traveled from Ephesus to Rome, endeavoring to come to the beloved Paul with Timothy.<\/p>\nAccording to 1 Peter 5:13, the apostle Peter sent Mark’s greeting along with that of the church in Babylon (signifying Rome), indicating Mark’s close relationship with the apostle to the circumcision (Gal 2:9). The most important and reliable extrascriptural tradition concerning Mark is that he was the close attendant of Peter. The early church fathers said this association produced the Gospel of Mark, inasmuch as Mark took account of Peter’s teachings about Jesus and then used them to shape his Gospel, perhaps written in Rome between AD<\/span> 60 and 68.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MARK, John<\/h3>\nCousin of Barnabas; companion to both Paul and Peter; author of the second Gospel.<\/p>\nA member of a Jewish family in Jerusalem who were early believers in Jesus Christ, John Mark had both a Jewish and a Roman name. The Roman name Mark was perhaps a badge of Roman citizenship, as in Paul’s case, or was adopted when he left Jerusalem to serve the gentile church in Antioch (Acts 12:25). When an angel of the Lord freed Peter from prison, the apostle went directly to “the house of Mary, the mother of John whose other name was Mark” (v 12, nrsv<\/span>). This house, described as having an outer gate, being of adequate size to accommodate a gathering of many believers and served by a slave named Rhoda (vv 12-13), was obviously the dwelling of a wealthy family. By the time of this event (c. AD<\/span> 44), Mark may have already been converted through the personal influence of Peter (1 Pt 5:13). The fact that he was chosen to accompany Barnabas and Saul (Paul) to Antioch indicates that Mark was held in high esteem by the church in Jerusalem (Acts 12:25).<\/p>\nJohn Mark accompanied Barnabas and Saul to assist them on their evangelistic expedition (Acts 13:5). He soon left the apostles, however, and returned to Jerusalem (v 13). Scripture does not reveal the cause of this desertion. Perhaps the rigors and hardships of the journey overwhelmed the young man. Another possible explanation was that at Paphos, shortly into the journey, Paul stepped to the front as leader and spokesman (v 13). Thereafter, Acts (with the natural exception of 15:12, 25) speaks of Paul and Barnabas rather than Barnabas and Paul. Perhaps it offended Mark to see his kinsman Barnabas, who had preceded Paul in the faith (4:36-37) and had ushered him into the apostles’ fellowship (9:27), take second place in the work of the gospel. But there may have been a deeper and more significant cause for Mark’s withdrawal. Like Paul, Mark was “a Hebrew born of Hebrews” (Phil 3:5, nrsv<\/span>). Because of this, Mark may have objected to Paul’s offer of salvation to the Gentiles based only on faith without the prerequisite of keeping the Jewish law. It is noteworthy that the Bible uses only the Hebrew name John when recording Mark’s presence on the gospel journey (Acts 13:5) and his departure at Perga in Pamphylia (v 13). Also important is the fact that John Mark returned, not to the gentile church in Antioch, the site of his former service, but to the Jewish church in Jerusalem (v 13). Luke’s history records that “the disagreement [between Paul and Barnabas over Mark] became so sharp that they parted company” (Acts 15:39, nrsv<\/span>). Nothing stirred Paul’s feelings more than the question of justification by faith, and Barnabas had demonstrated his weakness on this point (Gal 2:13). Therefore, it may have been the cause of their separation: Barnabas and Mark to Cyprus, and Paul and Silas into Asia Minor to strengthen the new churches (Acts 15:39-41).<\/p>\nAbout 11 years pass before Mark again appears in the biblical record. In Colossians 4:10 and Philemon 1:24, he is in Rome with “Paul the aged,” who is there as “a prisoner of Jesus Christ” (Phlm 1:19). The fracture had been healed, such that Paul says that Mark and others are “the only ones of the circumcision [the Jews] among my co-workers for the kingdom of God” (Col 4:11, nrsv<\/span>). Paul, in his last epistle, pays Mark his final tribute. He tells Timothy, “Do your best to come to me soon. . . . Only Luke is with me. Get Mark and bring him with you, for he is useful in my ministry” (2 Tm 4:9, 11, nrsv<\/span>). Although all had deserted Paul in his trial before Caesar Nero (v 16), Mark, who in his youth had also deserted the apostle, traveled from Ephesus to Rome, endeavoring to come to the beloved Paul with Timothy.<\/p>\nAccording to 1 Peter 5:13, the apostle Peter sent Mark’s greeting along with that of the church in Babylon (signifying Rome), indicating Mark’s close relationship with the apostle to the circumcision (Gal 2:9). The most important and reliable extrascriptural tradition concerning Mark is that he was the close attendant of Peter. The early church fathers said this association produced the Gospel of Mark, inasmuch as Mark took account of Peter’s teachings about Jesus and then used them to shape his Gospel, perhaps written in Rome between AD<\/span> 60 and 68.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MARK, John Cousin of Barnabas; companion to both Paul and Peter; author of the second Gospel. A member of a Jewish family in Jerusalem who were early believers in Jesus Christ, John Mark had both a Jewish and a Roman name. The Roman name Mark was perhaps a badge of Roman citizenship, as in Paul’s case, or was adopted when he left Jerusalem to serve the gentile church in Antioch (Acts 12:25). When an angel of the Lord freed Peter from prison, the apostle went directly to “the house of Mary, th...","summary_en":"MARK, John Cousin of Barnabas; companion to both Paul and Peter; author of the second Gospel. A member of a Jewish family in Jerusalem who were early believers in Jesus Christ, John Mark had both a Jewish and a Roman name. The Roman name Mark was perhaps a badge of Roman citizenship, as in Paul’s case, or was adopted when he left Jerusalem to serve the gentile church in Antioch (Acts 12:25). When an angel of the Lord freed Peter from prison, the apostle went directly to “the house of Mary, th...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25484,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Messiah","title_en":"Messiah","content_ro":"<h3>MESSIAH<\/h3>\nTitle derived from the Hebrew, mashiach<\/span>,<\/em> a verbal adjective meaning “anointed one.” Along with its NT equivalent, christos<\/span> (Christ), it refers to an act of consecration whereby an individual is set apart to serve God and then anointed with oil. The verbal root (<\/em>mashach<\/span>)<\/em> conveys this idea as well.<\/p>\nIsrael’s practice of ceremonially anointing with oil is present in several contexts. Priests were regularly anointed prior to their divinely given service at the altar of sacrifice (Lv 4:3). While there is evidence for a literal anointing of prophets (1 Kgs 19:16), this does not appear to have been a standard practice. The anointing of Saul and David by Samuel established the act as a significant prerequisite for Hebrew kings before they assumed their positions of royal leadership. The king was especially considered to be the Lord’s anointed and as such was viewed to hold a secure position before men (1 Sm 12:14; 2 Sm 19:21) and God (Pss 2:2; 20:6). Along with numerous messianic prophecies, these proceedings helped inform the Jews of the Anointed One, par excellence, who would eventually come to bring salvation to Israel.<\/p>\nConcluding the 13 articles of Hebraic faith attributed to Moses Maimonides (13th century AD<\/span>) is the statement still found in many Hebrew prayer books: “I believe with a perfect heart that the Messiah will come; and although his coming be delayed, I will still wait patiently for his speedy appearance.”<\/p>\nMessiah in the Old Testament<\/p>\nJewish hope for the advent of the Messiah developed dynamically from the period of David’s reign, when it was prophesied that his kingdom would endure to the end of time (2 Sm 7:16). Israel was told that, through David’s descendants, his throne would exert a never-ending dominion over all the earth (2 Sm 22:48-51; Jer 33). It is with this aspect of messianic salvation that Jewish minds have traditionally been preoccupied (cf. Acts 1:6).<\/p>\nAmong Orthodox rabbis there has never been a lack of conjecture respecting the details of the Messiah’s ministry. At one time the rabbis applied no less than 456 passages of Scripture to his person and salvation. Preoccupation with the Messiah is evident in the tractate Sanhedrin<\/em> (Babylonian Talmud), where passages state that the world was created for him and that all the prophets prophesied of his days (Sanhedrin<\/em> 98b, 99a). By and large, Orthodoxy still retains its time-worn belief in the Messiah’s reign in Jerusalem, the rebuilding of the temple, and the reestablishment of both priesthood and sacrifice.<\/p>\nWhile later Judaism looked for the Messiah as an eschatological figure who will reign at the end of time, modern Jewish thought has largely jettisoned the traditional notion of a personal Messiah in favor of belief in a messianic age. Prevalent liberal Judaism envisions the world ultimately perfected through the influence of the twin Judaic ideals of justice and compassion. Such conviction, ignoring the plight of fallen humans and the teaching of Scripture, substitutes humanistic thinking for miraculous heavenly intervention.<\/p>\nWhile the Messiah’s origin is linked firmly to the house of David (2 Sm 7:14; Hos 3:5), the promise for a Messiah was given long before David lived. In fact, the hope for the Messiah is implicit in the first promise of the establishment of the kingdom of God. Addressed to Satan, Genesis 3:15 declares that God will place hostility between the serpent and the woman until, in the fullness of time, the “seed” of the woman inflicts a fatal blow to the head of the serpent.<\/p>\nThe nature of messianic prophecy is progressive; each prophecy casts more light on the subject. This occurs, for example, respecting the concept of the “seed”: Messiah is to be born of a woman (Gn 3:15), through the line of Shem (9:26) and specifically through Abraham (22:18). Yet even as late as Genesis 22:18, the “seed” is not clearly presented as a person, since zerah<\/span> (seed) may indicate a singular or plural object. Still less apparent in these early stages of messianic prophecy is the nature of the “bruising” that is to occur. Yet the idea of the Messiah being crushed for sin is implicit in the Genesis pronouncement, as is the violence associated with that act. Chief among the messianic prophets, Isaiah gives full range to the axiom that the Anointed One must endure extensive suffering (Is 53:1). Under the figure “the Servant of the Lord,” four “servant songs” delineate the mission of the future deliverer (Is 42:1-7; 49:1-9; 50:4-11; 52:13–53:12). While it is true that Isaiah does not explicitly link the title Messiah with the Servant of the Lord, identifying both figures as one and the same person is justifiable. Both figures are uniquely anointed (61:1); each brings light to the Gentiles (55:4; cf. 49:6); neither is pretentious in his first appearance (7:14-15; 11:1; cf. 42:3; 53:1); and the title of Davidic “branch” rests upon them both (11:1-4). Equally significant are the dual facts of their humiliation and exaltation (49:7; 52:13-15). Jewish scholars of the early Christian era in the Aramaic Targum on the prophets paraphrase Isaiah 42:1, “Behold my Servant Messiah” and begin Isaiah 53, “Behold my Servant Messiah will prosper.” While Cyrus may be spoken of as “anointed,” no final salvific work is attributed to him (45:1-5). Israel, although elect and loved by God (41:8), is ill-equipped as God’s servant to bring his redeeming work to mankind (42:18). The collapse of David’s dynasty points eloquently to Israel’s need for an anointed monarch who will heal the apostasy and disobedience (Ex 33:5; Hos 4:1). More and more, OT history presents Israel’s comprehensive moral failure. Her problem, which she shares with mankind, can only be solved by the making of a covenant whose surety and focal point is both a personal Savior and sovereign Lord (Jer 31:31-34). The advent of such a champion lives in the recorded promise of a shoot from the stump of Jesse’s fallen tree, who will bring the light of life to God’s benighted people (Is 9:2; 11:1).<\/p>\nIt is difficult to get away from the idea that the concept of servanthood and lowliness belongs within the sphere of royalty (Zec 9:9). The concept of the Messiah filling the complementary offices of priest and king is incontrovertible (Ps 110:1-4); a suffering priest-king is far less obvious. Some among the Talmudic writers apparently recognized the likelihood that the Messiah would have to suffer. In the Babylonian Talmud, tractate Sanhedrin<\/em> 98b, the Messiah is said to bear sicknesses and pain. Among the prayers for the Day of Atonement may be found the words of Eleazar ben Qalir (perhaps as late as AD<\/span> 1000): “Our righteous Messiah has departed from us; we are horror-stricken, and there is none to justify us. Our iniquities and the yoke of our transgressions he carries, and is wounded for our transgressions. He bears on his shoulders our sins to find pardon for our iniquities. May we be healed by his stripes.” In a similar vein Rabbi Eliyya de Vidas writes, “The meaning of ‘He was wounded for our transgressions, bruised for our iniquities,’ is that since the Messiah bears our iniquities, which produce the effect of His being bruised, it follows that whosoever will not admit that the Messiah thus suffers for our iniquities must endure and suffer for them himself.” For all this, it is highly doubtful that anyone imagined the Messiah would accomplish his salvational work by means of his own death (cf. Is 53:12). When rabbinic speculation failed to satisfactorily harmonize the paradoxical facts of humiliation and exaltation, some hypothesized that God would send a Messiah to suffer as well as a Messiah to reign. Biblically, it is evident that the Anointed One’s terrible ordeal of suffering is but the necessary prelude to infinite glory. He is pictured not only as a great king (52:13; 53:12) but also as humble (53:2), humiliated (52:14), rejected (53:3), and bearing the consequences of mankind’s rebellion (vv 5-6). Yet he is raised up to intercede for, and richly bless, his people (v 12). The Messiah, having accomplished that full obedience that Adam and Israel failed to achieve, will bring Israel and the nations back to God (42:18-19; 49:3, 6).<\/p>\nThe writings of Daniel contain important messianic data. Daniel is unique in that he boldly speaks of “Messiah the Prince” (Dn 9:25), identifies him as the “Son of Man” (7:13), and says he suffers (“cut off,” 9:26). This statement of the cutting off (i.e., death) of the Messiah makes possible his work of atonement (9:24). The doctrine of a vicarious substitutionary atonement is the only doctrine of atonement found in the Bible (cf. Lv 17:11). Israel understood that to bear sin meant enduring the consequences, or penalty, for sin (cf. Nm 14:33). The same penal substitution is evident in the working principle of the Messiah’s atoning sacrifice. He is the victim’s substitute to whom is transferred the suffering due the sinner. The penalty having been thus borne vicariously, the suppliant is fully pardoned.<\/p>\nPsalm 22:1 records the plaintive cry of the Messiah bearing man’s penalty for sin (cf. Mt 27:46) as he becomes sin on behalf of his people (2 Cor 5:21). Yet his cry, “My God,” indicates an intimate relationship that cannot be radically severed. Once again the motif of messianic humiliation prior to great exaltation is in view (Ps 22:27). In the so-called “royal psalms” (e.g., 2; 72; 110) it is the priestly intercessor who is also ordained to function as monarch and judge.<\/p>\nJeremiah brings the portrait a step further. The one who will enable humans to enter into a salvational covenant with God conveys God’s imputed righteousness: the Messiah, God’s righteous branch, becomes “the Lord our Righteousness.” Paradoxically, under the law no one could be crucified who was not guilty of sin (Dt 21:22). But it is Christ the righteous one who was crucified, thereby forever undermining any supposed legalistic confidence (Dt 21:23; Gal 3:13). More than forgiven, believers are deemed righteous in him (Jer 23:5-6).<\/p>\nWhile the birthplace of the Messiah was well established (Mi 5:2), his deity was a hotly contested matter. Although few in ancient Israel disputed the belief in a superhuman Messiah, it is doubtful that anyone imagined him to be “God with us” in the fullest sense of the expression (cf. Heb 1:3).<\/p>\nMessiah in the New Testament<\/p>\nThe NT writers present the picture that he who was the child of supernatural origins (Is 7:14; Mi 5:2) carried the full weight of divinity (Is 9:6; Phil 2:6; Col 1:19). He is the Son of God, worthy to receive the worship of all people (Ps 45:6-7; cf. Heb 1:8-9).<\/p>\nThe Jews of first-century Palestine knew that the messianic promise would be fulfilled in the coming of one like Moses (Dt 18:18). Parallels between Jesus and Moses are abundant. As mediators, innovators, and propagators of new phases of spiritual life for the people, they are unexcelled. Specifically, both are miraculously spared in infancy (Ex 2; Mt 2:13-23); both renounce a royal court for the sake of serving the people of God (Phil 2:5-8; Heb 11:24-28); both exhibit intense compassion for others (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36); both commune “face to face” with God (Ex 34:29-30; 2 Cor 3:7); and each mediates a covenant of redemption (Dt 29:1; Heb 8:6-7). But, as Luther observes, “Christ is no Moses.” In the final analysis Moses is but a household servant; the Messiah is the maker and master of all things (Heb 3:3-6; cf. Jn 1:1-2, 18).<\/p>\nFamily genealogies are important in Scripture. Rabbis agreed upon the absolute necessity of the Messiah’s Davidic lineage based on Hosea 3:5 and Jeremiah 30:9. The angelic announcement immediately establishes the correct lineage for Jesus (Lk 1:32-33; cf. 2:4), as does Matthew’s (Mt 1:1-17). The Lukan list, like that of Matthew, sets forth the exclusive kingly descent verifying Jesus as Messiah (Lk 3:23-38). Although variations occur between the two genealogies, there is a firm solidarity emphasizing an ancestry within the unique messianic stock. Fully aware of the messianic focus of Scripture (Jn 5:46; 8:56), Jesus acknowledged himself to be the Christ on numerous occasions. He accepted the title from blind Bartimaeus (Mk 10:46-48); from the crowds when he entered Jerusalem (Mt 21:9); from the children at the temple (v 15); and in other contexts as well (Mt 16:16-18; Mk 14:61-62; Lk 4:21; Jn 4:25-26). Nonetheless, he warned his disciples not to broadcast his mighty acts as Messiah prior to his resurrection (Mt 17:9; cf. Lk 9:20-21). Owing to the commonly held (but false) notion that the Messiah’s role was primarily that of a political liberator, Jesus actually avoided use of that term and preferred to identify himself as “the Son of Man.” It was by no means assumed that both designations referred to the same person (cf. Mk 14:61-62). Borrowing essentially from Daniel’s vision of a heavenly conqueror (Dn 7:13-14), Jesus consistently employed this less-known title and filled it with the true character and scope of messianic salvation. Jesus’ teaching in this regard enabled his disciples to correct their erroneous views concerning his mission (Mt 16:21-23). In the fullness of time they would come to see him not only as Messiah but also as the theme of the entire OT (Mt 5:17; Lk 24:27, 44; Jn 5:39; cf. Heb 10:7). When Jesus expounded the Scriptures beginning with the Torah (Lk 24:27), he did so as the living exegesis of God, the Word made flesh (Jn 1:14, 18). Legitimate messianic exposition is found in a host of texts, such as Psalms 2; 16; 22; 40; 110; Isaiah 7:14; 9:6; 11:1; 40:10-11; 50:6; 52:13–53:12; 61:1; 63:1-6; Jeremiah 23:5-6; 33:14-16; Ezekiel 34:23; 37:25; Daniel 9:24-27; Hosea 11:1; Micah 5:2; Zechariah 9:9; 11:13; 12:10; 13:7; Malachi 3:1; 4:2.<\/p>\nThe messiahship of Jesus is firmly proclaimed by all four evangelists (Mt 1:1; Mk 1:1; Lk 24:26; Jn 20:31). Peter on Pentecost, Philip before the Ethiopian eunuch, and Apollos in open debate all argue convincingly that Jesus is the Messiah (Acts 2:36; 8:35; 28:28). Peter says he was “made” both Lord and Christ (2:36), signifying that the resurrection rightfully confirms him as such. Similarly, the apostle Paul speaks of Jesus’ resurrection as a patent declaration of his inalienable right to the title (Rom 1:4). For the ex-Pharisee and former persecutor of the church, “Jesus the Christ” is the very heart and soul of Paul’s preaching. Nothing is worthy to be compared to the glory of the Messiah; everything pales by comparison (Phil 3:5-10). The apostle’s all-consuming passion is for others to know the fullness of God in the person of his only Son (Eph 3:14-19).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit in Scripture speaks of Jesus with wide-ranging appellatives—Holy One, Judge, Righteous One, King, Son of God, and Lord—but these are not exhaustive. In him all the lines of messianic prediction converge; he is the touchstone whereby their validity is firmly established. The Lord Jesus Christ is himself the heart and substance of that covenant through which sinful people may be reconciled to a holy God (Is 42:6; Jn 14:6). That Jesus is the Messiah of Israel, God incarnate, exhaustively fulfills prophecy, type, and symbol—all shadows of his coming. Therefore, all should trust in him, the source of all grace, the only abiding treasure (Mt 12:21; Jn 1:16-17; Col 2:3). Anointed as prophet, he leads us into all truth (Jn 6:14; 7:16); as priest he intercedes for us (Heb 7:21); and as king he reigns over us (Phil 2:9-10).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Atonement; Branch; Christology; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Redeemer, Redemption; Son of God; Son of Man.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MESSIAH<\/h3>\nTitle derived from the Hebrew, mashiach<\/span>,<\/em> a verbal adjective meaning “anointed one.” Along with its NT equivalent, christos<\/span> (Christ), it refers to an act of consecration whereby an individual is set apart to serve God and then anointed with oil. The verbal root (<\/em>mashach<\/span>)<\/em> conveys this idea as well.<\/p>\nIsrael’s practice of ceremonially anointing with oil is present in several contexts. Priests were regularly anointed prior to their divinely given service at the altar of sacrifice (Lv 4:3). While there is evidence for a literal anointing of prophets (1 Kgs 19:16), this does not appear to have been a standard practice. The anointing of Saul and David by Samuel established the act as a significant prerequisite for Hebrew kings before they assumed their positions of royal leadership. The king was especially considered to be the Lord’s anointed and as such was viewed to hold a secure position before men (1 Sm 12:14; 2 Sm 19:21) and God (Pss 2:2; 20:6). Along with numerous messianic prophecies, these proceedings helped inform the Jews of the Anointed One, par excellence, who would eventually come to bring salvation to Israel.<\/p>\nConcluding the 13 articles of Hebraic faith attributed to Moses Maimonides (13th century AD<\/span>) is the statement still found in many Hebrew prayer books: “I believe with a perfect heart that the Messiah will come; and although his coming be delayed, I will still wait patiently for his speedy appearance.”<\/p>\nMessiah in the Old Testament<\/p>\nJewish hope for the advent of the Messiah developed dynamically from the period of David’s reign, when it was prophesied that his kingdom would endure to the end of time (2 Sm 7:16). Israel was told that, through David’s descendants, his throne would exert a never-ending dominion over all the earth (2 Sm 22:48-51; Jer 33). It is with this aspect of messianic salvation that Jewish minds have traditionally been preoccupied (cf. Acts 1:6).<\/p>\nAmong Orthodox rabbis there has never been a lack of conjecture respecting the details of the Messiah’s ministry. At one time the rabbis applied no less than 456 passages of Scripture to his person and salvation. Preoccupation with the Messiah is evident in the tractate Sanhedrin<\/em> (Babylonian Talmud), where passages state that the world was created for him and that all the prophets prophesied of his days (Sanhedrin<\/em> 98b, 99a). By and large, Orthodoxy still retains its time-worn belief in the Messiah’s reign in Jerusalem, the rebuilding of the temple, and the reestablishment of both priesthood and sacrifice.<\/p>\nWhile later Judaism looked for the Messiah as an eschatological figure who will reign at the end of time, modern Jewish thought has largely jettisoned the traditional notion of a personal Messiah in favor of belief in a messianic age. Prevalent liberal Judaism envisions the world ultimately perfected through the influence of the twin Judaic ideals of justice and compassion. Such conviction, ignoring the plight of fallen humans and the teaching of Scripture, substitutes humanistic thinking for miraculous heavenly intervention.<\/p>\nWhile the Messiah’s origin is linked firmly to the house of David (2 Sm 7:14; Hos 3:5), the promise for a Messiah was given long before David lived. In fact, the hope for the Messiah is implicit in the first promise of the establishment of the kingdom of God. Addressed to Satan, Genesis 3:15 declares that God will place hostility between the serpent and the woman until, in the fullness of time, the “seed” of the woman inflicts a fatal blow to the head of the serpent.<\/p>\nThe nature of messianic prophecy is progressive; each prophecy casts more light on the subject. This occurs, for example, respecting the concept of the “seed”: Messiah is to be born of a woman (Gn 3:15), through the line of Shem (9:26) and specifically through Abraham (22:18). Yet even as late as Genesis 22:18, the “seed” is not clearly presented as a person, since zerah<\/span> (seed) may indicate a singular or plural object. Still less apparent in these early stages of messianic prophecy is the nature of the “bruising” that is to occur. Yet the idea of the Messiah being crushed for sin is implicit in the Genesis pronouncement, as is the violence associated with that act. Chief among the messianic prophets, Isaiah gives full range to the axiom that the Anointed One must endure extensive suffering (Is 53:1). Under the figure “the Servant of the Lord,” four “servant songs” delineate the mission of the future deliverer (Is 42:1-7; 49:1-9; 50:4-11; 52:13–53:12). While it is true that Isaiah does not explicitly link the title Messiah with the Servant of the Lord, identifying both figures as one and the same person is justifiable. Both figures are uniquely anointed (61:1); each brings light to the Gentiles (55:4; cf. 49:6); neither is pretentious in his first appearance (7:14-15; 11:1; cf. 42:3; 53:1); and the title of Davidic “branch” rests upon them both (11:1-4). Equally significant are the dual facts of their humiliation and exaltation (49:7; 52:13-15). Jewish scholars of the early Christian era in the Aramaic Targum on the prophets paraphrase Isaiah 42:1, “Behold my Servant Messiah” and begin Isaiah 53, “Behold my Servant Messiah will prosper.” While Cyrus may be spoken of as “anointed,” no final salvific work is attributed to him (45:1-5). Israel, although elect and loved by God (41:8), is ill-equipped as God’s servant to bring his redeeming work to mankind (42:18). The collapse of David’s dynasty points eloquently to Israel’s need for an anointed monarch who will heal the apostasy and disobedience (Ex 33:5; Hos 4:1). More and more, OT history presents Israel’s comprehensive moral failure. Her problem, which she shares with mankind, can only be solved by the making of a covenant whose surety and focal point is both a personal Savior and sovereign Lord (Jer 31:31-34). The advent of such a champion lives in the recorded promise of a shoot from the stump of Jesse’s fallen tree, who will bring the light of life to God’s benighted people (Is 9:2; 11:1).<\/p>\nIt is difficult to get away from the idea that the concept of servanthood and lowliness belongs within the sphere of royalty (Zec 9:9). The concept of the Messiah filling the complementary offices of priest and king is incontrovertible (Ps 110:1-4); a suffering priest-king is far less obvious. Some among the Talmudic writers apparently recognized the likelihood that the Messiah would have to suffer. In the Babylonian Talmud, tractate Sanhedrin<\/em> 98b, the Messiah is said to bear sicknesses and pain. Among the prayers for the Day of Atonement may be found the words of Eleazar ben Qalir (perhaps as late as AD<\/span> 1000): “Our righteous Messiah has departed from us; we are horror-stricken, and there is none to justify us. Our iniquities and the yoke of our transgressions he carries, and is wounded for our transgressions. He bears on his shoulders our sins to find pardon for our iniquities. May we be healed by his stripes.” In a similar vein Rabbi Eliyya de Vidas writes, “The meaning of ‘He was wounded for our transgressions, bruised for our iniquities,’ is that since the Messiah bears our iniquities, which produce the effect of His being bruised, it follows that whosoever will not admit that the Messiah thus suffers for our iniquities must endure and suffer for them himself.” For all this, it is highly doubtful that anyone imagined the Messiah would accomplish his salvational work by means of his own death (cf. Is 53:12). When rabbinic speculation failed to satisfactorily harmonize the paradoxical facts of humiliation and exaltation, some hypothesized that God would send a Messiah to suffer as well as a Messiah to reign. Biblically, it is evident that the Anointed One’s terrible ordeal of suffering is but the necessary prelude to infinite glory. He is pictured not only as a great king (52:13; 53:12) but also as humble (53:2), humiliated (52:14), rejected (53:3), and bearing the consequences of mankind’s rebellion (vv 5-6). Yet he is raised up to intercede for, and richly bless, his people (v 12). The Messiah, having accomplished that full obedience that Adam and Israel failed to achieve, will bring Israel and the nations back to God (42:18-19; 49:3, 6).<\/p>\nThe writings of Daniel contain important messianic data. Daniel is unique in that he boldly speaks of “Messiah the Prince” (Dn 9:25), identifies him as the “Son of Man” (7:13), and says he suffers (“cut off,” 9:26). This statement of the cutting off (i.e., death) of the Messiah makes possible his work of atonement (9:24). The doctrine of a vicarious substitutionary atonement is the only doctrine of atonement found in the Bible (cf. Lv 17:11). Israel understood that to bear sin meant enduring the consequences, or penalty, for sin (cf. Nm 14:33). The same penal substitution is evident in the working principle of the Messiah’s atoning sacrifice. He is the victim’s substitute to whom is transferred the suffering due the sinner. The penalty having been thus borne vicariously, the suppliant is fully pardoned.<\/p>\nPsalm 22:1 records the plaintive cry of the Messiah bearing man’s penalty for sin (cf. Mt 27:46) as he becomes sin on behalf of his people (2 Cor 5:21). Yet his cry, “My God,” indicates an intimate relationship that cannot be radically severed. Once again the motif of messianic humiliation prior to great exaltation is in view (Ps 22:27). In the so-called “royal psalms” (e.g., 2; 72; 110) it is the priestly intercessor who is also ordained to function as monarch and judge.<\/p>\nJeremiah brings the portrait a step further. The one who will enable humans to enter into a salvational covenant with God conveys God’s imputed righteousness: the Messiah, God’s righteous branch, becomes “the Lord our Righteousness.” Paradoxically, under the law no one could be crucified who was not guilty of sin (Dt 21:22). But it is Christ the righteous one who was crucified, thereby forever undermining any supposed legalistic confidence (Dt 21:23; Gal 3:13). More than forgiven, believers are deemed righteous in him (Jer 23:5-6).<\/p>\nWhile the birthplace of the Messiah was well established (Mi 5:2), his deity was a hotly contested matter. Although few in ancient Israel disputed the belief in a superhuman Messiah, it is doubtful that anyone imagined him to be “God with us” in the fullest sense of the expression (cf. Heb 1:3).<\/p>\nMessiah in the New Testament<\/p>\nThe NT writers present the picture that he who was the child of supernatural origins (Is 7:14; Mi 5:2) carried the full weight of divinity (Is 9:6; Phil 2:6; Col 1:19). He is the Son of God, worthy to receive the worship of all people (Ps 45:6-7; cf. Heb 1:8-9).<\/p>\nThe Jews of first-century Palestine knew that the messianic promise would be fulfilled in the coming of one like Moses (Dt 18:18). Parallels between Jesus and Moses are abundant. As mediators, innovators, and propagators of new phases of spiritual life for the people, they are unexcelled. Specifically, both are miraculously spared in infancy (Ex 2; Mt 2:13-23); both renounce a royal court for the sake of serving the people of God (Phil 2:5-8; Heb 11:24-28); both exhibit intense compassion for others (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36); both commune “face to face” with God (Ex 34:29-30; 2 Cor 3:7); and each mediates a covenant of redemption (Dt 29:1; Heb 8:6-7). But, as Luther observes, “Christ is no Moses.” In the final analysis Moses is but a household servant; the Messiah is the maker and master of all things (Heb 3:3-6; cf. Jn 1:1-2, 18).<\/p>\nFamily genealogies are important in Scripture. Rabbis agreed upon the absolute necessity of the Messiah’s Davidic lineage based on Hosea 3:5 and Jeremiah 30:9. The angelic announcement immediately establishes the correct lineage for Jesus (Lk 1:32-33; cf. 2:4), as does Matthew’s (Mt 1:1-17). The Lukan list, like that of Matthew, sets forth the exclusive kingly descent verifying Jesus as Messiah (Lk 3:23-38). Although variations occur between the two genealogies, there is a firm solidarity emphasizing an ancestry within the unique messianic stock. Fully aware of the messianic focus of Scripture (Jn 5:46; 8:56), Jesus acknowledged himself to be the Christ on numerous occasions. He accepted the title from blind Bartimaeus (Mk 10:46-48); from the crowds when he entered Jerusalem (Mt 21:9); from the children at the temple (v 15); and in other contexts as well (Mt 16:16-18; Mk 14:61-62; Lk 4:21; Jn 4:25-26). Nonetheless, he warned his disciples not to broadcast his mighty acts as Messiah prior to his resurrection (Mt 17:9; cf. Lk 9:20-21). Owing to the commonly held (but false) notion that the Messiah’s role was primarily that of a political liberator, Jesus actually avoided use of that term and preferred to identify himself as “the Son of Man.” It was by no means assumed that both designations referred to the same person (cf. Mk 14:61-62). Borrowing essentially from Daniel’s vision of a heavenly conqueror (Dn 7:13-14), Jesus consistently employed this less-known title and filled it with the true character and scope of messianic salvation. Jesus’ teaching in this regard enabled his disciples to correct their erroneous views concerning his mission (Mt 16:21-23). In the fullness of time they would come to see him not only as Messiah but also as the theme of the entire OT (Mt 5:17; Lk 24:27, 44; Jn 5:39; cf. Heb 10:7). When Jesus expounded the Scriptures beginning with the Torah (Lk 24:27), he did so as the living exegesis of God, the Word made flesh (Jn 1:14, 18). Legitimate messianic exposition is found in a host of texts, such as Psalms 2; 16; 22; 40; 110; Isaiah 7:14; 9:6; 11:1; 40:10-11; 50:6; 52:13–53:12; 61:1; 63:1-6; Jeremiah 23:5-6; 33:14-16; Ezekiel 34:23; 37:25; Daniel 9:24-27; Hosea 11:1; Micah 5:2; Zechariah 9:9; 11:13; 12:10; 13:7; Malachi 3:1; 4:2.<\/p>\nThe messiahship of Jesus is firmly proclaimed by all four evangelists (Mt 1:1; Mk 1:1; Lk 24:26; Jn 20:31). Peter on Pentecost, Philip before the Ethiopian eunuch, and Apollos in open debate all argue convincingly that Jesus is the Messiah (Acts 2:36; 8:35; 28:28). Peter says he was “made” both Lord and Christ (2:36), signifying that the resurrection rightfully confirms him as such. Similarly, the apostle Paul speaks of Jesus’ resurrection as a patent declaration of his inalienable right to the title (Rom 1:4). For the ex-Pharisee and former persecutor of the church, “Jesus the Christ” is the very heart and soul of Paul’s preaching. Nothing is worthy to be compared to the glory of the Messiah; everything pales by comparison (Phil 3:5-10). The apostle’s all-consuming passion is for others to know the fullness of God in the person of his only Son (Eph 3:14-19).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit in Scripture speaks of Jesus with wide-ranging appellatives—Holy One, Judge, Righteous One, King, Son of God, and Lord—but these are not exhaustive. In him all the lines of messianic prediction converge; he is the touchstone whereby their validity is firmly established. The Lord Jesus Christ is himself the heart and substance of that covenant through which sinful people may be reconciled to a holy God (Is 42:6; Jn 14:6). That Jesus is the Messiah of Israel, God incarnate, exhaustively fulfills prophecy, type, and symbol—all shadows of his coming. Therefore, all should trust in him, the source of all grace, the only abiding treasure (Mt 12:21; Jn 1:16-17; Col 2:3). Anointed as prophet, he leads us into all truth (Jn 6:14; 7:16); as priest he intercedes for us (Heb 7:21); and as king he reigns over us (Phil 2:9-10).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Atonement; Branch; Christology; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Redeemer, Redemption; Son of God; Son of Man.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MESSIAH Title derived from the Hebrew, mashiach, a verbal adjective meaning “anointed one.” Along with its NT equivalent, christos (Christ), it refers to an act of consecration whereby an individual is set apart to serve God and then anointed with oil. The verbal root (mashach) conveys this idea as well. Israel’s practice of ceremonially anointing with oil is present in several contexts. Priests were regularly anointed prior to their divinely given service at the altar of sacrifice (Lv 4:3). ...","summary_en":"MESSIAH Title derived from the Hebrew, mashiach, a verbal adjective meaning “anointed one.” Along with its NT equivalent, christos (Christ), it refers to an act of consecration whereby an individual is set apart to serve God and then anointed with oil. The verbal root (mashach) conveys this idea as well. Israel’s practice of ceremonially anointing with oil is present in several contexts. Priests were regularly anointed prior to their divinely given service at the altar of sacrifice (Lv 4:3). ...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29063,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Paul, the Apostle","title_en":"Paul, the Apostle","content_ro":"<h3>PAUL, The Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\nProminent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n• Education<\/p>\n• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n• Further Travel<\/p>\n• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\nFamily and Cultural Background<\/p>\nPaul was born around AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\nFrom religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\nJews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\nPaul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\nEducation<\/p>\nAlthough born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\nWhile Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\nSaul the Persecutor<\/p>\nShortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, niv<\/span>).<\/p>\nAt Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\nConversion and Calling<\/p>\nPaul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\nAt that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\nPreparation for Ministry<\/p>\nThen began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\nAt first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\nThe end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\nSent Out from Antioch<\/p>\nThe church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\nBarnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\nBeginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\nTraveling with Barnabas<\/p>\nArriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\nPaul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\nPaul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\nThe success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\nIt was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\nAfter making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\nThe Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\nThe Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\nThe church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\nAfter this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\nLater, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\nFurther Travel<\/p>\nPaul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\nBeginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\nIt is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\nPhilippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\nAt Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\nPaul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\nThe Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\nIn Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\nAccompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\nLabor in the Gospel<\/p>\nA Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\nPaul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\nThe work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\nDuring his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\nAfter his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\nThe time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\nA three-month winter stay in Corinth (AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\nThe Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\nPaul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\nThe travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\nParting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\nIn Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\nPaul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\nThe whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\nThis meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\nIn the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\nVoyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\nTo plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\nLuke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\nLuke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\nFinal Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\nIt is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\nIf Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\nFrom here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\nIt was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\nThe apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\nNothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PAUL, The Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\nProminent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n• Education<\/p>\n• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n• Further Travel<\/p>\n• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\nFamily and Cultural Background<\/p>\nPaul was born around AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\nFrom religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\nJews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\nPaul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\nEducation<\/p>\nAlthough born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\nWhile Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\nSaul the Persecutor<\/p>\nShortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, niv<\/span>).<\/p>\nAt Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\nConversion and Calling<\/p>\nPaul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\nAt that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\nPreparation for Ministry<\/p>\nThen began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\nAt first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\nThe end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\nSent Out from Antioch<\/p>\nThe church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\nBarnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\nBeginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\nTraveling with Barnabas<\/p>\nArriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\nPaul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\nPaul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\nThe success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\nIt was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\nAfter making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\nThe Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\nThe Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\nThe church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\nAfter this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\nLater, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\nFurther Travel<\/p>\nPaul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\nBeginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\nIt is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\nPhilippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\nAt Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\nPaul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\nThe Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\nIn Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\nAccompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\nLabor in the Gospel<\/p>\nA Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\nPaul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\nThe work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\nDuring his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\nAfter his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\nThe time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\nA three-month winter stay in Corinth (AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\nThe Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\nPaul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\nThe travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\nParting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\nIn Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\nPaul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\nThe whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\nThis meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\nIn the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\nVoyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\nTo plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\nLuke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\nLuke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\nFinal Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\nIt is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\nIf Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\nFrom here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\nIt was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\nThe apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\nNothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","summary_en":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":58261,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:5","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:5","content_ro":"3:5-6<\/strong> If anyone could rely on Jewish credentials, Paul could: He practiced the strictest obedience to the Jewish law<\/em> and was extremely zealous<\/em> for the Jewish religion.<\/p>","content_en":"3:5-6<\/strong> If anyone could rely on Jewish credentials, Paul could: He practiced the strictest obedience to the Jewish law<\/em> and was extremely zealous<\/em> for the Jewish religion.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:5-6 If anyone could rely on Jewish credentials, Paul could: He practiced the strictest obedience to the Jewish law and was extremely zealous for the Jewish religion.","summary_en":"3:5-6 If anyone could rely on Jewish credentials, Paul could: He practiced the strictest obedience to the Jewish law and was extremely zealous for the Jewish religion.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":58262,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:5","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:5","content_ro":"3:5<\/strong> circumcised when I was eight days old:<\/em> See Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; 2:21. • Paul was a member of the Pharisees<\/em>,<\/em> the Jewish sect known for its strict observance of the law (see Acts 23:6; 26:5).<\/p>","content_en":"3:5<\/strong> circumcised when I was eight days old:<\/em> See Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; 2:21. • Paul was a member of the Pharisees<\/em>,<\/em> the Jewish sect known for its strict observance of the law (see Acts 23:6; 26:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:5 circumcised when I was eight days old: See Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; 2:21. • Paul was a member of the Pharisees, the Jewish sect known for its strict observance of the law (see Acts 23:6; 26:5).","summary_en":"3:5 circumcised when I was eight days old: See Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; 2:21. • Paul was a member of the Pharisees, the Jewish sect known for its strict observance of the law (see Acts 23:6; 26:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85887,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:5","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:5","content_ro":"3:5-6<\/strong> If anyone could rely on Jewish credentials, Paul could: He practiced the strictest obedience to the Jewish law<\/em> and was extremely zealous<\/em> for the Jewish religion.<\/p>","content_en":"3:5-6<\/strong> If anyone could rely on Jewish credentials, Paul could: He practiced the strictest obedience to the Jewish law<\/em> and was extremely zealous<\/em> for the Jewish religion.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:5-6 If anyone could rely on Jewish credentials, Paul could: He practiced the strictest obedience to the Jewish law and was extremely zealous for the Jewish religion.","summary_en":"3:5-6 If anyone could rely on Jewish credentials, Paul could: He practiced the strictest obedience to the Jewish law and was extremely zealous for the Jewish religion.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85888,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:5","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:5","content_ro":"3:5<\/strong> circumcised when I was eight days old:<\/em> See Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; 2:21. • Paul was a member of the Pharisees<\/em>,<\/em> the Jewish sect known for its strict observance of the law (see Acts 23:6; 26:5).<\/p>","content_en":"3:5<\/strong> circumcised when I was eight days old:<\/em> See Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; 2:21. • Paul was a member of the Pharisees<\/em>,<\/em> the Jewish sect known for its strict observance of the law (see Acts 23:6; 26:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:5 circumcised when I was eight days old: See Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; 2:21. • Paul was a member of the Pharisees, the Jewish sect known for its strict observance of the law (see Acts 23:6; 26:5).","summary_en":"3:5 circumcised when I was eight days old: See Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; 2:21. • Paul was a member of the Pharisees, the Jewish sect known for its strict observance of the law (see Acts 23:6; 26:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113513,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:5","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:5","content_ro":"3:5-6<\/strong> If anyone could rely on Jewish credentials, Paul could: He practiced the strictest obedience to the Jewish law<\/em> and was extremely zealous<\/em> for the Jewish religion.<\/p>","content_en":"3:5-6<\/strong> If anyone could rely on Jewish credentials, Paul could: He practiced the strictest obedience to the Jewish law<\/em> and was extremely zealous<\/em> for the Jewish religion.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:5-6 If anyone could rely on Jewish credentials, Paul could: He practiced the strictest obedience to the Jewish law and was extremely zealous for the Jewish religion.","summary_en":"3:5-6 If anyone could rely on Jewish credentials, Paul could: He practiced the strictest obedience to the Jewish law and was extremely zealous for the Jewish religion.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113514,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:5","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:5","content_ro":"3:5<\/strong> circumcised when I was eight days old:<\/em> See Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; 2:21. • Paul was a member of the Pharisees<\/em>,<\/em> the Jewish sect known for its strict observance of the law (see Acts 23:6; 26:5).<\/p>","content_en":"3:5<\/strong> circumcised when I was eight days old:<\/em> See Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; 2:21. • Paul was a member of the Pharisees<\/em>,<\/em> the Jewish sect known for its strict observance of the law (see Acts 23:6; 26:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:5 circumcised when I was eight days old: See Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; 2:21. • Paul was a member of the Pharisees, the Jewish sect known for its strict observance of the law (see Acts 23:6; 26:5).","summary_en":"3:5 circumcised when I was eight days old: See Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; 2:21. • Paul was a member of the Pharisees, the Jewish sect known for its strict observance of the law (see Acts 23:6; 26:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141139,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:5","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:5","content_ro":"3:5-6<\/strong> If anyone could rely on Jewish credentials, Paul could: He practiced the strictest obedience to the Jewish law<\/em> and was extremely zealous<\/em> for the Jewish religion.<\/p>","content_en":"3:5-6<\/strong> If anyone could rely on Jewish credentials, Paul could: He practiced the strictest obedience to the Jewish law<\/em> and was extremely zealous<\/em> for the Jewish religion.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:5-6 If anyone could rely on Jewish credentials, Paul could: He practiced the strictest obedience to the Jewish law and was extremely zealous for the Jewish religion.","summary_en":"3:5-6 If anyone could rely on Jewish credentials, Paul could: He practiced the strictest obedience to the Jewish law and was extremely zealous for the Jewish religion.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141140,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:5","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:5","content_ro":"3:5<\/strong> circumcised when I was eight days old:<\/em> See Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; 2:21. • Paul was a member of the Pharisees<\/em>,<\/em> the Jewish sect known for its strict observance of the law (see Acts 23:6; 26:5).<\/p>","content_en":"3:5<\/strong> circumcised when I was eight days old:<\/em> See Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; 2:21. • Paul was a member of the Pharisees<\/em>,<\/em> the Jewish sect known for its strict observance of the law (see Acts 23:6; 26:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:5 circumcised when I was eight days old: See Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; 2:21. • Paul was a member of the Pharisees, the Jewish sect known for its strict observance of the law (see Acts 23:6; 26:5).","summary_en":"3:5 circumcised when I was eight days old: See Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; 2:21. • Paul was a member of the Pharisees, the Jewish sect known for its strict observance of the law (see Acts 23:6; 26:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66504,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision in the New Testament","title_en":"Circumcision in the New Testament","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision in the New Testament<\/h3>\nCircumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach<\/em> 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, Jesus, Paul, and Timothy (Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 16:2-3; Phil 3:5). Circumcision became a metaphor for the renewal of a person’s relationship with God (Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29). In the late 40s AD<\/span>, some Jewish Christians tried to require Gentile Christians to undergo circumcision (Acts 15:1, 5; see 21:20-21; Gal 2:4, 11-13), to which Paul and Barnabas objected (Acts 15:2). The ensuing church council at Jerusalem settled the matter in favor of not requiring Gentiles to be circumcised (15:19-21, 28-29).<\/p>\nPaul insisted that “it makes no difference whether or not a man has been circumcised” (1 Cor 7:19). “What is important is faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6). In Galatians, Paul argued against vigorous Jewish opponents and insisted that everyone enters God’s family simply through faith in Jesus Christ (Gal 2:14-21). Circumcision is not required for acceptance by God (Gal 5:6). The cross of Christ is the way that sinners enter into covenant with God (Gal 2:14-21; Col 2:11-15).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 17:9-14; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-9; Jer 9:25-26; Luke 1:59; 2:21; John 7:22-24; Acts 7:8; 15:1-5, 19-21, 28-31; 16:2-3; 21:18-24; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 2:3-5, 11-21; 5:6; 6:15; Phil 3:5-9; Col 2:11-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision in the New Testament<\/h3>\nCircumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach<\/em> 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, Jesus, Paul, and Timothy (Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 16:2-3; Phil 3:5). Circumcision became a metaphor for the renewal of a person’s relationship with God (Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29). In the late 40s AD<\/span>, some Jewish Christians tried to require Gentile Christians to undergo circumcision (Acts 15:1, 5; see 21:20-21; Gal 2:4, 11-13), to which Paul and Barnabas objected (Acts 15:2). The ensuing church council at Jerusalem settled the matter in favor of not requiring Gentiles to be circumcised (15:19-21, 28-29).<\/p>\nPaul insisted that “it makes no difference whether or not a man has been circumcised” (1 Cor 7:19). “What is important is faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6). In Galatians, Paul argued against vigorous Jewish opponents and insisted that everyone enters God’s family simply through faith in Jesus Christ (Gal 2:14-21). Circumcision is not required for acceptance by God (Gal 5:6). The cross of Christ is the way that sinners enter into covenant with God (Gal 2:14-21; Col 2:11-15).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 17:9-14; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-9; Jer 9:25-26; Luke 1:59; 2:21; John 7:22-24; Acts 7:8; 15:1-5, 19-21, 28-31; 16:2-3; 21:18-24; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 2:3-5, 11-21; 5:6; 6:15; Phil 3:5-9; Col 2:11-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision in the New Testament Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, ...","summary_en":"Circumcision in the New Testament Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":94130,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision in the New Testament","title_en":"Circumcision in the New Testament","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision in the New Testament<\/h3>\nCircumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach<\/em> 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, Jesus, Paul, and Timothy (Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 16:2-3; Phil 3:5). Circumcision became a metaphor for the renewal of a person’s relationship with God (Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29). In the late 40s AD<\/span>, some Jewish Christians tried to require Gentile Christians to undergo circumcision (Acts 15:1, 5; see 21:20-21; Gal 2:4, 11-13), to which Paul and Barnabas objected (Acts 15:2). The ensuing church council at Jerusalem settled the matter in favor of not requiring Gentiles to be circumcised (15:19-21, 28-29).<\/p>\nPaul insisted that “it makes no difference whether or not a man has been circumcised” (1 Cor 7:19). “What is important is faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6). In Galatians, Paul argued against vigorous Jewish opponents and insisted that everyone enters God’s family simply through faith in Jesus Christ (Gal 2:14-21). Circumcision is not required for acceptance by God (Gal 5:6). The cross of Christ is the way that sinners enter into covenant with God (Gal 2:14-21; Col 2:11-15).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 17:9-14; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-9; Jer 9:25-26; Luke 1:59; 2:21; John 7:22-24; Acts 7:8; 15:1-5, 19-21, 28-31; 16:2-3; 21:18-24; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 2:3-5, 11-21; 5:6; 6:15; Phil 3:5-9; Col 2:11-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision in the New Testament<\/h3>\nCircumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach<\/em> 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, Jesus, Paul, and Timothy (Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 16:2-3; Phil 3:5). Circumcision became a metaphor for the renewal of a person’s relationship with God (Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29). In the late 40s AD<\/span>, some Jewish Christians tried to require Gentile Christians to undergo circumcision (Acts 15:1, 5; see 21:20-21; Gal 2:4, 11-13), to which Paul and Barnabas objected (Acts 15:2). The ensuing church council at Jerusalem settled the matter in favor of not requiring Gentiles to be circumcised (15:19-21, 28-29).<\/p>\nPaul insisted that “it makes no difference whether or not a man has been circumcised” (1 Cor 7:19). “What is important is faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6). In Galatians, Paul argued against vigorous Jewish opponents and insisted that everyone enters God’s family simply through faith in Jesus Christ (Gal 2:14-21). Circumcision is not required for acceptance by God (Gal 5:6). The cross of Christ is the way that sinners enter into covenant with God (Gal 2:14-21; Col 2:11-15).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 17:9-14; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-9; Jer 9:25-26; Luke 1:59; 2:21; John 7:22-24; Acts 7:8; 15:1-5, 19-21, 28-31; 16:2-3; 21:18-24; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 2:3-5, 11-21; 5:6; 6:15; Phil 3:5-9; Col 2:11-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision in the New Testament Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, ...","summary_en":"Circumcision in the New Testament Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121756,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision in the New Testament","title_en":"Circumcision in the New Testament","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision in the New Testament<\/h3>\nCircumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach<\/em> 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, Jesus, Paul, and Timothy (Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 16:2-3; Phil 3:5). Circumcision became a metaphor for the renewal of a person’s relationship with God (Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29). In the late 40s AD<\/span>, some Jewish Christians tried to require Gentile Christians to undergo circumcision (Acts 15:1, 5; see 21:20-21; Gal 2:4, 11-13), to which Paul and Barnabas objected (Acts 15:2). The ensuing church council at Jerusalem settled the matter in favor of not requiring Gentiles to be circumcised (15:19-21, 28-29).<\/p>\nPaul insisted that “it makes no difference whether or not a man has been circumcised” (1 Cor 7:19). “What is important is faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6). In Galatians, Paul argued against vigorous Jewish opponents and insisted that everyone enters God’s family simply through faith in Jesus Christ (Gal 2:14-21). Circumcision is not required for acceptance by God (Gal 5:6). The cross of Christ is the way that sinners enter into covenant with God (Gal 2:14-21; Col 2:11-15).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 17:9-14; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-9; Jer 9:25-26; Luke 1:59; 2:21; John 7:22-24; Acts 7:8; 15:1-5, 19-21, 28-31; 16:2-3; 21:18-24; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 2:3-5, 11-21; 5:6; 6:15; Phil 3:5-9; Col 2:11-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision in the New Testament<\/h3>\nCircumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach<\/em> 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, Jesus, Paul, and Timothy (Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 16:2-3; Phil 3:5). Circumcision became a metaphor for the renewal of a person’s relationship with God (Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29). In the late 40s AD<\/span>, some Jewish Christians tried to require Gentile Christians to undergo circumcision (Acts 15:1, 5; see 21:20-21; Gal 2:4, 11-13), to which Paul and Barnabas objected (Acts 15:2). The ensuing church council at Jerusalem settled the matter in favor of not requiring Gentiles to be circumcised (15:19-21, 28-29).<\/p>\nPaul insisted that “it makes no difference whether or not a man has been circumcised” (1 Cor 7:19). “What is important is faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6). In Galatians, Paul argued against vigorous Jewish opponents and insisted that everyone enters God’s family simply through faith in Jesus Christ (Gal 2:14-21). Circumcision is not required for acceptance by God (Gal 5:6). The cross of Christ is the way that sinners enter into covenant with God (Gal 2:14-21; Col 2:11-15).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 17:9-14; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-9; Jer 9:25-26; Luke 1:59; 2:21; John 7:22-24; Acts 7:8; 15:1-5, 19-21, 28-31; 16:2-3; 21:18-24; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 2:3-5, 11-21; 5:6; 6:15; Phil 3:5-9; Col 2:11-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision in the New Testament Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, ...","summary_en":"Circumcision in the New Testament Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149382,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision in the New Testament","title_en":"Circumcision in the New Testament","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision in the New Testament<\/h3>\nCircumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach<\/em> 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, Jesus, Paul, and Timothy (Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 16:2-3; Phil 3:5). Circumcision became a metaphor for the renewal of a person’s relationship with God (Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29). In the late 40s AD<\/span>, some Jewish Christians tried to require Gentile Christians to undergo circumcision (Acts 15:1, 5; see 21:20-21; Gal 2:4, 11-13), to which Paul and Barnabas objected (Acts 15:2). The ensuing church council at Jerusalem settled the matter in favor of not requiring Gentiles to be circumcised (15:19-21, 28-29).<\/p>\nPaul insisted that “it makes no difference whether or not a man has been circumcised” (1 Cor 7:19). “What is important is faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6). In Galatians, Paul argued against vigorous Jewish opponents and insisted that everyone enters God’s family simply through faith in Jesus Christ (Gal 2:14-21). Circumcision is not required for acceptance by God (Gal 5:6). The cross of Christ is the way that sinners enter into covenant with God (Gal 2:14-21; Col 2:11-15).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 17:9-14; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-9; Jer 9:25-26; Luke 1:59; 2:21; John 7:22-24; Acts 7:8; 15:1-5, 19-21, 28-31; 16:2-3; 21:18-24; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 2:3-5, 11-21; 5:6; 6:15; Phil 3:5-9; Col 2:11-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision in the New Testament<\/h3>\nCircumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach<\/em> 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, Jesus, Paul, and Timothy (Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 16:2-3; Phil 3:5). Circumcision became a metaphor for the renewal of a person’s relationship with God (Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29). In the late 40s AD<\/span>, some Jewish Christians tried to require Gentile Christians to undergo circumcision (Acts 15:1, 5; see 21:20-21; Gal 2:4, 11-13), to which Paul and Barnabas objected (Acts 15:2). The ensuing church council at Jerusalem settled the matter in favor of not requiring Gentiles to be circumcised (15:19-21, 28-29).<\/p>\nPaul insisted that “it makes no difference whether or not a man has been circumcised” (1 Cor 7:19). “What is important is faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6). In Galatians, Paul argued against vigorous Jewish opponents and insisted that everyone enters God’s family simply through faith in Jesus Christ (Gal 2:14-21). Circumcision is not required for acceptance by God (Gal 5:6). The cross of Christ is the way that sinners enter into covenant with God (Gal 2:14-21; Col 2:11-15).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 17:9-14; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-9; Jer 9:25-26; Luke 1:59; 2:21; John 7:22-24; Acts 7:8; 15:1-5, 19-21, 28-31; 16:2-3; 21:18-24; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 2:3-5, 11-21; 5:6; 6:15; Phil 3:5-9; Col 2:11-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision in the New Testament Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, ...","summary_en":"Circumcision in the New Testament Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":30138,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Pharisees","title_en":"Pharisees","content_ro":"<h3>PHARISEES<\/h3>\nReligious sect active in Palestine during the NT period. The Pharisees are consistently depicted in the Gospels as Jesus’ antagonists. It is commonly held that the Pharisees represented mainstream Judaism early in the first century and that they were characterized by a variety of morally objectionable features. Accordingly, most Bible dictionaries and similar works of reference depict the Pharisees as greedy, hypocritical, lacking a sense of justice, overly concerned with fulfilling the literal details of the law, and insensitive to the spiritual significance of the OT. These and other characteristics are furthermore viewed as giving shape to Judaism more generally.<\/p>\nThere are several problems with this common perception of Pharisaic Judaism. In the first place, the Gospels themselves give some important information that appears inconsistent with this view. Second, the primary documents of rabbinic Judaism (such as the Mishnah, the Talmud, and the Midrashim) are positive and praiseworthy. Third, it has become increasingly clear, especially since the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, that prior to AD<\/span> 70 the Pharisees constituted only a small movement in a highly diversified society; whatever their popularity and influence, they can hardly be taken as representative of Judaism in general.<\/p>\nOrigin<\/p>\nThe origins of the Pharisees are obscure. According to Jewish tradition, Pharisaic (= rabbinic) Judaism can be traced back to Ezra and the beginnings of the scribal movement in the fifth century BC<\/span>. At the opposite extreme, a few scholars argue that, since there are no explicit references to the Pharisees in historical documents prior to the second century BC<\/span>, Pharisaism appeared suddenly after the Maccabean revolt (167 BC<\/span>). Many specialists take the position that perhaps as early as the third century BC<\/span> one can find evidence of an incipient form of Pharisaism (as in The Wisdom of Joshua [Jesus] ben Sirach, also known as Ecclesiasticus). It may well be, moreover, that the intellectual pursuits associated with the work of the scribes did have something to do with the development of the Pharisees. It is also probable that prior to the Maccabean revolt some distinctive Pharisaic concerns appeared in connection with the development of the Hasidim (“the faithful ones”—traditionalists who opposed Greek influence in Jewish society).<\/p>\nAccording to a popular and reasonable interpretation, the Hasidim became disillusioned with the Maccabean rulers, whose conduct violated Jewish sensibilities in several respects. Some of the Hasidim separated themselves from the nation and developed into nonconformist sects, such as that of the Essenes. Those who remained tried to exert their influence on Jewish life and developed into the sect of the Pharisees.<\/p>\nThe Pharisees no doubt played a significant role in Jewish affairs during the next century, even though at times they had little political clout. By NT times, they were widely recognized as religious leaders. Josephus, who tells us that he belonged to this sect, wrote toward the end of the first century AD<\/span> that the Pharisees were “extremely influential among the townsfolk; and all prayers and sacred rites of divine worship are performed according to their exposition. This is the great tribute that the inhabitants of the cities, by practicing the highest ideal both in their way of living and in their discourse, have paid to the excellence of the Pharisees” (Antiquities<\/em> 18.15). We cannot determine whether this description applies to the period before AD<\/span> 70, but the evidence of the Gospels themselves confirms it to some extent. For example, the parable of the publican and the Pharisee (Lk 18:9-14), while it condemns the Pharisee, makes sense only if we appreciate the role reversal it announces: the wicked publican, not the one generally regarded as righteous, goes home justified.<\/p>\nBasic Characteristics<\/p>\nIt is not possible to give an accurate characterization of the Pharisees, since scholars disagree sharply concerning their fundamental distinctiveness. Some stress the notion of “separateness,” partly on the basis of the supposed etymology of the name (from Hebrew parush<\/span>,<\/em> “separated one,” though other suggestions have been made). A more carefully nuanced viewpoint calls attention to the Pharisees’ concern with ritual purity (cf. Mk 7:1-4). Some of the evidence indicates that the Pharisees wished to apply the priestly rituals to the people generally (this factor may help to explain the relative ease with which the Pharisees adapted to the absence of the temple and its sacrifices after AD<\/span> 70). Still another position sees the Pharisees as the scholar class. The close connection between them and the scribes (experts in the law) gives credence to this view, as does the fact that much of the later rabbinic literature reflects an intellectual pursuit, particularly in its detailed logical argumentations regarding the meaning and application of the Torah.<\/p>\nThese various approaches are not mutually exclusive. Moreover, there appears to be widespread agreement about one theological conviction that was foundational to Pharisaism, namely, their commitment to the notion of a twofold law: the written Torah (the OT, principally the Pentateuch) and the oral Torah (the traditions handed down through many generations of rabbis). This is certainly one feature that distinguished them from the Sadducees (cf. Josephus’s Antiquities<\/em> 13.297-98). The latter accepted only the authority of the books of Moses and argued strongly that the importance that the Pharisees attached to oral traditions represented an unjustifiable innovation. These traditions, which sought to regulate the lives of the people before God, became more and more detailed over the course of time and were eventually brought together and written down as a single document, the Mishnah (dated c. AD<\/span> 210). Somewhere in its development the view arose that the oral law itself had been given by God to Moses and thus shared divine authority with the Scriptures.<\/p>\nA careful look at the NT helps in understanding that this feature more than anything else explains the nature of the conflict between the Pharisaic viewpoint and the message of the gospel. The apostle Paul, for example, stresses the distinctiveness of his apostolic preaching by contrasting it to “the traditions of the fathers,” which he zealously pursued in his youth (Gal 1:14). Especially instructive is the key passage in Mark 7, where it is written that the Pharisees complained to Jesus, “Why don’t your disciples live according to the tradition of the elders instead of eating their food with ‘unclean’ hands?” (v 5, niv<\/span>). Christ’s reply counters their criticism with a serious indictment: “You have let go of the commands of God and are holding on to the traditions of men. . . . Thus you nullify the word of God by your tradition that you have handed down” (vv 8, 13 ; cf. Mt 15:1-6).<\/p>\nThe importance the Pharisees attributed to their interpretations of the law compromised the authority of God’s own revelation. To make matters worse, the genius of those interpretations was to distort the doctrine of grace by relaxing the divine standards. The very example used by Jesus in Mark 7:10-12 indicates that a rabbinic regulation—the Corban—made it possible for people to ignore the fifth commandment and feel justified in so doing.<\/p>\nThe Pharisaic regulations were numerous and aggravating, but at least they could be fulfilled. Those who followed scrupulously the rabbinic traditions were in danger of concluding that their conduct satisfied God’s demands (cf. Paul’s description of his own preconversion attitude, Phil 3:6). And a muted sense of one’s sin goes hand in hand with a false sense of spiritual security; the need to depend on God’s mercy no longer appears crucial. This is, of course, the point of the parable of the publican and the Pharisee (Lk 18:9-14). In contrast, Jesus calls for a much higher righteousness than that of the Pharisees: “Be perfect, as your Father in heaven is perfect” (Mt 5:48; cf. v 20).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Essenes; Jew; Judaism; Sadducees; Talmud; Torah; Tradition; Tradition, Oral.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PHARISEES<\/h3>\nReligious sect active in Palestine during the NT period. The Pharisees are consistently depicted in the Gospels as Jesus’ antagonists. It is commonly held that the Pharisees represented mainstream Judaism early in the first century and that they were characterized by a variety of morally objectionable features. Accordingly, most Bible dictionaries and similar works of reference depict the Pharisees as greedy, hypocritical, lacking a sense of justice, overly concerned with fulfilling the literal details of the law, and insensitive to the spiritual significance of the OT. These and other characteristics are furthermore viewed as giving shape to Judaism more generally.<\/p>\nThere are several problems with this common perception of Pharisaic Judaism. In the first place, the Gospels themselves give some important information that appears inconsistent with this view. Second, the primary documents of rabbinic Judaism (such as the Mishnah, the Talmud, and the Midrashim) are positive and praiseworthy. Third, it has become increasingly clear, especially since the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, that prior to AD<\/span> 70 the Pharisees constituted only a small movement in a highly diversified society; whatever their popularity and influence, they can hardly be taken as representative of Judaism in general.<\/p>\nOrigin<\/p>\nThe origins of the Pharisees are obscure. According to Jewish tradition, Pharisaic (= rabbinic) Judaism can be traced back to Ezra and the beginnings of the scribal movement in the fifth century BC<\/span>. At the opposite extreme, a few scholars argue that, since there are no explicit references to the Pharisees in historical documents prior to the second century BC<\/span>, Pharisaism appeared suddenly after the Maccabean revolt (167 BC<\/span>). Many specialists take the position that perhaps as early as the third century BC<\/span> one can find evidence of an incipient form of Pharisaism (as in The Wisdom of Joshua [Jesus] ben Sirach, also known as Ecclesiasticus). It may well be, moreover, that the intellectual pursuits associated with the work of the scribes did have something to do with the development of the Pharisees. It is also probable that prior to the Maccabean revolt some distinctive Pharisaic concerns appeared in connection with the development of the Hasidim (“the faithful ones”—traditionalists who opposed Greek influence in Jewish society).<\/p>\nAccording to a popular and reasonable interpretation, the Hasidim became disillusioned with the Maccabean rulers, whose conduct violated Jewish sensibilities in several respects. Some of the Hasidim separated themselves from the nation and developed into nonconformist sects, such as that of the Essenes. Those who remained tried to exert their influence on Jewish life and developed into the sect of the Pharisees.<\/p>\nThe Pharisees no doubt played a significant role in Jewish affairs during the next century, even though at times they had little political clout. By NT times, they were widely recognized as religious leaders. Josephus, who tells us that he belonged to this sect, wrote toward the end of the first century AD<\/span> that the Pharisees were “extremely influential among the townsfolk; and all prayers and sacred rites of divine worship are performed according to their exposition. This is the great tribute that the inhabitants of the cities, by practicing the highest ideal both in their way of living and in their discourse, have paid to the excellence of the Pharisees” (Antiquities<\/em> 18.15). We cannot determine whether this description applies to the period before AD<\/span> 70, but the evidence of the Gospels themselves confirms it to some extent. For example, the parable of the publican and the Pharisee (Lk 18:9-14), while it condemns the Pharisee, makes sense only if we appreciate the role reversal it announces: the wicked publican, not the one generally regarded as righteous, goes home justified.<\/p>\nBasic Characteristics<\/p>\nIt is not possible to give an accurate characterization of the Pharisees, since scholars disagree sharply concerning their fundamental distinctiveness. Some stress the notion of “separateness,” partly on the basis of the supposed etymology of the name (from Hebrew parush<\/span>,<\/em> “separated one,” though other suggestions have been made). A more carefully nuanced viewpoint calls attention to the Pharisees’ concern with ritual purity (cf. Mk 7:1-4). Some of the evidence indicates that the Pharisees wished to apply the priestly rituals to the people generally (this factor may help to explain the relative ease with which the Pharisees adapted to the absence of the temple and its sacrifices after AD<\/span> 70). Still another position sees the Pharisees as the scholar class. The close connection between them and the scribes (experts in the law) gives credence to this view, as does the fact that much of the later rabbinic literature reflects an intellectual pursuit, particularly in its detailed logical argumentations regarding the meaning and application of the Torah.<\/p>\nThese various approaches are not mutually exclusive. Moreover, there appears to be widespread agreement about one theological conviction that was foundational to Pharisaism, namely, their commitment to the notion of a twofold law: the written Torah (the OT, principally the Pentateuch) and the oral Torah (the traditions handed down through many generations of rabbis). This is certainly one feature that distinguished them from the Sadducees (cf. Josephus’s Antiquities<\/em> 13.297-98). The latter accepted only the authority of the books of Moses and argued strongly that the importance that the Pharisees attached to oral traditions represented an unjustifiable innovation. These traditions, which sought to regulate the lives of the people before God, became more and more detailed over the course of time and were eventually brought together and written down as a single document, the Mishnah (dated c. AD<\/span> 210). Somewhere in its development the view arose that the oral law itself had been given by God to Moses and thus shared divine authority with the Scriptures.<\/p>\nA careful look at the NT helps in understanding that this feature more than anything else explains the nature of the conflict between the Pharisaic viewpoint and the message of the gospel. The apostle Paul, for example, stresses the distinctiveness of his apostolic preaching by contrasting it to “the traditions of the fathers,” which he zealously pursued in his youth (Gal 1:14). Especially instructive is the key passage in Mark 7, where it is written that the Pharisees complained to Jesus, “Why don’t your disciples live according to the tradition of the elders instead of eating their food with ‘unclean’ hands?” (v 5, niv<\/span>). Christ’s reply counters their criticism with a serious indictment: “You have let go of the commands of God and are holding on to the traditions of men. . . . Thus you nullify the word of God by your tradition that you have handed down” (vv 8, 13 ; cf. Mt 15:1-6).<\/p>\nThe importance the Pharisees attributed to their interpretations of the law compromised the authority of God’s own revelation. To make matters worse, the genius of those interpretations was to distort the doctrine of grace by relaxing the divine standards. The very example used by Jesus in Mark 7:10-12 indicates that a rabbinic regulation—the Corban—made it possible for people to ignore the fifth commandment and feel justified in so doing.<\/p>\nThe Pharisaic regulations were numerous and aggravating, but at least they could be fulfilled. Those who followed scrupulously the rabbinic traditions were in danger of concluding that their conduct satisfied God’s demands (cf. Paul’s description of his own preconversion attitude, Phil 3:6). And a muted sense of one’s sin goes hand in hand with a false sense of spiritual security; the need to depend on God’s mercy no longer appears crucial. This is, of course, the point of the parable of the publican and the Pharisee (Lk 18:9-14). In contrast, Jesus calls for a much higher righteousness than that of the Pharisees: “Be perfect, as your Father in heaven is perfect” (Mt 5:48; cf. v 20).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Essenes; Jew; Judaism; Sadducees; Talmud; Torah; Tradition; Tradition, Oral.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PHARISEES Religious sect active in Palestine during the NT period. The Pharisees are consistently depicted in the Gospels as Jesus’ antagonists. It is commonly held that the Pharisees represented mainstream Judaism early in the first century and that they were characterized by a variety of morally objectionable features. Accordingly, most Bible dictionaries and similar works of reference depict the Pharisees as greedy, hypocritical, lacking a sense of justice, overly concerned with fulfilling...","summary_en":"PHARISEES Religious sect active in Palestine during the NT period. The Pharisees are consistently depicted in the Gospels as Jesus’ antagonists. It is commonly held that the Pharisees represented mainstream Judaism early in the first century and that they were characterized by a variety of morally objectionable features. Accordingly, most Bible dictionaries and similar works of reference depict the Pharisees as greedy, hypocritical, lacking a sense of justice, overly concerned with fulfilling...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":58263,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:6","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:6","content_ro":"3:6<\/strong> I harshly persecuted the church<\/em> (see Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-2, 21; Gal 1:13): His actions demonstrated his zeal for Judaism, to which the Good News of Jesus was seen as a threat. • Paul’s righteousness<\/em>,<\/em> as judged by human standards, was another indication of his zeal for the law<\/em> (see also Gal 1:14; for Paul’s later Christian view, cp. Rom 3:23; 7:14-25).<\/p>","content_en":"3:6<\/strong> I harshly persecuted the church<\/em> (see Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-2, 21; Gal 1:13): His actions demonstrated his zeal for Judaism, to which the Good News of Jesus was seen as a threat. • Paul’s righteousness<\/em>,<\/em> as judged by human standards, was another indication of his zeal for the law<\/em> (see also Gal 1:14; for Paul’s later Christian view, cp. Rom 3:23; 7:14-25).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:6 I harshly persecuted the church (see Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-2, 21; Gal 1:13): His actions demonstrated his zeal for Judaism, to which the Good News of Jesus was seen as a threat. • Paul’s righteousness, as judged by human standards, was another indication of his zeal for the law (see also Gal 1:14; for Paul’s later Christian view, cp. Rom 3:23; 7:14-25).","summary_en":"3:6 I harshly persecuted the church (see Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-2, 21; Gal 1:13): His actions demonstrated his zeal for Judaism, to which the Good News of Jesus was seen as a threat. • Paul’s righteousness, as judged by human standards, was another indication of his zeal for the law (see also Gal 1:14; for Paul’s later Christian view, cp. Rom 3:23; 7:14-25).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85889,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:6","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:6","content_ro":"3:6<\/strong> I harshly persecuted the church<\/em> (see Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-2, 21; Gal 1:13): His actions demonstrated his zeal for Judaism, to which the Good News of Jesus was seen as a threat. • Paul’s righteousness<\/em>,<\/em> as judged by human standards, was another indication of his zeal for the law<\/em> (see also Gal 1:14; for Paul’s later Christian view, cp. Rom 3:23; 7:14-25).<\/p>","content_en":"3:6<\/strong> I harshly persecuted the church<\/em> (see Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-2, 21; Gal 1:13): His actions demonstrated his zeal for Judaism, to which the Good News of Jesus was seen as a threat. • Paul’s righteousness<\/em>,<\/em> as judged by human standards, was another indication of his zeal for the law<\/em> (see also Gal 1:14; for Paul’s later Christian view, cp. Rom 3:23; 7:14-25).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:6 I harshly persecuted the church (see Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-2, 21; Gal 1:13): His actions demonstrated his zeal for Judaism, to which the Good News of Jesus was seen as a threat. • Paul’s righteousness, as judged by human standards, was another indication of his zeal for the law (see also Gal 1:14; for Paul’s later Christian view, cp. Rom 3:23; 7:14-25).","summary_en":"3:6 I harshly persecuted the church (see Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-2, 21; Gal 1:13): His actions demonstrated his zeal for Judaism, to which the Good News of Jesus was seen as a threat. • Paul’s righteousness, as judged by human standards, was another indication of his zeal for the law (see also Gal 1:14; for Paul’s later Christian view, cp. Rom 3:23; 7:14-25).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113515,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:6","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:6","content_ro":"3:6<\/strong> I harshly persecuted the church<\/em> (see Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-2, 21; Gal 1:13): His actions demonstrated his zeal for Judaism, to which the Good News of Jesus was seen as a threat. • Paul’s righteousness<\/em>,<\/em> as judged by human standards, was another indication of his zeal for the law<\/em> (see also Gal 1:14; for Paul’s later Christian view, cp. Rom 3:23; 7:14-25).<\/p>","content_en":"3:6<\/strong> I harshly persecuted the church<\/em> (see Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-2, 21; Gal 1:13): His actions demonstrated his zeal for Judaism, to which the Good News of Jesus was seen as a threat. • Paul’s righteousness<\/em>,<\/em> as judged by human standards, was another indication of his zeal for the law<\/em> (see also Gal 1:14; for Paul’s later Christian view, cp. Rom 3:23; 7:14-25).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:6 I harshly persecuted the church (see Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-2, 21; Gal 1:13): His actions demonstrated his zeal for Judaism, to which the Good News of Jesus was seen as a threat. • Paul’s righteousness, as judged by human standards, was another indication of his zeal for the law (see also Gal 1:14; for Paul’s later Christian view, cp. Rom 3:23; 7:14-25).","summary_en":"3:6 I harshly persecuted the church (see Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-2, 21; Gal 1:13): His actions demonstrated his zeal for Judaism, to which the Good News of Jesus was seen as a threat. • Paul’s righteousness, as judged by human standards, was another indication of his zeal for the law (see also Gal 1:14; for Paul’s later Christian view, cp. Rom 3:23; 7:14-25).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141141,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:6","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:6","content_ro":"3:6<\/strong> I harshly persecuted the church<\/em> (see Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-2, 21; Gal 1:13): His actions demonstrated his zeal for Judaism, to which the Good News of Jesus was seen as a threat. • Paul’s righteousness<\/em>,<\/em> as judged by human standards, was another indication of his zeal for the law<\/em> (see also Gal 1:14; for Paul’s later Christian view, cp. Rom 3:23; 7:14-25).<\/p>","content_en":"3:6<\/strong> I harshly persecuted the church<\/em> (see Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-2, 21; Gal 1:13): His actions demonstrated his zeal for Judaism, to which the Good News of Jesus was seen as a threat. • Paul’s righteousness<\/em>,<\/em> as judged by human standards, was another indication of his zeal for the law<\/em> (see also Gal 1:14; for Paul’s later Christian view, cp. Rom 3:23; 7:14-25).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:6 I harshly persecuted the church (see Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-2, 21; Gal 1:13): His actions demonstrated his zeal for Judaism, to which the Good News of Jesus was seen as a threat. • Paul’s righteousness, as judged by human standards, was another indication of his zeal for the law (see also Gal 1:14; for Paul’s later Christian view, cp. Rom 3:23; 7:14-25).","summary_en":"3:6 I harshly persecuted the church (see Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-2, 21; Gal 1:13): His actions demonstrated his zeal for Judaism, to which the Good News of Jesus was seen as a threat. • Paul’s righteousness, as judged by human standards, was another indication of his zeal for the law (see also Gal 1:14; for Paul’s later Christian view, cp. Rom 3:23; 7:14-25).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66320,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Persecution","title_en":"Persecution","content_ro":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\nPersecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\nThe book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\nJesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\nPersecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\nThe book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\nJesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","summary_en":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":93946,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Persecution","title_en":"Persecution","content_ro":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\nPersecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\nThe book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\nJesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\nPersecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\nThe book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\nJesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","summary_en":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121572,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Persecution","title_en":"Persecution","content_ro":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\nPersecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\nThe book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\nJesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\nPersecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\nThe book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\nJesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","summary_en":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149198,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Persecution","title_en":"Persecution","content_ro":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\nPersecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\nThe book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\nJesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\nPersecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\nThe book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\nJesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","summary_en":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":30251,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter to the Philippians","title_en":"Letter to the Philippians","content_ro":"<h3>PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the<\/span><\/h3>\nOne of Paul’s Prison Epistles.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date and Origin<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Theological Themes<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nPhilippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary.<\/p>\nDate and Origin<\/p>\nWhile it is clear that Paul was writing from prison (Phil 1:12-13), it is not clear where he was imprisoned. The most likely possibility is Rome, in which case the date would be around AD<\/span> 62. But some have thought that all the journeys implied in 4:14 and 2:25-26 make such a distant place unlikely (the Philippians hear that Paul is in prison and send a gift by Epaphroditus; Epaphroditus hears in Rome that the Philippians have heard that he has been ill). So the alternatives of Ephesus (c. AD<\/span> 55) and Caesarea (c. AD<\/span> 58) have been proposed. We know that Paul was imprisoned in Caesarea (Acts 23:33-35), but the greeting “from those of Caesar’s household” is difficult to explain if it was written there, in spite of the coincidence of name. Ephesus is certainly near enough to Philippi for plenty of interchange, but no imprisonment is recorded in the account of Paul’s ministry there in Acts. So we would have to assume that Luke’s account in Acts 19 is not complete and that Paul had been placed in protective custody at the time of the riot (see esp. 19:30-31). But such an imprisonment could hardly have led Paul to wonder whether his time “to depart and be with Christ” had now come (Phil 1:23). At the time of writing, he was clearly facing a capital charge.<\/p>\nThe traditional location (Rome) seems the most satisfactory, especially when one reflects that Paul was imprisoned there for at least two years (Acts 28:30), and that it took about three weeks to travel from Rome to Philippi.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nPhilippi had the distinction of being a Roman colony (Acts 16:12), a privilege accorded to only a few cities outside Italy. Some 90 years before the gospel arrived there (c. AD<\/span> 50), the city had been greatly expanded by large numbers of Roman soldiers, who were settled there by their commanding officers. As a consequence, the town acquired its coveted status as a colony, which meant that for all intents and purposes its citizens were treated as if they lived in Italy, and the town had a fully Roman administration. Paul alludes to this status in Philippians 3:20, where he teaches that Christians likewise are citizens of another city, the heavenly one, while yet residents elsewhere. It was a rich and busy place, one of the main centers of life in Macedonia, and consequently was “home” to the adherents of many different religions, from both east and west. There was a strong Jewish community there, as well as pagans of many sorts.<\/p>\nTheological Themes<\/p>\nIn a sense Paul’s imprisonment is not just background material but lies at the heart of the letter’s message. In his imprisonment he was experiencing the abasement that he mentions in 4:12, using there the same word found in 2:8 to describe the self-humbling of Christ unto death. The pattern of the ministry of Jesus described in the great “hymn” of 2:6-11—humiliation followed by glorification—becomes the pattern of Paul’s own life and of the vision he holds out before the Philippians. So alongside abasement and suffering, joy is the other great theme of the letter. Within suffering and self-sacrifice, true joy is born. In fact, Philippians could justly be titled “The Epistle of Joy.” Other prominent themes include the gospel, the Day of the Lord, and in addition to the famous “hymn” in chapter 2, a comparison of Paul’s Jewish past with his present Christian experience (3:4-16).<\/p>\n\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting and Opening Prayer (1:1-11)<\/h5>\nIn the opening paragraph of his letter, Paul presents the themes that will be uppermost in his mind throughout. His personal warmth toward the Philippians is immediately striking: “I have you in my heart. . . . I long for all of you” (1:7-8), and this thought of outgoing and suffering love undergirds the whole letter. It is notable, too, that the letter begins and ends with the themes of “grace” and of “the saints” (1:1-2; 4:21-23). The grace of Christ, which reaches out to sinful people and transforms them, separating them from the world, occupies Paul throughout. “The saints” are the ones who, touched by that grace, are transformed in heart and mind, so that their love abounds more and more in knowledge and depth of insight (1:9).<\/p>\nTwo more great themes appear here. The Greek word phroneo<\/span>,<\/em> “to think,” is used more in Philippians than in any other letter of Paul, no fewer than nine times (as against seven in Romans). Unfortunately, it is not uniformly translated in the English versions, and so it is hard for the English reader to notice its repeated appearance and the emphasis on the right use of the mind that goes with it. But for Paul this is vital: the way we think is at the heart of the Christian life, and in these opening verses he makes it clear that the love he feels for the Philippians is actually the Christian way of thinking about them (v 7: literally, “It is right for me to think this way about you”). This leads naturally to another emphasis—growth. For the “Christian mind” does not appear overnight. So Paul prays that this mind may grow, giving the Philippians powers of discernment that will transform their character and prepare them for “the day of Christ” (vv 10-11; cf. v 6).<\/p>\nFinally, we note in this opening prayer the twin emphases on the gospel and on fellowship—linked in Paul’s prayer of thanksgiving for the Philippians’ partnership in the gospel (v 5; cf. v 7)—and also the introduction of the great theme of joy (v 4). All three are vital to the whole letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul and His Imprisonment: Christ Exalted (1:12-26)<\/h5>\nPaul writes about his own situation to present the heart of his message. For when he writes, “For me to live is Christ” (v 21), he means more than that his every waking moment is taken up by fellowship with his Lord and service for him. He means also that, in his own person and experience, he displays Christ and “lives” him. Later he will say, “Keep putting into practice all you learned from me and heard from me and saw me doing” (4:9, nlt<\/span>). Few Christian ministers would dare make such a claim today! Yet Paul believed that, as an apostle of Christ, it was his privilege not just to speak on Christ’s behalf but also to live out Christ’s life in his own person, even if that meant suffering and humiliation.<\/p>\nThere are two historical difficulties here. First, it is hard to reconstruct the situation to which Paul refers in 1:12-18. The church in Rome (if that is where he is) was clearly divided about his imprisonment—some believers actually being glad that he was behind bars. It seems as though they were prompted by his imprisonment to get on with preaching their own version of the gospel. Far from being upset by this, Paul is delighted! “What does it matter?” he asks (v 18). Whether by friend or foe, Christ is being proclaimed in a new way as a result of his imprisonment (v 14). He was normally quick to defend the purity of the Word proclaimed, so these rivals of Paul could not have been heretics.<\/p>\nThe other historical difficulty surrounds verses 19-26. At one moment Paul seems not to know what the outcome of imprisonment will be (vv 19-21). Yet he then suggests that he can choose whether to live or die (v 22), and finally tells the Philippians that he is sure he will remain alive (v 25). The best explanation is that Paul believed he had received a personal assurance from the Holy Spirit that his imprisonment would not end with his execution.<\/p>\nAt any rate, his attitude about his own death is most moving. He expected deliverance, whether by life or by death (vv 19-20), and had an unshakeable confidence that to die is “better by far” (v 23), because it means being “with Christ.” This section ends with a note of joy.<\/p>\n<h5>The Life Worthy of the Gospel (1:27–2:18)<\/h5>\nThis section ends with “joy,” just as the last did, and its whole message is summed up in the opening exhortation of verse 27. Paul wanted the Philippians to be people in whom there is no gap between profession and practice, in whom the gospel believed is the gospel lived. The section falls into four portions, which might be entitled as follows: (1) 1:27-30—the worthy life in a hostile world; (2) 2:1-4—the worthy life in Christian fellowship; (3) 2:5-11—the gospel that inspires us; (4) 2:12-18—priorities for lives worthy of the gospel.<\/p>\nPaul refused to let the Philippians feel that he was worse off than they. He wrote, “We are in this fight together. You have seen me suffer for him in the past, and you know that I am still in the midst of this great struggle” (1:30, nlt<\/span>). For suffering at the hands of a hostile world is part and parcel of Christian discipleship. If we profess to believe a gospel about one who, though equal with God, left aside the glory of heaven and submitted not just to incarnation but also to a horrible death (2:6-8), then we must think of suffering not as an unfortunate necessity but as a privilege! “For you have been given not only the privilege of trusting in Christ but also the privilege of suffering for him” (1:29, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe essential quality the believers need, in order to face successfully the hostility of the world, is unity. They must be “standing side by side, fighting together for the Good News” (1:27), and believing one gospel will produce a united front against the world—and not a purely defensive front, either. The theme of unity continues into chapter 2, where Paul turns to life within the fellowship (2:1-4), as if to say that external unity before the world will not be possible unless their hearts and minds are truly united in one love, spirit, and purpose (v 2), whatever their outward situation. Such a unity will come only if there is tenderness and compassion among them (v 1). The lovely progression in verse 1 reaches a climax with this phrase, and that in turn leads into the famous “hymn” in 2:6-11. Such tenderness will not find its home in their hearts unless they believe the gospel about which the hymn sings.<\/p>\nWhether 2:6-11 was in fact a real hymn, sung in the context of early Christian worship, is now impossible to know for sure. Certainly Paul’s language here takes on a hymnic quality, though it is not in poetic form. Many scholars have thought that Paul did not write these verses himself but was quoting a well-known piece of liturgy. All one can say for certain is that his language changes in style, and he expressed here ideas that are unique in his writings.<\/p>\nThe hymn blends in with its context beautifully, and in fact forms the core of the whole letter. For we see here how the experience of imprisonment and deliverance, and of suffering and joy, is an entering into the experience of Jesus himself, who died and rose, was humbled and glorified.<\/p>\n<h5>Two Worthy Examples and Friends (2:19-30)<\/h5>\nPaul again writes about his own situation and plans, but as before, this section is not just concerned with practical arrangements. On the face of it, he was simply explaining why he was sending the letter by the hand of Epaphroditus instead of Timothy. But actually he was holding them up as practical examples of the life lived by the gospel, about which he had just written. Timothy “genuinely cares about your welfare” (2:20), because, unlike everyone else, he did not seek his own interests but those of Jesus Christ (v 21). He lived the gospel! He was committed to the work of the gospel (v 22). And Epaphroditus was the same, though in a different way. His union with Jesus was expressed not so much in his self-giving service for the gospel and his fellow saints, as in the illness that he suffered and the pains of separation that he endured. Like Jesus, he put his life on the line (v 30), and like Jesus, he was restored to life again (v 27). Now he was to be restored to his beloved Philippians, and the joy that they would experience together would be a further outworking of the gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>Pressing Forward and Standing Firm (3:1–4:1)<\/h5>\nThis section also begins and ends on the note of joy (3:1; 4:1)—not accidentally. The way of the cross that Paul describes is also the way of joy (cf. Heb 12:2). It begins and ends also with the address “dear brothers and sisters,” and this, too, is not accidental, for once again in this passage Paul writes about himself, and once again the underlying thought is that his experience is typical and that his readers should expect and seek to see the same pattern in their lives. He wrote, “Dear brothers and sisters, pattern your lives after mine, and learn from those who follow our example” (3:17, nlt<\/span>). Having put forward Timothy and Epaphroditus as examples in 2:19-30, Paul now does the same with himself.<\/p>\nThe tone seems to change dramatically in 3:2, as Paul turns to warn the Philippians against “those dogs,” who are probably the same as those to whom he refers in 1:28 as “your enemies.” There, he was much concerned about the inner foundation of the Philippians’ stand against them, so he did not specify who they were. But now he examines them more closely, in order to show the Philippians that the Christian life entails a complete reversal of the values held by their opponents.<\/p>\nIt seems that they were Jews, the sort in Acts 17:5 who opposed Paul’s ministry in nearby Thessalonica. They believed that they were God’s chosen race, but Paul thought that was nothing more than placing confidence in the flesh (Phil 3:4). They thought they knew the way of righteousness—it is the way of rigorous and disciplined obedience to God’s law in every detail of life. But Paul thought that was to seek a righteousness of one’s own (v 9), having nothing to do with the righteousness that God wants to give. The true way to be God’s people, he movingly insists, is the way of self-renunciation, so that all he previously held dear as a Jew came to be seen as rubbish (v 8), considered as loss for the sake of Christ (v 7). The only way to attain righteousness is through faith in Christ (v 9), for Christians must become like him in his death if they are to know the power of his resurrection (v 10). For Paul, dying with Christ meant not just suffering imprisonment and many other indignities for Christ’s sake but also renouncing all the prized possessions that his Judaism had given him.<\/p>\n<h5>Thinking, Rejoicing, Sharing (4:2-23)<\/h5>\nAgain, the tone changes suddenly (both at 4:2 and at 4:10)—so much so that some scholars have suggested that Philippians was compiled by an editor using several different letters. But when Paul turns (in v 2) to address Euodia and Syntyche, he was not really changing the subject. The link with the last section is the same as that between 1:27-30 and the first paragraph in chapter 2: how can Christians expect to be able to hold their own in the face of some enemies of the cross of Christ (3:18) if they are disunited and at odds with each other? For if there is just one gospel, disharmony between Christians means that the gospel is not having its full effect. So Euodia and Syntyche are urged (literally) to “think the same thing in the Lord” (4:2), and are then reminded of how they once found a wonderful unity in striving side by side in the cause of the gospel (v 3).<\/p>\nThe agreement that Paul urges them to come to does not mean complete identity of opinions on all subjects. It means a oneness of heart in a common love for Christ and the gospel. In the rest of the letter Paul spells out what this oneness means in practice—both what it should mean and what it has meant for the Philippians. The use of the mind is vital, and in verses 4-9 Paul paints a picture of the Christian life in which careful and intelligent prayer (vv 6-7) and the deliberate directing of the mind toward “whatever is true and honorable” (v 8) will produce a life marked by the two qualities of peace and joy, whatever the circumstances.<\/p>\nThat leads to the final paragraph, in which Paul gives thanks that, in spite of the disharmony evident in one part of the Philippian church, the church as a whole has already displayed this true Christian “mind.” For they have shown their oneness with Paul in the cause of the gospel by sending him a gift by Epaphroditus. “You have done well to share with me in my present difficulty,” Paul writes (4:14), and our thoughts go back again to the hymn in 2:6-11. From the gospel about the one who came from heaven to bear our burdens comes this mutual sharing—and so does Paul’s wonderful attitude to his circumstances: “I know how to be humbled [the same word as in 2:8], and I know how to abound” (4:12). Joined to Christ, we do not anxiously seek provision for our needs (v 17; cf. v 6), but share with him and with others whatever humiliation and exaltation he sends, confident that God will meet all our needs “from his glorious riches, which have been given to us in Christ Jesus” (4:19, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Philippi.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the<\/span><\/h3>\nOne of Paul’s Prison Epistles.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date and Origin<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Theological Themes<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nPhilippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary.<\/p>\nDate and Origin<\/p>\nWhile it is clear that Paul was writing from prison (Phil 1:12-13), it is not clear where he was imprisoned. The most likely possibility is Rome, in which case the date would be around AD<\/span> 62. But some have thought that all the journeys implied in 4:14 and 2:25-26 make such a distant place unlikely (the Philippians hear that Paul is in prison and send a gift by Epaphroditus; Epaphroditus hears in Rome that the Philippians have heard that he has been ill). So the alternatives of Ephesus (c. AD<\/span> 55) and Caesarea (c. AD<\/span> 58) have been proposed. We know that Paul was imprisoned in Caesarea (Acts 23:33-35), but the greeting “from those of Caesar’s household” is difficult to explain if it was written there, in spite of the coincidence of name. Ephesus is certainly near enough to Philippi for plenty of interchange, but no imprisonment is recorded in the account of Paul’s ministry there in Acts. So we would have to assume that Luke’s account in Acts 19 is not complete and that Paul had been placed in protective custody at the time of the riot (see esp. 19:30-31). But such an imprisonment could hardly have led Paul to wonder whether his time “to depart and be with Christ” had now come (Phil 1:23). At the time of writing, he was clearly facing a capital charge.<\/p>\nThe traditional location (Rome) seems the most satisfactory, especially when one reflects that Paul was imprisoned there for at least two years (Acts 28:30), and that it took about three weeks to travel from Rome to Philippi.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nPhilippi had the distinction of being a Roman colony (Acts 16:12), a privilege accorded to only a few cities outside Italy. Some 90 years before the gospel arrived there (c. AD<\/span> 50), the city had been greatly expanded by large numbers of Roman soldiers, who were settled there by their commanding officers. As a consequence, the town acquired its coveted status as a colony, which meant that for all intents and purposes its citizens were treated as if they lived in Italy, and the town had a fully Roman administration. Paul alludes to this status in Philippians 3:20, where he teaches that Christians likewise are citizens of another city, the heavenly one, while yet residents elsewhere. It was a rich and busy place, one of the main centers of life in Macedonia, and consequently was “home” to the adherents of many different religions, from both east and west. There was a strong Jewish community there, as well as pagans of many sorts.<\/p>\nTheological Themes<\/p>\nIn a sense Paul’s imprisonment is not just background material but lies at the heart of the letter’s message. In his imprisonment he was experiencing the abasement that he mentions in 4:12, using there the same word found in 2:8 to describe the self-humbling of Christ unto death. The pattern of the ministry of Jesus described in the great “hymn” of 2:6-11—humiliation followed by glorification—becomes the pattern of Paul’s own life and of the vision he holds out before the Philippians. So alongside abasement and suffering, joy is the other great theme of the letter. Within suffering and self-sacrifice, true joy is born. In fact, Philippians could justly be titled “The Epistle of Joy.” Other prominent themes include the gospel, the Day of the Lord, and in addition to the famous “hymn” in chapter 2, a comparison of Paul’s Jewish past with his present Christian experience (3:4-16).<\/p>\n\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting and Opening Prayer (1:1-11)<\/h5>\nIn the opening paragraph of his letter, Paul presents the themes that will be uppermost in his mind throughout. His personal warmth toward the Philippians is immediately striking: “I have you in my heart. . . . I long for all of you” (1:7-8), and this thought of outgoing and suffering love undergirds the whole letter. It is notable, too, that the letter begins and ends with the themes of “grace” and of “the saints” (1:1-2; 4:21-23). The grace of Christ, which reaches out to sinful people and transforms them, separating them from the world, occupies Paul throughout. “The saints” are the ones who, touched by that grace, are transformed in heart and mind, so that their love abounds more and more in knowledge and depth of insight (1:9).<\/p>\nTwo more great themes appear here. The Greek word phroneo<\/span>,<\/em> “to think,” is used more in Philippians than in any other letter of Paul, no fewer than nine times (as against seven in Romans). Unfortunately, it is not uniformly translated in the English versions, and so it is hard for the English reader to notice its repeated appearance and the emphasis on the right use of the mind that goes with it. But for Paul this is vital: the way we think is at the heart of the Christian life, and in these opening verses he makes it clear that the love he feels for the Philippians is actually the Christian way of thinking about them (v 7: literally, “It is right for me to think this way about you”). This leads naturally to another emphasis—growth. For the “Christian mind” does not appear overnight. So Paul prays that this mind may grow, giving the Philippians powers of discernment that will transform their character and prepare them for “the day of Christ” (vv 10-11; cf. v 6).<\/p>\nFinally, we note in this opening prayer the twin emphases on the gospel and on fellowship—linked in Paul’s prayer of thanksgiving for the Philippians’ partnership in the gospel (v 5; cf. v 7)—and also the introduction of the great theme of joy (v 4). All three are vital to the whole letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul and His Imprisonment: Christ Exalted (1:12-26)<\/h5>\nPaul writes about his own situation to present the heart of his message. For when he writes, “For me to live is Christ” (v 21), he means more than that his every waking moment is taken up by fellowship with his Lord and service for him. He means also that, in his own person and experience, he displays Christ and “lives” him. Later he will say, “Keep putting into practice all you learned from me and heard from me and saw me doing” (4:9, nlt<\/span>). Few Christian ministers would dare make such a claim today! Yet Paul believed that, as an apostle of Christ, it was his privilege not just to speak on Christ’s behalf but also to live out Christ’s life in his own person, even if that meant suffering and humiliation.<\/p>\nThere are two historical difficulties here. First, it is hard to reconstruct the situation to which Paul refers in 1:12-18. The church in Rome (if that is where he is) was clearly divided about his imprisonment—some believers actually being glad that he was behind bars. It seems as though they were prompted by his imprisonment to get on with preaching their own version of the gospel. Far from being upset by this, Paul is delighted! “What does it matter?” he asks (v 18). Whether by friend or foe, Christ is being proclaimed in a new way as a result of his imprisonment (v 14). He was normally quick to defend the purity of the Word proclaimed, so these rivals of Paul could not have been heretics.<\/p>\nThe other historical difficulty surrounds verses 19-26. At one moment Paul seems not to know what the outcome of imprisonment will be (vv 19-21). Yet he then suggests that he can choose whether to live or die (v 22), and finally tells the Philippians that he is sure he will remain alive (v 25). The best explanation is that Paul believed he had received a personal assurance from the Holy Spirit that his imprisonment would not end with his execution.<\/p>\nAt any rate, his attitude about his own death is most moving. He expected deliverance, whether by life or by death (vv 19-20), and had an unshakeable confidence that to die is “better by far” (v 23), because it means being “with Christ.” This section ends with a note of joy.<\/p>\n<h5>The Life Worthy of the Gospel (1:27–2:18)<\/h5>\nThis section ends with “joy,” just as the last did, and its whole message is summed up in the opening exhortation of verse 27. Paul wanted the Philippians to be people in whom there is no gap between profession and practice, in whom the gospel believed is the gospel lived. The section falls into four portions, which might be entitled as follows: (1) 1:27-30—the worthy life in a hostile world; (2) 2:1-4—the worthy life in Christian fellowship; (3) 2:5-11—the gospel that inspires us; (4) 2:12-18—priorities for lives worthy of the gospel.<\/p>\nPaul refused to let the Philippians feel that he was worse off than they. He wrote, “We are in this fight together. You have seen me suffer for him in the past, and you know that I am still in the midst of this great struggle” (1:30, nlt<\/span>). For suffering at the hands of a hostile world is part and parcel of Christian discipleship. If we profess to believe a gospel about one who, though equal with God, left aside the glory of heaven and submitted not just to incarnation but also to a horrible death (2:6-8), then we must think of suffering not as an unfortunate necessity but as a privilege! “For you have been given not only the privilege of trusting in Christ but also the privilege of suffering for him” (1:29, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe essential quality the believers need, in order to face successfully the hostility of the world, is unity. They must be “standing side by side, fighting together for the Good News” (1:27), and believing one gospel will produce a united front against the world—and not a purely defensive front, either. The theme of unity continues into chapter 2, where Paul turns to life within the fellowship (2:1-4), as if to say that external unity before the world will not be possible unless their hearts and minds are truly united in one love, spirit, and purpose (v 2), whatever their outward situation. Such a unity will come only if there is tenderness and compassion among them (v 1). The lovely progression in verse 1 reaches a climax with this phrase, and that in turn leads into the famous “hymn” in 2:6-11. Such tenderness will not find its home in their hearts unless they believe the gospel about which the hymn sings.<\/p>\nWhether 2:6-11 was in fact a real hymn, sung in the context of early Christian worship, is now impossible to know for sure. Certainly Paul’s language here takes on a hymnic quality, though it is not in poetic form. Many scholars have thought that Paul did not write these verses himself but was quoting a well-known piece of liturgy. All one can say for certain is that his language changes in style, and he expressed here ideas that are unique in his writings.<\/p>\nThe hymn blends in with its context beautifully, and in fact forms the core of the whole letter. For we see here how the experience of imprisonment and deliverance, and of suffering and joy, is an entering into the experience of Jesus himself, who died and rose, was humbled and glorified.<\/p>\n<h5>Two Worthy Examples and Friends (2:19-30)<\/h5>\nPaul again writes about his own situation and plans, but as before, this section is not just concerned with practical arrangements. On the face of it, he was simply explaining why he was sending the letter by the hand of Epaphroditus instead of Timothy. But actually he was holding them up as practical examples of the life lived by the gospel, about which he had just written. Timothy “genuinely cares about your welfare” (2:20), because, unlike everyone else, he did not seek his own interests but those of Jesus Christ (v 21). He lived the gospel! He was committed to the work of the gospel (v 22). And Epaphroditus was the same, though in a different way. His union with Jesus was expressed not so much in his self-giving service for the gospel and his fellow saints, as in the illness that he suffered and the pains of separation that he endured. Like Jesus, he put his life on the line (v 30), and like Jesus, he was restored to life again (v 27). Now he was to be restored to his beloved Philippians, and the joy that they would experience together would be a further outworking of the gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>Pressing Forward and Standing Firm (3:1–4:1)<\/h5>\nThis section also begins and ends on the note of joy (3:1; 4:1)—not accidentally. The way of the cross that Paul describes is also the way of joy (cf. Heb 12:2). It begins and ends also with the address “dear brothers and sisters,” and this, too, is not accidental, for once again in this passage Paul writes about himself, and once again the underlying thought is that his experience is typical and that his readers should expect and seek to see the same pattern in their lives. He wrote, “Dear brothers and sisters, pattern your lives after mine, and learn from those who follow our example” (3:17, nlt<\/span>). Having put forward Timothy and Epaphroditus as examples in 2:19-30, Paul now does the same with himself.<\/p>\nThe tone seems to change dramatically in 3:2, as Paul turns to warn the Philippians against “those dogs,” who are probably the same as those to whom he refers in 1:28 as “your enemies.” There, he was much concerned about the inner foundation of the Philippians’ stand against them, so he did not specify who they were. But now he examines them more closely, in order to show the Philippians that the Christian life entails a complete reversal of the values held by their opponents.<\/p>\nIt seems that they were Jews, the sort in Acts 17:5 who opposed Paul’s ministry in nearby Thessalonica. They believed that they were God’s chosen race, but Paul thought that was nothing more than placing confidence in the flesh (Phil 3:4). They thought they knew the way of righteousness—it is the way of rigorous and disciplined obedience to God’s law in every detail of life. But Paul thought that was to seek a righteousness of one’s own (v 9), having nothing to do with the righteousness that God wants to give. The true way to be God’s people, he movingly insists, is the way of self-renunciation, so that all he previously held dear as a Jew came to be seen as rubbish (v 8), considered as loss for the sake of Christ (v 7). The only way to attain righteousness is through faith in Christ (v 9), for Christians must become like him in his death if they are to know the power of his resurrection (v 10). For Paul, dying with Christ meant not just suffering imprisonment and many other indignities for Christ’s sake but also renouncing all the prized possessions that his Judaism had given him.<\/p>\n<h5>Thinking, Rejoicing, Sharing (4:2-23)<\/h5>\nAgain, the tone changes suddenly (both at 4:2 and at 4:10)—so much so that some scholars have suggested that Philippians was compiled by an editor using several different letters. But when Paul turns (in v 2) to address Euodia and Syntyche, he was not really changing the subject. The link with the last section is the same as that between 1:27-30 and the first paragraph in chapter 2: how can Christians expect to be able to hold their own in the face of some enemies of the cross of Christ (3:18) if they are disunited and at odds with each other? For if there is just one gospel, disharmony between Christians means that the gospel is not having its full effect. So Euodia and Syntyche are urged (literally) to “think the same thing in the Lord” (4:2), and are then reminded of how they once found a wonderful unity in striving side by side in the cause of the gospel (v 3).<\/p>\nThe agreement that Paul urges them to come to does not mean complete identity of opinions on all subjects. It means a oneness of heart in a common love for Christ and the gospel. In the rest of the letter Paul spells out what this oneness means in practice—both what it should mean and what it has meant for the Philippians. The use of the mind is vital, and in verses 4-9 Paul paints a picture of the Christian life in which careful and intelligent prayer (vv 6-7) and the deliberate directing of the mind toward “whatever is true and honorable” (v 8) will produce a life marked by the two qualities of peace and joy, whatever the circumstances.<\/p>\nThat leads to the final paragraph, in which Paul gives thanks that, in spite of the disharmony evident in one part of the Philippian church, the church as a whole has already displayed this true Christian “mind.” For they have shown their oneness with Paul in the cause of the gospel by sending him a gift by Epaphroditus. “You have done well to share with me in my present difficulty,” Paul writes (4:14), and our thoughts go back again to the hymn in 2:6-11. From the gospel about the one who came from heaven to bear our burdens comes this mutual sharing—and so does Paul’s wonderful attitude to his circumstances: “I know how to be humbled [the same word as in 2:8], and I know how to abound” (4:12). Joined to Christ, we do not anxiously seek provision for our needs (v 17; cf. v 6), but share with him and with others whatever humiliation and exaltation he sends, confident that God will meet all our needs “from his glorious riches, which have been given to us in Christ Jesus” (4:19, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Philippi.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the One of Paul’s Prison Epistles. Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Theological Themes • Content Author Philippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary. Date and Origin While it is clear ...","summary_en":"PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the One of Paul’s Prison Epistles. Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Theological Themes • Content Author Philippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary. Date and Origin While it is clear ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":58264,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:7","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:7","content_ro":"3:7-8<\/strong> As a Christian, Paul now regarded these things<\/em> (3:5-6) as worthless because of what Christ has done:<\/em> A believer’s relationship with God is defined by knowing Christ<\/em> (cp. 3:10; John 17:3) and nothing else. The only important thing is to gain Christ<\/em>,<\/em> thus receiving the gift of eternal salvation (cp. John 3:16; 1 Jn 5:11-13). By comparison, all other things are meaningless garbage<\/em> (or excrement<\/em>).<\/p>","content_en":"3:7-8<\/strong> As a Christian, Paul now regarded these things<\/em> (3:5-6) as worthless because of what Christ has done:<\/em> A believer’s relationship with God is defined by knowing Christ<\/em> (cp. 3:10; John 17:3) and nothing else. The only important thing is to gain Christ<\/em>,<\/em> thus receiving the gift of eternal salvation (cp. John 3:16; 1 Jn 5:11-13). By comparison, all other things are meaningless garbage<\/em> (or excrement<\/em>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:7-8 As a Christian, Paul now regarded these things (3:5-6) as worthless because of what Christ has done: A believer’s relationship with God is defined by knowing Christ (cp. 3:10; John 17:3) and nothing else. The only important thing is to gain Christ, thus receiving the gift of eternal salvation (cp. John 3:16; 1 Jn 5:11-13). By comparison, all other things are meaningless garbage (or excrement).","summary_en":"3:7-8 As a Christian, Paul now regarded these things (3:5-6) as worthless because of what Christ has done: A believer’s relationship with God is defined by knowing Christ (cp. 3:10; John 17:3) and nothing else. The only important thing is to gain Christ, thus receiving the gift of eternal salvation (cp. John 3:16; 1 Jn 5:11-13). By comparison, all other things are meaningless garbage (or excrement).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85890,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:7","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:7","content_ro":"3:7-8<\/strong> As a Christian, Paul now regarded these things<\/em> (3:5-6) as worthless because of what Christ has done:<\/em> A believer’s relationship with God is defined by knowing Christ<\/em> (cp. 3:10; John 17:3) and nothing else. The only important thing is to gain Christ<\/em>,<\/em> thus receiving the gift of eternal salvation (cp. John 3:16; 1 Jn 5:11-13). By comparison, all other things are meaningless garbage<\/em> (or excrement<\/em>).<\/p>","content_en":"3:7-8<\/strong> As a Christian, Paul now regarded these things<\/em> (3:5-6) as worthless because of what Christ has done:<\/em> A believer’s relationship with God is defined by knowing Christ<\/em> (cp. 3:10; John 17:3) and nothing else. The only important thing is to gain Christ<\/em>,<\/em> thus receiving the gift of eternal salvation (cp. John 3:16; 1 Jn 5:11-13). By comparison, all other things are meaningless garbage<\/em> (or excrement<\/em>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:7-8 As a Christian, Paul now regarded these things (3:5-6) as worthless because of what Christ has done: A believer’s relationship with God is defined by knowing Christ (cp. 3:10; John 17:3) and nothing else. The only important thing is to gain Christ, thus receiving the gift of eternal salvation (cp. John 3:16; 1 Jn 5:11-13). By comparison, all other things are meaningless garbage (or excrement).","summary_en":"3:7-8 As a Christian, Paul now regarded these things (3:5-6) as worthless because of what Christ has done: A believer’s relationship with God is defined by knowing Christ (cp. 3:10; John 17:3) and nothing else. The only important thing is to gain Christ, thus receiving the gift of eternal salvation (cp. John 3:16; 1 Jn 5:11-13). By comparison, all other things are meaningless garbage (or excrement).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113516,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:7","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:7","content_ro":"3:7-8<\/strong> As a Christian, Paul now regarded these things<\/em> (3:5-6) as worthless because of what Christ has done:<\/em> A believer’s relationship with God is defined by knowing Christ<\/em> (cp. 3:10; John 17:3) and nothing else. The only important thing is to gain Christ<\/em>,<\/em> thus receiving the gift of eternal salvation (cp. John 3:16; 1 Jn 5:11-13). By comparison, all other things are meaningless garbage<\/em> (or excrement<\/em>).<\/p>","content_en":"3:7-8<\/strong> As a Christian, Paul now regarded these things<\/em> (3:5-6) as worthless because of what Christ has done:<\/em> A believer’s relationship with God is defined by knowing Christ<\/em> (cp. 3:10; John 17:3) and nothing else. The only important thing is to gain Christ<\/em>,<\/em> thus receiving the gift of eternal salvation (cp. John 3:16; 1 Jn 5:11-13). By comparison, all other things are meaningless garbage<\/em> (or excrement<\/em>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:7-8 As a Christian, Paul now regarded these things (3:5-6) as worthless because of what Christ has done: A believer’s relationship with God is defined by knowing Christ (cp. 3:10; John 17:3) and nothing else. The only important thing is to gain Christ, thus receiving the gift of eternal salvation (cp. John 3:16; 1 Jn 5:11-13). By comparison, all other things are meaningless garbage (or excrement).","summary_en":"3:7-8 As a Christian, Paul now regarded these things (3:5-6) as worthless because of what Christ has done: A believer’s relationship with God is defined by knowing Christ (cp. 3:10; John 17:3) and nothing else. The only important thing is to gain Christ, thus receiving the gift of eternal salvation (cp. John 3:16; 1 Jn 5:11-13). By comparison, all other things are meaningless garbage (or excrement).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141142,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:7","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:7","content_ro":"3:7-8<\/strong> As a Christian, Paul now regarded these things<\/em> (3:5-6) as worthless because of what Christ has done:<\/em> A believer’s relationship with God is defined by knowing Christ<\/em> (cp. 3:10; John 17:3) and nothing else. The only important thing is to gain Christ<\/em>,<\/em> thus receiving the gift of eternal salvation (cp. John 3:16; 1 Jn 5:11-13). By comparison, all other things are meaningless garbage<\/em> (or excrement<\/em>).<\/p>","content_en":"3:7-8<\/strong> As a Christian, Paul now regarded these things<\/em> (3:5-6) as worthless because of what Christ has done:<\/em> A believer’s relationship with God is defined by knowing Christ<\/em> (cp. 3:10; John 17:3) and nothing else. The only important thing is to gain Christ<\/em>,<\/em> thus receiving the gift of eternal salvation (cp. John 3:16; 1 Jn 5:11-13). By comparison, all other things are meaningless garbage<\/em> (or excrement<\/em>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:7-8 As a Christian, Paul now regarded these things (3:5-6) as worthless because of what Christ has done: A believer’s relationship with God is defined by knowing Christ (cp. 3:10; John 17:3) and nothing else. The only important thing is to gain Christ, thus receiving the gift of eternal salvation (cp. John 3:16; 1 Jn 5:11-13). By comparison, all other things are meaningless garbage (or excrement).","summary_en":"3:7-8 As a Christian, Paul now regarded these things (3:5-6) as worthless because of what Christ has done: A believer’s relationship with God is defined by knowing Christ (cp. 3:10; John 17:3) and nothing else. The only important thing is to gain Christ, thus receiving the gift of eternal salvation (cp. John 3:16; 1 Jn 5:11-13). By comparison, all other things are meaningless garbage (or excrement).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67387,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Living for Christ","title_en":"Living for Christ","content_ro":"<h3>Living for Christ<\/h3>\nFrom prison Paul writes, “To me, living means living for Christ” (1:21). Why are believers called to devote their lives to Christ?<\/p>\n1. Believers acknowledge that they owe everything to Christ,<\/em> including their salvation. Devoting their life to his service expresses their eternal indebtedness and gratitude (see Rom 12:1).<\/p>\n2. Believers acknowledge Christ as their master and Lord<\/em> and submit to Christ’s rule in their lives. They recognize that they belong to the Lord and no longer live simply for themselves (see Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:14-15).<\/p>\n3. Believers now share in Christ’s death and resurrection<\/em>—they have died to themselves and have risen with him (see Rom 6:3-14; cp. Gal 2:19-20). They have a new identity in Christ (Rom 8:14-17; Eph 1:11, 14; Phil 3:20).<\/p>\n4. Believers recognize that everything of value is found in Christ.<\/em> Things of the world that once seemed important have lost their attraction; nothing compares to the infinite value of knowing Christ (Phil 3:7-11; Eph 1:3–3:21; Col 1:15–3:4).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 6:3-14; 8:14-17; 12:1; 14:7-9; 1 Cor 6:19; 2 Cor 5:14-15; Gal 2:19-20; Eph 1:11, 14; Phil 1:21; 3:7-11, 20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Living for Christ<\/h3>\nFrom prison Paul writes, “To me, living means living for Christ” (1:21). Why are believers called to devote their lives to Christ?<\/p>\n1. Believers acknowledge that they owe everything to Christ,<\/em> including their salvation. Devoting their life to his service expresses their eternal indebtedness and gratitude (see Rom 12:1).<\/p>\n2. Believers acknowledge Christ as their master and Lord<\/em> and submit to Christ’s rule in their lives. They recognize that they belong to the Lord and no longer live simply for themselves (see Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:14-15).<\/p>\n3. Believers now share in Christ’s death and resurrection<\/em>—they have died to themselves and have risen with him (see Rom 6:3-14; cp. Gal 2:19-20). They have a new identity in Christ (Rom 8:14-17; Eph 1:11, 14; Phil 3:20).<\/p>\n4. Believers recognize that everything of value is found in Christ.<\/em> Things of the world that once seemed important have lost their attraction; nothing compares to the infinite value of knowing Christ (Phil 3:7-11; Eph 1:3–3:21; Col 1:15–3:4).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 6:3-14; 8:14-17; 12:1; 14:7-9; 1 Cor 6:19; 2 Cor 5:14-15; Gal 2:19-20; Eph 1:11, 14; Phil 1:21; 3:7-11, 20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Living for Christ From prison Paul writes, “To me, living means living for Christ” (1:21). Why are believers called to devote their lives to Christ? 1. Believers acknowledge that they owe everything to Christ, including their salvation. Devoting their life to his service expresses their eternal indebtedness and gratitude (see Rom 12:1). 2. Believers acknowledge Christ as their master and Lord and submit to Christ’s rule in their lives. They recognize that they belong to the Lord and no longer...","summary_en":"Living for Christ From prison Paul writes, “To me, living means living for Christ” (1:21). Why are believers called to devote their lives to Christ? 1. Believers acknowledge that they owe everything to Christ, including their salvation. Devoting their life to his service expresses their eternal indebtedness and gratitude (see Rom 12:1). 2. Believers acknowledge Christ as their master and Lord and submit to Christ’s rule in their lives. They recognize that they belong to the Lord and no longer...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95013,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Living for Christ","title_en":"Living for Christ","content_ro":"<h3>Living for Christ<\/h3>\nFrom prison Paul writes, “To me, living means living for Christ” (1:21). Why are believers called to devote their lives to Christ?<\/p>\n1. Believers acknowledge that they owe everything to Christ,<\/em> including their salvation. Devoting their life to his service expresses their eternal indebtedness and gratitude (see Rom 12:1).<\/p>\n2. Believers acknowledge Christ as their master and Lord<\/em> and submit to Christ’s rule in their lives. They recognize that they belong to the Lord and no longer live simply for themselves (see Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:14-15).<\/p>\n3. Believers now share in Christ’s death and resurrection<\/em>—they have died to themselves and have risen with him (see Rom 6:3-14; cp. Gal 2:19-20). They have a new identity in Christ (Rom 8:14-17; Eph 1:11, 14; Phil 3:20).<\/p>\n4. Believers recognize that everything of value is found in Christ.<\/em> Things of the world that once seemed important have lost their attraction; nothing compares to the infinite value of knowing Christ (Phil 3:7-11; Eph 1:3–3:21; Col 1:15–3:4).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 6:3-14; 8:14-17; 12:1; 14:7-9; 1 Cor 6:19; 2 Cor 5:14-15; Gal 2:19-20; Eph 1:11, 14; Phil 1:21; 3:7-11, 20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Living for Christ<\/h3>\nFrom prison Paul writes, “To me, living means living for Christ” (1:21). Why are believers called to devote their lives to Christ?<\/p>\n1. Believers acknowledge that they owe everything to Christ,<\/em> including their salvation. Devoting their life to his service expresses their eternal indebtedness and gratitude (see Rom 12:1).<\/p>\n2. Believers acknowledge Christ as their master and Lord<\/em> and submit to Christ’s rule in their lives. They recognize that they belong to the Lord and no longer live simply for themselves (see Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:14-15).<\/p>\n3. Believers now share in Christ’s death and resurrection<\/em>—they have died to themselves and have risen with him (see Rom 6:3-14; cp. Gal 2:19-20). They have a new identity in Christ (Rom 8:14-17; Eph 1:11, 14; Phil 3:20).<\/p>\n4. Believers recognize that everything of value is found in Christ.<\/em> Things of the world that once seemed important have lost their attraction; nothing compares to the infinite value of knowing Christ (Phil 3:7-11; Eph 1:3–3:21; Col 1:15–3:4).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 6:3-14; 8:14-17; 12:1; 14:7-9; 1 Cor 6:19; 2 Cor 5:14-15; Gal 2:19-20; Eph 1:11, 14; Phil 1:21; 3:7-11, 20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Living for Christ From prison Paul writes, “To me, living means living for Christ” (1:21). Why are believers called to devote their lives to Christ? 1. Believers acknowledge that they owe everything to Christ, including their salvation. Devoting their life to his service expresses their eternal indebtedness and gratitude (see Rom 12:1). 2. Believers acknowledge Christ as their master and Lord and submit to Christ’s rule in their lives. They recognize that they belong to the Lord and no longer...","summary_en":"Living for Christ From prison Paul writes, “To me, living means living for Christ” (1:21). Why are believers called to devote their lives to Christ? 1. Believers acknowledge that they owe everything to Christ, including their salvation. Devoting their life to his service expresses their eternal indebtedness and gratitude (see Rom 12:1). 2. Believers acknowledge Christ as their master and Lord and submit to Christ’s rule in their lives. They recognize that they belong to the Lord and no longer...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":122639,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Living for Christ","title_en":"Living for Christ","content_ro":"<h3>Living for Christ<\/h3>\nFrom prison Paul writes, “To me, living means living for Christ” (1:21). Why are believers called to devote their lives to Christ?<\/p>\n1. Believers acknowledge that they owe everything to Christ,<\/em> including their salvation. Devoting their life to his service expresses their eternal indebtedness and gratitude (see Rom 12:1).<\/p>\n2. Believers acknowledge Christ as their master and Lord<\/em> and submit to Christ’s rule in their lives. They recognize that they belong to the Lord and no longer live simply for themselves (see Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:14-15).<\/p>\n3. Believers now share in Christ’s death and resurrection<\/em>—they have died to themselves and have risen with him (see Rom 6:3-14; cp. Gal 2:19-20). They have a new identity in Christ (Rom 8:14-17; Eph 1:11, 14; Phil 3:20).<\/p>\n4. Believers recognize that everything of value is found in Christ.<\/em> Things of the world that once seemed important have lost their attraction; nothing compares to the infinite value of knowing Christ (Phil 3:7-11; Eph 1:3–3:21; Col 1:15–3:4).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 6:3-14; 8:14-17; 12:1; 14:7-9; 1 Cor 6:19; 2 Cor 5:14-15; Gal 2:19-20; Eph 1:11, 14; Phil 1:21; 3:7-11, 20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Living for Christ<\/h3>\nFrom prison Paul writes, “To me, living means living for Christ” (1:21). Why are believers called to devote their lives to Christ?<\/p>\n1. Believers acknowledge that they owe everything to Christ,<\/em> including their salvation. Devoting their life to his service expresses their eternal indebtedness and gratitude (see Rom 12:1).<\/p>\n2. Believers acknowledge Christ as their master and Lord<\/em> and submit to Christ’s rule in their lives. They recognize that they belong to the Lord and no longer live simply for themselves (see Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:14-15).<\/p>\n3. Believers now share in Christ’s death and resurrection<\/em>—they have died to themselves and have risen with him (see Rom 6:3-14; cp. Gal 2:19-20). They have a new identity in Christ (Rom 8:14-17; Eph 1:11, 14; Phil 3:20).<\/p>\n4. Believers recognize that everything of value is found in Christ.<\/em> Things of the world that once seemed important have lost their attraction; nothing compares to the infinite value of knowing Christ (Phil 3:7-11; Eph 1:3–3:21; Col 1:15–3:4).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 6:3-14; 8:14-17; 12:1; 14:7-9; 1 Cor 6:19; 2 Cor 5:14-15; Gal 2:19-20; Eph 1:11, 14; Phil 1:21; 3:7-11, 20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Living for Christ From prison Paul writes, “To me, living means living for Christ” (1:21). Why are believers called to devote their lives to Christ? 1. Believers acknowledge that they owe everything to Christ, including their salvation. Devoting their life to his service expresses their eternal indebtedness and gratitude (see Rom 12:1). 2. Believers acknowledge Christ as their master and Lord and submit to Christ’s rule in their lives. They recognize that they belong to the Lord and no longer...","summary_en":"Living for Christ From prison Paul writes, “To me, living means living for Christ” (1:21). Why are believers called to devote their lives to Christ? 1. Believers acknowledge that they owe everything to Christ, including their salvation. Devoting their life to his service expresses their eternal indebtedness and gratitude (see Rom 12:1). 2. Believers acknowledge Christ as their master and Lord and submit to Christ’s rule in their lives. They recognize that they belong to the Lord and no longer...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":150265,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Living for Christ","title_en":"Living for Christ","content_ro":"<h3>Living for Christ<\/h3>\nFrom prison Paul writes, “To me, living means living for Christ” (1:21). Why are believers called to devote their lives to Christ?<\/p>\n1. Believers acknowledge that they owe everything to Christ,<\/em> including their salvation. Devoting their life to his service expresses their eternal indebtedness and gratitude (see Rom 12:1).<\/p>\n2. Believers acknowledge Christ as their master and Lord<\/em> and submit to Christ’s rule in their lives. They recognize that they belong to the Lord and no longer live simply for themselves (see Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:14-15).<\/p>\n3. Believers now share in Christ’s death and resurrection<\/em>—they have died to themselves and have risen with him (see Rom 6:3-14; cp. Gal 2:19-20). They have a new identity in Christ (Rom 8:14-17; Eph 1:11, 14; Phil 3:20).<\/p>\n4. Believers recognize that everything of value is found in Christ.<\/em> Things of the world that once seemed important have lost their attraction; nothing compares to the infinite value of knowing Christ (Phil 3:7-11; Eph 1:3–3:21; Col 1:15–3:4).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 6:3-14; 8:14-17; 12:1; 14:7-9; 1 Cor 6:19; 2 Cor 5:14-15; Gal 2:19-20; Eph 1:11, 14; Phil 1:21; 3:7-11, 20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Living for Christ<\/h3>\nFrom prison Paul writes, “To me, living means living for Christ” (1:21). Why are believers called to devote their lives to Christ?<\/p>\n1. Believers acknowledge that they owe everything to Christ,<\/em> including their salvation. Devoting their life to his service expresses their eternal indebtedness and gratitude (see Rom 12:1).<\/p>\n2. Believers acknowledge Christ as their master and Lord<\/em> and submit to Christ’s rule in their lives. They recognize that they belong to the Lord and no longer live simply for themselves (see Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:14-15).<\/p>\n3. Believers now share in Christ’s death and resurrection<\/em>—they have died to themselves and have risen with him (see Rom 6:3-14; cp. Gal 2:19-20). They have a new identity in Christ (Rom 8:14-17; Eph 1:11, 14; Phil 3:20).<\/p>\n4. Believers recognize that everything of value is found in Christ.<\/em> Things of the world that once seemed important have lost their attraction; nothing compares to the infinite value of knowing Christ (Phil 3:7-11; Eph 1:3–3:21; Col 1:15–3:4).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 6:3-14; 8:14-17; 12:1; 14:7-9; 1 Cor 6:19; 2 Cor 5:14-15; Gal 2:19-20; Eph 1:11, 14; Phil 1:21; 3:7-11, 20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Living for Christ From prison Paul writes, “To me, living means living for Christ” (1:21). Why are believers called to devote their lives to Christ? 1. Believers acknowledge that they owe everything to Christ, including their salvation. Devoting their life to his service expresses their eternal indebtedness and gratitude (see Rom 12:1). 2. Believers acknowledge Christ as their master and Lord and submit to Christ’s rule in their lives. They recognize that they belong to the Lord and no longer...","summary_en":"Living for Christ From prison Paul writes, “To me, living means living for Christ” (1:21). Why are believers called to devote their lives to Christ? 1. Believers acknowledge that they owe everything to Christ, including their salvation. Devoting their life to his service expresses their eternal indebtedness and gratitude (see Rom 12:1). 2. Believers acknowledge Christ as their master and Lord and submit to Christ’s rule in their lives. They recognize that they belong to the Lord and no longer...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":30250,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter to the Philippians","title_en":"Letter to the Philippians","content_ro":"<h3>PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the<\/span><\/h3>\nOne of Paul’s Prison Epistles.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date and Origin<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Theological Themes<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nPhilippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary.<\/p>\nDate and Origin<\/p>\nWhile it is clear that Paul was writing from prison (Phil 1:12-13), it is not clear where he was imprisoned. The most likely possibility is Rome, in which case the date would be around AD<\/span> 62. But some have thought that all the journeys implied in 4:14 and 2:25-26 make such a distant place unlikely (the Philippians hear that Paul is in prison and send a gift by Epaphroditus; Epaphroditus hears in Rome that the Philippians have heard that he has been ill). So the alternatives of Ephesus (c. AD<\/span> 55) and Caesarea (c. AD<\/span> 58) have been proposed. We know that Paul was imprisoned in Caesarea (Acts 23:33-35), but the greeting “from those of Caesar’s household” is difficult to explain if it was written there, in spite of the coincidence of name. Ephesus is certainly near enough to Philippi for plenty of interchange, but no imprisonment is recorded in the account of Paul’s ministry there in Acts. So we would have to assume that Luke’s account in Acts 19 is not complete and that Paul had been placed in protective custody at the time of the riot (see esp. 19:30-31). But such an imprisonment could hardly have led Paul to wonder whether his time “to depart and be with Christ” had now come (Phil 1:23). At the time of writing, he was clearly facing a capital charge.<\/p>\nThe traditional location (Rome) seems the most satisfactory, especially when one reflects that Paul was imprisoned there for at least two years (Acts 28:30), and that it took about three weeks to travel from Rome to Philippi.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nPhilippi had the distinction of being a Roman colony (Acts 16:12), a privilege accorded to only a few cities outside Italy. Some 90 years before the gospel arrived there (c. AD<\/span> 50), the city had been greatly expanded by large numbers of Roman soldiers, who were settled there by their commanding officers. As a consequence, the town acquired its coveted status as a colony, which meant that for all intents and purposes its citizens were treated as if they lived in Italy, and the town had a fully Roman administration. Paul alludes to this status in Philippians 3:20, where he teaches that Christians likewise are citizens of another city, the heavenly one, while yet residents elsewhere. It was a rich and busy place, one of the main centers of life in Macedonia, and consequently was “home” to the adherents of many different religions, from both east and west. There was a strong Jewish community there, as well as pagans of many sorts.<\/p>\nTheological Themes<\/p>\nIn a sense Paul’s imprisonment is not just background material but lies at the heart of the letter’s message. In his imprisonment he was experiencing the abasement that he mentions in 4:12, using there the same word found in 2:8 to describe the self-humbling of Christ unto death. The pattern of the ministry of Jesus described in the great “hymn” of 2:6-11—humiliation followed by glorification—becomes the pattern of Paul’s own life and of the vision he holds out before the Philippians. So alongside abasement and suffering, joy is the other great theme of the letter. Within suffering and self-sacrifice, true joy is born. In fact, Philippians could justly be titled “The Epistle of Joy.” Other prominent themes include the gospel, the Day of the Lord, and in addition to the famous “hymn” in chapter 2, a comparison of Paul’s Jewish past with his present Christian experience (3:4-16).<\/p>\n\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting and Opening Prayer (1:1-11)<\/h5>\nIn the opening paragraph of his letter, Paul presents the themes that will be uppermost in his mind throughout. His personal warmth toward the Philippians is immediately striking: “I have you in my heart. . . . I long for all of you” (1:7-8), and this thought of outgoing and suffering love undergirds the whole letter. It is notable, too, that the letter begins and ends with the themes of “grace” and of “the saints” (1:1-2; 4:21-23). The grace of Christ, which reaches out to sinful people and transforms them, separating them from the world, occupies Paul throughout. “The saints” are the ones who, touched by that grace, are transformed in heart and mind, so that their love abounds more and more in knowledge and depth of insight (1:9).<\/p>\nTwo more great themes appear here. The Greek word phroneo<\/span>,<\/em> “to think,” is used more in Philippians than in any other letter of Paul, no fewer than nine times (as against seven in Romans). Unfortunately, it is not uniformly translated in the English versions, and so it is hard for the English reader to notice its repeated appearance and the emphasis on the right use of the mind that goes with it. But for Paul this is vital: the way we think is at the heart of the Christian life, and in these opening verses he makes it clear that the love he feels for the Philippians is actually the Christian way of thinking about them (v 7: literally, “It is right for me to think this way about you”). This leads naturally to another emphasis—growth. For the “Christian mind” does not appear overnight. So Paul prays that this mind may grow, giving the Philippians powers of discernment that will transform their character and prepare them for “the day of Christ” (vv 10-11; cf. v 6).<\/p>\nFinally, we note in this opening prayer the twin emphases on the gospel and on fellowship—linked in Paul’s prayer of thanksgiving for the Philippians’ partnership in the gospel (v 5; cf. v 7)—and also the introduction of the great theme of joy (v 4). All three are vital to the whole letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul and His Imprisonment: Christ Exalted (1:12-26)<\/h5>\nPaul writes about his own situation to present the heart of his message. For when he writes, “For me to live is Christ” (v 21), he means more than that his every waking moment is taken up by fellowship with his Lord and service for him. He means also that, in his own person and experience, he displays Christ and “lives” him. Later he will say, “Keep putting into practice all you learned from me and heard from me and saw me doing” (4:9, nlt<\/span>). Few Christian ministers would dare make such a claim today! Yet Paul believed that, as an apostle of Christ, it was his privilege not just to speak on Christ’s behalf but also to live out Christ’s life in his own person, even if that meant suffering and humiliation.<\/p>\nThere are two historical difficulties here. First, it is hard to reconstruct the situation to which Paul refers in 1:12-18. The church in Rome (if that is where he is) was clearly divided about his imprisonment—some believers actually being glad that he was behind bars. It seems as though they were prompted by his imprisonment to get on with preaching their own version of the gospel. Far from being upset by this, Paul is delighted! “What does it matter?” he asks (v 18). Whether by friend or foe, Christ is being proclaimed in a new way as a result of his imprisonment (v 14). He was normally quick to defend the purity of the Word proclaimed, so these rivals of Paul could not have been heretics.<\/p>\nThe other historical difficulty surrounds verses 19-26. At one moment Paul seems not to know what the outcome of imprisonment will be (vv 19-21). Yet he then suggests that he can choose whether to live or die (v 22), and finally tells the Philippians that he is sure he will remain alive (v 25). The best explanation is that Paul believed he had received a personal assurance from the Holy Spirit that his imprisonment would not end with his execution.<\/p>\nAt any rate, his attitude about his own death is most moving. He expected deliverance, whether by life or by death (vv 19-20), and had an unshakeable confidence that to die is “better by far” (v 23), because it means being “with Christ.” This section ends with a note of joy.<\/p>\n<h5>The Life Worthy of the Gospel (1:27–2:18)<\/h5>\nThis section ends with “joy,” just as the last did, and its whole message is summed up in the opening exhortation of verse 27. Paul wanted the Philippians to be people in whom there is no gap between profession and practice, in whom the gospel believed is the gospel lived. The section falls into four portions, which might be entitled as follows: (1) 1:27-30—the worthy life in a hostile world; (2) 2:1-4—the worthy life in Christian fellowship; (3) 2:5-11—the gospel that inspires us; (4) 2:12-18—priorities for lives worthy of the gospel.<\/p>\nPaul refused to let the Philippians feel that he was worse off than they. He wrote, “We are in this fight together. You have seen me suffer for him in the past, and you know that I am still in the midst of this great struggle” (1:30, nlt<\/span>). For suffering at the hands of a hostile world is part and parcel of Christian discipleship. If we profess to believe a gospel about one who, though equal with God, left aside the glory of heaven and submitted not just to incarnation but also to a horrible death (2:6-8), then we must think of suffering not as an unfortunate necessity but as a privilege! “For you have been given not only the privilege of trusting in Christ but also the privilege of suffering for him” (1:29, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe essential quality the believers need, in order to face successfully the hostility of the world, is unity. They must be “standing side by side, fighting together for the Good News” (1:27), and believing one gospel will produce a united front against the world—and not a purely defensive front, either. The theme of unity continues into chapter 2, where Paul turns to life within the fellowship (2:1-4), as if to say that external unity before the world will not be possible unless their hearts and minds are truly united in one love, spirit, and purpose (v 2), whatever their outward situation. Such a unity will come only if there is tenderness and compassion among them (v 1). The lovely progression in verse 1 reaches a climax with this phrase, and that in turn leads into the famous “hymn” in 2:6-11. Such tenderness will not find its home in their hearts unless they believe the gospel about which the hymn sings.<\/p>\nWhether 2:6-11 was in fact a real hymn, sung in the context of early Christian worship, is now impossible to know for sure. Certainly Paul’s language here takes on a hymnic quality, though it is not in poetic form. Many scholars have thought that Paul did not write these verses himself but was quoting a well-known piece of liturgy. All one can say for certain is that his language changes in style, and he expressed here ideas that are unique in his writings.<\/p>\nThe hymn blends in with its context beautifully, and in fact forms the core of the whole letter. For we see here how the experience of imprisonment and deliverance, and of suffering and joy, is an entering into the experience of Jesus himself, who died and rose, was humbled and glorified.<\/p>\n<h5>Two Worthy Examples and Friends (2:19-30)<\/h5>\nPaul again writes about his own situation and plans, but as before, this section is not just concerned with practical arrangements. On the face of it, he was simply explaining why he was sending the letter by the hand of Epaphroditus instead of Timothy. But actually he was holding them up as practical examples of the life lived by the gospel, about which he had just written. Timothy “genuinely cares about your welfare” (2:20), because, unlike everyone else, he did not seek his own interests but those of Jesus Christ (v 21). He lived the gospel! He was committed to the work of the gospel (v 22). And Epaphroditus was the same, though in a different way. His union with Jesus was expressed not so much in his self-giving service for the gospel and his fellow saints, as in the illness that he suffered and the pains of separation that he endured. Like Jesus, he put his life on the line (v 30), and like Jesus, he was restored to life again (v 27). Now he was to be restored to his beloved Philippians, and the joy that they would experience together would be a further outworking of the gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>Pressing Forward and Standing Firm (3:1–4:1)<\/h5>\nThis section also begins and ends on the note of joy (3:1; 4:1)—not accidentally. The way of the cross that Paul describes is also the way of joy (cf. Heb 12:2). It begins and ends also with the address “dear brothers and sisters,” and this, too, is not accidental, for once again in this passage Paul writes about himself, and once again the underlying thought is that his experience is typical and that his readers should expect and seek to see the same pattern in their lives. He wrote, “Dear brothers and sisters, pattern your lives after mine, and learn from those who follow our example” (3:17, nlt<\/span>). Having put forward Timothy and Epaphroditus as examples in 2:19-30, Paul now does the same with himself.<\/p>\nThe tone seems to change dramatically in 3:2, as Paul turns to warn the Philippians against “those dogs,” who are probably the same as those to whom he refers in 1:28 as “your enemies.” There, he was much concerned about the inner foundation of the Philippians’ stand against them, so he did not specify who they were. But now he examines them more closely, in order to show the Philippians that the Christian life entails a complete reversal of the values held by their opponents.<\/p>\nIt seems that they were Jews, the sort in Acts 17:5 who opposed Paul’s ministry in nearby Thessalonica. They believed that they were God’s chosen race, but Paul thought that was nothing more than placing confidence in the flesh (Phil 3:4). They thought they knew the way of righteousness—it is the way of rigorous and disciplined obedience to God’s law in every detail of life. But Paul thought that was to seek a righteousness of one’s own (v 9), having nothing to do with the righteousness that God wants to give. The true way to be God’s people, he movingly insists, is the way of self-renunciation, so that all he previously held dear as a Jew came to be seen as rubbish (v 8), considered as loss for the sake of Christ (v 7). The only way to attain righteousness is through faith in Christ (v 9), for Christians must become like him in his death if they are to know the power of his resurrection (v 10). For Paul, dying with Christ meant not just suffering imprisonment and many other indignities for Christ’s sake but also renouncing all the prized possessions that his Judaism had given him.<\/p>\n<h5>Thinking, Rejoicing, Sharing (4:2-23)<\/h5>\nAgain, the tone changes suddenly (both at 4:2 and at 4:10)—so much so that some scholars have suggested that Philippians was compiled by an editor using several different letters. But when Paul turns (in v 2) to address Euodia and Syntyche, he was not really changing the subject. The link with the last section is the same as that between 1:27-30 and the first paragraph in chapter 2: how can Christians expect to be able to hold their own in the face of some enemies of the cross of Christ (3:18) if they are disunited and at odds with each other? For if there is just one gospel, disharmony between Christians means that the gospel is not having its full effect. So Euodia and Syntyche are urged (literally) to “think the same thing in the Lord” (4:2), and are then reminded of how they once found a wonderful unity in striving side by side in the cause of the gospel (v 3).<\/p>\nThe agreement that Paul urges them to come to does not mean complete identity of opinions on all subjects. It means a oneness of heart in a common love for Christ and the gospel. In the rest of the letter Paul spells out what this oneness means in practice—both what it should mean and what it has meant for the Philippians. The use of the mind is vital, and in verses 4-9 Paul paints a picture of the Christian life in which careful and intelligent prayer (vv 6-7) and the deliberate directing of the mind toward “whatever is true and honorable” (v 8) will produce a life marked by the two qualities of peace and joy, whatever the circumstances.<\/p>\nThat leads to the final paragraph, in which Paul gives thanks that, in spite of the disharmony evident in one part of the Philippian church, the church as a whole has already displayed this true Christian “mind.” For they have shown their oneness with Paul in the cause of the gospel by sending him a gift by Epaphroditus. “You have done well to share with me in my present difficulty,” Paul writes (4:14), and our thoughts go back again to the hymn in 2:6-11. From the gospel about the one who came from heaven to bear our burdens comes this mutual sharing—and so does Paul’s wonderful attitude to his circumstances: “I know how to be humbled [the same word as in 2:8], and I know how to abound” (4:12). Joined to Christ, we do not anxiously seek provision for our needs (v 17; cf. v 6), but share with him and with others whatever humiliation and exaltation he sends, confident that God will meet all our needs “from his glorious riches, which have been given to us in Christ Jesus” (4:19, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Philippi.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the<\/span><\/h3>\nOne of Paul’s Prison Epistles.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date and Origin<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Theological Themes<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nPhilippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary.<\/p>\nDate and Origin<\/p>\nWhile it is clear that Paul was writing from prison (Phil 1:12-13), it is not clear where he was imprisoned. The most likely possibility is Rome, in which case the date would be around AD<\/span> 62. But some have thought that all the journeys implied in 4:14 and 2:25-26 make such a distant place unlikely (the Philippians hear that Paul is in prison and send a gift by Epaphroditus; Epaphroditus hears in Rome that the Philippians have heard that he has been ill). So the alternatives of Ephesus (c. AD<\/span> 55) and Caesarea (c. AD<\/span> 58) have been proposed. We know that Paul was imprisoned in Caesarea (Acts 23:33-35), but the greeting “from those of Caesar’s household” is difficult to explain if it was written there, in spite of the coincidence of name. Ephesus is certainly near enough to Philippi for plenty of interchange, but no imprisonment is recorded in the account of Paul’s ministry there in Acts. So we would have to assume that Luke’s account in Acts 19 is not complete and that Paul had been placed in protective custody at the time of the riot (see esp. 19:30-31). But such an imprisonment could hardly have led Paul to wonder whether his time “to depart and be with Christ” had now come (Phil 1:23). At the time of writing, he was clearly facing a capital charge.<\/p>\nThe traditional location (Rome) seems the most satisfactory, especially when one reflects that Paul was imprisoned there for at least two years (Acts 28:30), and that it took about three weeks to travel from Rome to Philippi.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nPhilippi had the distinction of being a Roman colony (Acts 16:12), a privilege accorded to only a few cities outside Italy. Some 90 years before the gospel arrived there (c. AD<\/span> 50), the city had been greatly expanded by large numbers of Roman soldiers, who were settled there by their commanding officers. As a consequence, the town acquired its coveted status as a colony, which meant that for all intents and purposes its citizens were treated as if they lived in Italy, and the town had a fully Roman administration. Paul alludes to this status in Philippians 3:20, where he teaches that Christians likewise are citizens of another city, the heavenly one, while yet residents elsewhere. It was a rich and busy place, one of the main centers of life in Macedonia, and consequently was “home” to the adherents of many different religions, from both east and west. There was a strong Jewish community there, as well as pagans of many sorts.<\/p>\nTheological Themes<\/p>\nIn a sense Paul’s imprisonment is not just background material but lies at the heart of the letter’s message. In his imprisonment he was experiencing the abasement that he mentions in 4:12, using there the same word found in 2:8 to describe the self-humbling of Christ unto death. The pattern of the ministry of Jesus described in the great “hymn” of 2:6-11—humiliation followed by glorification—becomes the pattern of Paul’s own life and of the vision he holds out before the Philippians. So alongside abasement and suffering, joy is the other great theme of the letter. Within suffering and self-sacrifice, true joy is born. In fact, Philippians could justly be titled “The Epistle of Joy.” Other prominent themes include the gospel, the Day of the Lord, and in addition to the famous “hymn” in chapter 2, a comparison of Paul’s Jewish past with his present Christian experience (3:4-16).<\/p>\n\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting and Opening Prayer (1:1-11)<\/h5>\nIn the opening paragraph of his letter, Paul presents the themes that will be uppermost in his mind throughout. His personal warmth toward the Philippians is immediately striking: “I have you in my heart. . . . I long for all of you” (1:7-8), and this thought of outgoing and suffering love undergirds the whole letter. It is notable, too, that the letter begins and ends with the themes of “grace” and of “the saints” (1:1-2; 4:21-23). The grace of Christ, which reaches out to sinful people and transforms them, separating them from the world, occupies Paul throughout. “The saints” are the ones who, touched by that grace, are transformed in heart and mind, so that their love abounds more and more in knowledge and depth of insight (1:9).<\/p>\nTwo more great themes appear here. The Greek word phroneo<\/span>,<\/em> “to think,” is used more in Philippians than in any other letter of Paul, no fewer than nine times (as against seven in Romans). Unfortunately, it is not uniformly translated in the English versions, and so it is hard for the English reader to notice its repeated appearance and the emphasis on the right use of the mind that goes with it. But for Paul this is vital: the way we think is at the heart of the Christian life, and in these opening verses he makes it clear that the love he feels for the Philippians is actually the Christian way of thinking about them (v 7: literally, “It is right for me to think this way about you”). This leads naturally to another emphasis—growth. For the “Christian mind” does not appear overnight. So Paul prays that this mind may grow, giving the Philippians powers of discernment that will transform their character and prepare them for “the day of Christ” (vv 10-11; cf. v 6).<\/p>\nFinally, we note in this opening prayer the twin emphases on the gospel and on fellowship—linked in Paul’s prayer of thanksgiving for the Philippians’ partnership in the gospel (v 5; cf. v 7)—and also the introduction of the great theme of joy (v 4). All three are vital to the whole letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul and His Imprisonment: Christ Exalted (1:12-26)<\/h5>\nPaul writes about his own situation to present the heart of his message. For when he writes, “For me to live is Christ” (v 21), he means more than that his every waking moment is taken up by fellowship with his Lord and service for him. He means also that, in his own person and experience, he displays Christ and “lives” him. Later he will say, “Keep putting into practice all you learned from me and heard from me and saw me doing” (4:9, nlt<\/span>). Few Christian ministers would dare make such a claim today! Yet Paul believed that, as an apostle of Christ, it was his privilege not just to speak on Christ’s behalf but also to live out Christ’s life in his own person, even if that meant suffering and humiliation.<\/p>\nThere are two historical difficulties here. First, it is hard to reconstruct the situation to which Paul refers in 1:12-18. The church in Rome (if that is where he is) was clearly divided about his imprisonment—some believers actually being glad that he was behind bars. It seems as though they were prompted by his imprisonment to get on with preaching their own version of the gospel. Far from being upset by this, Paul is delighted! “What does it matter?” he asks (v 18). Whether by friend or foe, Christ is being proclaimed in a new way as a result of his imprisonment (v 14). He was normally quick to defend the purity of the Word proclaimed, so these rivals of Paul could not have been heretics.<\/p>\nThe other historical difficulty surrounds verses 19-26. At one moment Paul seems not to know what the outcome of imprisonment will be (vv 19-21). Yet he then suggests that he can choose whether to live or die (v 22), and finally tells the Philippians that he is sure he will remain alive (v 25). The best explanation is that Paul believed he had received a personal assurance from the Holy Spirit that his imprisonment would not end with his execution.<\/p>\nAt any rate, his attitude about his own death is most moving. He expected deliverance, whether by life or by death (vv 19-20), and had an unshakeable confidence that to die is “better by far” (v 23), because it means being “with Christ.” This section ends with a note of joy.<\/p>\n<h5>The Life Worthy of the Gospel (1:27–2:18)<\/h5>\nThis section ends with “joy,” just as the last did, and its whole message is summed up in the opening exhortation of verse 27. Paul wanted the Philippians to be people in whom there is no gap between profession and practice, in whom the gospel believed is the gospel lived. The section falls into four portions, which might be entitled as follows: (1) 1:27-30—the worthy life in a hostile world; (2) 2:1-4—the worthy life in Christian fellowship; (3) 2:5-11—the gospel that inspires us; (4) 2:12-18—priorities for lives worthy of the gospel.<\/p>\nPaul refused to let the Philippians feel that he was worse off than they. He wrote, “We are in this fight together. You have seen me suffer for him in the past, and you know that I am still in the midst of this great struggle” (1:30, nlt<\/span>). For suffering at the hands of a hostile world is part and parcel of Christian discipleship. If we profess to believe a gospel about one who, though equal with God, left aside the glory of heaven and submitted not just to incarnation but also to a horrible death (2:6-8), then we must think of suffering not as an unfortunate necessity but as a privilege! “For you have been given not only the privilege of trusting in Christ but also the privilege of suffering for him” (1:29, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe essential quality the believers need, in order to face successfully the hostility of the world, is unity. They must be “standing side by side, fighting together for the Good News” (1:27), and believing one gospel will produce a united front against the world—and not a purely defensive front, either. The theme of unity continues into chapter 2, where Paul turns to life within the fellowship (2:1-4), as if to say that external unity before the world will not be possible unless their hearts and minds are truly united in one love, spirit, and purpose (v 2), whatever their outward situation. Such a unity will come only if there is tenderness and compassion among them (v 1). The lovely progression in verse 1 reaches a climax with this phrase, and that in turn leads into the famous “hymn” in 2:6-11. Such tenderness will not find its home in their hearts unless they believe the gospel about which the hymn sings.<\/p>\nWhether 2:6-11 was in fact a real hymn, sung in the context of early Christian worship, is now impossible to know for sure. Certainly Paul’s language here takes on a hymnic quality, though it is not in poetic form. Many scholars have thought that Paul did not write these verses himself but was quoting a well-known piece of liturgy. All one can say for certain is that his language changes in style, and he expressed here ideas that are unique in his writings.<\/p>\nThe hymn blends in with its context beautifully, and in fact forms the core of the whole letter. For we see here how the experience of imprisonment and deliverance, and of suffering and joy, is an entering into the experience of Jesus himself, who died and rose, was humbled and glorified.<\/p>\n<h5>Two Worthy Examples and Friends (2:19-30)<\/h5>\nPaul again writes about his own situation and plans, but as before, this section is not just concerned with practical arrangements. On the face of it, he was simply explaining why he was sending the letter by the hand of Epaphroditus instead of Timothy. But actually he was holding them up as practical examples of the life lived by the gospel, about which he had just written. Timothy “genuinely cares about your welfare” (2:20), because, unlike everyone else, he did not seek his own interests but those of Jesus Christ (v 21). He lived the gospel! He was committed to the work of the gospel (v 22). And Epaphroditus was the same, though in a different way. His union with Jesus was expressed not so much in his self-giving service for the gospel and his fellow saints, as in the illness that he suffered and the pains of separation that he endured. Like Jesus, he put his life on the line (v 30), and like Jesus, he was restored to life again (v 27). Now he was to be restored to his beloved Philippians, and the joy that they would experience together would be a further outworking of the gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>Pressing Forward and Standing Firm (3:1–4:1)<\/h5>\nThis section also begins and ends on the note of joy (3:1; 4:1)—not accidentally. The way of the cross that Paul describes is also the way of joy (cf. Heb 12:2). It begins and ends also with the address “dear brothers and sisters,” and this, too, is not accidental, for once again in this passage Paul writes about himself, and once again the underlying thought is that his experience is typical and that his readers should expect and seek to see the same pattern in their lives. He wrote, “Dear brothers and sisters, pattern your lives after mine, and learn from those who follow our example” (3:17, nlt<\/span>). Having put forward Timothy and Epaphroditus as examples in 2:19-30, Paul now does the same with himself.<\/p>\nThe tone seems to change dramatically in 3:2, as Paul turns to warn the Philippians against “those dogs,” who are probably the same as those to whom he refers in 1:28 as “your enemies.” There, he was much concerned about the inner foundation of the Philippians’ stand against them, so he did not specify who they were. But now he examines them more closely, in order to show the Philippians that the Christian life entails a complete reversal of the values held by their opponents.<\/p>\nIt seems that they were Jews, the sort in Acts 17:5 who opposed Paul’s ministry in nearby Thessalonica. They believed that they were God’s chosen race, but Paul thought that was nothing more than placing confidence in the flesh (Phil 3:4). They thought they knew the way of righteousness—it is the way of rigorous and disciplined obedience to God’s law in every detail of life. But Paul thought that was to seek a righteousness of one’s own (v 9), having nothing to do with the righteousness that God wants to give. The true way to be God’s people, he movingly insists, is the way of self-renunciation, so that all he previously held dear as a Jew came to be seen as rubbish (v 8), considered as loss for the sake of Christ (v 7). The only way to attain righteousness is through faith in Christ (v 9), for Christians must become like him in his death if they are to know the power of his resurrection (v 10). For Paul, dying with Christ meant not just suffering imprisonment and many other indignities for Christ’s sake but also renouncing all the prized possessions that his Judaism had given him.<\/p>\n<h5>Thinking, Rejoicing, Sharing (4:2-23)<\/h5>\nAgain, the tone changes suddenly (both at 4:2 and at 4:10)—so much so that some scholars have suggested that Philippians was compiled by an editor using several different letters. But when Paul turns (in v 2) to address Euodia and Syntyche, he was not really changing the subject. The link with the last section is the same as that between 1:27-30 and the first paragraph in chapter 2: how can Christians expect to be able to hold their own in the face of some enemies of the cross of Christ (3:18) if they are disunited and at odds with each other? For if there is just one gospel, disharmony between Christians means that the gospel is not having its full effect. So Euodia and Syntyche are urged (literally) to “think the same thing in the Lord” (4:2), and are then reminded of how they once found a wonderful unity in striving side by side in the cause of the gospel (v 3).<\/p>\nThe agreement that Paul urges them to come to does not mean complete identity of opinions on all subjects. It means a oneness of heart in a common love for Christ and the gospel. In the rest of the letter Paul spells out what this oneness means in practice—both what it should mean and what it has meant for the Philippians. The use of the mind is vital, and in verses 4-9 Paul paints a picture of the Christian life in which careful and intelligent prayer (vv 6-7) and the deliberate directing of the mind toward “whatever is true and honorable” (v 8) will produce a life marked by the two qualities of peace and joy, whatever the circumstances.<\/p>\nThat leads to the final paragraph, in which Paul gives thanks that, in spite of the disharmony evident in one part of the Philippian church, the church as a whole has already displayed this true Christian “mind.” For they have shown their oneness with Paul in the cause of the gospel by sending him a gift by Epaphroditus. “You have done well to share with me in my present difficulty,” Paul writes (4:14), and our thoughts go back again to the hymn in 2:6-11. From the gospel about the one who came from heaven to bear our burdens comes this mutual sharing—and so does Paul’s wonderful attitude to his circumstances: “I know how to be humbled [the same word as in 2:8], and I know how to abound” (4:12). Joined to Christ, we do not anxiously seek provision for our needs (v 17; cf. v 6), but share with him and with others whatever humiliation and exaltation he sends, confident that God will meet all our needs “from his glorious riches, which have been given to us in Christ Jesus” (4:19, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Philippi.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the One of Paul’s Prison Epistles. Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Theological Themes • Content Author Philippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary. Date and Origin While it is clear ...","summary_en":"PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the One of Paul’s Prison Epistles. Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Theological Themes • Content Author Philippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary. Date and Origin While it is clear ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":31179,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Prayer of Manasseh*","title_en":"Prayer of Manasseh*","content_ro":"<h3>PRAYER OF MANASSEH*<\/h3>\nThis short prayer, ascribed to King Manasseh of Judah, is often regarded as the finest composition in the entire English Apocrypha. During the Reformation, Protestants highly valued its piety. However, neither Protestants, Roman Catholics, nor the Eastern Orthodox regard it as Scripture.<\/p>\nThe older title, The Prayer of Manasses King of Judah When He was Holden [Held] Captive in Babylon (kjv<\/span>, erv<\/span>), is more helpful than the one commonly used today (rsv<\/span>, neb<\/span>) or the Latin one, Oration Manassae.<\/em> The older title alerts the reader to the supposed connection between this prayer and King Manasseh (696–642 BC<\/span>), who was taken captive to Babylon, where “at last he came to his senses and cried out humbly to God for help. And the Lord listened, and answered his plea by returning him to Jerusalem and to his kingdom!” (2 Chr 33:12-13, tlb<\/span>; on the historicity of this account, see Manasseh #3). The writer of 2 Chronicles indicates that this prayer was available to him from national archives and from another work (2 Chr 33:18-19). The prayer was composed by an anonymous author, though the date is uncertain. On internal evidence it has been dated between 250 BC<\/span> and AD<\/span> 50. The oldest surviving Greek biblical manuscript containing it is Codex Alexandrinus (fifth century AD<\/span>), but the earliest evidence for its existence is its inclusion in a Syriac manual of church procedures known as Didascalia<\/em> (third century AD<\/span>), which, in a revised and expanded form, also appeared as a part of the Apostolic Constitutions<\/em> (AD<\/span> 380).<\/p>\nMost scholars believe that the prayer was originally composed in Greek, but for such a short book—about 400 words in English—the problem of determining the original language is difficult. Because the Prayer of Manasseh survives both in Greek and in Syriac, Latin (two forms), Ethiopic, Armenian, and Old Slavonic translation, it was clearly popular in the first three Christian centuries, among both Jews and Christians.<\/p>\nThe Prayer of Manasseh is the prayer of a self-confessed sinner to a merciful God. The rsv<\/span> (which is quoted below unless otherwise noted) and neb<\/span> divide the Prayer of Manasseh into 15 verses. KJV and erv<\/span> do not indicate verses, and a rarer system divides the prayer into 19 verses. The prayer uses several descriptions of God drawn from the OT. It begins by identifying God as “Lord Almighty” (Prayer of Manasseh 1:1; cf. 2 Cor 6:18) and “God of our fathers” (Prayer of Manasseh 1:1, cf. 2 Chr 20:6; 33:12) and of their righteous descendants. God is the Creator—glorious and powerful, wrathful yet merciful (Prayer of Manasseh 1:2-7a). He “made heaven and earth” (v 2; cf. Ex 20:11; Neh 9:6; Ps 146:6) “in their manifold array” (Prayer of Manasseh 1:2, neb<\/span>). He “shackled the sea” and “confined the deep” (v 3; cf. Jb 38:8-11). No one can endure his glorious majesty (Prayer of Manasseh 1:5a; contrast 2 Pt 1:16-17). His power makes every creature “shudder, and tremble” (Prayer of Manasseh 1:4), but his goodness is demonstrated in mercy and in salvation (vv 7, 14; cf. Is 63:7 and Rom 2:4), for he is compassionate, patiently long-suffering (forbearing), and very merciful (Prayer of Manasseh 1:7; cf. Ps 86:5, 15). God is “the Lord Most High” (Prayer of Manasseh 1:7; cf. Ps 7:17; 47:2).<\/p>\nEven so, Manasseh confesses that “none can endure thy menacing wrath against sinners” (Prayer of Manasseh 1:5b, neb<\/span>). He recognizes that his idolatry has been evil in God’s eyes all along, even though he has just become aware that he has been “piling sin upon sin” (v 10, neb<\/span>). He also knows now that he finds himself in irons and rejected by God because his idolatry has provoked God’s wrath (v 10; cf. 2 Chr 33:6 and Ps 107:10). God’s mercy is his only hope. It is unmeasurable and unfathomable (Prayer of Manasseh 1:6), boundless (v 7, neb<\/span>), and great (v 14). God’s mercy is also available, because the Lord himself has “appointed repentance for sinners, that they may be saved” (v 7; cf. Acts 5:31), and for him in particular (v 8).<\/p>\nThe heart of the prayer (vv 9-13a), in which he confesses his sin and appeals for forgiveness, contains three memorable lines: “My transgressions abound, O Lord, my transgressions abound. . . . Forgive me, O Lord, forgive me!” The turning point in the prayer comes in verse 11, after his confession of sin. The rsv<\/span> preserves the figure of speech: “And now I bend the knee of my heart, beseeching thee for thy kindness.” Despite his unworthiness (vv 9, 14), he pleads with God not to destroy him, nor be eternally angry with him, nor condemn him to the grave, because the Lord is “the God of those who repent” (v 13). Manasseh becomes confident that God, in his goodness and mercy, will save him (v 14), and he shows the appropriate response of a forgiven sinner when he says, “I will praise thee continually all the days of my life” (v 15). A brief doxology about God’s praise and eternal glory concludes the prayer.<\/p>\nDespite its admirable parts, this prayer differs from Christian teaching in one significant way. The author erroneously assumes that there are two categories of people—those who are basically good (the righteous) and those who are basically bad (sinners). The prayer presents Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob as righteous men who did not sin and did not need to repent. This is not true, but it shows Jewish thinking prior to Christian preaching (cf. Mt 9:13). Paul made it quite plain that no person is righteous on his own merit, because every person has sinned (Rom 3:10-12, 21-26). Abraham’s righteousness was not inherent; it came by faith (Rom 4:3; cf. Phil 3:8-9).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Apocrypha.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PRAYER OF MANASSEH*<\/h3>\nThis short prayer, ascribed to King Manasseh of Judah, is often regarded as the finest composition in the entire English Apocrypha. During the Reformation, Protestants highly valued its piety. However, neither Protestants, Roman Catholics, nor the Eastern Orthodox regard it as Scripture.<\/p>\nThe older title, The Prayer of Manasses King of Judah When He was Holden [Held] Captive in Babylon (kjv<\/span>, erv<\/span>), is more helpful than the one commonly used today (rsv<\/span>, neb<\/span>) or the Latin one, Oration Manassae.<\/em> The older title alerts the reader to the supposed connection between this prayer and King Manasseh (696–642 BC<\/span>), who was taken captive to Babylon, where “at last he came to his senses and cried out humbly to God for help. And the Lord listened, and answered his plea by returning him to Jerusalem and to his kingdom!” (2 Chr 33:12-13, tlb<\/span>; on the historicity of this account, see Manasseh #3). The writer of 2 Chronicles indicates that this prayer was available to him from national archives and from another work (2 Chr 33:18-19). The prayer was composed by an anonymous author, though the date is uncertain. On internal evidence it has been dated between 250 BC<\/span> and AD<\/span> 50. The oldest surviving Greek biblical manuscript containing it is Codex Alexandrinus (fifth century AD<\/span>), but the earliest evidence for its existence is its inclusion in a Syriac manual of church procedures known as Didascalia<\/em> (third century AD<\/span>), which, in a revised and expanded form, also appeared as a part of the Apostolic Constitutions<\/em> (AD<\/span> 380).<\/p>\nMost scholars believe that the prayer was originally composed in Greek, but for such a short book—about 400 words in English—the problem of determining the original language is difficult. Because the Prayer of Manasseh survives both in Greek and in Syriac, Latin (two forms), Ethiopic, Armenian, and Old Slavonic translation, it was clearly popular in the first three Christian centuries, among both Jews and Christians.<\/p>\nThe Prayer of Manasseh is the prayer of a self-confessed sinner to a merciful God. The rsv<\/span> (which is quoted below unless otherwise noted) and neb<\/span> divide the Prayer of Manasseh into 15 verses. KJV and erv<\/span> do not indicate verses, and a rarer system divides the prayer into 19 verses. The prayer uses several descriptions of God drawn from the OT. It begins by identifying God as “Lord Almighty” (Prayer of Manasseh 1:1; cf. 2 Cor 6:18) and “God of our fathers” (Prayer of Manasseh 1:1, cf. 2 Chr 20:6; 33:12) and of their righteous descendants. God is the Creator—glorious and powerful, wrathful yet merciful (Prayer of Manasseh 1:2-7a). He “made heaven and earth” (v 2; cf. Ex 20:11; Neh 9:6; Ps 146:6) “in their manifold array” (Prayer of Manasseh 1:2, neb<\/span>). He “shackled the sea” and “confined the deep” (v 3; cf. Jb 38:8-11). No one can endure his glorious majesty (Prayer of Manasseh 1:5a; contrast 2 Pt 1:16-17). His power makes every creature “shudder, and tremble” (Prayer of Manasseh 1:4), but his goodness is demonstrated in mercy and in salvation (vv 7, 14; cf. Is 63:7 and Rom 2:4), for he is compassionate, patiently long-suffering (forbearing), and very merciful (Prayer of Manasseh 1:7; cf. Ps 86:5, 15). God is “the Lord Most High” (Prayer of Manasseh 1:7; cf. Ps 7:17; 47:2).<\/p>\nEven so, Manasseh confesses that “none can endure thy menacing wrath against sinners” (Prayer of Manasseh 1:5b, neb<\/span>). He recognizes that his idolatry has been evil in God’s eyes all along, even though he has just become aware that he has been “piling sin upon sin” (v 10, neb<\/span>). He also knows now that he finds himself in irons and rejected by God because his idolatry has provoked God’s wrath (v 10; cf. 2 Chr 33:6 and Ps 107:10). God’s mercy is his only hope. It is unmeasurable and unfathomable (Prayer of Manasseh 1:6), boundless (v 7, neb<\/span>), and great (v 14). God’s mercy is also available, because the Lord himself has “appointed repentance for sinners, that they may be saved” (v 7; cf. Acts 5:31), and for him in particular (v 8).<\/p>\nThe heart of the prayer (vv 9-13a), in which he confesses his sin and appeals for forgiveness, contains three memorable lines: “My transgressions abound, O Lord, my transgressions abound. . . . Forgive me, O Lord, forgive me!” The turning point in the prayer comes in verse 11, after his confession of sin. The rsv<\/span> preserves the figure of speech: “And now I bend the knee of my heart, beseeching thee for thy kindness.” Despite his unworthiness (vv 9, 14), he pleads with God not to destroy him, nor be eternally angry with him, nor condemn him to the grave, because the Lord is “the God of those who repent” (v 13). Manasseh becomes confident that God, in his goodness and mercy, will save him (v 14), and he shows the appropriate response of a forgiven sinner when he says, “I will praise thee continually all the days of my life” (v 15). A brief doxology about God’s praise and eternal glory concludes the prayer.<\/p>\nDespite its admirable parts, this prayer differs from Christian teaching in one significant way. The author erroneously assumes that there are two categories of people—those who are basically good (the righteous) and those who are basically bad (sinners). The prayer presents Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob as righteous men who did not sin and did not need to repent. This is not true, but it shows Jewish thinking prior to Christian preaching (cf. Mt 9:13). Paul made it quite plain that no person is righteous on his own merit, because every person has sinned (Rom 3:10-12, 21-26). Abraham’s righteousness was not inherent; it came by faith (Rom 4:3; cf. Phil 3:8-9).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Apocrypha.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PRAYER OF MANASSEH* This short prayer, ascribed to King Manasseh of Judah, is often regarded as the finest composition in the entire English Apocrypha. During the Reformation, Protestants highly valued its piety. However, neither Protestants, Roman Catholics, nor the Eastern Orthodox regard it as Scripture. The older title, The Prayer of Manasses King of Judah When He was Holden [Held] Captive in Babylon (kjv, erv), is more helpful than the one commonly used today (rsv, neb) or the Latin one,...","summary_en":"PRAYER OF MANASSEH* This short prayer, ascribed to King Manasseh of Judah, is often regarded as the finest composition in the entire English Apocrypha. During the Reformation, Protestants highly valued its piety. However, neither Protestants, Roman Catholics, nor the Eastern Orthodox regard it as Scripture. The older title, The Prayer of Manasses King of Judah When He was Holden [Held] Captive in Babylon (kjv, erv), is more helpful than the one commonly used today (rsv, neb) or the Latin one,...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":61692,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"True Success","title_en":"True Success","content_ro":"<h3>True Success<\/h3>\nGod requires complete devotion from his people (Deut 6:4-6; cp. Matt 22:37). True success comes from seeking God and acknowledging him as sovereign (Matt 6:33), to the exclusion of all idols (1 Jn 5:21). For the people of Israel, success was directly tied to their obedience to God’s covenant (see Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68). The spiritual condition of Israel and its leaders had a dramatic impact on whether or not they would continue to receive God’s favor and maintain possession of the Promised Land.<\/p>\nThe author of 1–2 Kings introduces each ruler’s reign with a spiritual evaluation, often comparing each king’s devotion to God with the precedent set by David (see 1 Kgs 11:38; 14:8; 15:3-5, 11). The narrative of these books demonstrates that the fate of both Israel and Judah hangs on the spiritual leadership of their kings. The continued success of God’s people in the land of Canaan was predicated on the faithful worship of God (see Deut 12:4-7). Allowing worship at local pagan shrines is repeatedly singled out for disapproval (see, e.g., 3:2-4; 11:7).<\/p>\nBeginning with Jeroboam I, the kings of Israel (the northern kingdom) uniformly practiced apostate religion and were censured for practicing it (12:31-32; 13:33-34; 15:25-26, 33-34; 16:11-13, 25-26). Of these kings, King Ahab was the most wicked (16:30-33; 21:25-26), and his son Ahaziah closely followed his example and is denounced for his idolatrous ways (22:51-53). The kings of the northern kingdom set their people on a course doomed for destruction (2 Kgs 17:21-23). Despite God’s repeated efforts to get his people’s attention (2 Kgs 17:13-15, 23), they failed to respond, so God invoked the penalties for persistent spiritual infidelity (see 1 Kgs 13:33-34).<\/p>\nSome of the kings of Judah (the southern kingdom) receive commendation, but many of them are denounced as well. Rehoboam allowed pagan worship to spread in Judah (14:22-24), and Abijam continued in his father’s sins (15:3). Even the good kings Asa and Jehoshaphat receive criticism for letting popular local worship sites continue (see 15:14; 22:43). Failure to give God his rightful place had disastrous results.<\/p>\nWhile the kings and people of the northern kingdom foolishly pursued their own way, people who instead fear the Lord and live by the standards of God’s word will be blessed and find genuine contentment (Pss 33:12; 119:1-2; 144:15). True success is always found in acknowledging and trusting God to be king of one’s life (Matt 6:33). And as both Jesus and his early followers demonstrate, success is not necessarily characterized by material blessing and wealth. Joy and peace are ultimately found in being at the center of God’s will and in grasping the hope we have in him (see Phil 3:8-14; 1 Pet 4:12-19).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nDeut 6:1-8; 12:4-7; Josh 1:7-8; 1 Sam 18:14; 1 Kgs 11:38; 12:26-33; 13:1-3, 33-34; 14:8-11; 2 Kgs 17:13-23; Pss 33:12; 119:1-2; 144:15; Matt 6:33; Luke 10:25-28; 1 Jn 5:21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>True Success<\/h3>\nGod requires complete devotion from his people (Deut 6:4-6; cp. Matt 22:37). True success comes from seeking God and acknowledging him as sovereign (Matt 6:33), to the exclusion of all idols (1 Jn 5:21). For the people of Israel, success was directly tied to their obedience to God’s covenant (see Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68). The spiritual condition of Israel and its leaders had a dramatic impact on whether or not they would continue to receive God’s favor and maintain possession of the Promised Land.<\/p>\nThe author of 1–2 Kings introduces each ruler’s reign with a spiritual evaluation, often comparing each king’s devotion to God with the precedent set by David (see 1 Kgs 11:38; 14:8; 15:3-5, 11). The narrative of these books demonstrates that the fate of both Israel and Judah hangs on the spiritual leadership of their kings. The continued success of God’s people in the land of Canaan was predicated on the faithful worship of God (see Deut 12:4-7). Allowing worship at local pagan shrines is repeatedly singled out for disapproval (see, e.g., 3:2-4; 11:7).<\/p>\nBeginning with Jeroboam I, the kings of Israel (the northern kingdom) uniformly practiced apostate religion and were censured for practicing it (12:31-32; 13:33-34; 15:25-26, 33-34; 16:11-13, 25-26). Of these kings, King Ahab was the most wicked (16:30-33; 21:25-26), and his son Ahaziah closely followed his example and is denounced for his idolatrous ways (22:51-53). The kings of the northern kingdom set their people on a course doomed for destruction (2 Kgs 17:21-23). Despite God’s repeated efforts to get his people’s attention (2 Kgs 17:13-15, 23), they failed to respond, so God invoked the penalties for persistent spiritual infidelity (see 1 Kgs 13:33-34).<\/p>\nSome of the kings of Judah (the southern kingdom) receive commendation, but many of them are denounced as well. Rehoboam allowed pagan worship to spread in Judah (14:22-24), and Abijam continued in his father’s sins (15:3). Even the good kings Asa and Jehoshaphat receive criticism for letting popular local worship sites continue (see 15:14; 22:43). Failure to give God his rightful place had disastrous results.<\/p>\nWhile the kings and people of the northern kingdom foolishly pursued their own way, people who instead fear the Lord and live by the standards of God’s word will be blessed and find genuine contentment (Pss 33:12; 119:1-2; 144:15). True success is always found in acknowledging and trusting God to be king of one’s life (Matt 6:33). And as both Jesus and his early followers demonstrate, success is not necessarily characterized by material blessing and wealth. Joy and peace are ultimately found in being at the center of God’s will and in grasping the hope we have in him (see Phil 3:8-14; 1 Pet 4:12-19).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nDeut 6:1-8; 12:4-7; Josh 1:7-8; 1 Sam 18:14; 1 Kgs 11:38; 12:26-33; 13:1-3, 33-34; 14:8-11; 2 Kgs 17:13-23; Pss 33:12; 119:1-2; 144:15; Matt 6:33; Luke 10:25-28; 1 Jn 5:21<\/p>","summary_ro":"True Success God requires complete devotion from his people (Deut 6:4-6; cp. Matt 22:37). True success comes from seeking God and acknowledging him as sovereign (Matt 6:33), to the exclusion of all idols (1 Jn 5:21). For the people of Israel, success was directly tied to their obedience to God’s covenant (see Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68). The spiritual condition of Israel and its leaders had a dramatic impact on whether or not they would continue to receive God’s favor and maintain possession o...","summary_en":"True Success God requires complete devotion from his people (Deut 6:4-6; cp. Matt 22:37). True success comes from seeking God and acknowledging him as sovereign (Matt 6:33), to the exclusion of all idols (1 Jn 5:21). For the people of Israel, success was directly tied to their obedience to God’s covenant (see Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68). The spiritual condition of Israel and its leaders had a dramatic impact on whether or not they would continue to receive God’s favor and maintain possession o...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89318,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"True Success","title_en":"True Success","content_ro":"<h3>True Success<\/h3>\nGod requires complete devotion from his people (Deut 6:4-6; cp. Matt 22:37). True success comes from seeking God and acknowledging him as sovereign (Matt 6:33), to the exclusion of all idols (1 Jn 5:21). For the people of Israel, success was directly tied to their obedience to God’s covenant (see Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68). The spiritual condition of Israel and its leaders had a dramatic impact on whether or not they would continue to receive God’s favor and maintain possession of the Promised Land.<\/p>\nThe author of 1–2 Kings introduces each ruler’s reign with a spiritual evaluation, often comparing each king’s devotion to God with the precedent set by David (see 1 Kgs 11:38; 14:8; 15:3-5, 11). The narrative of these books demonstrates that the fate of both Israel and Judah hangs on the spiritual leadership of their kings. The continued success of God’s people in the land of Canaan was predicated on the faithful worship of God (see Deut 12:4-7). Allowing worship at local pagan shrines is repeatedly singled out for disapproval (see, e.g., 3:2-4; 11:7).<\/p>\nBeginning with Jeroboam I, the kings of Israel (the northern kingdom) uniformly practiced apostate religion and were censured for practicing it (12:31-32; 13:33-34; 15:25-26, 33-34; 16:11-13, 25-26). Of these kings, King Ahab was the most wicked (16:30-33; 21:25-26), and his son Ahaziah closely followed his example and is denounced for his idolatrous ways (22:51-53). The kings of the northern kingdom set their people on a course doomed for destruction (2 Kgs 17:21-23). Despite God’s repeated efforts to get his people’s attention (2 Kgs 17:13-15, 23), they failed to respond, so God invoked the penalties for persistent spiritual infidelity (see 1 Kgs 13:33-34).<\/p>\nSome of the kings of Judah (the southern kingdom) receive commendation, but many of them are denounced as well. Rehoboam allowed pagan worship to spread in Judah (14:22-24), and Abijam continued in his father’s sins (15:3). Even the good kings Asa and Jehoshaphat receive criticism for letting popular local worship sites continue (see 15:14; 22:43). Failure to give God his rightful place had disastrous results.<\/p>\nWhile the kings and people of the northern kingdom foolishly pursued their own way, people who instead fear the Lord and live by the standards of God’s word will be blessed and find genuine contentment (Pss 33:12; 119:1-2; 144:15). True success is always found in acknowledging and trusting God to be king of one’s life (Matt 6:33). And as both Jesus and his early followers demonstrate, success is not necessarily characterized by material blessing and wealth. Joy and peace are ultimately found in being at the center of God’s will and in grasping the hope we have in him (see Phil 3:8-14; 1 Pet 4:12-19).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nDeut 6:1-8; 12:4-7; Josh 1:7-8; 1 Sam 18:14; 1 Kgs 11:38; 12:26-33; 13:1-3, 33-34; 14:8-11; 2 Kgs 17:13-23; Pss 33:12; 119:1-2; 144:15; Matt 6:33; Luke 10:25-28; 1 Jn 5:21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>True Success<\/h3>\nGod requires complete devotion from his people (Deut 6:4-6; cp. Matt 22:37). True success comes from seeking God and acknowledging him as sovereign (Matt 6:33), to the exclusion of all idols (1 Jn 5:21). For the people of Israel, success was directly tied to their obedience to God’s covenant (see Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68). The spiritual condition of Israel and its leaders had a dramatic impact on whether or not they would continue to receive God’s favor and maintain possession of the Promised Land.<\/p>\nThe author of 1–2 Kings introduces each ruler’s reign with a spiritual evaluation, often comparing each king’s devotion to God with the precedent set by David (see 1 Kgs 11:38; 14:8; 15:3-5, 11). The narrative of these books demonstrates that the fate of both Israel and Judah hangs on the spiritual leadership of their kings. The continued success of God’s people in the land of Canaan was predicated on the faithful worship of God (see Deut 12:4-7). Allowing worship at local pagan shrines is repeatedly singled out for disapproval (see, e.g., 3:2-4; 11:7).<\/p>\nBeginning with Jeroboam I, the kings of Israel (the northern kingdom) uniformly practiced apostate religion and were censured for practicing it (12:31-32; 13:33-34; 15:25-26, 33-34; 16:11-13, 25-26). Of these kings, King Ahab was the most wicked (16:30-33; 21:25-26), and his son Ahaziah closely followed his example and is denounced for his idolatrous ways (22:51-53). The kings of the northern kingdom set their people on a course doomed for destruction (2 Kgs 17:21-23). Despite God’s repeated efforts to get his people’s attention (2 Kgs 17:13-15, 23), they failed to respond, so God invoked the penalties for persistent spiritual infidelity (see 1 Kgs 13:33-34).<\/p>\nSome of the kings of Judah (the southern kingdom) receive commendation, but many of them are denounced as well. Rehoboam allowed pagan worship to spread in Judah (14:22-24), and Abijam continued in his father’s sins (15:3). Even the good kings Asa and Jehoshaphat receive criticism for letting popular local worship sites continue (see 15:14; 22:43). Failure to give God his rightful place had disastrous results.<\/p>\nWhile the kings and people of the northern kingdom foolishly pursued their own way, people who instead fear the Lord and live by the standards of God’s word will be blessed and find genuine contentment (Pss 33:12; 119:1-2; 144:15). True success is always found in acknowledging and trusting God to be king of one’s life (Matt 6:33). And as both Jesus and his early followers demonstrate, success is not necessarily characterized by material blessing and wealth. Joy and peace are ultimately found in being at the center of God’s will and in grasping the hope we have in him (see Phil 3:8-14; 1 Pet 4:12-19).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nDeut 6:1-8; 12:4-7; Josh 1:7-8; 1 Sam 18:14; 1 Kgs 11:38; 12:26-33; 13:1-3, 33-34; 14:8-11; 2 Kgs 17:13-23; Pss 33:12; 119:1-2; 144:15; Matt 6:33; Luke 10:25-28; 1 Jn 5:21<\/p>","summary_ro":"True Success God requires complete devotion from his people (Deut 6:4-6; cp. Matt 22:37). True success comes from seeking God and acknowledging him as sovereign (Matt 6:33), to the exclusion of all idols (1 Jn 5:21). For the people of Israel, success was directly tied to their obedience to God’s covenant (see Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68). The spiritual condition of Israel and its leaders had a dramatic impact on whether or not they would continue to receive God’s favor and maintain possession o...","summary_en":"True Success God requires complete devotion from his people (Deut 6:4-6; cp. Matt 22:37). True success comes from seeking God and acknowledging him as sovereign (Matt 6:33), to the exclusion of all idols (1 Jn 5:21). For the people of Israel, success was directly tied to their obedience to God’s covenant (see Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68). The spiritual condition of Israel and its leaders had a dramatic impact on whether or not they would continue to receive God’s favor and maintain possession o...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116944,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"True Success","title_en":"True Success","content_ro":"<h3>True Success<\/h3>\nGod requires complete devotion from his people (Deut 6:4-6; cp. Matt 22:37). True success comes from seeking God and acknowledging him as sovereign (Matt 6:33), to the exclusion of all idols (1 Jn 5:21). For the people of Israel, success was directly tied to their obedience to God’s covenant (see Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68). The spiritual condition of Israel and its leaders had a dramatic impact on whether or not they would continue to receive God’s favor and maintain possession of the Promised Land.<\/p>\nThe author of 1–2 Kings introduces each ruler’s reign with a spiritual evaluation, often comparing each king’s devotion to God with the precedent set by David (see 1 Kgs 11:38; 14:8; 15:3-5, 11). The narrative of these books demonstrates that the fate of both Israel and Judah hangs on the spiritual leadership of their kings. The continued success of God’s people in the land of Canaan was predicated on the faithful worship of God (see Deut 12:4-7). Allowing worship at local pagan shrines is repeatedly singled out for disapproval (see, e.g., 3:2-4; 11:7).<\/p>\nBeginning with Jeroboam I, the kings of Israel (the northern kingdom) uniformly practiced apostate religion and were censured for practicing it (12:31-32; 13:33-34; 15:25-26, 33-34; 16:11-13, 25-26). Of these kings, King Ahab was the most wicked (16:30-33; 21:25-26), and his son Ahaziah closely followed his example and is denounced for his idolatrous ways (22:51-53). The kings of the northern kingdom set their people on a course doomed for destruction (2 Kgs 17:21-23). Despite God’s repeated efforts to get his people’s attention (2 Kgs 17:13-15, 23), they failed to respond, so God invoked the penalties for persistent spiritual infidelity (see 1 Kgs 13:33-34).<\/p>\nSome of the kings of Judah (the southern kingdom) receive commendation, but many of them are denounced as well. Rehoboam allowed pagan worship to spread in Judah (14:22-24), and Abijam continued in his father’s sins (15:3). Even the good kings Asa and Jehoshaphat receive criticism for letting popular local worship sites continue (see 15:14; 22:43). Failure to give God his rightful place had disastrous results.<\/p>\nWhile the kings and people of the northern kingdom foolishly pursued their own way, people who instead fear the Lord and live by the standards of God’s word will be blessed and find genuine contentment (Pss 33:12; 119:1-2; 144:15). True success is always found in acknowledging and trusting God to be king of one’s life (Matt 6:33). And as both Jesus and his early followers demonstrate, success is not necessarily characterized by material blessing and wealth. Joy and peace are ultimately found in being at the center of God’s will and in grasping the hope we have in him (see Phil 3:8-14; 1 Pet 4:12-19).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nDeut 6:1-8; 12:4-7; Josh 1:7-8; 1 Sam 18:14; 1 Kgs 11:38; 12:26-33; 13:1-3, 33-34; 14:8-11; 2 Kgs 17:13-23; Pss 33:12; 119:1-2; 144:15; Matt 6:33; Luke 10:25-28; 1 Jn 5:21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>True Success<\/h3>\nGod requires complete devotion from his people (Deut 6:4-6; cp. Matt 22:37). True success comes from seeking God and acknowledging him as sovereign (Matt 6:33), to the exclusion of all idols (1 Jn 5:21). For the people of Israel, success was directly tied to their obedience to God’s covenant (see Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68). The spiritual condition of Israel and its leaders had a dramatic impact on whether or not they would continue to receive God’s favor and maintain possession of the Promised Land.<\/p>\nThe author of 1–2 Kings introduces each ruler’s reign with a spiritual evaluation, often comparing each king’s devotion to God with the precedent set by David (see 1 Kgs 11:38; 14:8; 15:3-5, 11). The narrative of these books demonstrates that the fate of both Israel and Judah hangs on the spiritual leadership of their kings. The continued success of God’s people in the land of Canaan was predicated on the faithful worship of God (see Deut 12:4-7). Allowing worship at local pagan shrines is repeatedly singled out for disapproval (see, e.g., 3:2-4; 11:7).<\/p>\nBeginning with Jeroboam I, the kings of Israel (the northern kingdom) uniformly practiced apostate religion and were censured for practicing it (12:31-32; 13:33-34; 15:25-26, 33-34; 16:11-13, 25-26). Of these kings, King Ahab was the most wicked (16:30-33; 21:25-26), and his son Ahaziah closely followed his example and is denounced for his idolatrous ways (22:51-53). The kings of the northern kingdom set their people on a course doomed for destruction (2 Kgs 17:21-23). Despite God’s repeated efforts to get his people’s attention (2 Kgs 17:13-15, 23), they failed to respond, so God invoked the penalties for persistent spiritual infidelity (see 1 Kgs 13:33-34).<\/p>\nSome of the kings of Judah (the southern kingdom) receive commendation, but many of them are denounced as well. Rehoboam allowed pagan worship to spread in Judah (14:22-24), and Abijam continued in his father’s sins (15:3). Even the good kings Asa and Jehoshaphat receive criticism for letting popular local worship sites continue (see 15:14; 22:43). Failure to give God his rightful place had disastrous results.<\/p>\nWhile the kings and people of the northern kingdom foolishly pursued their own way, people who instead fear the Lord and live by the standards of God’s word will be blessed and find genuine contentment (Pss 33:12; 119:1-2; 144:15). True success is always found in acknowledging and trusting God to be king of one’s life (Matt 6:33). And as both Jesus and his early followers demonstrate, success is not necessarily characterized by material blessing and wealth. Joy and peace are ultimately found in being at the center of God’s will and in grasping the hope we have in him (see Phil 3:8-14; 1 Pet 4:12-19).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nDeut 6:1-8; 12:4-7; Josh 1:7-8; 1 Sam 18:14; 1 Kgs 11:38; 12:26-33; 13:1-3, 33-34; 14:8-11; 2 Kgs 17:13-23; Pss 33:12; 119:1-2; 144:15; Matt 6:33; Luke 10:25-28; 1 Jn 5:21<\/p>","summary_ro":"True Success God requires complete devotion from his people (Deut 6:4-6; cp. Matt 22:37). True success comes from seeking God and acknowledging him as sovereign (Matt 6:33), to the exclusion of all idols (1 Jn 5:21). For the people of Israel, success was directly tied to their obedience to God’s covenant (see Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68). The spiritual condition of Israel and its leaders had a dramatic impact on whether or not they would continue to receive God’s favor and maintain possession o...","summary_en":"True Success God requires complete devotion from his people (Deut 6:4-6; cp. Matt 22:37). True success comes from seeking God and acknowledging him as sovereign (Matt 6:33), to the exclusion of all idols (1 Jn 5:21). For the people of Israel, success was directly tied to their obedience to God’s covenant (see Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68). The spiritual condition of Israel and its leaders had a dramatic impact on whether or not they would continue to receive God’s favor and maintain possession o...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":144570,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"True Success","title_en":"True Success","content_ro":"<h3>True Success<\/h3>\nGod requires complete devotion from his people (Deut 6:4-6; cp. Matt 22:37). True success comes from seeking God and acknowledging him as sovereign (Matt 6:33), to the exclusion of all idols (1 Jn 5:21). For the people of Israel, success was directly tied to their obedience to God’s covenant (see Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68). The spiritual condition of Israel and its leaders had a dramatic impact on whether or not they would continue to receive God’s favor and maintain possession of the Promised Land.<\/p>\nThe author of 1–2 Kings introduces each ruler’s reign with a spiritual evaluation, often comparing each king’s devotion to God with the precedent set by David (see 1 Kgs 11:38; 14:8; 15:3-5, 11). The narrative of these books demonstrates that the fate of both Israel and Judah hangs on the spiritual leadership of their kings. The continued success of God’s people in the land of Canaan was predicated on the faithful worship of God (see Deut 12:4-7). Allowing worship at local pagan shrines is repeatedly singled out for disapproval (see, e.g., 3:2-4; 11:7).<\/p>\nBeginning with Jeroboam I, the kings of Israel (the northern kingdom) uniformly practiced apostate religion and were censured for practicing it (12:31-32; 13:33-34; 15:25-26, 33-34; 16:11-13, 25-26). Of these kings, King Ahab was the most wicked (16:30-33; 21:25-26), and his son Ahaziah closely followed his example and is denounced for his idolatrous ways (22:51-53). The kings of the northern kingdom set their people on a course doomed for destruction (2 Kgs 17:21-23). Despite God’s repeated efforts to get his people’s attention (2 Kgs 17:13-15, 23), they failed to respond, so God invoked the penalties for persistent spiritual infidelity (see 1 Kgs 13:33-34).<\/p>\nSome of the kings of Judah (the southern kingdom) receive commendation, but many of them are denounced as well. Rehoboam allowed pagan worship to spread in Judah (14:22-24), and Abijam continued in his father’s sins (15:3). Even the good kings Asa and Jehoshaphat receive criticism for letting popular local worship sites continue (see 15:14; 22:43). Failure to give God his rightful place had disastrous results.<\/p>\nWhile the kings and people of the northern kingdom foolishly pursued their own way, people who instead fear the Lord and live by the standards of God’s word will be blessed and find genuine contentment (Pss 33:12; 119:1-2; 144:15). True success is always found in acknowledging and trusting God to be king of one’s life (Matt 6:33). And as both Jesus and his early followers demonstrate, success is not necessarily characterized by material blessing and wealth. Joy and peace are ultimately found in being at the center of God’s will and in grasping the hope we have in him (see Phil 3:8-14; 1 Pet 4:12-19).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nDeut 6:1-8; 12:4-7; Josh 1:7-8; 1 Sam 18:14; 1 Kgs 11:38; 12:26-33; 13:1-3, 33-34; 14:8-11; 2 Kgs 17:13-23; Pss 33:12; 119:1-2; 144:15; Matt 6:33; Luke 10:25-28; 1 Jn 5:21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>True Success<\/h3>\nGod requires complete devotion from his people (Deut 6:4-6; cp. Matt 22:37). True success comes from seeking God and acknowledging him as sovereign (Matt 6:33), to the exclusion of all idols (1 Jn 5:21). For the people of Israel, success was directly tied to their obedience to God’s covenant (see Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68). The spiritual condition of Israel and its leaders had a dramatic impact on whether or not they would continue to receive God’s favor and maintain possession of the Promised Land.<\/p>\nThe author of 1–2 Kings introduces each ruler’s reign with a spiritual evaluation, often comparing each king’s devotion to God with the precedent set by David (see 1 Kgs 11:38; 14:8; 15:3-5, 11). The narrative of these books demonstrates that the fate of both Israel and Judah hangs on the spiritual leadership of their kings. The continued success of God’s people in the land of Canaan was predicated on the faithful worship of God (see Deut 12:4-7). Allowing worship at local pagan shrines is repeatedly singled out for disapproval (see, e.g., 3:2-4; 11:7).<\/p>\nBeginning with Jeroboam I, the kings of Israel (the northern kingdom) uniformly practiced apostate religion and were censured for practicing it (12:31-32; 13:33-34; 15:25-26, 33-34; 16:11-13, 25-26). Of these kings, King Ahab was the most wicked (16:30-33; 21:25-26), and his son Ahaziah closely followed his example and is denounced for his idolatrous ways (22:51-53). The kings of the northern kingdom set their people on a course doomed for destruction (2 Kgs 17:21-23). Despite God’s repeated efforts to get his people’s attention (2 Kgs 17:13-15, 23), they failed to respond, so God invoked the penalties for persistent spiritual infidelity (see 1 Kgs 13:33-34).<\/p>\nSome of the kings of Judah (the southern kingdom) receive commendation, but many of them are denounced as well. Rehoboam allowed pagan worship to spread in Judah (14:22-24), and Abijam continued in his father’s sins (15:3). Even the good kings Asa and Jehoshaphat receive criticism for letting popular local worship sites continue (see 15:14; 22:43). Failure to give God his rightful place had disastrous results.<\/p>\nWhile the kings and people of the northern kingdom foolishly pursued their own way, people who instead fear the Lord and live by the standards of God’s word will be blessed and find genuine contentment (Pss 33:12; 119:1-2; 144:15). True success is always found in acknowledging and trusting God to be king of one’s life (Matt 6:33). And as both Jesus and his early followers demonstrate, success is not necessarily characterized by material blessing and wealth. Joy and peace are ultimately found in being at the center of God’s will and in grasping the hope we have in him (see Phil 3:8-14; 1 Pet 4:12-19).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nDeut 6:1-8; 12:4-7; Josh 1:7-8; 1 Sam 18:14; 1 Kgs 11:38; 12:26-33; 13:1-3, 33-34; 14:8-11; 2 Kgs 17:13-23; Pss 33:12; 119:1-2; 144:15; Matt 6:33; Luke 10:25-28; 1 Jn 5:21<\/p>","summary_ro":"True Success God requires complete devotion from his people (Deut 6:4-6; cp. Matt 22:37). True success comes from seeking God and acknowledging him as sovereign (Matt 6:33), to the exclusion of all idols (1 Jn 5:21). For the people of Israel, success was directly tied to their obedience to God’s covenant (see Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68). The spiritual condition of Israel and its leaders had a dramatic impact on whether or not they would continue to receive God’s favor and maintain possession o...","summary_en":"True Success God requires complete devotion from his people (Deut 6:4-6; cp. Matt 22:37). True success comes from seeking God and acknowledging him as sovereign (Matt 6:33), to the exclusion of all idols (1 Jn 5:21). For the people of Israel, success was directly tied to their obedience to God’s covenant (see Lev 26:1-46; Deut 28:1-68). The spiritual condition of Israel and its leaders had a dramatic impact on whether or not they would continue to receive God’s favor and maintain possession o...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"9":[{"id":14655,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gospel","title_en":"Gospel","content_ro":"<h3>GOSPEL<\/h3>\nWord derived from the Anglo-Saxon godspell<\/em> denoting “glad tidings” or “good news.”<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• The Gospel Message of Isaiah<\/p>\n• The Gospel in the New Testament<\/p>\n• The Good News of Christ’s Coming<\/p>\n• The Gospel according to Jesus<\/p>\n• The Gospel after Jesus’ Resurrection<\/p>\nThe Gospel Message of Isaiah<\/p>\nOf all the passages cited, those of Isaiah provide the most important background for the gospel in the NT. According to Isaiah’s gospel, it is God alone who saves, and there is no explanation for his saving action except in his own nature. Israel’s deliverance is undeserved; she is no more worthy of the divine love now than when she went into captivity. In whatever measure she has paid the just due for her past sins (Is 40:2), she remains a sinful people (42:25; 46:12-13; 48:1). It is only by God’s grace that she is saved (55:1-7). By God’s design, Israel’s salvation depends not upon her own righteousness but upon his (41:10; 45:24; 46:13; 51:5-6). There being no righteousness to reward, the Lord acts to create<\/em> righteousness in Israel (45:8; 61:3, 10-11). Yet as these references indicate, salvation is not accomplished at the expense of justice. The penalty for Israel’s sins is to be paid in full. God’s mercy is not hereby called into question. On the contrary, it is precisely here that his mercy is most poignantly expressed, for the penalty is exacted not from his people but from the Servant appointed to stand in their place (53:4-12). Through the Servant’s work, many shall be justified (53:11). The coming of the Evangelist—the preacher of the good news—is predicted in Isaiah 61. He is called the anointed One (v 1) who proclaims the year of the Lord’s favor (v 2). God will be glorified through his preaching (v 3).<\/p>\nThe Gospel in the New Testament<\/p>\nIn only two places (Gal 3:8; Heb 4:2, 6) does the NT speak of the proclamation of the gospel prior to the Christian era. This is quite remarkable, given (1) the unmistakable presence of the gospel in the OT, (2) the extent of gospel terminology in the NT (in the Greek the noun appears 76 times; and the verb, 54), and (3) the fact that the NT presents Christ as the fulfillment of the OT and draws heavily on the OT to interpret his person and work. Not only is it remarkable; it is very significant. It indicates that the NT usage depends not only upon the character<\/em> of the message (truth about salvation) but also upon historical events.<\/em> Almost without exception, the NT restricts its application of gospel terminology to proclamations made during the time of fulfillment—the age in which the salvation promised in the OT is actually accomplished. The NT is preoccupied, not with promises of salvation, but with news of salvation. According to Mark 1:1-4, the gospel “begins” not in the OT but with John the Baptist, in whose work OT prophecy is fulfilled. In Romans 1:1-5 the gospel is represented as a blessing promised in the OT but not actually given until Jesus comes (see also Acts 13:32-33).<\/p>\nThe Good News of Christ’s Coming<\/p>\nThe promised birth of John the Baptist is good news (Lk 1:19), not only for his parents (vv 7, 24-25) but for all the people: John is sent to prepare them for Messiah’s coming (vv 14-17, 67-79). John’s own preaching is gospel (3:18) for the same reason. The Messiah would be coming to execute judgment, a process that involves both condemnation and salvation (vv 3-17). John’s message is gospel for sinners in that they are warned of impending doom and urged to repent before the ax falls (vv 7-9); it is gospel for the repentant in that they are promised forgiveness (v 3) and membership in Messiah’s community (v 17). The birth of the Savior himself is announced as good news bringing great joy (2:10-11).<\/p>\nThe Gospel according to Jesus<\/p>\n<h5>The Coming of the Kingdom of God<\/h5>\nJesus was authorized by God and anointed by the Spirit to proclaim the gospel (Mk 1:14; Lk 4:18). At the heart of his preaching stands the announcement “The time is fulfilled, and the kingdom of God is at hand; repent, and believe in the gospel” (Mk 1:15). (For further references to this gospel, see Mt 4:23; 9:35; 24:14; 26:13; Mk 8:35; 10:29; 13:10; 14:9; Lk 4:43; 8:1; 16:16.) The message is good news for several reasons: (1) The kingdom is coming. The God whom Jesus proclaims is sovereign over all he has made. Yet paradoxically his rule is incomplete: his will is not done on earth as it is in heaven; wrong, not right, prevails. But these conditions are not final, according to Jesus. With the coming of the kingdom, God’s rule will be completed; wrong will be judged, righteousness established, and his people blessed. (2) The kingdom is now<\/em> being inaugurated. “The time is fulfilled,” declares Jesus (Mk 1:15a). The time appointed for the fulfillment of the OT promises has arrived. (3) The consummation of the kingdom is therefore no longer a distant prospect; the full realization of God’s rule is “at hand” (Mk 1:15b). (4) God is establishing his rule for a saving purpose. This is implied in Jesus’ call to repentance (Mk 1:15c). It is especially clear in the passages to which we now turn.<\/p>\n<h5>The Salvation of the Poor<\/h5>\nInvited to read the Scripture in the synagogue at Nazareth, Jesus turns to Isaiah 61: “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, because he has anointed me to preach good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim release to the captives and recovering of sight to the blind, to set at liberty those who are oppressed, to proclaim the acceptable year of the Lord” (Lk 4:18-19, rsv<\/span>). Having read the prophecy, Jesus announces its fulfillment in his own ministry (v 21). Included among those whom Jesus has come to free are the physically infirm, such as the blind (v 18) and the leprous (v 27) (cf. the references to healing miracles in vv 23, 33-41; the close connection between evangelizing and healing in Mt 4:23; 9:35; 11:5; Lk 7:21-22; 9:6; and the description in Mt 12:22-29; Lk 13:11-16, of the physically afflicted as captives of Satan now liberated by Jesus). Also included are the materially poor—people like the widow helped by Elijah during the famine (Lk 4:25-26). It is the literally poor and hungry whom Jesus pronounces “blessed” in Luke 6:20-21. Yet it is primarily “spiritual” poverty that is in view. Still applying Isaiah 61, Jesus speaks in Matthew 5:3 of the “poor in spirit.” These are people broken and grieved by misery and poverty, oppression and injustice, suffering and death, national apostasy and personal sin—people who in their extremity turn to God and longingly wait for him to bring forth justice, bestow his mercy, and establish his kingdom. It is to just such people that Jesus brings good news (Mt 5:3-10). God sent him to usher in the kingdom, to rescue the lost, to liberate the enslaved, to cure the afflicted, to bind up hearts that are broken, and to forgive the guilty (Mk 2:5, 10, 17; 10:45; Lk 4:18-21; 7:48-49; 15:1-32; 19:10).<\/p>\n<h5>The Gift of Grace<\/h5>\nThe coming of the kingdom is not the effect or the reward of human effort but God’s answer to the human predicament—the gift of his favor (Lk 12:32). Correspondingly, the explanation for the salvation of the poor lies nowhere but in God’s own character. As the prodigal himself recognized, he hardly deserved to be his father’s servant, much less his son. Nothing he did, not even his repentance, accounted for the father’s love (15:11-32). In the parable of Matthew 20:1-16, it is owing entirely to the goodness of the employer that the last workers to be hired receive a full day’s wages. The first debtor in the story of Matthew 18:23-35 earned nothing but the right to be sold into slavery; instead, the king canceled his enormous debt. The publican, who had nothing to offer God but a confession of sin and plea for mercy, went home justified (Lk 18:13-14). The same holds true for the more virtuous among the poor, such as the persons described in Matthew 5:7-10. Their virtue is real, not imagined. Yet in keeping God’s commands, they do not put him in their debt; they are simply doing their duty (Lk 17:7-10). Furthermore, even the most merciful need divine mercy (Mt 5:7). For even those most zealous to obey God’s law are unable to fulfill all its requirements (cf. 11:28-30). The first servant in Matthew 18:23-35 owes far more money than someone in such a situation could possibly pay—which serves to magnify the generosity of the king. Grace depends for its exercise upon the inability of its objects (Lk 14:12-14).<\/p>\n<h5>The Call to Salvation<\/h5>\nThe Israelites are without exception a sinful people, all of them needing the salvation that Jesus brings (Mt 1:21; Lk 1:77). In demonstration of God’s grace, Jesus proclaimed his gospel to the entire nation (Mt 4:23; 9:35; 15:24; Lk 4:43; 9:6; 20:1). From the most respectable to the least, all are summoned to submit to God’s rule, all are invited to come and partake freely of the banquet he has spread (Lk 14:16-24). But the gift of salvation must be received if it is to be experienced (Mk 10:15). And while it is indeed a gift that costs nothing, it is also a priceless treasure for which a wise person will freely sacrifice everything else (Mt 13:44-46), a sacrifice exceeded only by the cost of rejecting the gospel (Mt 11:20-24; Mk 8:34-39; Lk 14:24, 33). “Repent and believe in the gospel,” Jesus commands (Mk 1:15). The self-righteous and the self-sufficient must be jolted out of their false sense of security and humbly recognize their need for God (Lk 6:24-26). Only then will Jesus’ message to the poor be seen as gospel. An announcement of liberation (4:18-19) is good news only to people who are enslaved and know they are. The command applies also to the destitute and the afflicted. Those among them who bemoan their lot must repent of their sins. But something further is needed for the response to be complete: a person cannot believe Jesus’ gospel without a commitment to the Person<\/em> of Christ (Jn 3:16). Even those who are already “poor in spirit,” in the sense defined earlier, are not really “blessed” until they acknowledge the truth of Jesus’ claims (Mt 11:6) and commit themselves to a life of obedience on his terms (7:21-27). This prepares us for the next point.<\/p>\n<h5>Summary<\/h5>\nThroughout Jesus’ earthly ministry, the theme of his gospel remains the dawning of God’s kingdom (Mt 4:23; 24:14; Lk 4:43; 16:16), a message that is preached almost exclusively to Jews (Mt 10:5-6; 15:24). Yet Jesus also provides glimpses into what the gospel was to become once his work on earth was accomplished: (1) In Mark 8:35 and 10:29 Jesus speaks of individuals who needed to make great sacrifices “for my sake and for the gospel.” While distinguished from each other, the person of Jesus and the gospel are here associated in the closest possible way. The time was approaching when the Proclaimer of the gospel would become the Proclaimed. (2) In Mark 13:10 and Matthew 24:14 (and the textually doubtful Mk 16:15) Jesus foretells the preaching of the gospel of the kingdom to the gentile nations. (3) In Mark 14, having interpreted a woman’s action (v 3) as an anointing of his body beforehand for burial (v 8), Jesus declares, “And truly, I say to you, wherever the gospel is preached in the whole world, what she has done will be told in memory of her” (v 9, rsv<\/span>; cf. Mt 26:13). This statement strongly implies that both the person of Jesus and the event of his death will figure prominently in the message that is to be proclaimed; otherwise, it is strange that the gospel and this particular act should be so solemnly bound together. Thus, here in the text already is an indication of how crucial Jesus’ death is both for the provision of the salvation announced in his gospel (cf. Mk 14:22-24) and for the launching of the evangelistic mission to the Gentiles (Mt 20:28 is vital for explaining the shift from Mt 15:24 to 28:18-20).<\/p>\nThe Gospel after Jesus’ Resurrection<\/p>\nAfter the resurrection of Jesus, the gospel was proclaimed by his eyewitnesses. The contents of this gospel are recorded in the book of Acts and in Paul’s letters. Of the 43 instances of euangelizomai<\/span> (“evangelize”) beyond the Gospels, 15 occur in Acts and 21 in Paul’s writings; of the 64 instances of euangelion<\/span> (“gospel”), 2 occur in Acts and no fewer than 60 in Paul.<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel of Christ<\/h5>\nHaving risen from the dead, Jesus Christ again evangelizes (Eph 2:16-17), doing so now through his appointed representatives (Rom 15:16-18; 1 Cor 1:17; 9:12-18; Gal 4:13-14; Eph 4:11; 2 Tm 1:9-11). More than that, Christ has become the central theme of the gospel; the Proclaimer is now the Proclaimed. This is repeatedly affirmed in Acts (5:42; 8:4-5, 35; 11:20; 17:18) and in Paul’s writings (Rom 1:1-4; 10:8-17; 15:19-20; 2 Cor 4:4-6; 11:4; Gal 1:16; Eph 3:8; Phil 1:15-18; 2 Tm 2:8). The NT always speaks of the gospel<\/em>—never the gospels—of Christ. A second gospel is as inconceivable and as unnecessary as a second Christ. This is the one gospel that God authorizes (e.g., Rom 1:1-17) and proclaims (e.g., 2 Thes 2:13-14). Galatians 2:7-9 speaks not of two gospels but of two mission fields. Paul (the apostle to the uncircumcised) and Peter (the apostle to the circumcised) are both entrusted with “the gospel of Christ” (Gal 1:7; cf. 1 Cor 15:1-11), the message that God has ordained for the salvation of Jews and Gentiles alike (Rom 1:16). The “different gospel” that Paul denounces in Galatians 1:6-9 and 2 Corinthians 11:4 is not another gospel about Jesus but a message about “another Jesus”—not the real one, but one who exists only in the minds and the messages of those who proclaim him. To preach the true Christ is to preach the true gospel, however questionable one’s motives (Phil 1:15-18, 27), and to respond rightly to the gospel is to turn to Christ (Acts 11:20-21; Rom 10:8-17; Gal 2:14-16).<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel as a Witness to Saving Events<\/h5>\nThe gospel bears witness to every aspect of Christ’s saving work, from his birth (Rom 1:3; 2 Tm 2:8) and public ministry (Mk 1:1; Acts 10:36-38) to his second coming (Col 1:5, 23; cf. 3:1-4; 1 Thes 1:5-10) and the last judgment (Rom 2:16). But it is the death and the resurrection of Christ that are most crucial for the accomplishment of salvation, and that are therefore most prominent in the gospel’s witness. These are the events with which Mark’s proclamation climaxes (chs 15–16), and for which everything else prepares (8:31; 9:31; 10:33-34; 12:6-8); special stress is placed upon Jesus’ death as the means of salvation from sin (10:45; 14:3-9, 22-24). In Paul’s gospel, too, the death and resurrection of Jesus are central (Rom 4:25; 1 Cor 15:1-4), with the cross occupying the very center (1 Cor 1:17–2:5). Had Christ not risen from the dead, Paul argues, the preaching of the cross would be a waste of time (1 Cor 15:14, 17; cf. Rom 6:3-11). However, now that Christ has risen, his death deserves special emphasis as the place where God provides atonement for sins (Rom 3:21-26; 5:6-11; 2 Cor 5:14-21; Eph 1:7). The gospel according to Acts proclaims Jesus’ death (Acts 8:25; 20:24, 28; cf. 10:36-43) and preeminently his resurrection, the event by which he conquered death and was exalted as Lord and coming Judge (10:36-43; 13:32-33; 17:18, 31). According to 1 Peter, the bearers of the gospel (1 Pt 1:12) concentrated, as had the OT prophets, on “the sufferings of Christ and the subsequent glory” (1:11; cf. 1:18-19; 2:21-24; 3:18-22).<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel as a Power for Salvation<\/h5>\nThe gospel is much more than a report of past events and an exposition of doctrine. Paul declares in 1 Corinthians 1:17-18 and again in Romans 1:16 that the gospel is “the power of God”—not merely a witness to his power but an expression<\/em> of his power. Thus, it cannot be fettered (2 Tm 2:8-9). “Our gospel came to you not only in word, but also in power,” Paul writes in 1 Thessalonians 1:5. His point is not that the gospel was accompanied by mighty works (though this happened; cf. Rom 15:18-19), but that the gospel itself is a mighty work. God makes it so through his Holy Spirit (Rom 15:18-19; 1 Cor 2:1-5; 1 Thes 1:6). Furthermore, God’s singular purpose in exercising his power is to change people’s lives, to liberate them from sin and death, and to reconcile them to himself—in short, to save them. The gospel has power to effect the salvation it announces and to impart the life it promises (e.g., Rom 1:16; 10:8-17; 1 Cor 1:17-18; 15:1-2; Eph 1:13; 2 Thes 2:13-14; 2 Tm 1:8-11; 1 Pt 1:23-25). If people are to experience salvation, they must hear and believe the gospel. It is precisely in and through this message that the saving power manifested in the person and work of Christ (especially in his death and resurrection) is conveyed to men and made effective in their lives. Similarly it is in association with the gospel, or as a direct result of the reception of the gospel, that the Holy Spirit is imparted to believers (Acts 10:36-44; 15:7-8; 2 Cor 11:4; Gal 3:1-2). In short, the gospel is the decisive place of encounter between the sinner and God the Savior.<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel of Grace<\/h5>\nAccording to Peter’s testimony at the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15:7-11), an essential part of the gospel—for Gentiles and Jews alike—is salvation “through the grace of the Lord Jesus.” Toward the close of his missionary career, Paul states that his basic concern has been “to testify to the gospel of the grace of God” (Acts 20:24, rsv<\/span>). This statement can be understood only in relation to Paul’s concept of the righteousness of God, particularly as set forth in Romans. Paul is here not merely expounding a divine attribute. Rather, he is dramatizing a divine activity—the manifestation of God’s righteousness now, “in the present time” (Rom 3:26), in the new age inaugurated by the coming of Jesus. The manifestation is twofold. Viewing the two aspects together, and doing so in the light of the gospel declared by Isaiah and by Jesus (both of whom strongly influenced Paul), respectively, will help us to understand why Paul speaks of “the gospel of the grace of God.”<\/p>\nFirst, the gospel is a witness<\/em> to God’s grace. In offering his Son as a sacrifice for sins (Rom 3:25a), God demonstrates his righteousness (vv 25b-26). That is, in the death of Jesus sins formerly “passed over” (v 25c) become the object of God’s wrath (cf. 1:18) and judgment. Yet in the very place where God deals justly and decisively with sins, he shows his grace to sinners. For the judgment against sin is focused not upon the sinners themselves but upon the One appointed to act on their behalf and to stand in their place (Rom 4:25; 5:6, 11; cf. 2 Cor 5:21; Gal 3:13). On this basis, sinners are freely pardoned (Rom 3:24). “The grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11) toward the sinful is also in evidence, for he willingly bears their iniquities and suffers the consequences of their wrongdoing (Gal 2:20; cf. 2 Cor 8:9; Phil 2:6-8).<\/p>\nSecond, the gospel is a channel<\/em> of God’s grace. “The righteousness of God is revealed” in the gospel, says Paul (Rom 1:17). By this he means, not that the gospel talks about the righteousness of God (though it does), but that God’s righteousness is actively at work in the gospel. This activity in turn explains how the gospel becomes “the power of God for salvation” (v 16). And just how does God demonstrate his righteousness at this stage? In short, by bestowing it as a free gift on sinful human beings. It remains the righteousness of God, but by God’s grace, it is a righteousness in which humans may share. Furthermore, partaking of God’s righteousness depends on being personally united with Jesus Christ. In Paul’s view the saved person is one who has been acquitted, justified, “declared righteous” by God the judge. The basis for the verdict is not that I in myself am righteous (God justifies the ungodly, Rom 4:5). Nor does God treat me as though I were righteous. According to Paul I am declared righteous because I really am<\/em> righteous—not in myself but in Christ (1 Cor 1:30; 2 Cor 5:21; Phil 3:9). This union is established through the revelation—and the free offer—of God’s righteousness in the gospel (Rom 1:16-17).<\/p>\n<h5>Responding to the Gospel<\/h5>\nThe gospel calls for a threefold response:<\/p>\n1. Believing.<\/em> The gospel, says Paul, is “the power of God for salvation to every one who has faith” (Rom 1:16). For Paul, faith is the abandonment of all reliance upon “works of law” for justification (3:28) and utter dependence upon the grace of God as demonstrated in the work of Christ, especially his death (v 25). Accordingly, the “different gospel” of Galatians 1:6 and 2 Corinthians 11:4 is spurious, for it preaches salvation by personal merit rather than (or together with) the work of Christ (cf. Gal 2:16). Ultimately faith rests upon God (Rom 4:24; 1 Thes 1:8-9) and upon Christ (Rom 3:22, 26; Gal 2:16, 20). Yet it is imperative that one believe the gospel also (Acts 8:12; 11:20-21; 15:7; Rom 1:16; 10:8-17; 1 Cor 1:17-24; Phil 1:27; Heb 4:2), for it is just by this means that God’s salvation is made known and mediated. Moreover, believing the gospel entails repentance (Acts 14:15; 20:21, 24; 1 Thes 1:5-10) and obedience (Rom 1:5; 15:16-18; Heb 4:6). Those who refuse to obey the gospel are imperiling their lives (2 Thes 1:5-10; 1 Pt 4:17).<\/p>\n2. Growing.<\/em> The Gospel is more than a message to be received—it is also a place in which to stand (1 Cor 15:1-2). It is sustainer of life as well as giver of life. One grows as a Christian not by turning from the gospel to other things (to turn away from the gospel is to abandon God and Christ, Gal 1:6), but by going ever more deeply into the gospel. In Romans 1:15 Paul expresses his eagerness to proclaim the gospel to the Christians in Rome. In the following chapters, anticipating his visit, he offers one of his most profound expositions of the gospel—one whose truth has never been fathomed and whose power has never been exhausted.<\/p>\n3. Hoping.<\/em> “The hope of the gospel” (Col 1:23) includes not only the return of Christ and the glory of heaven (Col 1:5; 3:1-4; 2 Thes 2:14-16) but the final judgment as well. For those who embrace the gospel, the last judgment holds no terrors, because the Judge is the very one who rescues them from the wrath to come (1 Thes 1:10). Those who are united to him need not dread condemnation now or at the end (Rom 8:1). Instead, the last judgment will mark their final vindication (1 Cor 4:5; Gal 5:5). Accordingly, this theme is not just a corollary but an integral part of the Good News (Rom 2:16). Those who have died since believing the gospel (1 Pt 4:6) may seem to have suffered a fate common to all people, or even the condemnation reserved for the lawless; in fact, their response to the gospel assures them of approval by the coming Lord (4:5-6; 5:4) and of a share in the imperishable inheritance of heaven (1:4).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GOSPEL<\/h3>\nWord derived from the Anglo-Saxon godspell<\/em> denoting “glad tidings” or “good news.”<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• The Gospel Message of Isaiah<\/p>\n• The Gospel in the New Testament<\/p>\n• The Good News of Christ’s Coming<\/p>\n• The Gospel according to Jesus<\/p>\n• The Gospel after Jesus’ Resurrection<\/p>\nThe Gospel Message of Isaiah<\/p>\nOf all the passages cited, those of Isaiah provide the most important background for the gospel in the NT. According to Isaiah’s gospel, it is God alone who saves, and there is no explanation for his saving action except in his own nature. Israel’s deliverance is undeserved; she is no more worthy of the divine love now than when she went into captivity. In whatever measure she has paid the just due for her past sins (Is 40:2), she remains a sinful people (42:25; 46:12-13; 48:1). It is only by God’s grace that she is saved (55:1-7). By God’s design, Israel’s salvation depends not upon her own righteousness but upon his (41:10; 45:24; 46:13; 51:5-6). There being no righteousness to reward, the Lord acts to create<\/em> righteousness in Israel (45:8; 61:3, 10-11). Yet as these references indicate, salvation is not accomplished at the expense of justice. The penalty for Israel’s sins is to be paid in full. God’s mercy is not hereby called into question. On the contrary, it is precisely here that his mercy is most poignantly expressed, for the penalty is exacted not from his people but from the Servant appointed to stand in their place (53:4-12). Through the Servant’s work, many shall be justified (53:11). The coming of the Evangelist—the preacher of the good news—is predicted in Isaiah 61. He is called the anointed One (v 1) who proclaims the year of the Lord’s favor (v 2). God will be glorified through his preaching (v 3).<\/p>\nThe Gospel in the New Testament<\/p>\nIn only two places (Gal 3:8; Heb 4:2, 6) does the NT speak of the proclamation of the gospel prior to the Christian era. This is quite remarkable, given (1) the unmistakable presence of the gospel in the OT, (2) the extent of gospel terminology in the NT (in the Greek the noun appears 76 times; and the verb, 54), and (3) the fact that the NT presents Christ as the fulfillment of the OT and draws heavily on the OT to interpret his person and work. Not only is it remarkable; it is very significant. It indicates that the NT usage depends not only upon the character<\/em> of the message (truth about salvation) but also upon historical events.<\/em> Almost without exception, the NT restricts its application of gospel terminology to proclamations made during the time of fulfillment—the age in which the salvation promised in the OT is actually accomplished. The NT is preoccupied, not with promises of salvation, but with news of salvation. According to Mark 1:1-4, the gospel “begins” not in the OT but with John the Baptist, in whose work OT prophecy is fulfilled. In Romans 1:1-5 the gospel is represented as a blessing promised in the OT but not actually given until Jesus comes (see also Acts 13:32-33).<\/p>\nThe Good News of Christ’s Coming<\/p>\nThe promised birth of John the Baptist is good news (Lk 1:19), not only for his parents (vv 7, 24-25) but for all the people: John is sent to prepare them for Messiah’s coming (vv 14-17, 67-79). John’s own preaching is gospel (3:18) for the same reason. The Messiah would be coming to execute judgment, a process that involves both condemnation and salvation (vv 3-17). John’s message is gospel for sinners in that they are warned of impending doom and urged to repent before the ax falls (vv 7-9); it is gospel for the repentant in that they are promised forgiveness (v 3) and membership in Messiah’s community (v 17). The birth of the Savior himself is announced as good news bringing great joy (2:10-11).<\/p>\nThe Gospel according to Jesus<\/p>\n<h5>The Coming of the Kingdom of God<\/h5>\nJesus was authorized by God and anointed by the Spirit to proclaim the gospel (Mk 1:14; Lk 4:18). At the heart of his preaching stands the announcement “The time is fulfilled, and the kingdom of God is at hand; repent, and believe in the gospel” (Mk 1:15). (For further references to this gospel, see Mt 4:23; 9:35; 24:14; 26:13; Mk 8:35; 10:29; 13:10; 14:9; Lk 4:43; 8:1; 16:16.) The message is good news for several reasons: (1) The kingdom is coming. The God whom Jesus proclaims is sovereign over all he has made. Yet paradoxically his rule is incomplete: his will is not done on earth as it is in heaven; wrong, not right, prevails. But these conditions are not final, according to Jesus. With the coming of the kingdom, God’s rule will be completed; wrong will be judged, righteousness established, and his people blessed. (2) The kingdom is now<\/em> being inaugurated. “The time is fulfilled,” declares Jesus (Mk 1:15a). The time appointed for the fulfillment of the OT promises has arrived. (3) The consummation of the kingdom is therefore no longer a distant prospect; the full realization of God’s rule is “at hand” (Mk 1:15b). (4) God is establishing his rule for a saving purpose. This is implied in Jesus’ call to repentance (Mk 1:15c). It is especially clear in the passages to which we now turn.<\/p>\n<h5>The Salvation of the Poor<\/h5>\nInvited to read the Scripture in the synagogue at Nazareth, Jesus turns to Isaiah 61: “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, because he has anointed me to preach good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim release to the captives and recovering of sight to the blind, to set at liberty those who are oppressed, to proclaim the acceptable year of the Lord” (Lk 4:18-19, rsv<\/span>). Having read the prophecy, Jesus announces its fulfillment in his own ministry (v 21). Included among those whom Jesus has come to free are the physically infirm, such as the blind (v 18) and the leprous (v 27) (cf. the references to healing miracles in vv 23, 33-41; the close connection between evangelizing and healing in Mt 4:23; 9:35; 11:5; Lk 7:21-22; 9:6; and the description in Mt 12:22-29; Lk 13:11-16, of the physically afflicted as captives of Satan now liberated by Jesus). Also included are the materially poor—people like the widow helped by Elijah during the famine (Lk 4:25-26). It is the literally poor and hungry whom Jesus pronounces “blessed” in Luke 6:20-21. Yet it is primarily “spiritual” poverty that is in view. Still applying Isaiah 61, Jesus speaks in Matthew 5:3 of the “poor in spirit.” These are people broken and grieved by misery and poverty, oppression and injustice, suffering and death, national apostasy and personal sin—people who in their extremity turn to God and longingly wait for him to bring forth justice, bestow his mercy, and establish his kingdom. It is to just such people that Jesus brings good news (Mt 5:3-10). God sent him to usher in the kingdom, to rescue the lost, to liberate the enslaved, to cure the afflicted, to bind up hearts that are broken, and to forgive the guilty (Mk 2:5, 10, 17; 10:45; Lk 4:18-21; 7:48-49; 15:1-32; 19:10).<\/p>\n<h5>The Gift of Grace<\/h5>\nThe coming of the kingdom is not the effect or the reward of human effort but God’s answer to the human predicament—the gift of his favor (Lk 12:32). Correspondingly, the explanation for the salvation of the poor lies nowhere but in God’s own character. As the prodigal himself recognized, he hardly deserved to be his father’s servant, much less his son. Nothing he did, not even his repentance, accounted for the father’s love (15:11-32). In the parable of Matthew 20:1-16, it is owing entirely to the goodness of the employer that the last workers to be hired receive a full day’s wages. The first debtor in the story of Matthew 18:23-35 earned nothing but the right to be sold into slavery; instead, the king canceled his enormous debt. The publican, who had nothing to offer God but a confession of sin and plea for mercy, went home justified (Lk 18:13-14). The same holds true for the more virtuous among the poor, such as the persons described in Matthew 5:7-10. Their virtue is real, not imagined. Yet in keeping God’s commands, they do not put him in their debt; they are simply doing their duty (Lk 17:7-10). Furthermore, even the most merciful need divine mercy (Mt 5:7). For even those most zealous to obey God’s law are unable to fulfill all its requirements (cf. 11:28-30). The first servant in Matthew 18:23-35 owes far more money than someone in such a situation could possibly pay—which serves to magnify the generosity of the king. Grace depends for its exercise upon the inability of its objects (Lk 14:12-14).<\/p>\n<h5>The Call to Salvation<\/h5>\nThe Israelites are without exception a sinful people, all of them needing the salvation that Jesus brings (Mt 1:21; Lk 1:77). In demonstration of God’s grace, Jesus proclaimed his gospel to the entire nation (Mt 4:23; 9:35; 15:24; Lk 4:43; 9:6; 20:1). From the most respectable to the least, all are summoned to submit to God’s rule, all are invited to come and partake freely of the banquet he has spread (Lk 14:16-24). But the gift of salvation must be received if it is to be experienced (Mk 10:15). And while it is indeed a gift that costs nothing, it is also a priceless treasure for which a wise person will freely sacrifice everything else (Mt 13:44-46), a sacrifice exceeded only by the cost of rejecting the gospel (Mt 11:20-24; Mk 8:34-39; Lk 14:24, 33). “Repent and believe in the gospel,” Jesus commands (Mk 1:15). The self-righteous and the self-sufficient must be jolted out of their false sense of security and humbly recognize their need for God (Lk 6:24-26). Only then will Jesus’ message to the poor be seen as gospel. An announcement of liberation (4:18-19) is good news only to people who are enslaved and know they are. The command applies also to the destitute and the afflicted. Those among them who bemoan their lot must repent of their sins. But something further is needed for the response to be complete: a person cannot believe Jesus’ gospel without a commitment to the Person<\/em> of Christ (Jn 3:16). Even those who are already “poor in spirit,” in the sense defined earlier, are not really “blessed” until they acknowledge the truth of Jesus’ claims (Mt 11:6) and commit themselves to a life of obedience on his terms (7:21-27). This prepares us for the next point.<\/p>\n<h5>Summary<\/h5>\nThroughout Jesus’ earthly ministry, the theme of his gospel remains the dawning of God’s kingdom (Mt 4:23; 24:14; Lk 4:43; 16:16), a message that is preached almost exclusively to Jews (Mt 10:5-6; 15:24). Yet Jesus also provides glimpses into what the gospel was to become once his work on earth was accomplished: (1) In Mark 8:35 and 10:29 Jesus speaks of individuals who needed to make great sacrifices “for my sake and for the gospel.” While distinguished from each other, the person of Jesus and the gospel are here associated in the closest possible way. The time was approaching when the Proclaimer of the gospel would become the Proclaimed. (2) In Mark 13:10 and Matthew 24:14 (and the textually doubtful Mk 16:15) Jesus foretells the preaching of the gospel of the kingdom to the gentile nations. (3) In Mark 14, having interpreted a woman’s action (v 3) as an anointing of his body beforehand for burial (v 8), Jesus declares, “And truly, I say to you, wherever the gospel is preached in the whole world, what she has done will be told in memory of her” (v 9, rsv<\/span>; cf. Mt 26:13). This statement strongly implies that both the person of Jesus and the event of his death will figure prominently in the message that is to be proclaimed; otherwise, it is strange that the gospel and this particular act should be so solemnly bound together. Thus, here in the text already is an indication of how crucial Jesus’ death is both for the provision of the salvation announced in his gospel (cf. Mk 14:22-24) and for the launching of the evangelistic mission to the Gentiles (Mt 20:28 is vital for explaining the shift from Mt 15:24 to 28:18-20).<\/p>\nThe Gospel after Jesus’ Resurrection<\/p>\nAfter the resurrection of Jesus, the gospel was proclaimed by his eyewitnesses. The contents of this gospel are recorded in the book of Acts and in Paul’s letters. Of the 43 instances of euangelizomai<\/span> (“evangelize”) beyond the Gospels, 15 occur in Acts and 21 in Paul’s writings; of the 64 instances of euangelion<\/span> (“gospel”), 2 occur in Acts and no fewer than 60 in Paul.<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel of Christ<\/h5>\nHaving risen from the dead, Jesus Christ again evangelizes (Eph 2:16-17), doing so now through his appointed representatives (Rom 15:16-18; 1 Cor 1:17; 9:12-18; Gal 4:13-14; Eph 4:11; 2 Tm 1:9-11). More than that, Christ has become the central theme of the gospel; the Proclaimer is now the Proclaimed. This is repeatedly affirmed in Acts (5:42; 8:4-5, 35; 11:20; 17:18) and in Paul’s writings (Rom 1:1-4; 10:8-17; 15:19-20; 2 Cor 4:4-6; 11:4; Gal 1:16; Eph 3:8; Phil 1:15-18; 2 Tm 2:8). The NT always speaks of the gospel<\/em>—never the gospels—of Christ. A second gospel is as inconceivable and as unnecessary as a second Christ. This is the one gospel that God authorizes (e.g., Rom 1:1-17) and proclaims (e.g., 2 Thes 2:13-14). Galatians 2:7-9 speaks not of two gospels but of two mission fields. Paul (the apostle to the uncircumcised) and Peter (the apostle to the circumcised) are both entrusted with “the gospel of Christ” (Gal 1:7; cf. 1 Cor 15:1-11), the message that God has ordained for the salvation of Jews and Gentiles alike (Rom 1:16). The “different gospel” that Paul denounces in Galatians 1:6-9 and 2 Corinthians 11:4 is not another gospel about Jesus but a message about “another Jesus”—not the real one, but one who exists only in the minds and the messages of those who proclaim him. To preach the true Christ is to preach the true gospel, however questionable one’s motives (Phil 1:15-18, 27), and to respond rightly to the gospel is to turn to Christ (Acts 11:20-21; Rom 10:8-17; Gal 2:14-16).<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel as a Witness to Saving Events<\/h5>\nThe gospel bears witness to every aspect of Christ’s saving work, from his birth (Rom 1:3; 2 Tm 2:8) and public ministry (Mk 1:1; Acts 10:36-38) to his second coming (Col 1:5, 23; cf. 3:1-4; 1 Thes 1:5-10) and the last judgment (Rom 2:16). But it is the death and the resurrection of Christ that are most crucial for the accomplishment of salvation, and that are therefore most prominent in the gospel’s witness. These are the events with which Mark’s proclamation climaxes (chs 15–16), and for which everything else prepares (8:31; 9:31; 10:33-34; 12:6-8); special stress is placed upon Jesus’ death as the means of salvation from sin (10:45; 14:3-9, 22-24). In Paul’s gospel, too, the death and resurrection of Jesus are central (Rom 4:25; 1 Cor 15:1-4), with the cross occupying the very center (1 Cor 1:17–2:5). Had Christ not risen from the dead, Paul argues, the preaching of the cross would be a waste of time (1 Cor 15:14, 17; cf. Rom 6:3-11). However, now that Christ has risen, his death deserves special emphasis as the place where God provides atonement for sins (Rom 3:21-26; 5:6-11; 2 Cor 5:14-21; Eph 1:7). The gospel according to Acts proclaims Jesus’ death (Acts 8:25; 20:24, 28; cf. 10:36-43) and preeminently his resurrection, the event by which he conquered death and was exalted as Lord and coming Judge (10:36-43; 13:32-33; 17:18, 31). According to 1 Peter, the bearers of the gospel (1 Pt 1:12) concentrated, as had the OT prophets, on “the sufferings of Christ and the subsequent glory” (1:11; cf. 1:18-19; 2:21-24; 3:18-22).<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel as a Power for Salvation<\/h5>\nThe gospel is much more than a report of past events and an exposition of doctrine. Paul declares in 1 Corinthians 1:17-18 and again in Romans 1:16 that the gospel is “the power of God”—not merely a witness to his power but an expression<\/em> of his power. Thus, it cannot be fettered (2 Tm 2:8-9). “Our gospel came to you not only in word, but also in power,” Paul writes in 1 Thessalonians 1:5. His point is not that the gospel was accompanied by mighty works (though this happened; cf. Rom 15:18-19), but that the gospel itself is a mighty work. God makes it so through his Holy Spirit (Rom 15:18-19; 1 Cor 2:1-5; 1 Thes 1:6). Furthermore, God’s singular purpose in exercising his power is to change people’s lives, to liberate them from sin and death, and to reconcile them to himself—in short, to save them. The gospel has power to effect the salvation it announces and to impart the life it promises (e.g., Rom 1:16; 10:8-17; 1 Cor 1:17-18; 15:1-2; Eph 1:13; 2 Thes 2:13-14; 2 Tm 1:8-11; 1 Pt 1:23-25). If people are to experience salvation, they must hear and believe the gospel. It is precisely in and through this message that the saving power manifested in the person and work of Christ (especially in his death and resurrection) is conveyed to men and made effective in their lives. Similarly it is in association with the gospel, or as a direct result of the reception of the gospel, that the Holy Spirit is imparted to believers (Acts 10:36-44; 15:7-8; 2 Cor 11:4; Gal 3:1-2). In short, the gospel is the decisive place of encounter between the sinner and God the Savior.<\/p>\n<h5>The Gospel of Grace<\/h5>\nAccording to Peter’s testimony at the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15:7-11), an essential part of the gospel—for Gentiles and Jews alike—is salvation “through the grace of the Lord Jesus.” Toward the close of his missionary career, Paul states that his basic concern has been “to testify to the gospel of the grace of God” (Acts 20:24, rsv<\/span>). This statement can be understood only in relation to Paul’s concept of the righteousness of God, particularly as set forth in Romans. Paul is here not merely expounding a divine attribute. Rather, he is dramatizing a divine activity—the manifestation of God’s righteousness now, “in the present time” (Rom 3:26), in the new age inaugurated by the coming of Jesus. The manifestation is twofold. Viewing the two aspects together, and doing so in the light of the gospel declared by Isaiah and by Jesus (both of whom strongly influenced Paul), respectively, will help us to understand why Paul speaks of “the gospel of the grace of God.”<\/p>\nFirst, the gospel is a witness<\/em> to God’s grace. In offering his Son as a sacrifice for sins (Rom 3:25a), God demonstrates his righteousness (vv 25b-26). That is, in the death of Jesus sins formerly “passed over” (v 25c) become the object of God’s wrath (cf. 1:18) and judgment. Yet in the very place where God deals justly and decisively with sins, he shows his grace to sinners. For the judgment against sin is focused not upon the sinners themselves but upon the One appointed to act on their behalf and to stand in their place (Rom 4:25; 5:6, 11; cf. 2 Cor 5:21; Gal 3:13). On this basis, sinners are freely pardoned (Rom 3:24). “The grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11) toward the sinful is also in evidence, for he willingly bears their iniquities and suffers the consequences of their wrongdoing (Gal 2:20; cf. 2 Cor 8:9; Phil 2:6-8).<\/p>\nSecond, the gospel is a channel<\/em> of God’s grace. “The righteousness of God is revealed” in the gospel, says Paul (Rom 1:17). By this he means, not that the gospel talks about the righteousness of God (though it does), but that God’s righteousness is actively at work in the gospel. This activity in turn explains how the gospel becomes “the power of God for salvation” (v 16). And just how does God demonstrate his righteousness at this stage? In short, by bestowing it as a free gift on sinful human beings. It remains the righteousness of God, but by God’s grace, it is a righteousness in which humans may share. Furthermore, partaking of God’s righteousness depends on being personally united with Jesus Christ. In Paul’s view the saved person is one who has been acquitted, justified, “declared righteous” by God the judge. The basis for the verdict is not that I in myself am righteous (God justifies the ungodly, Rom 4:5). Nor does God treat me as though I were righteous. According to Paul I am declared righteous because I really am<\/em> righteous—not in myself but in Christ (1 Cor 1:30; 2 Cor 5:21; Phil 3:9). This union is established through the revelation—and the free offer—of God’s righteousness in the gospel (Rom 1:16-17).<\/p>\n<h5>Responding to the Gospel<\/h5>\nThe gospel calls for a threefold response:<\/p>\n1. Believing.<\/em> The gospel, says Paul, is “the power of God for salvation to every one who has faith” (Rom 1:16). For Paul, faith is the abandonment of all reliance upon “works of law” for justification (3:28) and utter dependence upon the grace of God as demonstrated in the work of Christ, especially his death (v 25). Accordingly, the “different gospel” of Galatians 1:6 and 2 Corinthians 11:4 is spurious, for it preaches salvation by personal merit rather than (or together with) the work of Christ (cf. Gal 2:16). Ultimately faith rests upon God (Rom 4:24; 1 Thes 1:8-9) and upon Christ (Rom 3:22, 26; Gal 2:16, 20). Yet it is imperative that one believe the gospel also (Acts 8:12; 11:20-21; 15:7; Rom 1:16; 10:8-17; 1 Cor 1:17-24; Phil 1:27; Heb 4:2), for it is just by this means that God’s salvation is made known and mediated. Moreover, believing the gospel entails repentance (Acts 14:15; 20:21, 24; 1 Thes 1:5-10) and obedience (Rom 1:5; 15:16-18; Heb 4:6). Those who refuse to obey the gospel are imperiling their lives (2 Thes 1:5-10; 1 Pt 4:17).<\/p>\n2. Growing.<\/em> The Gospel is more than a message to be received—it is also a place in which to stand (1 Cor 15:1-2). It is sustainer of life as well as giver of life. One grows as a Christian not by turning from the gospel to other things (to turn away from the gospel is to abandon God and Christ, Gal 1:6), but by going ever more deeply into the gospel. In Romans 1:15 Paul expresses his eagerness to proclaim the gospel to the Christians in Rome. In the following chapters, anticipating his visit, he offers one of his most profound expositions of the gospel—one whose truth has never been fathomed and whose power has never been exhausted.<\/p>\n3. Hoping.<\/em> “The hope of the gospel” (Col 1:23) includes not only the return of Christ and the glory of heaven (Col 1:5; 3:1-4; 2 Thes 2:14-16) but the final judgment as well. For those who embrace the gospel, the last judgment holds no terrors, because the Judge is the very one who rescues them from the wrath to come (1 Thes 1:10). Those who are united to him need not dread condemnation now or at the end (Rom 8:1). Instead, the last judgment will mark their final vindication (1 Cor 4:5; Gal 5:5). Accordingly, this theme is not just a corollary but an integral part of the Good News (Rom 2:16). Those who have died since believing the gospel (1 Pt 4:6) may seem to have suffered a fate common to all people, or even the condemnation reserved for the lawless; in fact, their response to the gospel assures them of approval by the coming Lord (4:5-6; 5:4) and of a share in the imperishable inheritance of heaven (1:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"GOSPEL Word derived from the Anglo-Saxon godspell denoting “glad tidings” or “good news.” Preview • The Gospel Message of Isaiah • The Gospel in the New Testament • The Good News of Christ’s Coming • The Gospel according to Jesus • The Gospel after Jesus’ Resurrection The Gospel Message of Isaiah Of all the passages cited, those of Isaiah provide the most important background for the gospel in the NT. According to Isaiah’s gospel, it is God alone who saves, and there is no explanation for his...","summary_en":"GOSPEL Word derived from the Anglo-Saxon godspell denoting “glad tidings” or “good news.” Preview • The Gospel Message of Isaiah • The Gospel in the New Testament • The Good News of Christ’s Coming • The Gospel according to Jesus • The Gospel after Jesus’ Resurrection The Gospel Message of Isaiah Of all the passages cited, those of Isaiah provide the most important background for the gospel in the NT. According to Isaiah’s gospel, it is God alone who saves, and there is no explanation for his...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30249,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter to the Philippians","title_en":"Letter to the Philippians","content_ro":"<h3>PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the<\/span><\/h3>\nOne of Paul’s Prison Epistles.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date and Origin<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Theological Themes<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nPhilippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary.<\/p>\nDate and Origin<\/p>\nWhile it is clear that Paul was writing from prison (Phil 1:12-13), it is not clear where he was imprisoned. The most likely possibility is Rome, in which case the date would be around AD<\/span> 62. But some have thought that all the journeys implied in 4:14 and 2:25-26 make such a distant place unlikely (the Philippians hear that Paul is in prison and send a gift by Epaphroditus; Epaphroditus hears in Rome that the Philippians have heard that he has been ill). So the alternatives of Ephesus (c. AD<\/span> 55) and Caesarea (c. AD<\/span> 58) have been proposed. We know that Paul was imprisoned in Caesarea (Acts 23:33-35), but the greeting “from those of Caesar’s household” is difficult to explain if it was written there, in spite of the coincidence of name. Ephesus is certainly near enough to Philippi for plenty of interchange, but no imprisonment is recorded in the account of Paul’s ministry there in Acts. So we would have to assume that Luke’s account in Acts 19 is not complete and that Paul had been placed in protective custody at the time of the riot (see esp. 19:30-31). But such an imprisonment could hardly have led Paul to wonder whether his time “to depart and be with Christ” had now come (Phil 1:23). At the time of writing, he was clearly facing a capital charge.<\/p>\nThe traditional location (Rome) seems the most satisfactory, especially when one reflects that Paul was imprisoned there for at least two years (Acts 28:30), and that it took about three weeks to travel from Rome to Philippi.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nPhilippi had the distinction of being a Roman colony (Acts 16:12), a privilege accorded to only a few cities outside Italy. Some 90 years before the gospel arrived there (c. AD<\/span> 50), the city had been greatly expanded by large numbers of Roman soldiers, who were settled there by their commanding officers. As a consequence, the town acquired its coveted status as a colony, which meant that for all intents and purposes its citizens were treated as if they lived in Italy, and the town had a fully Roman administration. Paul alludes to this status in Philippians 3:20, where he teaches that Christians likewise are citizens of another city, the heavenly one, while yet residents elsewhere. It was a rich and busy place, one of the main centers of life in Macedonia, and consequently was “home” to the adherents of many different religions, from both east and west. There was a strong Jewish community there, as well as pagans of many sorts.<\/p>\nTheological Themes<\/p>\nIn a sense Paul’s imprisonment is not just background material but lies at the heart of the letter’s message. In his imprisonment he was experiencing the abasement that he mentions in 4:12, using there the same word found in 2:8 to describe the self-humbling of Christ unto death. The pattern of the ministry of Jesus described in the great “hymn” of 2:6-11—humiliation followed by glorification—becomes the pattern of Paul’s own life and of the vision he holds out before the Philippians. So alongside abasement and suffering, joy is the other great theme of the letter. Within suffering and self-sacrifice, true joy is born. In fact, Philippians could justly be titled “The Epistle of Joy.” Other prominent themes include the gospel, the Day of the Lord, and in addition to the famous “hymn” in chapter 2, a comparison of Paul’s Jewish past with his present Christian experience (3:4-16).<\/p>\n\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting and Opening Prayer (1:1-11)<\/h5>\nIn the opening paragraph of his letter, Paul presents the themes that will be uppermost in his mind throughout. His personal warmth toward the Philippians is immediately striking: “I have you in my heart. . . . I long for all of you” (1:7-8), and this thought of outgoing and suffering love undergirds the whole letter. It is notable, too, that the letter begins and ends with the themes of “grace” and of “the saints” (1:1-2; 4:21-23). The grace of Christ, which reaches out to sinful people and transforms them, separating them from the world, occupies Paul throughout. “The saints” are the ones who, touched by that grace, are transformed in heart and mind, so that their love abounds more and more in knowledge and depth of insight (1:9).<\/p>\nTwo more great themes appear here. The Greek word phroneo<\/span>,<\/em> “to think,” is used more in Philippians than in any other letter of Paul, no fewer than nine times (as against seven in Romans). Unfortunately, it is not uniformly translated in the English versions, and so it is hard for the English reader to notice its repeated appearance and the emphasis on the right use of the mind that goes with it. But for Paul this is vital: the way we think is at the heart of the Christian life, and in these opening verses he makes it clear that the love he feels for the Philippians is actually the Christian way of thinking about them (v 7: literally, “It is right for me to think this way about you”). This leads naturally to another emphasis—growth. For the “Christian mind” does not appear overnight. So Paul prays that this mind may grow, giving the Philippians powers of discernment that will transform their character and prepare them for “the day of Christ” (vv 10-11; cf. v 6).<\/p>\nFinally, we note in this opening prayer the twin emphases on the gospel and on fellowship—linked in Paul’s prayer of thanksgiving for the Philippians’ partnership in the gospel (v 5; cf. v 7)—and also the introduction of the great theme of joy (v 4). All three are vital to the whole letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul and His Imprisonment: Christ Exalted (1:12-26)<\/h5>\nPaul writes about his own situation to present the heart of his message. For when he writes, “For me to live is Christ” (v 21), he means more than that his every waking moment is taken up by fellowship with his Lord and service for him. He means also that, in his own person and experience, he displays Christ and “lives” him. Later he will say, “Keep putting into practice all you learned from me and heard from me and saw me doing” (4:9, nlt<\/span>). Few Christian ministers would dare make such a claim today! Yet Paul believed that, as an apostle of Christ, it was his privilege not just to speak on Christ’s behalf but also to live out Christ’s life in his own person, even if that meant suffering and humiliation.<\/p>\nThere are two historical difficulties here. First, it is hard to reconstruct the situation to which Paul refers in 1:12-18. The church in Rome (if that is where he is) was clearly divided about his imprisonment—some believers actually being glad that he was behind bars. It seems as though they were prompted by his imprisonment to get on with preaching their own version of the gospel. Far from being upset by this, Paul is delighted! “What does it matter?” he asks (v 18). Whether by friend or foe, Christ is being proclaimed in a new way as a result of his imprisonment (v 14). He was normally quick to defend the purity of the Word proclaimed, so these rivals of Paul could not have been heretics.<\/p>\nThe other historical difficulty surrounds verses 19-26. At one moment Paul seems not to know what the outcome of imprisonment will be (vv 19-21). Yet he then suggests that he can choose whether to live or die (v 22), and finally tells the Philippians that he is sure he will remain alive (v 25). The best explanation is that Paul believed he had received a personal assurance from the Holy Spirit that his imprisonment would not end with his execution.<\/p>\nAt any rate, his attitude about his own death is most moving. He expected deliverance, whether by life or by death (vv 19-20), and had an unshakeable confidence that to die is “better by far” (v 23), because it means being “with Christ.” This section ends with a note of joy.<\/p>\n<h5>The Life Worthy of the Gospel (1:27–2:18)<\/h5>\nThis section ends with “joy,” just as the last did, and its whole message is summed up in the opening exhortation of verse 27. Paul wanted the Philippians to be people in whom there is no gap between profession and practice, in whom the gospel believed is the gospel lived. The section falls into four portions, which might be entitled as follows: (1) 1:27-30—the worthy life in a hostile world; (2) 2:1-4—the worthy life in Christian fellowship; (3) 2:5-11—the gospel that inspires us; (4) 2:12-18—priorities for lives worthy of the gospel.<\/p>\nPaul refused to let the Philippians feel that he was worse off than they. He wrote, “We are in this fight together. You have seen me suffer for him in the past, and you know that I am still in the midst of this great struggle” (1:30, nlt<\/span>). For suffering at the hands of a hostile world is part and parcel of Christian discipleship. If we profess to believe a gospel about one who, though equal with God, left aside the glory of heaven and submitted not just to incarnation but also to a horrible death (2:6-8), then we must think of suffering not as an unfortunate necessity but as a privilege! “For you have been given not only the privilege of trusting in Christ but also the privilege of suffering for him” (1:29, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe essential quality the believers need, in order to face successfully the hostility of the world, is unity. They must be “standing side by side, fighting together for the Good News” (1:27), and believing one gospel will produce a united front against the world—and not a purely defensive front, either. The theme of unity continues into chapter 2, where Paul turns to life within the fellowship (2:1-4), as if to say that external unity before the world will not be possible unless their hearts and minds are truly united in one love, spirit, and purpose (v 2), whatever their outward situation. Such a unity will come only if there is tenderness and compassion among them (v 1). The lovely progression in verse 1 reaches a climax with this phrase, and that in turn leads into the famous “hymn” in 2:6-11. Such tenderness will not find its home in their hearts unless they believe the gospel about which the hymn sings.<\/p>\nWhether 2:6-11 was in fact a real hymn, sung in the context of early Christian worship, is now impossible to know for sure. Certainly Paul’s language here takes on a hymnic quality, though it is not in poetic form. Many scholars have thought that Paul did not write these verses himself but was quoting a well-known piece of liturgy. All one can say for certain is that his language changes in style, and he expressed here ideas that are unique in his writings.<\/p>\nThe hymn blends in with its context beautifully, and in fact forms the core of the whole letter. For we see here how the experience of imprisonment and deliverance, and of suffering and joy, is an entering into the experience of Jesus himself, who died and rose, was humbled and glorified.<\/p>\n<h5>Two Worthy Examples and Friends (2:19-30)<\/h5>\nPaul again writes about his own situation and plans, but as before, this section is not just concerned with practical arrangements. On the face of it, he was simply explaining why he was sending the letter by the hand of Epaphroditus instead of Timothy. But actually he was holding them up as practical examples of the life lived by the gospel, about which he had just written. Timothy “genuinely cares about your welfare” (2:20), because, unlike everyone else, he did not seek his own interests but those of Jesus Christ (v 21). He lived the gospel! He was committed to the work of the gospel (v 22). And Epaphroditus was the same, though in a different way. His union with Jesus was expressed not so much in his self-giving service for the gospel and his fellow saints, as in the illness that he suffered and the pains of separation that he endured. Like Jesus, he put his life on the line (v 30), and like Jesus, he was restored to life again (v 27). Now he was to be restored to his beloved Philippians, and the joy that they would experience together would be a further outworking of the gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>Pressing Forward and Standing Firm (3:1–4:1)<\/h5>\nThis section also begins and ends on the note of joy (3:1; 4:1)—not accidentally. The way of the cross that Paul describes is also the way of joy (cf. Heb 12:2). It begins and ends also with the address “dear brothers and sisters,” and this, too, is not accidental, for once again in this passage Paul writes about himself, and once again the underlying thought is that his experience is typical and that his readers should expect and seek to see the same pattern in their lives. He wrote, “Dear brothers and sisters, pattern your lives after mine, and learn from those who follow our example” (3:17, nlt<\/span>). Having put forward Timothy and Epaphroditus as examples in 2:19-30, Paul now does the same with himself.<\/p>\nThe tone seems to change dramatically in 3:2, as Paul turns to warn the Philippians against “those dogs,” who are probably the same as those to whom he refers in 1:28 as “your enemies.” There, he was much concerned about the inner foundation of the Philippians’ stand against them, so he did not specify who they were. But now he examines them more closely, in order to show the Philippians that the Christian life entails a complete reversal of the values held by their opponents.<\/p>\nIt seems that they were Jews, the sort in Acts 17:5 who opposed Paul’s ministry in nearby Thessalonica. They believed that they were God’s chosen race, but Paul thought that was nothing more than placing confidence in the flesh (Phil 3:4). They thought they knew the way of righteousness—it is the way of rigorous and disciplined obedience to God’s law in every detail of life. But Paul thought that was to seek a righteousness of one’s own (v 9), having nothing to do with the righteousness that God wants to give. The true way to be God’s people, he movingly insists, is the way of self-renunciation, so that all he previously held dear as a Jew came to be seen as rubbish (v 8), considered as loss for the sake of Christ (v 7). The only way to attain righteousness is through faith in Christ (v 9), for Christians must become like him in his death if they are to know the power of his resurrection (v 10). For Paul, dying with Christ meant not just suffering imprisonment and many other indignities for Christ’s sake but also renouncing all the prized possessions that his Judaism had given him.<\/p>\n<h5>Thinking, Rejoicing, Sharing (4:2-23)<\/h5>\nAgain, the tone changes suddenly (both at 4:2 and at 4:10)—so much so that some scholars have suggested that Philippians was compiled by an editor using several different letters. But when Paul turns (in v 2) to address Euodia and Syntyche, he was not really changing the subject. The link with the last section is the same as that between 1:27-30 and the first paragraph in chapter 2: how can Christians expect to be able to hold their own in the face of some enemies of the cross of Christ (3:18) if they are disunited and at odds with each other? For if there is just one gospel, disharmony between Christians means that the gospel is not having its full effect. So Euodia and Syntyche are urged (literally) to “think the same thing in the Lord” (4:2), and are then reminded of how they once found a wonderful unity in striving side by side in the cause of the gospel (v 3).<\/p>\nThe agreement that Paul urges them to come to does not mean complete identity of opinions on all subjects. It means a oneness of heart in a common love for Christ and the gospel. In the rest of the letter Paul spells out what this oneness means in practice—both what it should mean and what it has meant for the Philippians. The use of the mind is vital, and in verses 4-9 Paul paints a picture of the Christian life in which careful and intelligent prayer (vv 6-7) and the deliberate directing of the mind toward “whatever is true and honorable” (v 8) will produce a life marked by the two qualities of peace and joy, whatever the circumstances.<\/p>\nThat leads to the final paragraph, in which Paul gives thanks that, in spite of the disharmony evident in one part of the Philippian church, the church as a whole has already displayed this true Christian “mind.” For they have shown their oneness with Paul in the cause of the gospel by sending him a gift by Epaphroditus. “You have done well to share with me in my present difficulty,” Paul writes (4:14), and our thoughts go back again to the hymn in 2:6-11. From the gospel about the one who came from heaven to bear our burdens comes this mutual sharing—and so does Paul’s wonderful attitude to his circumstances: “I know how to be humbled [the same word as in 2:8], and I know how to abound” (4:12). Joined to Christ, we do not anxiously seek provision for our needs (v 17; cf. v 6), but share with him and with others whatever humiliation and exaltation he sends, confident that God will meet all our needs “from his glorious riches, which have been given to us in Christ Jesus” (4:19, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Philippi.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the<\/span><\/h3>\nOne of Paul’s Prison Epistles.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date and Origin<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Theological Themes<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nPhilippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary.<\/p>\nDate and Origin<\/p>\nWhile it is clear that Paul was writing from prison (Phil 1:12-13), it is not clear where he was imprisoned. The most likely possibility is Rome, in which case the date would be around AD<\/span> 62. But some have thought that all the journeys implied in 4:14 and 2:25-26 make such a distant place unlikely (the Philippians hear that Paul is in prison and send a gift by Epaphroditus; Epaphroditus hears in Rome that the Philippians have heard that he has been ill). So the alternatives of Ephesus (c. AD<\/span> 55) and Caesarea (c. AD<\/span> 58) have been proposed. We know that Paul was imprisoned in Caesarea (Acts 23:33-35), but the greeting “from those of Caesar’s household” is difficult to explain if it was written there, in spite of the coincidence of name. Ephesus is certainly near enough to Philippi for plenty of interchange, but no imprisonment is recorded in the account of Paul’s ministry there in Acts. So we would have to assume that Luke’s account in Acts 19 is not complete and that Paul had been placed in protective custody at the time of the riot (see esp. 19:30-31). But such an imprisonment could hardly have led Paul to wonder whether his time “to depart and be with Christ” had now come (Phil 1:23). At the time of writing, he was clearly facing a capital charge.<\/p>\nThe traditional location (Rome) seems the most satisfactory, especially when one reflects that Paul was imprisoned there for at least two years (Acts 28:30), and that it took about three weeks to travel from Rome to Philippi.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nPhilippi had the distinction of being a Roman colony (Acts 16:12), a privilege accorded to only a few cities outside Italy. Some 90 years before the gospel arrived there (c. AD<\/span> 50), the city had been greatly expanded by large numbers of Roman soldiers, who were settled there by their commanding officers. As a consequence, the town acquired its coveted status as a colony, which meant that for all intents and purposes its citizens were treated as if they lived in Italy, and the town had a fully Roman administration. Paul alludes to this status in Philippians 3:20, where he teaches that Christians likewise are citizens of another city, the heavenly one, while yet residents elsewhere. It was a rich and busy place, one of the main centers of life in Macedonia, and consequently was “home” to the adherents of many different religions, from both east and west. There was a strong Jewish community there, as well as pagans of many sorts.<\/p>\nTheological Themes<\/p>\nIn a sense Paul’s imprisonment is not just background material but lies at the heart of the letter’s message. In his imprisonment he was experiencing the abasement that he mentions in 4:12, using there the same word found in 2:8 to describe the self-humbling of Christ unto death. The pattern of the ministry of Jesus described in the great “hymn” of 2:6-11—humiliation followed by glorification—becomes the pattern of Paul’s own life and of the vision he holds out before the Philippians. So alongside abasement and suffering, joy is the other great theme of the letter. Within suffering and self-sacrifice, true joy is born. In fact, Philippians could justly be titled “The Epistle of Joy.” Other prominent themes include the gospel, the Day of the Lord, and in addition to the famous “hymn” in chapter 2, a comparison of Paul’s Jewish past with his present Christian experience (3:4-16).<\/p>\n\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting and Opening Prayer (1:1-11)<\/h5>\nIn the opening paragraph of his letter, Paul presents the themes that will be uppermost in his mind throughout. His personal warmth toward the Philippians is immediately striking: “I have you in my heart. . . . I long for all of you” (1:7-8), and this thought of outgoing and suffering love undergirds the whole letter. It is notable, too, that the letter begins and ends with the themes of “grace” and of “the saints” (1:1-2; 4:21-23). The grace of Christ, which reaches out to sinful people and transforms them, separating them from the world, occupies Paul throughout. “The saints” are the ones who, touched by that grace, are transformed in heart and mind, so that their love abounds more and more in knowledge and depth of insight (1:9).<\/p>\nTwo more great themes appear here. The Greek word phroneo<\/span>,<\/em> “to think,” is used more in Philippians than in any other letter of Paul, no fewer than nine times (as against seven in Romans). Unfortunately, it is not uniformly translated in the English versions, and so it is hard for the English reader to notice its repeated appearance and the emphasis on the right use of the mind that goes with it. But for Paul this is vital: the way we think is at the heart of the Christian life, and in these opening verses he makes it clear that the love he feels for the Philippians is actually the Christian way of thinking about them (v 7: literally, “It is right for me to think this way about you”). This leads naturally to another emphasis—growth. For the “Christian mind” does not appear overnight. So Paul prays that this mind may grow, giving the Philippians powers of discernment that will transform their character and prepare them for “the day of Christ” (vv 10-11; cf. v 6).<\/p>\nFinally, we note in this opening prayer the twin emphases on the gospel and on fellowship—linked in Paul’s prayer of thanksgiving for the Philippians’ partnership in the gospel (v 5; cf. v 7)—and also the introduction of the great theme of joy (v 4). All three are vital to the whole letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul and His Imprisonment: Christ Exalted (1:12-26)<\/h5>\nPaul writes about his own situation to present the heart of his message. For when he writes, “For me to live is Christ” (v 21), he means more than that his every waking moment is taken up by fellowship with his Lord and service for him. He means also that, in his own person and experience, he displays Christ and “lives” him. Later he will say, “Keep putting into practice all you learned from me and heard from me and saw me doing” (4:9, nlt<\/span>). Few Christian ministers would dare make such a claim today! Yet Paul believed that, as an apostle of Christ, it was his privilege not just to speak on Christ’s behalf but also to live out Christ’s life in his own person, even if that meant suffering and humiliation.<\/p>\nThere are two historical difficulties here. First, it is hard to reconstruct the situation to which Paul refers in 1:12-18. The church in Rome (if that is where he is) was clearly divided about his imprisonment—some believers actually being glad that he was behind bars. It seems as though they were prompted by his imprisonment to get on with preaching their own version of the gospel. Far from being upset by this, Paul is delighted! “What does it matter?” he asks (v 18). Whether by friend or foe, Christ is being proclaimed in a new way as a result of his imprisonment (v 14). He was normally quick to defend the purity of the Word proclaimed, so these rivals of Paul could not have been heretics.<\/p>\nThe other historical difficulty surrounds verses 19-26. At one moment Paul seems not to know what the outcome of imprisonment will be (vv 19-21). Yet he then suggests that he can choose whether to live or die (v 22), and finally tells the Philippians that he is sure he will remain alive (v 25). The best explanation is that Paul believed he had received a personal assurance from the Holy Spirit that his imprisonment would not end with his execution.<\/p>\nAt any rate, his attitude about his own death is most moving. He expected deliverance, whether by life or by death (vv 19-20), and had an unshakeable confidence that to die is “better by far” (v 23), because it means being “with Christ.” This section ends with a note of joy.<\/p>\n<h5>The Life Worthy of the Gospel (1:27–2:18)<\/h5>\nThis section ends with “joy,” just as the last did, and its whole message is summed up in the opening exhortation of verse 27. Paul wanted the Philippians to be people in whom there is no gap between profession and practice, in whom the gospel believed is the gospel lived. The section falls into four portions, which might be entitled as follows: (1) 1:27-30—the worthy life in a hostile world; (2) 2:1-4—the worthy life in Christian fellowship; (3) 2:5-11—the gospel that inspires us; (4) 2:12-18—priorities for lives worthy of the gospel.<\/p>\nPaul refused to let the Philippians feel that he was worse off than they. He wrote, “We are in this fight together. You have seen me suffer for him in the past, and you know that I am still in the midst of this great struggle” (1:30, nlt<\/span>). For suffering at the hands of a hostile world is part and parcel of Christian discipleship. If we profess to believe a gospel about one who, though equal with God, left aside the glory of heaven and submitted not just to incarnation but also to a horrible death (2:6-8), then we must think of suffering not as an unfortunate necessity but as a privilege! “For you have been given not only the privilege of trusting in Christ but also the privilege of suffering for him” (1:29, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe essential quality the believers need, in order to face successfully the hostility of the world, is unity. They must be “standing side by side, fighting together for the Good News” (1:27), and believing one gospel will produce a united front against the world—and not a purely defensive front, either. The theme of unity continues into chapter 2, where Paul turns to life within the fellowship (2:1-4), as if to say that external unity before the world will not be possible unless their hearts and minds are truly united in one love, spirit, and purpose (v 2), whatever their outward situation. Such a unity will come only if there is tenderness and compassion among them (v 1). The lovely progression in verse 1 reaches a climax with this phrase, and that in turn leads into the famous “hymn” in 2:6-11. Such tenderness will not find its home in their hearts unless they believe the gospel about which the hymn sings.<\/p>\nWhether 2:6-11 was in fact a real hymn, sung in the context of early Christian worship, is now impossible to know for sure. Certainly Paul’s language here takes on a hymnic quality, though it is not in poetic form. Many scholars have thought that Paul did not write these verses himself but was quoting a well-known piece of liturgy. All one can say for certain is that his language changes in style, and he expressed here ideas that are unique in his writings.<\/p>\nThe hymn blends in with its context beautifully, and in fact forms the core of the whole letter. For we see here how the experience of imprisonment and deliverance, and of suffering and joy, is an entering into the experience of Jesus himself, who died and rose, was humbled and glorified.<\/p>\n<h5>Two Worthy Examples and Friends (2:19-30)<\/h5>\nPaul again writes about his own situation and plans, but as before, this section is not just concerned with practical arrangements. On the face of it, he was simply explaining why he was sending the letter by the hand of Epaphroditus instead of Timothy. But actually he was holding them up as practical examples of the life lived by the gospel, about which he had just written. Timothy “genuinely cares about your welfare” (2:20), because, unlike everyone else, he did not seek his own interests but those of Jesus Christ (v 21). He lived the gospel! He was committed to the work of the gospel (v 22). And Epaphroditus was the same, though in a different way. His union with Jesus was expressed not so much in his self-giving service for the gospel and his fellow saints, as in the illness that he suffered and the pains of separation that he endured. Like Jesus, he put his life on the line (v 30), and like Jesus, he was restored to life again (v 27). Now he was to be restored to his beloved Philippians, and the joy that they would experience together would be a further outworking of the gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>Pressing Forward and Standing Firm (3:1–4:1)<\/h5>\nThis section also begins and ends on the note of joy (3:1; 4:1)—not accidentally. The way of the cross that Paul describes is also the way of joy (cf. Heb 12:2). It begins and ends also with the address “dear brothers and sisters,” and this, too, is not accidental, for once again in this passage Paul writes about himself, and once again the underlying thought is that his experience is typical and that his readers should expect and seek to see the same pattern in their lives. He wrote, “Dear brothers and sisters, pattern your lives after mine, and learn from those who follow our example” (3:17, nlt<\/span>). Having put forward Timothy and Epaphroditus as examples in 2:19-30, Paul now does the same with himself.<\/p>\nThe tone seems to change dramatically in 3:2, as Paul turns to warn the Philippians against “those dogs,” who are probably the same as those to whom he refers in 1:28 as “your enemies.” There, he was much concerned about the inner foundation of the Philippians’ stand against them, so he did not specify who they were. But now he examines them more closely, in order to show the Philippians that the Christian life entails a complete reversal of the values held by their opponents.<\/p>\nIt seems that they were Jews, the sort in Acts 17:5 who opposed Paul’s ministry in nearby Thessalonica. They believed that they were God’s chosen race, but Paul thought that was nothing more than placing confidence in the flesh (Phil 3:4). They thought they knew the way of righteousness—it is the way of rigorous and disciplined obedience to God’s law in every detail of life. But Paul thought that was to seek a righteousness of one’s own (v 9), having nothing to do with the righteousness that God wants to give. The true way to be God’s people, he movingly insists, is the way of self-renunciation, so that all he previously held dear as a Jew came to be seen as rubbish (v 8), considered as loss for the sake of Christ (v 7). The only way to attain righteousness is through faith in Christ (v 9), for Christians must become like him in his death if they are to know the power of his resurrection (v 10). For Paul, dying with Christ meant not just suffering imprisonment and many other indignities for Christ’s sake but also renouncing all the prized possessions that his Judaism had given him.<\/p>\n<h5>Thinking, Rejoicing, Sharing (4:2-23)<\/h5>\nAgain, the tone changes suddenly (both at 4:2 and at 4:10)—so much so that some scholars have suggested that Philippians was compiled by an editor using several different letters. But when Paul turns (in v 2) to address Euodia and Syntyche, he was not really changing the subject. The link with the last section is the same as that between 1:27-30 and the first paragraph in chapter 2: how can Christians expect to be able to hold their own in the face of some enemies of the cross of Christ (3:18) if they are disunited and at odds with each other? For if there is just one gospel, disharmony between Christians means that the gospel is not having its full effect. So Euodia and Syntyche are urged (literally) to “think the same thing in the Lord” (4:2), and are then reminded of how they once found a wonderful unity in striving side by side in the cause of the gospel (v 3).<\/p>\nThe agreement that Paul urges them to come to does not mean complete identity of opinions on all subjects. It means a oneness of heart in a common love for Christ and the gospel. In the rest of the letter Paul spells out what this oneness means in practice—both what it should mean and what it has meant for the Philippians. The use of the mind is vital, and in verses 4-9 Paul paints a picture of the Christian life in which careful and intelligent prayer (vv 6-7) and the deliberate directing of the mind toward “whatever is true and honorable” (v 8) will produce a life marked by the two qualities of peace and joy, whatever the circumstances.<\/p>\nThat leads to the final paragraph, in which Paul gives thanks that, in spite of the disharmony evident in one part of the Philippian church, the church as a whole has already displayed this true Christian “mind.” For they have shown their oneness with Paul in the cause of the gospel by sending him a gift by Epaphroditus. “You have done well to share with me in my present difficulty,” Paul writes (4:14), and our thoughts go back again to the hymn in 2:6-11. From the gospel about the one who came from heaven to bear our burdens comes this mutual sharing—and so does Paul’s wonderful attitude to his circumstances: “I know how to be humbled [the same word as in 2:8], and I know how to abound” (4:12). Joined to Christ, we do not anxiously seek provision for our needs (v 17; cf. v 6), but share with him and with others whatever humiliation and exaltation he sends, confident that God will meet all our needs “from his glorious riches, which have been given to us in Christ Jesus” (4:19, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Philippi.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the One of Paul’s Prison Epistles. Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Theological Themes • Content Author Philippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary. Date and Origin While it is clear ...","summary_en":"PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the One of Paul’s Prison Epistles. Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Theological Themes • Content Author Philippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary. Date and Origin While it is clear ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":58265,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:9","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:9","content_ro":"3:9<\/strong> Paul here summarizes the contrast between his understanding of salvation and that of his opponents (3:2). • Believers become one with<\/em> Christ by trusting him for salvation and sharing his life (cp. John 15:1-5). • We become righteous<\/em>,<\/em> not by observing the law of Moses, but through faith in Christ<\/em>. This is God’s way of making us right with himself:<\/em> Salvation cannot be earned, but only received as a free gift (see Rom 1:17; 3:21-26; 4:5-8; Gal 2:16; Eph 2:8-9).<\/p>","content_en":"3:9<\/strong> Paul here summarizes the contrast between his understanding of salvation and that of his opponents (3:2). • Believers become one with<\/em> Christ by trusting him for salvation and sharing his life (cp. John 15:1-5). • We become righteous<\/em>,<\/em> not by observing the law of Moses, but through faith in Christ<\/em>. This is God’s way of making us right with himself:<\/em> Salvation cannot be earned, but only received as a free gift (see Rom 1:17; 3:21-26; 4:5-8; Gal 2:16; Eph 2:8-9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:9 Paul here summarizes the contrast between his understanding of salvation and that of his opponents (3:2). • Believers become one with Christ by trusting him for salvation and sharing his life (cp. John 15:1-5). • We become righteous, not by observing the law of Moses, but through faith in Christ. This is God’s way of making us right with himself: Salvation cannot be earned, but only received as a free gift (see Rom 1:17; 3:21-26; 4:5-8; Gal 2:16; Eph 2:8-9).","summary_en":"3:9 Paul here summarizes the contrast between his understanding of salvation and that of his opponents (3:2). • Believers become one with Christ by trusting him for salvation and sharing his life (cp. John 15:1-5). • We become righteous, not by observing the law of Moses, but through faith in Christ. This is God’s way of making us right with himself: Salvation cannot be earned, but only received as a free gift (see Rom 1:17; 3:21-26; 4:5-8; Gal 2:16; Eph 2:8-9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85891,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:9","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:9","content_ro":"3:9<\/strong> Paul here summarizes the contrast between his understanding of salvation and that of his opponents (3:2). • Believers become one with<\/em> Christ by trusting him for salvation and sharing his life (cp. John 15:1-5). • We become righteous<\/em>,<\/em> not by observing the law of Moses, but through faith in Christ<\/em>. This is God’s way of making us right with himself:<\/em> Salvation cannot be earned, but only received as a free gift (see Rom 1:17; 3:21-26; 4:5-8; Gal 2:16; Eph 2:8-9).<\/p>","content_en":"3:9<\/strong> Paul here summarizes the contrast between his understanding of salvation and that of his opponents (3:2). • Believers become one with<\/em> Christ by trusting him for salvation and sharing his life (cp. John 15:1-5). • We become righteous<\/em>,<\/em> not by observing the law of Moses, but through faith in Christ<\/em>. This is God’s way of making us right with himself:<\/em> Salvation cannot be earned, but only received as a free gift (see Rom 1:17; 3:21-26; 4:5-8; Gal 2:16; Eph 2:8-9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:9 Paul here summarizes the contrast between his understanding of salvation and that of his opponents (3:2). • Believers become one with Christ by trusting him for salvation and sharing his life (cp. John 15:1-5). • We become righteous, not by observing the law of Moses, but through faith in Christ. This is God’s way of making us right with himself: Salvation cannot be earned, but only received as a free gift (see Rom 1:17; 3:21-26; 4:5-8; Gal 2:16; Eph 2:8-9).","summary_en":"3:9 Paul here summarizes the contrast between his understanding of salvation and that of his opponents (3:2). • Believers become one with Christ by trusting him for salvation and sharing his life (cp. John 15:1-5). • We become righteous, not by observing the law of Moses, but through faith in Christ. This is God’s way of making us right with himself: Salvation cannot be earned, but only received as a free gift (see Rom 1:17; 3:21-26; 4:5-8; Gal 2:16; Eph 2:8-9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113517,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:9","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:9","content_ro":"3:9<\/strong> Paul here summarizes the contrast between his understanding of salvation and that of his opponents (3:2). • Believers become one with<\/em> Christ by trusting him for salvation and sharing his life (cp. John 15:1-5). • We become righteous<\/em>,<\/em> not by observing the law of Moses, but through faith in Christ<\/em>. This is God’s way of making us right with himself:<\/em> Salvation cannot be earned, but only received as a free gift (see Rom 1:17; 3:21-26; 4:5-8; Gal 2:16; Eph 2:8-9).<\/p>","content_en":"3:9<\/strong> Paul here summarizes the contrast between his understanding of salvation and that of his opponents (3:2). • Believers become one with<\/em> Christ by trusting him for salvation and sharing his life (cp. John 15:1-5). • We become righteous<\/em>,<\/em> not by observing the law of Moses, but through faith in Christ<\/em>. This is God’s way of making us right with himself:<\/em> Salvation cannot be earned, but only received as a free gift (see Rom 1:17; 3:21-26; 4:5-8; Gal 2:16; Eph 2:8-9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:9 Paul here summarizes the contrast between his understanding of salvation and that of his opponents (3:2). • Believers become one with Christ by trusting him for salvation and sharing his life (cp. John 15:1-5). • We become righteous, not by observing the law of Moses, but through faith in Christ. This is God’s way of making us right with himself: Salvation cannot be earned, but only received as a free gift (see Rom 1:17; 3:21-26; 4:5-8; Gal 2:16; Eph 2:8-9).","summary_en":"3:9 Paul here summarizes the contrast between his understanding of salvation and that of his opponents (3:2). • Believers become one with Christ by trusting him for salvation and sharing his life (cp. John 15:1-5). • We become righteous, not by observing the law of Moses, but through faith in Christ. This is God’s way of making us right with himself: Salvation cannot be earned, but only received as a free gift (see Rom 1:17; 3:21-26; 4:5-8; Gal 2:16; Eph 2:8-9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141143,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:9","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:9","content_ro":"3:9<\/strong> Paul here summarizes the contrast between his understanding of salvation and that of his opponents (3:2). • Believers become one with<\/em> Christ by trusting him for salvation and sharing his life (cp. John 15:1-5). • We become righteous<\/em>,<\/em> not by observing the law of Moses, but through faith in Christ<\/em>. This is God’s way of making us right with himself:<\/em> Salvation cannot be earned, but only received as a free gift (see Rom 1:17; 3:21-26; 4:5-8; Gal 2:16; Eph 2:8-9).<\/p>","content_en":"3:9<\/strong> Paul here summarizes the contrast between his understanding of salvation and that of his opponents (3:2). • Believers become one with<\/em> Christ by trusting him for salvation and sharing his life (cp. John 15:1-5). • We become righteous<\/em>,<\/em> not by observing the law of Moses, but through faith in Christ<\/em>. This is God’s way of making us right with himself:<\/em> Salvation cannot be earned, but only received as a free gift (see Rom 1:17; 3:21-26; 4:5-8; Gal 2:16; Eph 2:8-9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:9 Paul here summarizes the contrast between his understanding of salvation and that of his opponents (3:2). • Believers become one with Christ by trusting him for salvation and sharing his life (cp. John 15:1-5). • We become righteous, not by observing the law of Moses, but through faith in Christ. This is God’s way of making us right with himself: Salvation cannot be earned, but only received as a free gift (see Rom 1:17; 3:21-26; 4:5-8; Gal 2:16; Eph 2:8-9).","summary_en":"3:9 Paul here summarizes the contrast between his understanding of salvation and that of his opponents (3:2). • Believers become one with Christ by trusting him for salvation and sharing his life (cp. John 15:1-5). • We become righteous, not by observing the law of Moses, but through faith in Christ. This is God’s way of making us right with himself: Salvation cannot be earned, but only received as a free gift (see Rom 1:17; 3:21-26; 4:5-8; Gal 2:16; Eph 2:8-9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"10":[{"id":42621,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Paul (Saul)","title_en":"Paul (Saul)","content_ro":"<h3>Paul (Saul)<\/h3>\nPaul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament.<\/p>\nPaul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roman citizens (which enabled him to also acquire Roman citizenship) and grew up in a traditional Jewish home. A tentmaker (or leatherworker) by trade, he was educated as a Pharisee by the well-known rabbi Gamaliel in Jerusalem. He became active in the violent persecution of Christians as a young man (Acts 22:3-5). But through a life-changing, personal revelation of the resurrected Jesus (9:3-6; 22:6-10), he was radically converted. He then dedicated the rest of his life to proclaiming Jesus as Savior and Lord throughout the Mediterranean world (see Gal 1:11-16). His dedication and hard work, especially among Gentiles (to whom he was specifically called), resulted in the founding of scores of churches during the first century. Most of his letters were written to these churches.<\/p>\nPaul’s belief in Jesus as the Jewish Messiah set him apart from his Jewish contemporaries. His vision of Jesus brought him to the realization that Jesus’ death and resurrection bring righteousness and life-transforming power to those who believe in him. Paul no longer understood righteousness in terms of the careful observance of the law of Moses, but as a gift from God to those who put their trust in Christ, the Savior who died for their sins (Rom 4:1-8). And he was convinced that this gift is for Gentiles as well as Jews.<\/p>\nPaul’s thirteen letters deal with a wide range of issues, such as salvation and what Christians believe about Christ (Romans, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians), specific problems in the church (1 Corinthians), the nature of Christian life and community (Ephesians, Colossians), and questions about Paul’s own authority as an apostle (2 Corinthians, Galatians). Some of his letters are intended to encourage young believers who are suffering for their faith (Philippians, 1 Thessalonians) or to correct false teachings (Galatians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians). Still others are written to individuals, giving specific advice related to their life and ministry (1–2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon). Together, these thirteen letters reveal much about the life of the earliest Christians and the problems they faced, and about Paul’s own grace-centered understanding of the Christian faith and life.<\/p>\nPaul’s letters, with their strong focus on Christ, reflect his all-consuming passion for Christ and his twin convictions that (1) salvation is given only to those who put their faith in Christ as Savior (Gal 2:16), and (2) every part of a believer’s life is to be devoted to serving Christ as Lord (Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:15). Of all the New Testament writers, it is Paul who spells out most clearly what salvation is (Rom 1–8) and gives us the fullest picture of the Christian life and Christian community. Paul’s letters also highlight the power of the Holy Spirit in believers’ lives (Rom 8:9-13; Gal 5:16-25; cp. Gal 2:20; Col 1:27). He encourages believers to pursue the high standard of a life that is truly like Christ (Rom 8:30; Eph 4:13, 15; 5:1-2). Believers are to live a life of love (1 Cor 13:1-13; Eph 5:2) and fully submit to Christ. Paul, more than any other New Testament writer, shows us how and why Christians must always find their deepest roots and motivation in the grace of Christ (Rom 12:1-2). For Paul, the whole of a believer’s life—and indeed, the entire universe—is centered in Christ and Christ alone; everything finds its true meaning only in relation to him (Col 1:15-20; 2:6–3:4).<\/p>\nLuke’s account of Paul’s missionary life, which spans a period of perhaps thirty years, begins with Paul’s preaching in Damascus shortly after his conversion (around AD<\/span> 32–35) and ends with his imprisonment in Rome (AD<\/span> 60–62). But the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy—Titus) appear to be dated to a later time, and reliable later traditions affirm that Paul was released from prison (around AD<\/span> 62) and continued his missionary activity. He was later rearrested, and after a lifetime of suffering as an evangelist for Christ, he was finally killed in Nero’s persecution of Christians around AD<\/span> 64–67. Paul’s desire, not only to suffer as Christ suffered but also to die as Christ died, was thus fulfilled—with the sure hope of one day being resurrected, just as Christ was resurrected (Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nActs 7:58–8:3; 9:1-31; 11:25-30; 12:25–28:31; Rom 1:1–16:27; 1 Cor 1:1–16:24; 2 Cor 1:1–13:14; Gal 1:1–6:18; Eph 1:1–6:24; Phil 1:1–4:23; Col 1:1–4:18; 1 Thes 1:1–5:28; 2 Thes 1:1–3:18; 1 Tim 1:1–6:21; 2 Tim 1:1–4:22; Titus 1:1–3:15; Phlm 1:1-25; 2 Pet 3:15-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Paul (Saul)<\/h3>\nPaul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament.<\/p>\nPaul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roman citizens (which enabled him to also acquire Roman citizenship) and grew up in a traditional Jewish home. A tentmaker (or leatherworker) by trade, he was educated as a Pharisee by the well-known rabbi Gamaliel in Jerusalem. He became active in the violent persecution of Christians as a young man (Acts 22:3-5). But through a life-changing, personal revelation of the resurrected Jesus (9:3-6; 22:6-10), he was radically converted. He then dedicated the rest of his life to proclaiming Jesus as Savior and Lord throughout the Mediterranean world (see Gal 1:11-16). His dedication and hard work, especially among Gentiles (to whom he was specifically called), resulted in the founding of scores of churches during the first century. Most of his letters were written to these churches.<\/p>\nPaul’s belief in Jesus as the Jewish Messiah set him apart from his Jewish contemporaries. His vision of Jesus brought him to the realization that Jesus’ death and resurrection bring righteousness and life-transforming power to those who believe in him. Paul no longer understood righteousness in terms of the careful observance of the law of Moses, but as a gift from God to those who put their trust in Christ, the Savior who died for their sins (Rom 4:1-8). And he was convinced that this gift is for Gentiles as well as Jews.<\/p>\nPaul’s thirteen letters deal with a wide range of issues, such as salvation and what Christians believe about Christ (Romans, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians), specific problems in the church (1 Corinthians), the nature of Christian life and community (Ephesians, Colossians), and questions about Paul’s own authority as an apostle (2 Corinthians, Galatians). Some of his letters are intended to encourage young believers who are suffering for their faith (Philippians, 1 Thessalonians) or to correct false teachings (Galatians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians). Still others are written to individuals, giving specific advice related to their life and ministry (1–2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon). Together, these thirteen letters reveal much about the life of the earliest Christians and the problems they faced, and about Paul’s own grace-centered understanding of the Christian faith and life.<\/p>\nPaul’s letters, with their strong focus on Christ, reflect his all-consuming passion for Christ and his twin convictions that (1) salvation is given only to those who put their faith in Christ as Savior (Gal 2:16), and (2) every part of a believer’s life is to be devoted to serving Christ as Lord (Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:15). Of all the New Testament writers, it is Paul who spells out most clearly what salvation is (Rom 1–8) and gives us the fullest picture of the Christian life and Christian community. Paul’s letters also highlight the power of the Holy Spirit in believers’ lives (Rom 8:9-13; Gal 5:16-25; cp. Gal 2:20; Col 1:27). He encourages believers to pursue the high standard of a life that is truly like Christ (Rom 8:30; Eph 4:13, 15; 5:1-2). Believers are to live a life of love (1 Cor 13:1-13; Eph 5:2) and fully submit to Christ. Paul, more than any other New Testament writer, shows us how and why Christians must always find their deepest roots and motivation in the grace of Christ (Rom 12:1-2). For Paul, the whole of a believer’s life—and indeed, the entire universe—is centered in Christ and Christ alone; everything finds its true meaning only in relation to him (Col 1:15-20; 2:6–3:4).<\/p>\nLuke’s account of Paul’s missionary life, which spans a period of perhaps thirty years, begins with Paul’s preaching in Damascus shortly after his conversion (around AD<\/span> 32–35) and ends with his imprisonment in Rome (AD<\/span> 60–62). But the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy—Titus) appear to be dated to a later time, and reliable later traditions affirm that Paul was released from prison (around AD<\/span> 62) and continued his missionary activity. He was later rearrested, and after a lifetime of suffering as an evangelist for Christ, he was finally killed in Nero’s persecution of Christians around AD<\/span> 64–67. Paul’s desire, not only to suffer as Christ suffered but also to die as Christ died, was thus fulfilled—with the sure hope of one day being resurrected, just as Christ was resurrected (Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nActs 7:58–8:3; 9:1-31; 11:25-30; 12:25–28:31; Rom 1:1–16:27; 1 Cor 1:1–16:24; 2 Cor 1:1–13:14; Gal 1:1–6:18; Eph 1:1–6:24; Phil 1:1–4:23; Col 1:1–4:18; 1 Thes 1:1–5:28; 2 Thes 1:1–3:18; 1 Tim 1:1–6:21; 2 Tim 1:1–4:22; Titus 1:1–3:15; Phlm 1:1-25; 2 Pet 3:15-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Paul (Saul) Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament. Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roma...","summary_en":"Paul (Saul) Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament. Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roma...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70247,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Paul (Saul)","title_en":"Paul (Saul)","content_ro":"<h3>Paul (Saul)<\/h3>\nPaul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament.<\/p>\nPaul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roman citizens (which enabled him to also acquire Roman citizenship) and grew up in a traditional Jewish home. A tentmaker (or leatherworker) by trade, he was educated as a Pharisee by the well-known rabbi Gamaliel in Jerusalem. He became active in the violent persecution of Christians as a young man (Acts 22:3-5). But through a life-changing, personal revelation of the resurrected Jesus (9:3-6; 22:6-10), he was radically converted. He then dedicated the rest of his life to proclaiming Jesus as Savior and Lord throughout the Mediterranean world (see Gal 1:11-16). His dedication and hard work, especially among Gentiles (to whom he was specifically called), resulted in the founding of scores of churches during the first century. Most of his letters were written to these churches.<\/p>\nPaul’s belief in Jesus as the Jewish Messiah set him apart from his Jewish contemporaries. His vision of Jesus brought him to the realization that Jesus’ death and resurrection bring righteousness and life-transforming power to those who believe in him. Paul no longer understood righteousness in terms of the careful observance of the law of Moses, but as a gift from God to those who put their trust in Christ, the Savior who died for their sins (Rom 4:1-8). And he was convinced that this gift is for Gentiles as well as Jews.<\/p>\nPaul’s thirteen letters deal with a wide range of issues, such as salvation and what Christians believe about Christ (Romans, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians), specific problems in the church (1 Corinthians), the nature of Christian life and community (Ephesians, Colossians), and questions about Paul’s own authority as an apostle (2 Corinthians, Galatians). Some of his letters are intended to encourage young believers who are suffering for their faith (Philippians, 1 Thessalonians) or to correct false teachings (Galatians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians). Still others are written to individuals, giving specific advice related to their life and ministry (1–2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon). Together, these thirteen letters reveal much about the life of the earliest Christians and the problems they faced, and about Paul’s own grace-centered understanding of the Christian faith and life.<\/p>\nPaul’s letters, with their strong focus on Christ, reflect his all-consuming passion for Christ and his twin convictions that (1) salvation is given only to those who put their faith in Christ as Savior (Gal 2:16), and (2) every part of a believer’s life is to be devoted to serving Christ as Lord (Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:15). Of all the New Testament writers, it is Paul who spells out most clearly what salvation is (Rom 1–8) and gives us the fullest picture of the Christian life and Christian community. Paul’s letters also highlight the power of the Holy Spirit in believers’ lives (Rom 8:9-13; Gal 5:16-25; cp. Gal 2:20; Col 1:27). He encourages believers to pursue the high standard of a life that is truly like Christ (Rom 8:30; Eph 4:13, 15; 5:1-2). Believers are to live a life of love (1 Cor 13:1-13; Eph 5:2) and fully submit to Christ. Paul, more than any other New Testament writer, shows us how and why Christians must always find their deepest roots and motivation in the grace of Christ (Rom 12:1-2). For Paul, the whole of a believer’s life—and indeed, the entire universe—is centered in Christ and Christ alone; everything finds its true meaning only in relation to him (Col 1:15-20; 2:6–3:4).<\/p>\nLuke’s account of Paul’s missionary life, which spans a period of perhaps thirty years, begins with Paul’s preaching in Damascus shortly after his conversion (around AD<\/span> 32–35) and ends with his imprisonment in Rome (AD<\/span> 60–62). But the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy—Titus) appear to be dated to a later time, and reliable later traditions affirm that Paul was released from prison (around AD<\/span> 62) and continued his missionary activity. He was later rearrested, and after a lifetime of suffering as an evangelist for Christ, he was finally killed in Nero’s persecution of Christians around AD<\/span> 64–67. Paul’s desire, not only to suffer as Christ suffered but also to die as Christ died, was thus fulfilled—with the sure hope of one day being resurrected, just as Christ was resurrected (Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nActs 7:58–8:3; 9:1-31; 11:25-30; 12:25–28:31; Rom 1:1–16:27; 1 Cor 1:1–16:24; 2 Cor 1:1–13:14; Gal 1:1–6:18; Eph 1:1–6:24; Phil 1:1–4:23; Col 1:1–4:18; 1 Thes 1:1–5:28; 2 Thes 1:1–3:18; 1 Tim 1:1–6:21; 2 Tim 1:1–4:22; Titus 1:1–3:15; Phlm 1:1-25; 2 Pet 3:15-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Paul (Saul)<\/h3>\nPaul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament.<\/p>\nPaul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roman citizens (which enabled him to also acquire Roman citizenship) and grew up in a traditional Jewish home. A tentmaker (or leatherworker) by trade, he was educated as a Pharisee by the well-known rabbi Gamaliel in Jerusalem. He became active in the violent persecution of Christians as a young man (Acts 22:3-5). But through a life-changing, personal revelation of the resurrected Jesus (9:3-6; 22:6-10), he was radically converted. He then dedicated the rest of his life to proclaiming Jesus as Savior and Lord throughout the Mediterranean world (see Gal 1:11-16). His dedication and hard work, especially among Gentiles (to whom he was specifically called), resulted in the founding of scores of churches during the first century. Most of his letters were written to these churches.<\/p>\nPaul’s belief in Jesus as the Jewish Messiah set him apart from his Jewish contemporaries. His vision of Jesus brought him to the realization that Jesus’ death and resurrection bring righteousness and life-transforming power to those who believe in him. Paul no longer understood righteousness in terms of the careful observance of the law of Moses, but as a gift from God to those who put their trust in Christ, the Savior who died for their sins (Rom 4:1-8). And he was convinced that this gift is for Gentiles as well as Jews.<\/p>\nPaul’s thirteen letters deal with a wide range of issues, such as salvation and what Christians believe about Christ (Romans, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians), specific problems in the church (1 Corinthians), the nature of Christian life and community (Ephesians, Colossians), and questions about Paul’s own authority as an apostle (2 Corinthians, Galatians). Some of his letters are intended to encourage young believers who are suffering for their faith (Philippians, 1 Thessalonians) or to correct false teachings (Galatians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians). Still others are written to individuals, giving specific advice related to their life and ministry (1–2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon). Together, these thirteen letters reveal much about the life of the earliest Christians and the problems they faced, and about Paul’s own grace-centered understanding of the Christian faith and life.<\/p>\nPaul’s letters, with their strong focus on Christ, reflect his all-consuming passion for Christ and his twin convictions that (1) salvation is given only to those who put their faith in Christ as Savior (Gal 2:16), and (2) every part of a believer’s life is to be devoted to serving Christ as Lord (Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:15). Of all the New Testament writers, it is Paul who spells out most clearly what salvation is (Rom 1–8) and gives us the fullest picture of the Christian life and Christian community. Paul’s letters also highlight the power of the Holy Spirit in believers’ lives (Rom 8:9-13; Gal 5:16-25; cp. Gal 2:20; Col 1:27). He encourages believers to pursue the high standard of a life that is truly like Christ (Rom 8:30; Eph 4:13, 15; 5:1-2). Believers are to live a life of love (1 Cor 13:1-13; Eph 5:2) and fully submit to Christ. Paul, more than any other New Testament writer, shows us how and why Christians must always find their deepest roots and motivation in the grace of Christ (Rom 12:1-2). For Paul, the whole of a believer’s life—and indeed, the entire universe—is centered in Christ and Christ alone; everything finds its true meaning only in relation to him (Col 1:15-20; 2:6–3:4).<\/p>\nLuke’s account of Paul’s missionary life, which spans a period of perhaps thirty years, begins with Paul’s preaching in Damascus shortly after his conversion (around AD<\/span> 32–35) and ends with his imprisonment in Rome (AD<\/span> 60–62). But the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy—Titus) appear to be dated to a later time, and reliable later traditions affirm that Paul was released from prison (around AD<\/span> 62) and continued his missionary activity. He was later rearrested, and after a lifetime of suffering as an evangelist for Christ, he was finally killed in Nero’s persecution of Christians around AD<\/span> 64–67. Paul’s desire, not only to suffer as Christ suffered but also to die as Christ died, was thus fulfilled—with the sure hope of one day being resurrected, just as Christ was resurrected (Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nActs 7:58–8:3; 9:1-31; 11:25-30; 12:25–28:31; Rom 1:1–16:27; 1 Cor 1:1–16:24; 2 Cor 1:1–13:14; Gal 1:1–6:18; Eph 1:1–6:24; Phil 1:1–4:23; Col 1:1–4:18; 1 Thes 1:1–5:28; 2 Thes 1:1–3:18; 1 Tim 1:1–6:21; 2 Tim 1:1–4:22; Titus 1:1–3:15; Phlm 1:1-25; 2 Pet 3:15-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Paul (Saul) Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament. Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roma...","summary_en":"Paul (Saul) Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament. Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roma...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97873,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Paul (Saul)","title_en":"Paul (Saul)","content_ro":"<h3>Paul (Saul)<\/h3>\nPaul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament.<\/p>\nPaul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roman citizens (which enabled him to also acquire Roman citizenship) and grew up in a traditional Jewish home. A tentmaker (or leatherworker) by trade, he was educated as a Pharisee by the well-known rabbi Gamaliel in Jerusalem. He became active in the violent persecution of Christians as a young man (Acts 22:3-5). But through a life-changing, personal revelation of the resurrected Jesus (9:3-6; 22:6-10), he was radically converted. He then dedicated the rest of his life to proclaiming Jesus as Savior and Lord throughout the Mediterranean world (see Gal 1:11-16). His dedication and hard work, especially among Gentiles (to whom he was specifically called), resulted in the founding of scores of churches during the first century. Most of his letters were written to these churches.<\/p>\nPaul’s belief in Jesus as the Jewish Messiah set him apart from his Jewish contemporaries. His vision of Jesus brought him to the realization that Jesus’ death and resurrection bring righteousness and life-transforming power to those who believe in him. Paul no longer understood righteousness in terms of the careful observance of the law of Moses, but as a gift from God to those who put their trust in Christ, the Savior who died for their sins (Rom 4:1-8). And he was convinced that this gift is for Gentiles as well as Jews.<\/p>\nPaul’s thirteen letters deal with a wide range of issues, such as salvation and what Christians believe about Christ (Romans, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians), specific problems in the church (1 Corinthians), the nature of Christian life and community (Ephesians, Colossians), and questions about Paul’s own authority as an apostle (2 Corinthians, Galatians). Some of his letters are intended to encourage young believers who are suffering for their faith (Philippians, 1 Thessalonians) or to correct false teachings (Galatians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians). Still others are written to individuals, giving specific advice related to their life and ministry (1–2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon). Together, these thirteen letters reveal much about the life of the earliest Christians and the problems they faced, and about Paul’s own grace-centered understanding of the Christian faith and life.<\/p>\nPaul’s letters, with their strong focus on Christ, reflect his all-consuming passion for Christ and his twin convictions that (1) salvation is given only to those who put their faith in Christ as Savior (Gal 2:16), and (2) every part of a believer’s life is to be devoted to serving Christ as Lord (Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:15). Of all the New Testament writers, it is Paul who spells out most clearly what salvation is (Rom 1–8) and gives us the fullest picture of the Christian life and Christian community. Paul’s letters also highlight the power of the Holy Spirit in believers’ lives (Rom 8:9-13; Gal 5:16-25; cp. Gal 2:20; Col 1:27). He encourages believers to pursue the high standard of a life that is truly like Christ (Rom 8:30; Eph 4:13, 15; 5:1-2). Believers are to live a life of love (1 Cor 13:1-13; Eph 5:2) and fully submit to Christ. Paul, more than any other New Testament writer, shows us how and why Christians must always find their deepest roots and motivation in the grace of Christ (Rom 12:1-2). For Paul, the whole of a believer’s life—and indeed, the entire universe—is centered in Christ and Christ alone; everything finds its true meaning only in relation to him (Col 1:15-20; 2:6–3:4).<\/p>\nLuke’s account of Paul’s missionary life, which spans a period of perhaps thirty years, begins with Paul’s preaching in Damascus shortly after his conversion (around AD<\/span> 32–35) and ends with his imprisonment in Rome (AD<\/span> 60–62). But the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy—Titus) appear to be dated to a later time, and reliable later traditions affirm that Paul was released from prison (around AD<\/span> 62) and continued his missionary activity. He was later rearrested, and after a lifetime of suffering as an evangelist for Christ, he was finally killed in Nero’s persecution of Christians around AD<\/span> 64–67. Paul’s desire, not only to suffer as Christ suffered but also to die as Christ died, was thus fulfilled—with the sure hope of one day being resurrected, just as Christ was resurrected (Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nActs 7:58–8:3; 9:1-31; 11:25-30; 12:25–28:31; Rom 1:1–16:27; 1 Cor 1:1–16:24; 2 Cor 1:1–13:14; Gal 1:1–6:18; Eph 1:1–6:24; Phil 1:1–4:23; Col 1:1–4:18; 1 Thes 1:1–5:28; 2 Thes 1:1–3:18; 1 Tim 1:1–6:21; 2 Tim 1:1–4:22; Titus 1:1–3:15; Phlm 1:1-25; 2 Pet 3:15-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Paul (Saul)<\/h3>\nPaul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament.<\/p>\nPaul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roman citizens (which enabled him to also acquire Roman citizenship) and grew up in a traditional Jewish home. A tentmaker (or leatherworker) by trade, he was educated as a Pharisee by the well-known rabbi Gamaliel in Jerusalem. He became active in the violent persecution of Christians as a young man (Acts 22:3-5). But through a life-changing, personal revelation of the resurrected Jesus (9:3-6; 22:6-10), he was radically converted. He then dedicated the rest of his life to proclaiming Jesus as Savior and Lord throughout the Mediterranean world (see Gal 1:11-16). His dedication and hard work, especially among Gentiles (to whom he was specifically called), resulted in the founding of scores of churches during the first century. Most of his letters were written to these churches.<\/p>\nPaul’s belief in Jesus as the Jewish Messiah set him apart from his Jewish contemporaries. His vision of Jesus brought him to the realization that Jesus’ death and resurrection bring righteousness and life-transforming power to those who believe in him. Paul no longer understood righteousness in terms of the careful observance of the law of Moses, but as a gift from God to those who put their trust in Christ, the Savior who died for their sins (Rom 4:1-8). And he was convinced that this gift is for Gentiles as well as Jews.<\/p>\nPaul’s thirteen letters deal with a wide range of issues, such as salvation and what Christians believe about Christ (Romans, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians), specific problems in the church (1 Corinthians), the nature of Christian life and community (Ephesians, Colossians), and questions about Paul’s own authority as an apostle (2 Corinthians, Galatians). Some of his letters are intended to encourage young believers who are suffering for their faith (Philippians, 1 Thessalonians) or to correct false teachings (Galatians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians). Still others are written to individuals, giving specific advice related to their life and ministry (1–2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon). Together, these thirteen letters reveal much about the life of the earliest Christians and the problems they faced, and about Paul’s own grace-centered understanding of the Christian faith and life.<\/p>\nPaul’s letters, with their strong focus on Christ, reflect his all-consuming passion for Christ and his twin convictions that (1) salvation is given only to those who put their faith in Christ as Savior (Gal 2:16), and (2) every part of a believer’s life is to be devoted to serving Christ as Lord (Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:15). Of all the New Testament writers, it is Paul who spells out most clearly what salvation is (Rom 1–8) and gives us the fullest picture of the Christian life and Christian community. Paul’s letters also highlight the power of the Holy Spirit in believers’ lives (Rom 8:9-13; Gal 5:16-25; cp. Gal 2:20; Col 1:27). He encourages believers to pursue the high standard of a life that is truly like Christ (Rom 8:30; Eph 4:13, 15; 5:1-2). Believers are to live a life of love (1 Cor 13:1-13; Eph 5:2) and fully submit to Christ. Paul, more than any other New Testament writer, shows us how and why Christians must always find their deepest roots and motivation in the grace of Christ (Rom 12:1-2). For Paul, the whole of a believer’s life—and indeed, the entire universe—is centered in Christ and Christ alone; everything finds its true meaning only in relation to him (Col 1:15-20; 2:6–3:4).<\/p>\nLuke’s account of Paul’s missionary life, which spans a period of perhaps thirty years, begins with Paul’s preaching in Damascus shortly after his conversion (around AD<\/span> 32–35) and ends with his imprisonment in Rome (AD<\/span> 60–62). But the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy—Titus) appear to be dated to a later time, and reliable later traditions affirm that Paul was released from prison (around AD<\/span> 62) and continued his missionary activity. He was later rearrested, and after a lifetime of suffering as an evangelist for Christ, he was finally killed in Nero’s persecution of Christians around AD<\/span> 64–67. Paul’s desire, not only to suffer as Christ suffered but also to die as Christ died, was thus fulfilled—with the sure hope of one day being resurrected, just as Christ was resurrected (Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nActs 7:58–8:3; 9:1-31; 11:25-30; 12:25–28:31; Rom 1:1–16:27; 1 Cor 1:1–16:24; 2 Cor 1:1–13:14; Gal 1:1–6:18; Eph 1:1–6:24; Phil 1:1–4:23; Col 1:1–4:18; 1 Thes 1:1–5:28; 2 Thes 1:1–3:18; 1 Tim 1:1–6:21; 2 Tim 1:1–4:22; Titus 1:1–3:15; Phlm 1:1-25; 2 Pet 3:15-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Paul (Saul) Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament. Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roma...","summary_en":"Paul (Saul) Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament. Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roma...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":125499,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Paul (Saul)","title_en":"Paul (Saul)","content_ro":"<h3>Paul (Saul)<\/h3>\nPaul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament.<\/p>\nPaul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roman citizens (which enabled him to also acquire Roman citizenship) and grew up in a traditional Jewish home. A tentmaker (or leatherworker) by trade, he was educated as a Pharisee by the well-known rabbi Gamaliel in Jerusalem. He became active in the violent persecution of Christians as a young man (Acts 22:3-5). But through a life-changing, personal revelation of the resurrected Jesus (9:3-6; 22:6-10), he was radically converted. He then dedicated the rest of his life to proclaiming Jesus as Savior and Lord throughout the Mediterranean world (see Gal 1:11-16). His dedication and hard work, especially among Gentiles (to whom he was specifically called), resulted in the founding of scores of churches during the first century. Most of his letters were written to these churches.<\/p>\nPaul’s belief in Jesus as the Jewish Messiah set him apart from his Jewish contemporaries. His vision of Jesus brought him to the realization that Jesus’ death and resurrection bring righteousness and life-transforming power to those who believe in him. Paul no longer understood righteousness in terms of the careful observance of the law of Moses, but as a gift from God to those who put their trust in Christ, the Savior who died for their sins (Rom 4:1-8). And he was convinced that this gift is for Gentiles as well as Jews.<\/p>\nPaul’s thirteen letters deal with a wide range of issues, such as salvation and what Christians believe about Christ (Romans, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians), specific problems in the church (1 Corinthians), the nature of Christian life and community (Ephesians, Colossians), and questions about Paul’s own authority as an apostle (2 Corinthians, Galatians). Some of his letters are intended to encourage young believers who are suffering for their faith (Philippians, 1 Thessalonians) or to correct false teachings (Galatians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians). Still others are written to individuals, giving specific advice related to their life and ministry (1–2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon). Together, these thirteen letters reveal much about the life of the earliest Christians and the problems they faced, and about Paul’s own grace-centered understanding of the Christian faith and life.<\/p>\nPaul’s letters, with their strong focus on Christ, reflect his all-consuming passion for Christ and his twin convictions that (1) salvation is given only to those who put their faith in Christ as Savior (Gal 2:16), and (2) every part of a believer’s life is to be devoted to serving Christ as Lord (Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:15). Of all the New Testament writers, it is Paul who spells out most clearly what salvation is (Rom 1–8) and gives us the fullest picture of the Christian life and Christian community. Paul’s letters also highlight the power of the Holy Spirit in believers’ lives (Rom 8:9-13; Gal 5:16-25; cp. Gal 2:20; Col 1:27). He encourages believers to pursue the high standard of a life that is truly like Christ (Rom 8:30; Eph 4:13, 15; 5:1-2). Believers are to live a life of love (1 Cor 13:1-13; Eph 5:2) and fully submit to Christ. Paul, more than any other New Testament writer, shows us how and why Christians must always find their deepest roots and motivation in the grace of Christ (Rom 12:1-2). For Paul, the whole of a believer’s life—and indeed, the entire universe—is centered in Christ and Christ alone; everything finds its true meaning only in relation to him (Col 1:15-20; 2:6–3:4).<\/p>\nLuke’s account of Paul’s missionary life, which spans a period of perhaps thirty years, begins with Paul’s preaching in Damascus shortly after his conversion (around AD<\/span> 32–35) and ends with his imprisonment in Rome (AD<\/span> 60–62). But the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy—Titus) appear to be dated to a later time, and reliable later traditions affirm that Paul was released from prison (around AD<\/span> 62) and continued his missionary activity. He was later rearrested, and after a lifetime of suffering as an evangelist for Christ, he was finally killed in Nero’s persecution of Christians around AD<\/span> 64–67. Paul’s desire, not only to suffer as Christ suffered but also to die as Christ died, was thus fulfilled—with the sure hope of one day being resurrected, just as Christ was resurrected (Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nActs 7:58–8:3; 9:1-31; 11:25-30; 12:25–28:31; Rom 1:1–16:27; 1 Cor 1:1–16:24; 2 Cor 1:1–13:14; Gal 1:1–6:18; Eph 1:1–6:24; Phil 1:1–4:23; Col 1:1–4:18; 1 Thes 1:1–5:28; 2 Thes 1:1–3:18; 1 Tim 1:1–6:21; 2 Tim 1:1–4:22; Titus 1:1–3:15; Phlm 1:1-25; 2 Pet 3:15-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Paul (Saul)<\/h3>\nPaul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament.<\/p>\nPaul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roman citizens (which enabled him to also acquire Roman citizenship) and grew up in a traditional Jewish home. A tentmaker (or leatherworker) by trade, he was educated as a Pharisee by the well-known rabbi Gamaliel in Jerusalem. He became active in the violent persecution of Christians as a young man (Acts 22:3-5). But through a life-changing, personal revelation of the resurrected Jesus (9:3-6; 22:6-10), he was radically converted. He then dedicated the rest of his life to proclaiming Jesus as Savior and Lord throughout the Mediterranean world (see Gal 1:11-16). His dedication and hard work, especially among Gentiles (to whom he was specifically called), resulted in the founding of scores of churches during the first century. Most of his letters were written to these churches.<\/p>\nPaul’s belief in Jesus as the Jewish Messiah set him apart from his Jewish contemporaries. His vision of Jesus brought him to the realization that Jesus’ death and resurrection bring righteousness and life-transforming power to those who believe in him. Paul no longer understood righteousness in terms of the careful observance of the law of Moses, but as a gift from God to those who put their trust in Christ, the Savior who died for their sins (Rom 4:1-8). And he was convinced that this gift is for Gentiles as well as Jews.<\/p>\nPaul’s thirteen letters deal with a wide range of issues, such as salvation and what Christians believe about Christ (Romans, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians), specific problems in the church (1 Corinthians), the nature of Christian life and community (Ephesians, Colossians), and questions about Paul’s own authority as an apostle (2 Corinthians, Galatians). Some of his letters are intended to encourage young believers who are suffering for their faith (Philippians, 1 Thessalonians) or to correct false teachings (Galatians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians). Still others are written to individuals, giving specific advice related to their life and ministry (1–2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon). Together, these thirteen letters reveal much about the life of the earliest Christians and the problems they faced, and about Paul’s own grace-centered understanding of the Christian faith and life.<\/p>\nPaul’s letters, with their strong focus on Christ, reflect his all-consuming passion for Christ and his twin convictions that (1) salvation is given only to those who put their faith in Christ as Savior (Gal 2:16), and (2) every part of a believer’s life is to be devoted to serving Christ as Lord (Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:15). Of all the New Testament writers, it is Paul who spells out most clearly what salvation is (Rom 1–8) and gives us the fullest picture of the Christian life and Christian community. Paul’s letters also highlight the power of the Holy Spirit in believers’ lives (Rom 8:9-13; Gal 5:16-25; cp. Gal 2:20; Col 1:27). He encourages believers to pursue the high standard of a life that is truly like Christ (Rom 8:30; Eph 4:13, 15; 5:1-2). Believers are to live a life of love (1 Cor 13:1-13; Eph 5:2) and fully submit to Christ. Paul, more than any other New Testament writer, shows us how and why Christians must always find their deepest roots and motivation in the grace of Christ (Rom 12:1-2). For Paul, the whole of a believer’s life—and indeed, the entire universe—is centered in Christ and Christ alone; everything finds its true meaning only in relation to him (Col 1:15-20; 2:6–3:4).<\/p>\nLuke’s account of Paul’s missionary life, which spans a period of perhaps thirty years, begins with Paul’s preaching in Damascus shortly after his conversion (around AD<\/span> 32–35) and ends with his imprisonment in Rome (AD<\/span> 60–62). But the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy—Titus) appear to be dated to a later time, and reliable later traditions affirm that Paul was released from prison (around AD<\/span> 62) and continued his missionary activity. He was later rearrested, and after a lifetime of suffering as an evangelist for Christ, he was finally killed in Nero’s persecution of Christians around AD<\/span> 64–67. Paul’s desire, not only to suffer as Christ suffered but also to die as Christ died, was thus fulfilled—with the sure hope of one day being resurrected, just as Christ was resurrected (Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nActs 7:58–8:3; 9:1-31; 11:25-30; 12:25–28:31; Rom 1:1–16:27; 1 Cor 1:1–16:24; 2 Cor 1:1–13:14; Gal 1:1–6:18; Eph 1:1–6:24; Phil 1:1–4:23; Col 1:1–4:18; 1 Thes 1:1–5:28; 2 Thes 1:1–3:18; 1 Tim 1:1–6:21; 2 Tim 1:1–4:22; Titus 1:1–3:15; Phlm 1:1-25; 2 Pet 3:15-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Paul (Saul) Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament. Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roma...","summary_en":"Paul (Saul) Paul was a leading persecutor of the early Christians who later became an apostle of Jesus Christ, the most illustrious of the early Christian missionaries, and the great apostle to the Gentiles. He has done more to shape Christianity than any other individual except Christ himself. We know about him from Luke’s account of his conversion and ministry in Acts and from the thirteen letters bearing his name in the New Testament. Paul was born in Tarsus to Jewish parents who were Roma...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":3727,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"of Fire*, Baptism","title_en":"of Fire*, Baptism","content_ro":"<h3>BAPTISM OF FIRE*<\/h3>\nMetaphor coined by John the Baptist. John was looking for the coming of One who would “baptize in Spirit and fire” (Mt 3:11; Lk 3:16). The context makes clear that fire in that phrase denotes judgment, a judgment that would presumably purify the penitent (cf. Is 4:4; Mal 3:2-3) as well as destroy the impenitent (Mal 4:1; Mt 3:10,12).<\/p>\nThe prophets and apocalyptic writers frequently spoke of a period of tribulation and suffering necessary before the new age could come: “the messianic woes,” “the birth pangs of the Messiah,” “a river of fire.” Parallels to John’s phraseology are found in Isaiah 30:27-28 and in the pseudepigraphal 2 Esdras 13:10-11. John the Baptist probably adopted that usage and reexpressed it through a metaphor drawn from his own most characteristic act (baptism). His “baptize in fire” thus probably denoted the purifying judgment that would bring in the new age as well as bring individuals into the new age.<\/p>\nThere is no further biblical reference specifically to baptism of fire. Mark and John abbreviate the Baptist’s preaching by omitting all mention of judgment. With Pentecost and beyond, John’s baptism in water is seen as fulfilled in baptism in the Spirit. But Jesus seemed to echo the Baptist’s conviction that a fiery purification was necessary (Mk 9:49). And he clearly picked up the Baptist’s prediction, but referred the baptism and presumably the fire to his own death (Lk 12:49-50). His death is understood as suffering the fiery baptism for others. That thought is matched by the apostle Paul in his understanding of baptism into Christ as a baptism into Christ’s death (Rom 6:3). So it can be said that John’s expectation of a purgative baptism of fire for the penitent is most nearly fulfilled in the believer’s being united with Christ in his death and sharing in his sufferings; only in that way does one come to share fully in Christ’s risen glory (Rom 6:5; 8:17-23; Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Baptism; Baptism of the Spirit.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BAPTISM OF FIRE*<\/h3>\nMetaphor coined by John the Baptist. John was looking for the coming of One who would “baptize in Spirit and fire” (Mt 3:11; Lk 3:16). The context makes clear that fire in that phrase denotes judgment, a judgment that would presumably purify the penitent (cf. Is 4:4; Mal 3:2-3) as well as destroy the impenitent (Mal 4:1; Mt 3:10,12).<\/p>\nThe prophets and apocalyptic writers frequently spoke of a period of tribulation and suffering necessary before the new age could come: “the messianic woes,” “the birth pangs of the Messiah,” “a river of fire.” Parallels to John’s phraseology are found in Isaiah 30:27-28 and in the pseudepigraphal 2 Esdras 13:10-11. John the Baptist probably adopted that usage and reexpressed it through a metaphor drawn from his own most characteristic act (baptism). His “baptize in fire” thus probably denoted the purifying judgment that would bring in the new age as well as bring individuals into the new age.<\/p>\nThere is no further biblical reference specifically to baptism of fire. Mark and John abbreviate the Baptist’s preaching by omitting all mention of judgment. With Pentecost and beyond, John’s baptism in water is seen as fulfilled in baptism in the Spirit. But Jesus seemed to echo the Baptist’s conviction that a fiery purification was necessary (Mk 9:49). And he clearly picked up the Baptist’s prediction, but referred the baptism and presumably the fire to his own death (Lk 12:49-50). His death is understood as suffering the fiery baptism for others. That thought is matched by the apostle Paul in his understanding of baptism into Christ as a baptism into Christ’s death (Rom 6:3). So it can be said that John’s expectation of a purgative baptism of fire for the penitent is most nearly fulfilled in the believer’s being united with Christ in his death and sharing in his sufferings; only in that way does one come to share fully in Christ’s risen glory (Rom 6:5; 8:17-23; Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Baptism; Baptism of the Spirit.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BAPTISM OF FIRE* Metaphor coined by John the Baptist. John was looking for the coming of One who would “baptize in Spirit and fire” (Mt 3:11; Lk 3:16). The context makes clear that fire in that phrase denotes judgment, a judgment that would presumably purify the penitent (cf. Is 4:4; Mal 3:2-3) as well as destroy the impenitent (Mal 4:1; Mt 3:10,12). The prophets and apocalyptic writers frequently spoke of a period of tribulation and suffering necessary before the new age could come: “the mes...","summary_en":"BAPTISM OF FIRE* Metaphor coined by John the Baptist. John was looking for the coming of One who would “baptize in Spirit and fire” (Mt 3:11; Lk 3:16). The context makes clear that fire in that phrase denotes judgment, a judgment that would presumably purify the penitent (cf. Is 4:4; Mal 3:2-3) as well as destroy the impenitent (Mal 4:1; Mt 3:10,12). The prophets and apocalyptic writers frequently spoke of a period of tribulation and suffering necessary before the new age could come: “the mes...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":5427,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Body of Christ","title_en":"Body of Christ","content_ro":"<h3>BODY OF CHRIST<\/h3>\nScriptural phrase referring to (1) the physical body of Jesus Christ, (2) his broken body and shed blood viewed symbolically and memorially in the bread and wine of the Lord’s Supper, and (3) both the local and universal church viewed metaphorically.<\/p>\nThe Physical Body of Jesus Christ<\/p>\nThe NT declares that the Son (the second person of the Trinity) had a human body prepared for him by God the Father (Heb 10:5). The earthly body was engendered by the conceptive work of the Holy Spirit through the virgin Mary (Mt 1:20); the one thus born, humanly speaking, as a descendant of David (Rom 1:3), was also to be called the Son of God (Lk 1:35). The apostle John emphasized that the body of Christ was really human physically, not something gaseous or ethereal (1 Jn 4:2-3) as some persons in John’s day were already beginning to argue. God “became flesh and dwelt among us” (Jn 1:14; cf. Is 53:1-4). Jesus’ earthly body possessed ordinary human characteristics and limitations. That is, as a real human being, Jesus Christ experienced sorrow (Jn 11:35; Heb 5:7-8), weariness (Jn 4:6), thirst (19:28), and pain (vv 1-3).<\/p>\nWhen Jesus gave up his spirit, his physical body died on the cross (Jn 19:30, 33). The NT proclaims that he bore the sins of the world in his body on the cross (1 Pt 2:24; 1 Jn 2:2; cf. Is 53:5-6). His death is described as a perfect sacrifice for sinners (Heb 9:12-14, 26-28), a sacrifice of his body that makes believers in him holy and righteous (2 Cor 5:21; Heb 10:10).<\/p>\nChrist’s physical body was prepared in the normal way for burial (Mt 27:59; Mk 15:46; Lk 23:53, 56; 24:1; Jn 19:39-40) and placed in the rock tomb of Joseph of Arimathea (Mt 27:57-60; Jn 19:41). On the third day the body of Christ experienced a real physical resurrection, as he had predicted (Jn 2:19-22). He was seen in his physical resurrection body (Mt 28:9; Lk 24:31, 36; Jn 20:10-19, 26). He was heard, touched, and held onto (Mt 28:9; Lk 24:39; Jn 20:17; 1 Jn 1:1). He offered his body, scarred by his crucifixion, to be touched (Lk 24:39; Jn 20:17). The fact that he ate shows that his resurrection body was a physical one (Lk 24:42-43). In addition, Christ’s body was “glorified,” that is, it was not restricted as ordinary bodies are: he entered and left rooms in a remarkable way (Lk 24:31, 36; Jn 20:19, 26). Christ’s bodily resurrection is said in Scripture to guarantee that believers in Christ will experience resurrection of their own bodies (1 Cor 15:20-23, 50-57; Phil 3:20-21).<\/p>\nThe Body of Christ in the Lord’s Supper<\/p>\nAt the last supper (Mt 26:26-29; Mk 14:22-25; Lk 22:15-20; 1 Cor 11:23-26), which accompanied the Passover supper, Jesus held up a loaf of bread and said, “This is my body”; then he picked up a cup of wine and said, “This is my blood of the covenant” (Mt 26:26, 28). Jesus meant that the bread symbolized his body, which would be broken when he was beaten at his trial and pierced at his crucifixion (Lk 23:33; Jn 19:1-2). The apostle Paul said that Christ, our paschal lamb, was sacrificed for us (1 Cor 5:7), meaning that the Passover lamb in the OT was an object lesson pointing to “the Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world!” (Jn 1:29).<\/p>\nFor Christians, the body of Christ is viewed symbolically as a broken body (Mt 8:17; 1 Pt 2:24; cf. Is 53:4-5) in the breaking of the bread at the Lord’s Supper. The cup is a sign of his blood poured out, viewed as the central factor in God’s covenant of grace with his people. Jesus referred to “the new covenant in my blood” (Lk 22:20). The whole ceremony of the Lord’s Supper was also to be a memorial (1 Cor 11:25-26). In the ceremony believers are reminded that Christ died for sinners, that is, for the forgiveness of their sins (Mt 26:28). They are also reminded that they are participating in the body of Christ in that they are united with him (Rom 6:1-11; 1 Cor 10:16; Gal 2:20; Phil 3:10).<\/p>\nThe Body of Christ, the People of God<\/p>\nThe phrase “body of Christ” is also used as a metaphor for the whole church, a unity of believers connected with and dependent on Christ. God’s people are thus said to be members of Christ’s “mystical body” (1 Cor 12:27), in fellowship with Christ and spiritually nourished by him (Eph 5:25, 29). A number of other metaphors are also used for the whole people of God, such as the vine (Ps 80:8), temple of God (1 Cor 3:16-17), building (1 Pt 2:5), chosen people (v 9), and family of God (Eph 3:15). Such metaphors amplify the interrelatedness, communion, and dependence of the “body of Christ” upon the living God.<\/p>\nThe term “body of Christ” was often used by Paul to remind a local church that it was a vital part of the larger body. Paul said to the church at Rome, “For as in one body we have many members, and all the members do not have the same function, so we, though many, are one body in Christ, and individually members one of another” (Rom 12:4-5, rsv<\/span>). Paul taught the Corinthian Christians that they, individually and collectively, were part of the body of Christ (1 Cor 12:27). They and Paul were all baptized by one Spirit into that one body (Eph 5:30).<\/p>\nIn a number of passages written by Paul, the church is called the “body” and Christ the “head” (Col 1:18). Christ has been made “head over all things for the church,” which “is his body” (Eph 1:22-23). The body grows by “holding fast to the Head” (Col 2:19). As head of the body, Christ is its Savior (Eph 5:23). The head\/body metaphor stresses the organic dependence of the church on Christ and his lordship over the church. The church finds its self-understanding in terms of its Head. The relationship is organic in that the life flows from, and is sustained by, the Head. The relationship is immediate, direct, and complete. Apart from Christ, both in his historic atoning sacrifice and in his present position at the right hand of God, the church has no existence.<\/p>\nIn the NT the term “body of Christ” is used to mean both the universal church and each local group of believers. In both senses the church is said to be the spiritual body in which believing Jews and Gentiles are united (Eph 2:14-16; 3:6; 4:4). It is the body that Christ redeemed (Eph 5:23), over which he presides (Col 1:18) and sovereignly rules (Eph 1:22-23) and for which he supplies strength and unity (Eph 4:15-16; Col 2:19).<\/p>\nEach member of the body of Christ has been given spiritual gifts with which to serve Christ in the body (Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 12:11). Such gifts are enumerated several times in Scripture, and range from apostleship and pastoring to encouraging and showing mercy (Rom 12:7-8; Eph 4:11). The ministry of serving is to be shared by all Christians, for example, through giving to the physical needs of others (Acts 11:29-30; 1 Cor 16:1-4; 2 Cor 8:1-5) and praying for one another (Eph 1:15-23; 3:14-19; 6:18-20). No one should look down on others or on their gifts, since God has chosen each one to function in his or her place in the body (1 Cor 12:14-26). The gifts are given to equip “the saints, for the work of ministry, for building up the body of Christ, until we all attain to the unity of the faith and of the knowledge of the Son of God, to mature manhood, to the measure of the stature of the fulness of Christ” (Eph 4:12-13, rsv<\/span>). The goal is “to grow up in every way into him who is the head, into Christ” (vv 15-16, rsv<\/span>). See<\/em> Body; Church; Lord’s Supper, The; Resurrection.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BODY OF CHRIST<\/h3>\nScriptural phrase referring to (1) the physical body of Jesus Christ, (2) his broken body and shed blood viewed symbolically and memorially in the bread and wine of the Lord’s Supper, and (3) both the local and universal church viewed metaphorically.<\/p>\nThe Physical Body of Jesus Christ<\/p>\nThe NT declares that the Son (the second person of the Trinity) had a human body prepared for him by God the Father (Heb 10:5). The earthly body was engendered by the conceptive work of the Holy Spirit through the virgin Mary (Mt 1:20); the one thus born, humanly speaking, as a descendant of David (Rom 1:3), was also to be called the Son of God (Lk 1:35). The apostle John emphasized that the body of Christ was really human physically, not something gaseous or ethereal (1 Jn 4:2-3) as some persons in John’s day were already beginning to argue. God “became flesh and dwelt among us” (Jn 1:14; cf. Is 53:1-4). Jesus’ earthly body possessed ordinary human characteristics and limitations. That is, as a real human being, Jesus Christ experienced sorrow (Jn 11:35; Heb 5:7-8), weariness (Jn 4:6), thirst (19:28), and pain (vv 1-3).<\/p>\nWhen Jesus gave up his spirit, his physical body died on the cross (Jn 19:30, 33). The NT proclaims that he bore the sins of the world in his body on the cross (1 Pt 2:24; 1 Jn 2:2; cf. Is 53:5-6). His death is described as a perfect sacrifice for sinners (Heb 9:12-14, 26-28), a sacrifice of his body that makes believers in him holy and righteous (2 Cor 5:21; Heb 10:10).<\/p>\nChrist’s physical body was prepared in the normal way for burial (Mt 27:59; Mk 15:46; Lk 23:53, 56; 24:1; Jn 19:39-40) and placed in the rock tomb of Joseph of Arimathea (Mt 27:57-60; Jn 19:41). On the third day the body of Christ experienced a real physical resurrection, as he had predicted (Jn 2:19-22). He was seen in his physical resurrection body (Mt 28:9; Lk 24:31, 36; Jn 20:10-19, 26). He was heard, touched, and held onto (Mt 28:9; Lk 24:39; Jn 20:17; 1 Jn 1:1). He offered his body, scarred by his crucifixion, to be touched (Lk 24:39; Jn 20:17). The fact that he ate shows that his resurrection body was a physical one (Lk 24:42-43). In addition, Christ’s body was “glorified,” that is, it was not restricted as ordinary bodies are: he entered and left rooms in a remarkable way (Lk 24:31, 36; Jn 20:19, 26). Christ’s bodily resurrection is said in Scripture to guarantee that believers in Christ will experience resurrection of their own bodies (1 Cor 15:20-23, 50-57; Phil 3:20-21).<\/p>\nThe Body of Christ in the Lord’s Supper<\/p>\nAt the last supper (Mt 26:26-29; Mk 14:22-25; Lk 22:15-20; 1 Cor 11:23-26), which accompanied the Passover supper, Jesus held up a loaf of bread and said, “This is my body”; then he picked up a cup of wine and said, “This is my blood of the covenant” (Mt 26:26, 28). Jesus meant that the bread symbolized his body, which would be broken when he was beaten at his trial and pierced at his crucifixion (Lk 23:33; Jn 19:1-2). The apostle Paul said that Christ, our paschal lamb, was sacrificed for us (1 Cor 5:7), meaning that the Passover lamb in the OT was an object lesson pointing to “the Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world!” (Jn 1:29).<\/p>\nFor Christians, the body of Christ is viewed symbolically as a broken body (Mt 8:17; 1 Pt 2:24; cf. Is 53:4-5) in the breaking of the bread at the Lord’s Supper. The cup is a sign of his blood poured out, viewed as the central factor in God’s covenant of grace with his people. Jesus referred to “the new covenant in my blood” (Lk 22:20). The whole ceremony of the Lord’s Supper was also to be a memorial (1 Cor 11:25-26). In the ceremony believers are reminded that Christ died for sinners, that is, for the forgiveness of their sins (Mt 26:28). They are also reminded that they are participating in the body of Christ in that they are united with him (Rom 6:1-11; 1 Cor 10:16; Gal 2:20; Phil 3:10).<\/p>\nThe Body of Christ, the People of God<\/p>\nThe phrase “body of Christ” is also used as a metaphor for the whole church, a unity of believers connected with and dependent on Christ. God’s people are thus said to be members of Christ’s “mystical body” (1 Cor 12:27), in fellowship with Christ and spiritually nourished by him (Eph 5:25, 29). A number of other metaphors are also used for the whole people of God, such as the vine (Ps 80:8), temple of God (1 Cor 3:16-17), building (1 Pt 2:5), chosen people (v 9), and family of God (Eph 3:15). Such metaphors amplify the interrelatedness, communion, and dependence of the “body of Christ” upon the living God.<\/p>\nThe term “body of Christ” was often used by Paul to remind a local church that it was a vital part of the larger body. Paul said to the church at Rome, “For as in one body we have many members, and all the members do not have the same function, so we, though many, are one body in Christ, and individually members one of another” (Rom 12:4-5, rsv<\/span>). Paul taught the Corinthian Christians that they, individually and collectively, were part of the body of Christ (1 Cor 12:27). They and Paul were all baptized by one Spirit into that one body (Eph 5:30).<\/p>\nIn a number of passages written by Paul, the church is called the “body” and Christ the “head” (Col 1:18). Christ has been made “head over all things for the church,” which “is his body” (Eph 1:22-23). The body grows by “holding fast to the Head” (Col 2:19). As head of the body, Christ is its Savior (Eph 5:23). The head\/body metaphor stresses the organic dependence of the church on Christ and his lordship over the church. The church finds its self-understanding in terms of its Head. The relationship is organic in that the life flows from, and is sustained by, the Head. The relationship is immediate, direct, and complete. Apart from Christ, both in his historic atoning sacrifice and in his present position at the right hand of God, the church has no existence.<\/p>\nIn the NT the term “body of Christ” is used to mean both the universal church and each local group of believers. In both senses the church is said to be the spiritual body in which believing Jews and Gentiles are united (Eph 2:14-16; 3:6; 4:4). It is the body that Christ redeemed (Eph 5:23), over which he presides (Col 1:18) and sovereignly rules (Eph 1:22-23) and for which he supplies strength and unity (Eph 4:15-16; Col 2:19).<\/p>\nEach member of the body of Christ has been given spiritual gifts with which to serve Christ in the body (Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 12:11). Such gifts are enumerated several times in Scripture, and range from apostleship and pastoring to encouraging and showing mercy (Rom 12:7-8; Eph 4:11). The ministry of serving is to be shared by all Christians, for example, through giving to the physical needs of others (Acts 11:29-30; 1 Cor 16:1-4; 2 Cor 8:1-5) and praying for one another (Eph 1:15-23; 3:14-19; 6:18-20). No one should look down on others or on their gifts, since God has chosen each one to function in his or her place in the body (1 Cor 12:14-26). The gifts are given to equip “the saints, for the work of ministry, for building up the body of Christ, until we all attain to the unity of the faith and of the knowledge of the Son of God, to mature manhood, to the measure of the stature of the fulness of Christ” (Eph 4:12-13, rsv<\/span>). The goal is “to grow up in every way into him who is the head, into Christ” (vv 15-16, rsv<\/span>). See<\/em> Body; Church; Lord’s Supper, The; Resurrection.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BODY OF CHRIST Scriptural phrase referring to (1) the physical body of Jesus Christ, (2) his broken body and shed blood viewed symbolically and memorially in the bread and wine of the Lord’s Supper, and (3) both the local and universal church viewed metaphorically. The Physical Body of Jesus Christ The NT declares that the Son (the second person of the Trinity) had a human body prepared for him by God the Father (Heb 10:5). The earthly body was engendered by the conceptive work of the Holy Sp...","summary_en":"BODY OF CHRIST Scriptural phrase referring to (1) the physical body of Jesus Christ, (2) his broken body and shed blood viewed symbolically and memorially in the bread and wine of the Lord’s Supper, and (3) both the local and universal church viewed metaphorically. The Physical Body of Jesus Christ The NT declares that the Son (the second person of the Trinity) had a human body prepared for him by God the Father (Heb 10:5). The earthly body was engendered by the conceptive work of the Holy Sp...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":7425,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Conform*, Conformation*","title_en":"Conform*, Conformation*","content_ro":"<h3>CONFORM*, CONFORMATION*<\/h3>\nSpiritual process of molding the believer into the image of Jesus. Paul speaks of this in Romans 8:28-30:<\/p>\nAnd we know that in all things God works for the good of those who love him, who have been called according to his purpose. For those God foreknew he also predestined to be conformed to the likeness of his Son, that he might be the firstborn among many brothers. And those he predestined, he also called; and those he called, he also justified; those he justified, he also glorified (niv<\/span>).<\/p>\nSince it is God’s desire and plan to have many sons and daughters, each believer has to be conformed to the prototype, Jesus. Note how the words “predestined,” “called,” “justified,” and especially “glorified” in Romans 8:29-30 are in the past tense. That is because God, from his eternal perspective, sees this process as having been completed already. From God’s perspective, believers have been glorified already because he sees them like his Son. But still, in the reality of time, they must undergo the process of being conformed to the image of God’s Son. God is working together all things in the lives of those who love him and are called according to his purpose. His goal is to conform each son and daughter to the image of his beloved Son.<\/p>\nWhen one continues to read the rest of Romans 8, it is quite evident that the “things” God uses to conform Christians involve various kinds of suffering. Conformity to the image of Jesus Christ necessitates conformity to his death (see Phil 3:10). Whereas transformation involves an inward, life-imparted change in our essential constitution, conformation entails outward pressure that works the image of Christ into his children. If they are to be made like him, they must have both. To know Jesus, as far as Paul was concerned, was to know both the power of his resurrection and the fellowship of his sufferings. No one likes to suffer; no one wants to be a Job. But Job was insightful when he said, “When he has tried me, I shall come forth as gold” (Jb 23:10, rsv<\/span>). Suffering produces an element in the believer that they do not inherently possess. God uses sufferings to conform them to the image of his Son.<\/p>\nThe Lord Jesus left his followers a pattern of suffering that cannot be avoided. This is the path that he, the pioneer of salvation, took. The Father perfected him through suffering (Heb 2:10)—i.e., he, as a man, was made fully qualified to be our leader and even our merciful High Priest because of what he suffered on our behalf. Christians should expect to suffer, at least in part, some of the things Jesus suffered. Of course, this does not mean that any believer can repeat his unique act of suffering on the cross for redemption. Peter says that “Christ also suffered for you, leaving you an example, that you should follow in his steps” (1 Pt 2:21, rsv<\/span>). The Greek word underlying “example” (<\/em>hupogramma<\/span>)<\/em> in common Greek usage designated a tracing tablet that contained the entire Greek alphabet. Students would use this to trace the alphabet. They would have to learn each letter, from alpha to omega. The life of Jesus, a life of suffering, is just such a tracing tablet. Those who learn to follow Jesus will be those who know what it is to suffer, for suffering is the means by which God conforms us to the image of Jesus.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Transformation.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CONFORM*, CONFORMATION*<\/h3>\nSpiritual process of molding the believer into the image of Jesus. Paul speaks of this in Romans 8:28-30:<\/p>\nAnd we know that in all things God works for the good of those who love him, who have been called according to his purpose. For those God foreknew he also predestined to be conformed to the likeness of his Son, that he might be the firstborn among many brothers. And those he predestined, he also called; and those he called, he also justified; those he justified, he also glorified (niv<\/span>).<\/p>\nSince it is God’s desire and plan to have many sons and daughters, each believer has to be conformed to the prototype, Jesus. Note how the words “predestined,” “called,” “justified,” and especially “glorified” in Romans 8:29-30 are in the past tense. That is because God, from his eternal perspective, sees this process as having been completed already. From God’s perspective, believers have been glorified already because he sees them like his Son. But still, in the reality of time, they must undergo the process of being conformed to the image of God’s Son. God is working together all things in the lives of those who love him and are called according to his purpose. His goal is to conform each son and daughter to the image of his beloved Son.<\/p>\nWhen one continues to read the rest of Romans 8, it is quite evident that the “things” God uses to conform Christians involve various kinds of suffering. Conformity to the image of Jesus Christ necessitates conformity to his death (see Phil 3:10). Whereas transformation involves an inward, life-imparted change in our essential constitution, conformation entails outward pressure that works the image of Christ into his children. If they are to be made like him, they must have both. To know Jesus, as far as Paul was concerned, was to know both the power of his resurrection and the fellowship of his sufferings. No one likes to suffer; no one wants to be a Job. But Job was insightful when he said, “When he has tried me, I shall come forth as gold” (Jb 23:10, rsv<\/span>). Suffering produces an element in the believer that they do not inherently possess. God uses sufferings to conform them to the image of his Son.<\/p>\nThe Lord Jesus left his followers a pattern of suffering that cannot be avoided. This is the path that he, the pioneer of salvation, took. The Father perfected him through suffering (Heb 2:10)—i.e., he, as a man, was made fully qualified to be our leader and even our merciful High Priest because of what he suffered on our behalf. Christians should expect to suffer, at least in part, some of the things Jesus suffered. Of course, this does not mean that any believer can repeat his unique act of suffering on the cross for redemption. Peter says that “Christ also suffered for you, leaving you an example, that you should follow in his steps” (1 Pt 2:21, rsv<\/span>). The Greek word underlying “example” (<\/em>hupogramma<\/span>)<\/em> in common Greek usage designated a tracing tablet that contained the entire Greek alphabet. Students would use this to trace the alphabet. They would have to learn each letter, from alpha to omega. The life of Jesus, a life of suffering, is just such a tracing tablet. Those who learn to follow Jesus will be those who know what it is to suffer, for suffering is the means by which God conforms us to the image of Jesus.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Transformation.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CONFORM*, CONFORMATION* Spiritual process of molding the believer into the image of Jesus. Paul speaks of this in Romans 8:28-30: And we know that in all things God works for the good of those who love him, who have been called according to his purpose. For those God foreknew he also predestined to be conformed to the likeness of his Son, that he might be the firstborn among many brothers. And those he predestined, he also called; and those he called, he also justified; those he justified, he...","summary_en":"CONFORM*, CONFORMATION* Spiritual process of molding the believer into the image of Jesus. Paul speaks of this in Romans 8:28-30: And we know that in all things God works for the good of those who love him, who have been called according to his purpose. For those God foreknew he also predestined to be conformed to the likeness of his Son, that he might be the firstborn among many brothers. And those he predestined, he also called; and those he called, he also justified; those he justified, he...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30252,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter to the Philippians","title_en":"Letter to the Philippians","content_ro":"<h3>PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the<\/span><\/h3>\nOne of Paul’s Prison Epistles.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date and Origin<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Theological Themes<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nPhilippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary.<\/p>\nDate and Origin<\/p>\nWhile it is clear that Paul was writing from prison (Phil 1:12-13), it is not clear where he was imprisoned. The most likely possibility is Rome, in which case the date would be around AD<\/span> 62. But some have thought that all the journeys implied in 4:14 and 2:25-26 make such a distant place unlikely (the Philippians hear that Paul is in prison and send a gift by Epaphroditus; Epaphroditus hears in Rome that the Philippians have heard that he has been ill). So the alternatives of Ephesus (c. AD<\/span> 55) and Caesarea (c. AD<\/span> 58) have been proposed. We know that Paul was imprisoned in Caesarea (Acts 23:33-35), but the greeting “from those of Caesar’s household” is difficult to explain if it was written there, in spite of the coincidence of name. Ephesus is certainly near enough to Philippi for plenty of interchange, but no imprisonment is recorded in the account of Paul’s ministry there in Acts. So we would have to assume that Luke’s account in Acts 19 is not complete and that Paul had been placed in protective custody at the time of the riot (see esp. 19:30-31). But such an imprisonment could hardly have led Paul to wonder whether his time “to depart and be with Christ” had now come (Phil 1:23). At the time of writing, he was clearly facing a capital charge.<\/p>\nThe traditional location (Rome) seems the most satisfactory, especially when one reflects that Paul was imprisoned there for at least two years (Acts 28:30), and that it took about three weeks to travel from Rome to Philippi.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nPhilippi had the distinction of being a Roman colony (Acts 16:12), a privilege accorded to only a few cities outside Italy. Some 90 years before the gospel arrived there (c. AD<\/span> 50), the city had been greatly expanded by large numbers of Roman soldiers, who were settled there by their commanding officers. As a consequence, the town acquired its coveted status as a colony, which meant that for all intents and purposes its citizens were treated as if they lived in Italy, and the town had a fully Roman administration. Paul alludes to this status in Philippians 3:20, where he teaches that Christians likewise are citizens of another city, the heavenly one, while yet residents elsewhere. It was a rich and busy place, one of the main centers of life in Macedonia, and consequently was “home” to the adherents of many different religions, from both east and west. There was a strong Jewish community there, as well as pagans of many sorts.<\/p>\nTheological Themes<\/p>\nIn a sense Paul’s imprisonment is not just background material but lies at the heart of the letter’s message. In his imprisonment he was experiencing the abasement that he mentions in 4:12, using there the same word found in 2:8 to describe the self-humbling of Christ unto death. The pattern of the ministry of Jesus described in the great “hymn” of 2:6-11—humiliation followed by glorification—becomes the pattern of Paul’s own life and of the vision he holds out before the Philippians. So alongside abasement and suffering, joy is the other great theme of the letter. Within suffering and self-sacrifice, true joy is born. In fact, Philippians could justly be titled “The Epistle of Joy.” Other prominent themes include the gospel, the Day of the Lord, and in addition to the famous “hymn” in chapter 2, a comparison of Paul’s Jewish past with his present Christian experience (3:4-16).<\/p>\n\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting and Opening Prayer (1:1-11)<\/h5>\nIn the opening paragraph of his letter, Paul presents the themes that will be uppermost in his mind throughout. His personal warmth toward the Philippians is immediately striking: “I have you in my heart. . . . I long for all of you” (1:7-8), and this thought of outgoing and suffering love undergirds the whole letter. It is notable, too, that the letter begins and ends with the themes of “grace” and of “the saints” (1:1-2; 4:21-23). The grace of Christ, which reaches out to sinful people and transforms them, separating them from the world, occupies Paul throughout. “The saints” are the ones who, touched by that grace, are transformed in heart and mind, so that their love abounds more and more in knowledge and depth of insight (1:9).<\/p>\nTwo more great themes appear here. The Greek word phroneo<\/span>,<\/em> “to think,” is used more in Philippians than in any other letter of Paul, no fewer than nine times (as against seven in Romans). Unfortunately, it is not uniformly translated in the English versions, and so it is hard for the English reader to notice its repeated appearance and the emphasis on the right use of the mind that goes with it. But for Paul this is vital: the way we think is at the heart of the Christian life, and in these opening verses he makes it clear that the love he feels for the Philippians is actually the Christian way of thinking about them (v 7: literally, “It is right for me to think this way about you”). This leads naturally to another emphasis—growth. For the “Christian mind” does not appear overnight. So Paul prays that this mind may grow, giving the Philippians powers of discernment that will transform their character and prepare them for “the day of Christ” (vv 10-11; cf. v 6).<\/p>\nFinally, we note in this opening prayer the twin emphases on the gospel and on fellowship—linked in Paul’s prayer of thanksgiving for the Philippians’ partnership in the gospel (v 5; cf. v 7)—and also the introduction of the great theme of joy (v 4). All three are vital to the whole letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul and His Imprisonment: Christ Exalted (1:12-26)<\/h5>\nPaul writes about his own situation to present the heart of his message. For when he writes, “For me to live is Christ” (v 21), he means more than that his every waking moment is taken up by fellowship with his Lord and service for him. He means also that, in his own person and experience, he displays Christ and “lives” him. Later he will say, “Keep putting into practice all you learned from me and heard from me and saw me doing” (4:9, nlt<\/span>). Few Christian ministers would dare make such a claim today! Yet Paul believed that, as an apostle of Christ, it was his privilege not just to speak on Christ’s behalf but also to live out Christ’s life in his own person, even if that meant suffering and humiliation.<\/p>\nThere are two historical difficulties here. First, it is hard to reconstruct the situation to which Paul refers in 1:12-18. The church in Rome (if that is where he is) was clearly divided about his imprisonment—some believers actually being glad that he was behind bars. It seems as though they were prompted by his imprisonment to get on with preaching their own version of the gospel. Far from being upset by this, Paul is delighted! “What does it matter?” he asks (v 18). Whether by friend or foe, Christ is being proclaimed in a new way as a result of his imprisonment (v 14). He was normally quick to defend the purity of the Word proclaimed, so these rivals of Paul could not have been heretics.<\/p>\nThe other historical difficulty surrounds verses 19-26. At one moment Paul seems not to know what the outcome of imprisonment will be (vv 19-21). Yet he then suggests that he can choose whether to live or die (v 22), and finally tells the Philippians that he is sure he will remain alive (v 25). The best explanation is that Paul believed he had received a personal assurance from the Holy Spirit that his imprisonment would not end with his execution.<\/p>\nAt any rate, his attitude about his own death is most moving. He expected deliverance, whether by life or by death (vv 19-20), and had an unshakeable confidence that to die is “better by far” (v 23), because it means being “with Christ.” This section ends with a note of joy.<\/p>\n<h5>The Life Worthy of the Gospel (1:27–2:18)<\/h5>\nThis section ends with “joy,” just as the last did, and its whole message is summed up in the opening exhortation of verse 27. Paul wanted the Philippians to be people in whom there is no gap between profession and practice, in whom the gospel believed is the gospel lived. The section falls into four portions, which might be entitled as follows: (1) 1:27-30—the worthy life in a hostile world; (2) 2:1-4—the worthy life in Christian fellowship; (3) 2:5-11—the gospel that inspires us; (4) 2:12-18—priorities for lives worthy of the gospel.<\/p>\nPaul refused to let the Philippians feel that he was worse off than they. He wrote, “We are in this fight together. You have seen me suffer for him in the past, and you know that I am still in the midst of this great struggle” (1:30, nlt<\/span>). For suffering at the hands of a hostile world is part and parcel of Christian discipleship. If we profess to believe a gospel about one who, though equal with God, left aside the glory of heaven and submitted not just to incarnation but also to a horrible death (2:6-8), then we must think of suffering not as an unfortunate necessity but as a privilege! “For you have been given not only the privilege of trusting in Christ but also the privilege of suffering for him” (1:29, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe essential quality the believers need, in order to face successfully the hostility of the world, is unity. They must be “standing side by side, fighting together for the Good News” (1:27), and believing one gospel will produce a united front against the world—and not a purely defensive front, either. The theme of unity continues into chapter 2, where Paul turns to life within the fellowship (2:1-4), as if to say that external unity before the world will not be possible unless their hearts and minds are truly united in one love, spirit, and purpose (v 2), whatever their outward situation. Such a unity will come only if there is tenderness and compassion among them (v 1). The lovely progression in verse 1 reaches a climax with this phrase, and that in turn leads into the famous “hymn” in 2:6-11. Such tenderness will not find its home in their hearts unless they believe the gospel about which the hymn sings.<\/p>\nWhether 2:6-11 was in fact a real hymn, sung in the context of early Christian worship, is now impossible to know for sure. Certainly Paul’s language here takes on a hymnic quality, though it is not in poetic form. Many scholars have thought that Paul did not write these verses himself but was quoting a well-known piece of liturgy. All one can say for certain is that his language changes in style, and he expressed here ideas that are unique in his writings.<\/p>\nThe hymn blends in with its context beautifully, and in fact forms the core of the whole letter. For we see here how the experience of imprisonment and deliverance, and of suffering and joy, is an entering into the experience of Jesus himself, who died and rose, was humbled and glorified.<\/p>\n<h5>Two Worthy Examples and Friends (2:19-30)<\/h5>\nPaul again writes about his own situation and plans, but as before, this section is not just concerned with practical arrangements. On the face of it, he was simply explaining why he was sending the letter by the hand of Epaphroditus instead of Timothy. But actually he was holding them up as practical examples of the life lived by the gospel, about which he had just written. Timothy “genuinely cares about your welfare” (2:20), because, unlike everyone else, he did not seek his own interests but those of Jesus Christ (v 21). He lived the gospel! He was committed to the work of the gospel (v 22). And Epaphroditus was the same, though in a different way. His union with Jesus was expressed not so much in his self-giving service for the gospel and his fellow saints, as in the illness that he suffered and the pains of separation that he endured. Like Jesus, he put his life on the line (v 30), and like Jesus, he was restored to life again (v 27). Now he was to be restored to his beloved Philippians, and the joy that they would experience together would be a further outworking of the gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>Pressing Forward and Standing Firm (3:1–4:1)<\/h5>\nThis section also begins and ends on the note of joy (3:1; 4:1)—not accidentally. The way of the cross that Paul describes is also the way of joy (cf. Heb 12:2). It begins and ends also with the address “dear brothers and sisters,” and this, too, is not accidental, for once again in this passage Paul writes about himself, and once again the underlying thought is that his experience is typical and that his readers should expect and seek to see the same pattern in their lives. He wrote, “Dear brothers and sisters, pattern your lives after mine, and learn from those who follow our example” (3:17, nlt<\/span>). Having put forward Timothy and Epaphroditus as examples in 2:19-30, Paul now does the same with himself.<\/p>\nThe tone seems to change dramatically in 3:2, as Paul turns to warn the Philippians against “those dogs,” who are probably the same as those to whom he refers in 1:28 as “your enemies.” There, he was much concerned about the inner foundation of the Philippians’ stand against them, so he did not specify who they were. But now he examines them more closely, in order to show the Philippians that the Christian life entails a complete reversal of the values held by their opponents.<\/p>\nIt seems that they were Jews, the sort in Acts 17:5 who opposed Paul’s ministry in nearby Thessalonica. They believed that they were God’s chosen race, but Paul thought that was nothing more than placing confidence in the flesh (Phil 3:4). They thought they knew the way of righteousness—it is the way of rigorous and disciplined obedience to God’s law in every detail of life. But Paul thought that was to seek a righteousness of one’s own (v 9), having nothing to do with the righteousness that God wants to give. The true way to be God’s people, he movingly insists, is the way of self-renunciation, so that all he previously held dear as a Jew came to be seen as rubbish (v 8), considered as loss for the sake of Christ (v 7). The only way to attain righteousness is through faith in Christ (v 9), for Christians must become like him in his death if they are to know the power of his resurrection (v 10). For Paul, dying with Christ meant not just suffering imprisonment and many other indignities for Christ’s sake but also renouncing all the prized possessions that his Judaism had given him.<\/p>\n<h5>Thinking, Rejoicing, Sharing (4:2-23)<\/h5>\nAgain, the tone changes suddenly (both at 4:2 and at 4:10)—so much so that some scholars have suggested that Philippians was compiled by an editor using several different letters. But when Paul turns (in v 2) to address Euodia and Syntyche, he was not really changing the subject. The link with the last section is the same as that between 1:27-30 and the first paragraph in chapter 2: how can Christians expect to be able to hold their own in the face of some enemies of the cross of Christ (3:18) if they are disunited and at odds with each other? For if there is just one gospel, disharmony between Christians means that the gospel is not having its full effect. So Euodia and Syntyche are urged (literally) to “think the same thing in the Lord” (4:2), and are then reminded of how they once found a wonderful unity in striving side by side in the cause of the gospel (v 3).<\/p>\nThe agreement that Paul urges them to come to does not mean complete identity of opinions on all subjects. It means a oneness of heart in a common love for Christ and the gospel. In the rest of the letter Paul spells out what this oneness means in practice—both what it should mean and what it has meant for the Philippians. The use of the mind is vital, and in verses 4-9 Paul paints a picture of the Christian life in which careful and intelligent prayer (vv 6-7) and the deliberate directing of the mind toward “whatever is true and honorable” (v 8) will produce a life marked by the two qualities of peace and joy, whatever the circumstances.<\/p>\nThat leads to the final paragraph, in which Paul gives thanks that, in spite of the disharmony evident in one part of the Philippian church, the church as a whole has already displayed this true Christian “mind.” For they have shown their oneness with Paul in the cause of the gospel by sending him a gift by Epaphroditus. “You have done well to share with me in my present difficulty,” Paul writes (4:14), and our thoughts go back again to the hymn in 2:6-11. From the gospel about the one who came from heaven to bear our burdens comes this mutual sharing—and so does Paul’s wonderful attitude to his circumstances: “I know how to be humbled [the same word as in 2:8], and I know how to abound” (4:12). Joined to Christ, we do not anxiously seek provision for our needs (v 17; cf. v 6), but share with him and with others whatever humiliation and exaltation he sends, confident that God will meet all our needs “from his glorious riches, which have been given to us in Christ Jesus” (4:19, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Philippi.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the<\/span><\/h3>\nOne of Paul’s Prison Epistles.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date and Origin<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Theological Themes<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nPhilippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary.<\/p>\nDate and Origin<\/p>\nWhile it is clear that Paul was writing from prison (Phil 1:12-13), it is not clear where he was imprisoned. The most likely possibility is Rome, in which case the date would be around AD<\/span> 62. But some have thought that all the journeys implied in 4:14 and 2:25-26 make such a distant place unlikely (the Philippians hear that Paul is in prison and send a gift by Epaphroditus; Epaphroditus hears in Rome that the Philippians have heard that he has been ill). So the alternatives of Ephesus (c. AD<\/span> 55) and Caesarea (c. AD<\/span> 58) have been proposed. We know that Paul was imprisoned in Caesarea (Acts 23:33-35), but the greeting “from those of Caesar’s household” is difficult to explain if it was written there, in spite of the coincidence of name. Ephesus is certainly near enough to Philippi for plenty of interchange, but no imprisonment is recorded in the account of Paul’s ministry there in Acts. So we would have to assume that Luke’s account in Acts 19 is not complete and that Paul had been placed in protective custody at the time of the riot (see esp. 19:30-31). But such an imprisonment could hardly have led Paul to wonder whether his time “to depart and be with Christ” had now come (Phil 1:23). At the time of writing, he was clearly facing a capital charge.<\/p>\nThe traditional location (Rome) seems the most satisfactory, especially when one reflects that Paul was imprisoned there for at least two years (Acts 28:30), and that it took about three weeks to travel from Rome to Philippi.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nPhilippi had the distinction of being a Roman colony (Acts 16:12), a privilege accorded to only a few cities outside Italy. Some 90 years before the gospel arrived there (c. AD<\/span> 50), the city had been greatly expanded by large numbers of Roman soldiers, who were settled there by their commanding officers. As a consequence, the town acquired its coveted status as a colony, which meant that for all intents and purposes its citizens were treated as if they lived in Italy, and the town had a fully Roman administration. Paul alludes to this status in Philippians 3:20, where he teaches that Christians likewise are citizens of another city, the heavenly one, while yet residents elsewhere. It was a rich and busy place, one of the main centers of life in Macedonia, and consequently was “home” to the adherents of many different religions, from both east and west. There was a strong Jewish community there, as well as pagans of many sorts.<\/p>\nTheological Themes<\/p>\nIn a sense Paul’s imprisonment is not just background material but lies at the heart of the letter’s message. In his imprisonment he was experiencing the abasement that he mentions in 4:12, using there the same word found in 2:8 to describe the self-humbling of Christ unto death. The pattern of the ministry of Jesus described in the great “hymn” of 2:6-11—humiliation followed by glorification—becomes the pattern of Paul’s own life and of the vision he holds out before the Philippians. So alongside abasement and suffering, joy is the other great theme of the letter. Within suffering and self-sacrifice, true joy is born. In fact, Philippians could justly be titled “The Epistle of Joy.” Other prominent themes include the gospel, the Day of the Lord, and in addition to the famous “hymn” in chapter 2, a comparison of Paul’s Jewish past with his present Christian experience (3:4-16).<\/p>\n\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting and Opening Prayer (1:1-11)<\/h5>\nIn the opening paragraph of his letter, Paul presents the themes that will be uppermost in his mind throughout. His personal warmth toward the Philippians is immediately striking: “I have you in my heart. . . . I long for all of you” (1:7-8), and this thought of outgoing and suffering love undergirds the whole letter. It is notable, too, that the letter begins and ends with the themes of “grace” and of “the saints” (1:1-2; 4:21-23). The grace of Christ, which reaches out to sinful people and transforms them, separating them from the world, occupies Paul throughout. “The saints” are the ones who, touched by that grace, are transformed in heart and mind, so that their love abounds more and more in knowledge and depth of insight (1:9).<\/p>\nTwo more great themes appear here. The Greek word phroneo<\/span>,<\/em> “to think,” is used more in Philippians than in any other letter of Paul, no fewer than nine times (as against seven in Romans). Unfortunately, it is not uniformly translated in the English versions, and so it is hard for the English reader to notice its repeated appearance and the emphasis on the right use of the mind that goes with it. But for Paul this is vital: the way we think is at the heart of the Christian life, and in these opening verses he makes it clear that the love he feels for the Philippians is actually the Christian way of thinking about them (v 7: literally, “It is right for me to think this way about you”). This leads naturally to another emphasis—growth. For the “Christian mind” does not appear overnight. So Paul prays that this mind may grow, giving the Philippians powers of discernment that will transform their character and prepare them for “the day of Christ” (vv 10-11; cf. v 6).<\/p>\nFinally, we note in this opening prayer the twin emphases on the gospel and on fellowship—linked in Paul’s prayer of thanksgiving for the Philippians’ partnership in the gospel (v 5; cf. v 7)—and also the introduction of the great theme of joy (v 4). All three are vital to the whole letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul and His Imprisonment: Christ Exalted (1:12-26)<\/h5>\nPaul writes about his own situation to present the heart of his message. For when he writes, “For me to live is Christ” (v 21), he means more than that his every waking moment is taken up by fellowship with his Lord and service for him. He means also that, in his own person and experience, he displays Christ and “lives” him. Later he will say, “Keep putting into practice all you learned from me and heard from me and saw me doing” (4:9, nlt<\/span>). Few Christian ministers would dare make such a claim today! Yet Paul believed that, as an apostle of Christ, it was his privilege not just to speak on Christ’s behalf but also to live out Christ’s life in his own person, even if that meant suffering and humiliation.<\/p>\nThere are two historical difficulties here. First, it is hard to reconstruct the situation to which Paul refers in 1:12-18. The church in Rome (if that is where he is) was clearly divided about his imprisonment—some believers actually being glad that he was behind bars. It seems as though they were prompted by his imprisonment to get on with preaching their own version of the gospel. Far from being upset by this, Paul is delighted! “What does it matter?” he asks (v 18). Whether by friend or foe, Christ is being proclaimed in a new way as a result of his imprisonment (v 14). He was normally quick to defend the purity of the Word proclaimed, so these rivals of Paul could not have been heretics.<\/p>\nThe other historical difficulty surrounds verses 19-26. At one moment Paul seems not to know what the outcome of imprisonment will be (vv 19-21). Yet he then suggests that he can choose whether to live or die (v 22), and finally tells the Philippians that he is sure he will remain alive (v 25). The best explanation is that Paul believed he had received a personal assurance from the Holy Spirit that his imprisonment would not end with his execution.<\/p>\nAt any rate, his attitude about his own death is most moving. He expected deliverance, whether by life or by death (vv 19-20), and had an unshakeable confidence that to die is “better by far” (v 23), because it means being “with Christ.” This section ends with a note of joy.<\/p>\n<h5>The Life Worthy of the Gospel (1:27–2:18)<\/h5>\nThis section ends with “joy,” just as the last did, and its whole message is summed up in the opening exhortation of verse 27. Paul wanted the Philippians to be people in whom there is no gap between profession and practice, in whom the gospel believed is the gospel lived. The section falls into four portions, which might be entitled as follows: (1) 1:27-30—the worthy life in a hostile world; (2) 2:1-4—the worthy life in Christian fellowship; (3) 2:5-11—the gospel that inspires us; (4) 2:12-18—priorities for lives worthy of the gospel.<\/p>\nPaul refused to let the Philippians feel that he was worse off than they. He wrote, “We are in this fight together. You have seen me suffer for him in the past, and you know that I am still in the midst of this great struggle” (1:30, nlt<\/span>). For suffering at the hands of a hostile world is part and parcel of Christian discipleship. If we profess to believe a gospel about one who, though equal with God, left aside the glory of heaven and submitted not just to incarnation but also to a horrible death (2:6-8), then we must think of suffering not as an unfortunate necessity but as a privilege! “For you have been given not only the privilege of trusting in Christ but also the privilege of suffering for him” (1:29, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe essential quality the believers need, in order to face successfully the hostility of the world, is unity. They must be “standing side by side, fighting together for the Good News” (1:27), and believing one gospel will produce a united front against the world—and not a purely defensive front, either. The theme of unity continues into chapter 2, where Paul turns to life within the fellowship (2:1-4), as if to say that external unity before the world will not be possible unless their hearts and minds are truly united in one love, spirit, and purpose (v 2), whatever their outward situation. Such a unity will come only if there is tenderness and compassion among them (v 1). The lovely progression in verse 1 reaches a climax with this phrase, and that in turn leads into the famous “hymn” in 2:6-11. Such tenderness will not find its home in their hearts unless they believe the gospel about which the hymn sings.<\/p>\nWhether 2:6-11 was in fact a real hymn, sung in the context of early Christian worship, is now impossible to know for sure. Certainly Paul’s language here takes on a hymnic quality, though it is not in poetic form. Many scholars have thought that Paul did not write these verses himself but was quoting a well-known piece of liturgy. All one can say for certain is that his language changes in style, and he expressed here ideas that are unique in his writings.<\/p>\nThe hymn blends in with its context beautifully, and in fact forms the core of the whole letter. For we see here how the experience of imprisonment and deliverance, and of suffering and joy, is an entering into the experience of Jesus himself, who died and rose, was humbled and glorified.<\/p>\n<h5>Two Worthy Examples and Friends (2:19-30)<\/h5>\nPaul again writes about his own situation and plans, but as before, this section is not just concerned with practical arrangements. On the face of it, he was simply explaining why he was sending the letter by the hand of Epaphroditus instead of Timothy. But actually he was holding them up as practical examples of the life lived by the gospel, about which he had just written. Timothy “genuinely cares about your welfare” (2:20), because, unlike everyone else, he did not seek his own interests but those of Jesus Christ (v 21). He lived the gospel! He was committed to the work of the gospel (v 22). And Epaphroditus was the same, though in a different way. His union with Jesus was expressed not so much in his self-giving service for the gospel and his fellow saints, as in the illness that he suffered and the pains of separation that he endured. Like Jesus, he put his life on the line (v 30), and like Jesus, he was restored to life again (v 27). Now he was to be restored to his beloved Philippians, and the joy that they would experience together would be a further outworking of the gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>Pressing Forward and Standing Firm (3:1–4:1)<\/h5>\nThis section also begins and ends on the note of joy (3:1; 4:1)—not accidentally. The way of the cross that Paul describes is also the way of joy (cf. Heb 12:2). It begins and ends also with the address “dear brothers and sisters,” and this, too, is not accidental, for once again in this passage Paul writes about himself, and once again the underlying thought is that his experience is typical and that his readers should expect and seek to see the same pattern in their lives. He wrote, “Dear brothers and sisters, pattern your lives after mine, and learn from those who follow our example” (3:17, nlt<\/span>). Having put forward Timothy and Epaphroditus as examples in 2:19-30, Paul now does the same with himself.<\/p>\nThe tone seems to change dramatically in 3:2, as Paul turns to warn the Philippians against “those dogs,” who are probably the same as those to whom he refers in 1:28 as “your enemies.” There, he was much concerned about the inner foundation of the Philippians’ stand against them, so he did not specify who they were. But now he examines them more closely, in order to show the Philippians that the Christian life entails a complete reversal of the values held by their opponents.<\/p>\nIt seems that they were Jews, the sort in Acts 17:5 who opposed Paul’s ministry in nearby Thessalonica. They believed that they were God’s chosen race, but Paul thought that was nothing more than placing confidence in the flesh (Phil 3:4). They thought they knew the way of righteousness—it is the way of rigorous and disciplined obedience to God’s law in every detail of life. But Paul thought that was to seek a righteousness of one’s own (v 9), having nothing to do with the righteousness that God wants to give. The true way to be God’s people, he movingly insists, is the way of self-renunciation, so that all he previously held dear as a Jew came to be seen as rubbish (v 8), considered as loss for the sake of Christ (v 7). The only way to attain righteousness is through faith in Christ (v 9), for Christians must become like him in his death if they are to know the power of his resurrection (v 10). For Paul, dying with Christ meant not just suffering imprisonment and many other indignities for Christ’s sake but also renouncing all the prized possessions that his Judaism had given him.<\/p>\n<h5>Thinking, Rejoicing, Sharing (4:2-23)<\/h5>\nAgain, the tone changes suddenly (both at 4:2 and at 4:10)—so much so that some scholars have suggested that Philippians was compiled by an editor using several different letters. But when Paul turns (in v 2) to address Euodia and Syntyche, he was not really changing the subject. The link with the last section is the same as that between 1:27-30 and the first paragraph in chapter 2: how can Christians expect to be able to hold their own in the face of some enemies of the cross of Christ (3:18) if they are disunited and at odds with each other? For if there is just one gospel, disharmony between Christians means that the gospel is not having its full effect. So Euodia and Syntyche are urged (literally) to “think the same thing in the Lord” (4:2), and are then reminded of how they once found a wonderful unity in striving side by side in the cause of the gospel (v 3).<\/p>\nThe agreement that Paul urges them to come to does not mean complete identity of opinions on all subjects. It means a oneness of heart in a common love for Christ and the gospel. In the rest of the letter Paul spells out what this oneness means in practice—both what it should mean and what it has meant for the Philippians. The use of the mind is vital, and in verses 4-9 Paul paints a picture of the Christian life in which careful and intelligent prayer (vv 6-7) and the deliberate directing of the mind toward “whatever is true and honorable” (v 8) will produce a life marked by the two qualities of peace and joy, whatever the circumstances.<\/p>\nThat leads to the final paragraph, in which Paul gives thanks that, in spite of the disharmony evident in one part of the Philippian church, the church as a whole has already displayed this true Christian “mind.” For they have shown their oneness with Paul in the cause of the gospel by sending him a gift by Epaphroditus. “You have done well to share with me in my present difficulty,” Paul writes (4:14), and our thoughts go back again to the hymn in 2:6-11. From the gospel about the one who came from heaven to bear our burdens comes this mutual sharing—and so does Paul’s wonderful attitude to his circumstances: “I know how to be humbled [the same word as in 2:8], and I know how to abound” (4:12). Joined to Christ, we do not anxiously seek provision for our needs (v 17; cf. v 6), but share with him and with others whatever humiliation and exaltation he sends, confident that God will meet all our needs “from his glorious riches, which have been given to us in Christ Jesus” (4:19, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Philippi.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the One of Paul’s Prison Epistles. Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Theological Themes • Content Author Philippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary. Date and Origin While it is clear ...","summary_en":"PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the One of Paul’s Prison Epistles. Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Theological Themes • Content Author Philippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary. Date and Origin While it is clear ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":58266,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:10","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:10","content_ro":"3:10<\/strong> to know Christ:<\/em> In knowing him, a person knows and is accepted by God (cp. 3:7-8; John 1:12-13; 17:3). • Believers experience the mighty power that raised him from the dead<\/em>,<\/em> both now and in eternity (see Rom 6:4-14; 8:10-11; Col 3:1-4). • to suffer with him, sharing in his death:<\/em> Joined to Christ, a believer has the privilege of experiencing his life and death (see Phil 1:29; 2 Cor 4:10-12; Col 1:24; 1 Pet 4:13-16).<\/p>","content_en":"3:10<\/strong> to know Christ:<\/em> In knowing him, a person knows and is accepted by God (cp. 3:7-8; John 1:12-13; 17:3). • Believers experience the mighty power that raised him from the dead<\/em>,<\/em> both now and in eternity (see Rom 6:4-14; 8:10-11; Col 3:1-4). • to suffer with him, sharing in his death:<\/em> Joined to Christ, a believer has the privilege of experiencing his life and death (see Phil 1:29; 2 Cor 4:10-12; Col 1:24; 1 Pet 4:13-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:10 to know Christ: In knowing him, a person knows and is accepted by God (cp. 3:7-8; John 1:12-13; 17:3). • Believers experience the mighty power that raised him from the dead, both now and in eternity (see Rom 6:4-14; 8:10-11; Col 3:1-4). • to suffer with him, sharing in his death: Joined to Christ, a believer has the privilege of experiencing his life and death (see Phil 1:29; 2 Cor 4:10-12; Col 1:24; 1 Pet 4:13-16).","summary_en":"3:10 to know Christ: In knowing him, a person knows and is accepted by God (cp. 3:7-8; John 1:12-13; 17:3). • Believers experience the mighty power that raised him from the dead, both now and in eternity (see Rom 6:4-14; 8:10-11; Col 3:1-4). • to suffer with him, sharing in his death: Joined to Christ, a believer has the privilege of experiencing his life and death (see Phil 1:29; 2 Cor 4:10-12; Col 1:24; 1 Pet 4:13-16).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85892,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:10","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:10","content_ro":"3:10<\/strong> to know Christ:<\/em> In knowing him, a person knows and is accepted by God (cp. 3:7-8; John 1:12-13; 17:3). • Believers experience the mighty power that raised him from the dead<\/em>,<\/em> both now and in eternity (see Rom 6:4-14; 8:10-11; Col 3:1-4). • to suffer with him, sharing in his death:<\/em> Joined to Christ, a believer has the privilege of experiencing his life and death (see Phil 1:29; 2 Cor 4:10-12; Col 1:24; 1 Pet 4:13-16).<\/p>","content_en":"3:10<\/strong> to know Christ:<\/em> In knowing him, a person knows and is accepted by God (cp. 3:7-8; John 1:12-13; 17:3). • Believers experience the mighty power that raised him from the dead<\/em>,<\/em> both now and in eternity (see Rom 6:4-14; 8:10-11; Col 3:1-4). • to suffer with him, sharing in his death:<\/em> Joined to Christ, a believer has the privilege of experiencing his life and death (see Phil 1:29; 2 Cor 4:10-12; Col 1:24; 1 Pet 4:13-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:10 to know Christ: In knowing him, a person knows and is accepted by God (cp. 3:7-8; John 1:12-13; 17:3). • Believers experience the mighty power that raised him from the dead, both now and in eternity (see Rom 6:4-14; 8:10-11; Col 3:1-4). • to suffer with him, sharing in his death: Joined to Christ, a believer has the privilege of experiencing his life and death (see Phil 1:29; 2 Cor 4:10-12; Col 1:24; 1 Pet 4:13-16).","summary_en":"3:10 to know Christ: In knowing him, a person knows and is accepted by God (cp. 3:7-8; John 1:12-13; 17:3). • Believers experience the mighty power that raised him from the dead, both now and in eternity (see Rom 6:4-14; 8:10-11; Col 3:1-4). • to suffer with him, sharing in his death: Joined to Christ, a believer has the privilege of experiencing his life and death (see Phil 1:29; 2 Cor 4:10-12; Col 1:24; 1 Pet 4:13-16).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113518,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:10","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:10","content_ro":"3:10<\/strong> to know Christ:<\/em> In knowing him, a person knows and is accepted by God (cp. 3:7-8; John 1:12-13; 17:3). • Believers experience the mighty power that raised him from the dead<\/em>,<\/em> both now and in eternity (see Rom 6:4-14; 8:10-11; Col 3:1-4). • to suffer with him, sharing in his death:<\/em> Joined to Christ, a believer has the privilege of experiencing his life and death (see Phil 1:29; 2 Cor 4:10-12; Col 1:24; 1 Pet 4:13-16).<\/p>","content_en":"3:10<\/strong> to know Christ:<\/em> In knowing him, a person knows and is accepted by God (cp. 3:7-8; John 1:12-13; 17:3). • Believers experience the mighty power that raised him from the dead<\/em>,<\/em> both now and in eternity (see Rom 6:4-14; 8:10-11; Col 3:1-4). • to suffer with him, sharing in his death:<\/em> Joined to Christ, a believer has the privilege of experiencing his life and death (see Phil 1:29; 2 Cor 4:10-12; Col 1:24; 1 Pet 4:13-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:10 to know Christ: In knowing him, a person knows and is accepted by God (cp. 3:7-8; John 1:12-13; 17:3). • Believers experience the mighty power that raised him from the dead, both now and in eternity (see Rom 6:4-14; 8:10-11; Col 3:1-4). • to suffer with him, sharing in his death: Joined to Christ, a believer has the privilege of experiencing his life and death (see Phil 1:29; 2 Cor 4:10-12; Col 1:24; 1 Pet 4:13-16).","summary_en":"3:10 to know Christ: In knowing him, a person knows and is accepted by God (cp. 3:7-8; John 1:12-13; 17:3). • Believers experience the mighty power that raised him from the dead, both now and in eternity (see Rom 6:4-14; 8:10-11; Col 3:1-4). • to suffer with him, sharing in his death: Joined to Christ, a believer has the privilege of experiencing his life and death (see Phil 1:29; 2 Cor 4:10-12; Col 1:24; 1 Pet 4:13-16).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141144,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:10","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:10","content_ro":"3:10<\/strong> to know Christ:<\/em> In knowing him, a person knows and is accepted by God (cp. 3:7-8; John 1:12-13; 17:3). • Believers experience the mighty power that raised him from the dead<\/em>,<\/em> both now and in eternity (see Rom 6:4-14; 8:10-11; Col 3:1-4). • to suffer with him, sharing in his death:<\/em> Joined to Christ, a believer has the privilege of experiencing his life and death (see Phil 1:29; 2 Cor 4:10-12; Col 1:24; 1 Pet 4:13-16).<\/p>","content_en":"3:10<\/strong> to know Christ:<\/em> In knowing him, a person knows and is accepted by God (cp. 3:7-8; John 1:12-13; 17:3). • Believers experience the mighty power that raised him from the dead<\/em>,<\/em> both now and in eternity (see Rom 6:4-14; 8:10-11; Col 3:1-4). • to suffer with him, sharing in his death:<\/em> Joined to Christ, a believer has the privilege of experiencing his life and death (see Phil 1:29; 2 Cor 4:10-12; Col 1:24; 1 Pet 4:13-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:10 to know Christ: In knowing him, a person knows and is accepted by God (cp. 3:7-8; John 1:12-13; 17:3). • Believers experience the mighty power that raised him from the dead, both now and in eternity (see Rom 6:4-14; 8:10-11; Col 3:1-4). • to suffer with him, sharing in his death: Joined to Christ, a believer has the privilege of experiencing his life and death (see Phil 1:29; 2 Cor 4:10-12; Col 1:24; 1 Pet 4:13-16).","summary_en":"3:10 to know Christ: In knowing him, a person knows and is accepted by God (cp. 3:7-8; John 1:12-13; 17:3). • Believers experience the mighty power that raised him from the dead, both now and in eternity (see Rom 6:4-14; 8:10-11; Col 3:1-4). • to suffer with him, sharing in his death: Joined to Christ, a believer has the privilege of experiencing his life and death (see Phil 1:29; 2 Cor 4:10-12; Col 1:24; 1 Pet 4:13-16).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62392,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Righteous Suffer","title_en":"The Righteous Suffer","content_ro":"<h3>The Righteous Suffer<\/h3>\nThe book of Job invites us to examine the basis of our faith in God. Job’s loss of possessions and family members and the alienation of his friends shook his faith to its foundation. However, he maintained his trust in God, and he proved Satan’s accusations to be lies.<\/p>\nSin undoubtedly brings suffering, but as the book of Job demonstrates, suffering is not necessarily the result of one’s sin. Human suffering is more complex than a simple equation of individual behavior and consequence. Some today blindly follow Job’s friends in equating godliness with material blessing. But at its root, this perspective is flawed, as demonstrated by the many examples throughout history of righteous suffering—including, of course, Christ himself. As believers we are told that “we must also share [Christ’s] suffering” and “what we suffer now is nothing compared to the glory he will reveal to us later” (Rom 8:17-18). At the core of being a disciple of Christ is a willingness to follow him into suffering (see Luke 9:23-25; Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\nEven in his complaints, Job acknowledged that only God could provide the answers he needed. When Job wished for death, it was to gain relief until God could deal with him under more favorable conditions (14:13). When Job desired a mediator (9:33-35), it was to facilitate finding favor with God. When Job complained that God didn’t listen, it was because he knew that his answers had to come from God (see 19:25-27). That is the very essence of faith.<\/p>\nWe are not meant to know or understand everything (see Gen 2:16-17; Deut 29:29; Acts 1:7; 1 Thes 5:1-2). Some things are for God alone to comprehend and direct according to his sovereign will. Our response is to live by faith. Even when we suffer, we can trust God (see Rom 8:26-39).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 4:4-8; 26:17-33; 31:38-42; 37:2-36; 39:1-20; Exod 1:8-11; 1 Sam 18:10-11, 28-29; 19:10; 22:1-19; 1 Kgs 21:1-15; 2 Chr 24:20-22; Job 9:33-35; 14:13; 19:25-27; Isa 54:17; Jer 11:18-21; 26:1-23; 38:1-13; Matt 23:29-37; John 5:24; 15:20; Acts 6:8–7:60; Rom 8:17-18, 26-39; Heb 12:1-13; 1 Pet 4:12-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Righteous Suffer<\/h3>\nThe book of Job invites us to examine the basis of our faith in God. Job’s loss of possessions and family members and the alienation of his friends shook his faith to its foundation. However, he maintained his trust in God, and he proved Satan’s accusations to be lies.<\/p>\nSin undoubtedly brings suffering, but as the book of Job demonstrates, suffering is not necessarily the result of one’s sin. Human suffering is more complex than a simple equation of individual behavior and consequence. Some today blindly follow Job’s friends in equating godliness with material blessing. But at its root, this perspective is flawed, as demonstrated by the many examples throughout history of righteous suffering—including, of course, Christ himself. As believers we are told that “we must also share [Christ’s] suffering” and “what we suffer now is nothing compared to the glory he will reveal to us later” (Rom 8:17-18). At the core of being a disciple of Christ is a willingness to follow him into suffering (see Luke 9:23-25; Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\nEven in his complaints, Job acknowledged that only God could provide the answers he needed. When Job wished for death, it was to gain relief until God could deal with him under more favorable conditions (14:13). When Job desired a mediator (9:33-35), it was to facilitate finding favor with God. When Job complained that God didn’t listen, it was because he knew that his answers had to come from God (see 19:25-27). That is the very essence of faith.<\/p>\nWe are not meant to know or understand everything (see Gen 2:16-17; Deut 29:29; Acts 1:7; 1 Thes 5:1-2). Some things are for God alone to comprehend and direct according to his sovereign will. Our response is to live by faith. Even when we suffer, we can trust God (see Rom 8:26-39).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 4:4-8; 26:17-33; 31:38-42; 37:2-36; 39:1-20; Exod 1:8-11; 1 Sam 18:10-11, 28-29; 19:10; 22:1-19; 1 Kgs 21:1-15; 2 Chr 24:20-22; Job 9:33-35; 14:13; 19:25-27; Isa 54:17; Jer 11:18-21; 26:1-23; 38:1-13; Matt 23:29-37; John 5:24; 15:20; Acts 6:8–7:60; Rom 8:17-18, 26-39; Heb 12:1-13; 1 Pet 4:12-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Righteous Suffer The book of Job invites us to examine the basis of our faith in God. Job’s loss of possessions and family members and the alienation of his friends shook his faith to its foundation. However, he maintained his trust in God, and he proved Satan’s accusations to be lies. Sin undoubtedly brings suffering, but as the book of Job demonstrates, suffering is not necessarily the result of one’s sin. Human suffering is more complex than a simple equation of individual behavior and...","summary_en":"The Righteous Suffer The book of Job invites us to examine the basis of our faith in God. Job’s loss of possessions and family members and the alienation of his friends shook his faith to its foundation. However, he maintained his trust in God, and he proved Satan’s accusations to be lies. Sin undoubtedly brings suffering, but as the book of Job demonstrates, suffering is not necessarily the result of one’s sin. Human suffering is more complex than a simple equation of individual behavior and...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64618,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Knowing God","title_en":"Knowing God","content_ro":"<h3>Knowing God<\/h3>\nFrom our perspective, knowledge tends to mean information, facts, and concepts. But in biblical times, knowledge was centered in personal relationships. To know someone is to enter into a close relationship with that person. Knowing God involves much more than simply mastering facts and information about him. It even transcends discussions about the nature and character of God, as important as those are. Knowing God means entering into a close relationship with him. It means viewing everything as God does and learning to imitate him. Knowing God will transform our thoughts and actions, our priorities and values, and our relationships with fellow human beings. It is far more important than religious rites, sacrifices and burnt offerings, or any other religious activities (see Jer 9:23-24; 31:34).<\/p>\nThe prophet Hosea strongly emphasizes the importance of knowing God. He demonstrates that Israel would ultimately be destroyed (Hos 4:6) because they did not know God (4:1). This theme of knowing God is also prevalent in the New Testament Gospel of John. Jesus repeatedly stresses the need to know God, affirming that people can be heavily involved in religious practice but have no genuine relationship with God (see John 7:25-29; 8:14-19, 54-55; 14:6-11; 17:1-3).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 33:8, 11; Num 12:6-8; Isa 11:9; 43:10; Jer 9:24; 31:33-34; Hos 6:3, 6; John 17:3; Phil 3:10; Titus 1:16; Heb 8:10-13; 1 Jn 2:4; 4:6, 8; 3 Jn 1:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Knowing God<\/h3>\nFrom our perspective, knowledge tends to mean information, facts, and concepts. But in biblical times, knowledge was centered in personal relationships. To know someone is to enter into a close relationship with that person. Knowing God involves much more than simply mastering facts and information about him. It even transcends discussions about the nature and character of God, as important as those are. Knowing God means entering into a close relationship with him. It means viewing everything as God does and learning to imitate him. Knowing God will transform our thoughts and actions, our priorities and values, and our relationships with fellow human beings. It is far more important than religious rites, sacrifices and burnt offerings, or any other religious activities (see Jer 9:23-24; 31:34).<\/p>\nThe prophet Hosea strongly emphasizes the importance of knowing God. He demonstrates that Israel would ultimately be destroyed (Hos 4:6) because they did not know God (4:1). This theme of knowing God is also prevalent in the New Testament Gospel of John. Jesus repeatedly stresses the need to know God, affirming that people can be heavily involved in religious practice but have no genuine relationship with God (see John 7:25-29; 8:14-19, 54-55; 14:6-11; 17:1-3).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 33:8, 11; Num 12:6-8; Isa 11:9; 43:10; Jer 9:24; 31:33-34; Hos 6:3, 6; John 17:3; Phil 3:10; Titus 1:16; Heb 8:10-13; 1 Jn 2:4; 4:6, 8; 3 Jn 1:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Knowing God From our perspective, knowledge tends to mean information, facts, and concepts. But in biblical times, knowledge was centered in personal relationships. To know someone is to enter into a close relationship with that person. Knowing God involves much more than simply mastering facts and information about him. It even transcends discussions about the nature and character of God, as important as those are. Knowing God means entering into a close relationship with him. It means viewi...","summary_en":"Knowing God From our perspective, knowledge tends to mean information, facts, and concepts. But in biblical times, knowledge was centered in personal relationships. To know someone is to enter into a close relationship with that person. Knowing God involves much more than simply mastering facts and information about him. It even transcends discussions about the nature and character of God, as important as those are. Knowing God means entering into a close relationship with him. It means viewi...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":65293,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Resurrection of Jesus","title_en":"The Resurrection of Jesus","content_ro":"<h3>The Resurrection of Jesus<\/h3>\nScripture unanimously depicts the personal and bodily resurrection of Jesus from the dead by the power of God, but numerous other attempts to explain it have emerged: (1) Jesus never really died—instead, he lost consciousness and regained it after being laid in a cool tomb (the swoon theory); (2) the disciples of Jesus stole his body and then lied about a resurrection (see Matt 28:12-15); (3) the disciples had hallucinations and dreams that they mistakenly confused with a physical resurrection; and (4) the resurrection is a personal experience in the heart of faith, not an event in history. Behind such suggestions lies a deep-seated skepticism toward the supernatural, or at least toward whether a miraculous event could have happened. Such suggestions fail to take into account the fact that for New Testament authors and their audiences, the term resurrection<\/em> could only have meant the literal reanimation of a dead corpse (see 1 Cor 15).<\/p>\nThe historicity of Jesus’ resurrection and the historical reliability of the biblical accounts are supported by (1) the evidence of an empty tomb; (2) the presence of women as witnesses (no one would have made up a story with women as witnesses, since the testimony of a woman was considered to be less reliable than that of a man); (3) the varied but basically unified accounts of Jesus’ post-resurrection appearances; (4) the transformation of the disciples from a fearful band into fearless followers; and (5) the disciples’ ability to overcome the scandal of following a crucified man (Deuteronomy 21:23 indicates that one who dies such a death has fallen under God’s curse). Judaism had no concept of a dying and rising Messiah that could conveniently be applied to Jesus. Inventing something no one would find conceivable would have made little sense. The most reasonable conclusion is just what the New Testament announces: that Jesus did, in fact, rise from the dead.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 16:21; 17:9, 23; 20:19; 26:32; 28:1-10; Mark 14:28; Luke 9:22; 14:14; John 2:19-22; 5:21; 6:39-40; 11:1-44; 14:20; 21:14; Acts 1:21-22; 2:22-36; 3:15, 26; 4:2, 10, 33; 5:30; 10:39-40; 13:29-31; 17:18, 32; 23:6-10; Rom 1:4; 4:24-25; 6:4-5, 9; 7:4; 8:11, 34; 10:9; 1 Cor 6:14; 15:4, 12-23, 35, 42-44, 52; 2 Cor 1:9; 4:14; 5:15; Gal 1:1; Eph 1:19-20; 2:5-6; Phil 3:10-11; Col 2:12; 3:1; 1 Thes 1:10; 4:14; 2 Tim 2:8, 18; Heb 6:2; 11:35; 1 Pet 1:21; 3:18, 21; Rev 20:4-8, 11-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Resurrection of Jesus<\/h3>\nScripture unanimously depicts the personal and bodily resurrection of Jesus from the dead by the power of God, but numerous other attempts to explain it have emerged: (1) Jesus never really died—instead, he lost consciousness and regained it after being laid in a cool tomb (the swoon theory); (2) the disciples of Jesus stole his body and then lied about a resurrection (see Matt 28:12-15); (3) the disciples had hallucinations and dreams that they mistakenly confused with a physical resurrection; and (4) the resurrection is a personal experience in the heart of faith, not an event in history. Behind such suggestions lies a deep-seated skepticism toward the supernatural, or at least toward whether a miraculous event could have happened. Such suggestions fail to take into account the fact that for New Testament authors and their audiences, the term resurrection<\/em> could only have meant the literal reanimation of a dead corpse (see 1 Cor 15).<\/p>\nThe historicity of Jesus’ resurrection and the historical reliability of the biblical accounts are supported by (1) the evidence of an empty tomb; (2) the presence of women as witnesses (no one would have made up a story with women as witnesses, since the testimony of a woman was considered to be less reliable than that of a man); (3) the varied but basically unified accounts of Jesus’ post-resurrection appearances; (4) the transformation of the disciples from a fearful band into fearless followers; and (5) the disciples’ ability to overcome the scandal of following a crucified man (Deuteronomy 21:23 indicates that one who dies such a death has fallen under God’s curse). Judaism had no concept of a dying and rising Messiah that could conveniently be applied to Jesus. Inventing something no one would find conceivable would have made little sense. The most reasonable conclusion is just what the New Testament announces: that Jesus did, in fact, rise from the dead.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 16:21; 17:9, 23; 20:19; 26:32; 28:1-10; Mark 14:28; Luke 9:22; 14:14; John 2:19-22; 5:21; 6:39-40; 11:1-44; 14:20; 21:14; Acts 1:21-22; 2:22-36; 3:15, 26; 4:2, 10, 33; 5:30; 10:39-40; 13:29-31; 17:18, 32; 23:6-10; Rom 1:4; 4:24-25; 6:4-5, 9; 7:4; 8:11, 34; 10:9; 1 Cor 6:14; 15:4, 12-23, 35, 42-44, 52; 2 Cor 1:9; 4:14; 5:15; Gal 1:1; Eph 1:19-20; 2:5-6; Phil 3:10-11; Col 2:12; 3:1; 1 Thes 1:10; 4:14; 2 Tim 2:8, 18; Heb 6:2; 11:35; 1 Pet 1:21; 3:18, 21; Rev 20:4-8, 11-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Resurrection of Jesus Scripture unanimously depicts the personal and bodily resurrection of Jesus from the dead by the power of God, but numerous other attempts to explain it have emerged: (1) Jesus never really died—instead, he lost consciousness and regained it after being laid in a cool tomb (the swoon theory); (2) the disciples of Jesus stole his body and then lied about a resurrection (see Matt 28:12-15); (3) the disciples had hallucinations and dreams that they mistakenly confused w...","summary_en":"The Resurrection of Jesus Scripture unanimously depicts the personal and bodily resurrection of Jesus from the dead by the power of God, but numerous other attempts to explain it have emerged: (1) Jesus never really died—instead, he lost consciousness and regained it after being laid in a cool tomb (the swoon theory); (2) the disciples of Jesus stole his body and then lied about a resurrection (see Matt 28:12-15); (3) the disciples had hallucinations and dreams that they mistakenly confused w...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67340,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Old Life and the New Life","title_en":"The Old Life and the New Life","content_ro":"<h3>The Old Life and the New Life<\/h3>\nWhen people become believers in Christ, they are joined to him and begin to share in his death and resurrection. Their old life, marred by sin, dies with Christ, and they begin a new life by his power within them (see Rom 6:3-14). This is the work of God, who transforms them by his Spirit. Their minds are renewed (see Rom 12:2), their desires and actions change, and their lives begin to reflect his Spirit (Gal 5:22-23). They gradually grow into the likeness of Christ.<\/p>\nBelievers also have a responsibility to live out Christ’s death and resurrection (see Phil 3:10-14). They are to turn away from darkness and embrace a life full of light (Eph 4:17–5:20). Paul speaks of this transformation by using the imagery of clothing. Believers are called to take off the old, sinful life driven by the devil and put on a new, pure life directed by the Holy Spirit (Eph 4:21-24; Col 3:1-15; see also Gal 3:27). As they do so, they recognize their reliance on God’s grace and power.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 6:3-14; 12:1-2; Gal 5:19-23; Eph 4:17–5:20; Phil 3:12-14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Old Life and the New Life<\/h3>\nWhen people become believers in Christ, they are joined to him and begin to share in his death and resurrection. Their old life, marred by sin, dies with Christ, and they begin a new life by his power within them (see Rom 6:3-14). This is the work of God, who transforms them by his Spirit. Their minds are renewed (see Rom 12:2), their desires and actions change, and their lives begin to reflect his Spirit (Gal 5:22-23). They gradually grow into the likeness of Christ.<\/p>\nBelievers also have a responsibility to live out Christ’s death and resurrection (see Phil 3:10-14). They are to turn away from darkness and embrace a life full of light (Eph 4:17–5:20). Paul speaks of this transformation by using the imagery of clothing. Believers are called to take off the old, sinful life driven by the devil and put on a new, pure life directed by the Holy Spirit (Eph 4:21-24; Col 3:1-15; see also Gal 3:27). As they do so, they recognize their reliance on God’s grace and power.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 6:3-14; 12:1-2; Gal 5:19-23; Eph 4:17–5:20; Phil 3:12-14<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Old Life and the New Life When people become believers in Christ, they are joined to him and begin to share in his death and resurrection. Their old life, marred by sin, dies with Christ, and they begin a new life by his power within them (see Rom 6:3-14). This is the work of God, who transforms them by his Spirit. Their minds are renewed (see Rom 12:2), their desires and actions change, and their lives begin to reflect his Spirit (Gal 5:22-23). They gradually grow into the likeness of Ch...","summary_en":"The Old Life and the New Life When people become believers in Christ, they are joined to him and begin to share in his death and resurrection. Their old life, marred by sin, dies with Christ, and they begin a new life by his power within them (see Rom 6:3-14). This is the work of God, who transforms them by his Spirit. Their minds are renewed (see Rom 12:2), their desires and actions change, and their lives begin to reflect his Spirit (Gal 5:22-23). They gradually grow into the likeness of Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67518,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Mantle of Leadership","title_en":"The Mantle of Leadership","content_ro":"<h3>The Mantle of Leadership<\/h3>\nThe mantle of Christian leadership is the garb of servants who suffer for those they lead (Mark 10:35-45). For Paul, the essence of good leadership was to provide an example that mirrored Christ’s own example. The cross of Christ was central for Paul, and it had total claim on his life. When he said, “I want to suffer with him, sharing in his death” (Phil 3:10; see Col 1:24), he was speaking of more than emotional turmoil or even of dealing with sin. He meant suffering violently and bodily. Paul endured suffering for the sake of those to whom he proclaimed the Good News, always putting their salvation before his own physical well-being (2 Tim 2:10; 2 Cor 4:8-12). The Christian leader’s life is a proclamation of Christ crucified, of God’s power through human weakness (2 Cor 12:8-10), and of God’s wisdom despite human foolishness (1 Cor 1:18-31). As Paul summoned Timothy to take up the mantle of leadership (2 Tim 4:1-5), he was also summoning Timothy to suffer with him (1:8; 2:3; 4:5), scorning the shame of the cross (1:8).<\/p>\nIf leadership does not orbit faithfully around Christ as its self-giving center, it ceases to be leadership in Christ and fails to understand the Good News, as it tends to revolve around self. But leadership that is modeled after Christ is other-directed and sacrificial (see Phil 2:3-8). Such a leader is willing to endure suffering, knowing that those who have died with Christ will live with him and that those who endure hardship will reign with him (2 Tim 2:11-12).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 13:15; Acts 20:35; 2 Cor 4:8-12; Eph 5:2; Col 1:24; 1 Thes 1:6-7; 2 Thes 3:9; 1 Tim 1:16; 4:12; 2 Tim 1:8, 12; 2:3, 10-12; 4:1-5; Titus 2:7; Heb 6:12; 13:7; 1 Pet 2:21; 5:1-4<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Mantle of Leadership<\/h3>\nThe mantle of Christian leadership is the garb of servants who suffer for those they lead (Mark 10:35-45). For Paul, the essence of good leadership was to provide an example that mirrored Christ’s own example. The cross of Christ was central for Paul, and it had total claim on his life. When he said, “I want to suffer with him, sharing in his death” (Phil 3:10; see Col 1:24), he was speaking of more than emotional turmoil or even of dealing with sin. He meant suffering violently and bodily. Paul endured suffering for the sake of those to whom he proclaimed the Good News, always putting their salvation before his own physical well-being (2 Tim 2:10; 2 Cor 4:8-12). The Christian leader’s life is a proclamation of Christ crucified, of God’s power through human weakness (2 Cor 12:8-10), and of God’s wisdom despite human foolishness (1 Cor 1:18-31). As Paul summoned Timothy to take up the mantle of leadership (2 Tim 4:1-5), he was also summoning Timothy to suffer with him (1:8; 2:3; 4:5), scorning the shame of the cross (1:8).<\/p>\nIf leadership does not orbit faithfully around Christ as its self-giving center, it ceases to be leadership in Christ and fails to understand the Good News, as it tends to revolve around self. But leadership that is modeled after Christ is other-directed and sacrificial (see Phil 2:3-8). Such a leader is willing to endure suffering, knowing that those who have died with Christ will live with him and that those who endure hardship will reign with him (2 Tim 2:11-12).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 13:15; Acts 20:35; 2 Cor 4:8-12; Eph 5:2; Col 1:24; 1 Thes 1:6-7; 2 Thes 3:9; 1 Tim 1:16; 4:12; 2 Tim 1:8, 12; 2:3, 10-12; 4:1-5; Titus 2:7; Heb 6:12; 13:7; 1 Pet 2:21; 5:1-4<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Mantle of Leadership The mantle of Christian leadership is the garb of servants who suffer for those they lead (Mark 10:35-45). For Paul, the essence of good leadership was to provide an example that mirrored Christ’s own example. The cross of Christ was central for Paul, and it had total claim on his life. When he said, “I want to suffer with him, sharing in his death” (Phil 3:10; see Col 1:24), he was speaking of more than emotional turmoil or even of dealing with sin. He meant sufferin...","summary_en":"The Mantle of Leadership The mantle of Christian leadership is the garb of servants who suffer for those they lead (Mark 10:35-45). For Paul, the essence of good leadership was to provide an example that mirrored Christ’s own example. The cross of Christ was central for Paul, and it had total claim on his life. When he said, “I want to suffer with him, sharing in his death” (Phil 3:10; see Col 1:24), he was speaking of more than emotional turmoil or even of dealing with sin. He meant sufferin...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90018,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Righteous Suffer","title_en":"The Righteous Suffer","content_ro":"<h3>The Righteous Suffer<\/h3>\nThe book of Job invites us to examine the basis of our faith in God. Job’s loss of possessions and family members and the alienation of his friends shook his faith to its foundation. However, he maintained his trust in God, and he proved Satan’s accusations to be lies.<\/p>\nSin undoubtedly brings suffering, but as the book of Job demonstrates, suffering is not necessarily the result of one’s sin. Human suffering is more complex than a simple equation of individual behavior and consequence. Some today blindly follow Job’s friends in equating godliness with material blessing. But at its root, this perspective is flawed, as demonstrated by the many examples throughout history of righteous suffering—including, of course, Christ himself. As believers we are told that “we must also share [Christ’s] suffering” and “what we suffer now is nothing compared to the glory he will reveal to us later” (Rom 8:17-18). At the core of being a disciple of Christ is a willingness to follow him into suffering (see Luke 9:23-25; Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\nEven in his complaints, Job acknowledged that only God could provide the answers he needed. When Job wished for death, it was to gain relief until God could deal with him under more favorable conditions (14:13). When Job desired a mediator (9:33-35), it was to facilitate finding favor with God. When Job complained that God didn’t listen, it was because he knew that his answers had to come from God (see 19:25-27). That is the very essence of faith.<\/p>\nWe are not meant to know or understand everything (see Gen 2:16-17; Deut 29:29; Acts 1:7; 1 Thes 5:1-2). Some things are for God alone to comprehend and direct according to his sovereign will. Our response is to live by faith. Even when we suffer, we can trust God (see Rom 8:26-39).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 4:4-8; 26:17-33; 31:38-42; 37:2-36; 39:1-20; Exod 1:8-11; 1 Sam 18:10-11, 28-29; 19:10; 22:1-19; 1 Kgs 21:1-15; 2 Chr 24:20-22; Job 9:33-35; 14:13; 19:25-27; Isa 54:17; Jer 11:18-21; 26:1-23; 38:1-13; Matt 23:29-37; John 5:24; 15:20; Acts 6:8–7:60; Rom 8:17-18, 26-39; Heb 12:1-13; 1 Pet 4:12-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Righteous Suffer<\/h3>\nThe book of Job invites us to examine the basis of our faith in God. Job’s loss of possessions and family members and the alienation of his friends shook his faith to its foundation. However, he maintained his trust in God, and he proved Satan’s accusations to be lies.<\/p>\nSin undoubtedly brings suffering, but as the book of Job demonstrates, suffering is not necessarily the result of one’s sin. Human suffering is more complex than a simple equation of individual behavior and consequence. Some today blindly follow Job’s friends in equating godliness with material blessing. But at its root, this perspective is flawed, as demonstrated by the many examples throughout history of righteous suffering—including, of course, Christ himself. As believers we are told that “we must also share [Christ’s] suffering” and “what we suffer now is nothing compared to the glory he will reveal to us later” (Rom 8:17-18). At the core of being a disciple of Christ is a willingness to follow him into suffering (see Luke 9:23-25; Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\nEven in his complaints, Job acknowledged that only God could provide the answers he needed. When Job wished for death, it was to gain relief until God could deal with him under more favorable conditions (14:13). When Job desired a mediator (9:33-35), it was to facilitate finding favor with God. When Job complained that God didn’t listen, it was because he knew that his answers had to come from God (see 19:25-27). That is the very essence of faith.<\/p>\nWe are not meant to know or understand everything (see Gen 2:16-17; Deut 29:29; Acts 1:7; 1 Thes 5:1-2). Some things are for God alone to comprehend and direct according to his sovereign will. Our response is to live by faith. Even when we suffer, we can trust God (see Rom 8:26-39).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 4:4-8; 26:17-33; 31:38-42; 37:2-36; 39:1-20; Exod 1:8-11; 1 Sam 18:10-11, 28-29; 19:10; 22:1-19; 1 Kgs 21:1-15; 2 Chr 24:20-22; Job 9:33-35; 14:13; 19:25-27; Isa 54:17; Jer 11:18-21; 26:1-23; 38:1-13; Matt 23:29-37; John 5:24; 15:20; Acts 6:8–7:60; Rom 8:17-18, 26-39; Heb 12:1-13; 1 Pet 4:12-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Righteous Suffer The book of Job invites us to examine the basis of our faith in God. Job’s loss of possessions and family members and the alienation of his friends shook his faith to its foundation. However, he maintained his trust in God, and he proved Satan’s accusations to be lies. Sin undoubtedly brings suffering, but as the book of Job demonstrates, suffering is not necessarily the result of one’s sin. Human suffering is more complex than a simple equation of individual behavior and...","summary_en":"The Righteous Suffer The book of Job invites us to examine the basis of our faith in God. Job’s loss of possessions and family members and the alienation of his friends shook his faith to its foundation. However, he maintained his trust in God, and he proved Satan’s accusations to be lies. Sin undoubtedly brings suffering, but as the book of Job demonstrates, suffering is not necessarily the result of one’s sin. Human suffering is more complex than a simple equation of individual behavior and...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":92244,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Knowing God","title_en":"Knowing God","content_ro":"<h3>Knowing God<\/h3>\nFrom our perspective, knowledge tends to mean information, facts, and concepts. But in biblical times, knowledge was centered in personal relationships. To know someone is to enter into a close relationship with that person. Knowing God involves much more than simply mastering facts and information about him. It even transcends discussions about the nature and character of God, as important as those are. Knowing God means entering into a close relationship with him. It means viewing everything as God does and learning to imitate him. Knowing God will transform our thoughts and actions, our priorities and values, and our relationships with fellow human beings. It is far more important than religious rites, sacrifices and burnt offerings, or any other religious activities (see Jer 9:23-24; 31:34).<\/p>\nThe prophet Hosea strongly emphasizes the importance of knowing God. He demonstrates that Israel would ultimately be destroyed (Hos 4:6) because they did not know God (4:1). This theme of knowing God is also prevalent in the New Testament Gospel of John. Jesus repeatedly stresses the need to know God, affirming that people can be heavily involved in religious practice but have no genuine relationship with God (see John 7:25-29; 8:14-19, 54-55; 14:6-11; 17:1-3).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 33:8, 11; Num 12:6-8; Isa 11:9; 43:10; Jer 9:24; 31:33-34; Hos 6:3, 6; John 17:3; Phil 3:10; Titus 1:16; Heb 8:10-13; 1 Jn 2:4; 4:6, 8; 3 Jn 1:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Knowing God<\/h3>\nFrom our perspective, knowledge tends to mean information, facts, and concepts. But in biblical times, knowledge was centered in personal relationships. To know someone is to enter into a close relationship with that person. Knowing God involves much more than simply mastering facts and information about him. It even transcends discussions about the nature and character of God, as important as those are. Knowing God means entering into a close relationship with him. It means viewing everything as God does and learning to imitate him. Knowing God will transform our thoughts and actions, our priorities and values, and our relationships with fellow human beings. It is far more important than religious rites, sacrifices and burnt offerings, or any other religious activities (see Jer 9:23-24; 31:34).<\/p>\nThe prophet Hosea strongly emphasizes the importance of knowing God. He demonstrates that Israel would ultimately be destroyed (Hos 4:6) because they did not know God (4:1). This theme of knowing God is also prevalent in the New Testament Gospel of John. Jesus repeatedly stresses the need to know God, affirming that people can be heavily involved in religious practice but have no genuine relationship with God (see John 7:25-29; 8:14-19, 54-55; 14:6-11; 17:1-3).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 33:8, 11; Num 12:6-8; Isa 11:9; 43:10; Jer 9:24; 31:33-34; Hos 6:3, 6; John 17:3; Phil 3:10; Titus 1:16; Heb 8:10-13; 1 Jn 2:4; 4:6, 8; 3 Jn 1:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Knowing God From our perspective, knowledge tends to mean information, facts, and concepts. But in biblical times, knowledge was centered in personal relationships. To know someone is to enter into a close relationship with that person. Knowing God involves much more than simply mastering facts and information about him. It even transcends discussions about the nature and character of God, as important as those are. Knowing God means entering into a close relationship with him. It means viewi...","summary_en":"Knowing God From our perspective, knowledge tends to mean information, facts, and concepts. But in biblical times, knowledge was centered in personal relationships. To know someone is to enter into a close relationship with that person. Knowing God involves much more than simply mastering facts and information about him. It even transcends discussions about the nature and character of God, as important as those are. Knowing God means entering into a close relationship with him. It means viewi...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":92919,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Resurrection of Jesus","title_en":"The Resurrection of Jesus","content_ro":"<h3>The Resurrection of Jesus<\/h3>\nScripture unanimously depicts the personal and bodily resurrection of Jesus from the dead by the power of God, but numerous other attempts to explain it have emerged: (1) Jesus never really died—instead, he lost consciousness and regained it after being laid in a cool tomb (the swoon theory); (2) the disciples of Jesus stole his body and then lied about a resurrection (see Matt 28:12-15); (3) the disciples had hallucinations and dreams that they mistakenly confused with a physical resurrection; and (4) the resurrection is a personal experience in the heart of faith, not an event in history. Behind such suggestions lies a deep-seated skepticism toward the supernatural, or at least toward whether a miraculous event could have happened. Such suggestions fail to take into account the fact that for New Testament authors and their audiences, the term resurrection<\/em> could only have meant the literal reanimation of a dead corpse (see 1 Cor 15).<\/p>\nThe historicity of Jesus’ resurrection and the historical reliability of the biblical accounts are supported by (1) the evidence of an empty tomb; (2) the presence of women as witnesses (no one would have made up a story with women as witnesses, since the testimony of a woman was considered to be less reliable than that of a man); (3) the varied but basically unified accounts of Jesus’ post-resurrection appearances; (4) the transformation of the disciples from a fearful band into fearless followers; and (5) the disciples’ ability to overcome the scandal of following a crucified man (Deuteronomy 21:23 indicates that one who dies such a death has fallen under God’s curse). Judaism had no concept of a dying and rising Messiah that could conveniently be applied to Jesus. Inventing something no one would find conceivable would have made little sense. The most reasonable conclusion is just what the New Testament announces: that Jesus did, in fact, rise from the dead.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 16:21; 17:9, 23; 20:19; 26:32; 28:1-10; Mark 14:28; Luke 9:22; 14:14; John 2:19-22; 5:21; 6:39-40; 11:1-44; 14:20; 21:14; Acts 1:21-22; 2:22-36; 3:15, 26; 4:2, 10, 33; 5:30; 10:39-40; 13:29-31; 17:18, 32; 23:6-10; Rom 1:4; 4:24-25; 6:4-5, 9; 7:4; 8:11, 34; 10:9; 1 Cor 6:14; 15:4, 12-23, 35, 42-44, 52; 2 Cor 1:9; 4:14; 5:15; Gal 1:1; Eph 1:19-20; 2:5-6; Phil 3:10-11; Col 2:12; 3:1; 1 Thes 1:10; 4:14; 2 Tim 2:8, 18; Heb 6:2; 11:35; 1 Pet 1:21; 3:18, 21; Rev 20:4-8, 11-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Resurrection of Jesus<\/h3>\nScripture unanimously depicts the personal and bodily resurrection of Jesus from the dead by the power of God, but numerous other attempts to explain it have emerged: (1) Jesus never really died—instead, he lost consciousness and regained it after being laid in a cool tomb (the swoon theory); (2) the disciples of Jesus stole his body and then lied about a resurrection (see Matt 28:12-15); (3) the disciples had hallucinations and dreams that they mistakenly confused with a physical resurrection; and (4) the resurrection is a personal experience in the heart of faith, not an event in history. Behind such suggestions lies a deep-seated skepticism toward the supernatural, or at least toward whether a miraculous event could have happened. Such suggestions fail to take into account the fact that for New Testament authors and their audiences, the term resurrection<\/em> could only have meant the literal reanimation of a dead corpse (see 1 Cor 15).<\/p>\nThe historicity of Jesus’ resurrection and the historical reliability of the biblical accounts are supported by (1) the evidence of an empty tomb; (2) the presence of women as witnesses (no one would have made up a story with women as witnesses, since the testimony of a woman was considered to be less reliable than that of a man); (3) the varied but basically unified accounts of Jesus’ post-resurrection appearances; (4) the transformation of the disciples from a fearful band into fearless followers; and (5) the disciples’ ability to overcome the scandal of following a crucified man (Deuteronomy 21:23 indicates that one who dies such a death has fallen under God’s curse). Judaism had no concept of a dying and rising Messiah that could conveniently be applied to Jesus. Inventing something no one would find conceivable would have made little sense. The most reasonable conclusion is just what the New Testament announces: that Jesus did, in fact, rise from the dead.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 16:21; 17:9, 23; 20:19; 26:32; 28:1-10; Mark 14:28; Luke 9:22; 14:14; John 2:19-22; 5:21; 6:39-40; 11:1-44; 14:20; 21:14; Acts 1:21-22; 2:22-36; 3:15, 26; 4:2, 10, 33; 5:30; 10:39-40; 13:29-31; 17:18, 32; 23:6-10; Rom 1:4; 4:24-25; 6:4-5, 9; 7:4; 8:11, 34; 10:9; 1 Cor 6:14; 15:4, 12-23, 35, 42-44, 52; 2 Cor 1:9; 4:14; 5:15; Gal 1:1; Eph 1:19-20; 2:5-6; Phil 3:10-11; Col 2:12; 3:1; 1 Thes 1:10; 4:14; 2 Tim 2:8, 18; Heb 6:2; 11:35; 1 Pet 1:21; 3:18, 21; Rev 20:4-8, 11-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Resurrection of Jesus Scripture unanimously depicts the personal and bodily resurrection of Jesus from the dead by the power of God, but numerous other attempts to explain it have emerged: (1) Jesus never really died—instead, he lost consciousness and regained it after being laid in a cool tomb (the swoon theory); (2) the disciples of Jesus stole his body and then lied about a resurrection (see Matt 28:12-15); (3) the disciples had hallucinations and dreams that they mistakenly confused w...","summary_en":"The Resurrection of Jesus Scripture unanimously depicts the personal and bodily resurrection of Jesus from the dead by the power of God, but numerous other attempts to explain it have emerged: (1) Jesus never really died—instead, he lost consciousness and regained it after being laid in a cool tomb (the swoon theory); (2) the disciples of Jesus stole his body and then lied about a resurrection (see Matt 28:12-15); (3) the disciples had hallucinations and dreams that they mistakenly confused w...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":94966,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Old Life and the New Life","title_en":"The Old Life and the New Life","content_ro":"<h3>The Old Life and the New Life<\/h3>\nWhen people become believers in Christ, they are joined to him and begin to share in his death and resurrection. Their old life, marred by sin, dies with Christ, and they begin a new life by his power within them (see Rom 6:3-14). This is the work of God, who transforms them by his Spirit. Their minds are renewed (see Rom 12:2), their desires and actions change, and their lives begin to reflect his Spirit (Gal 5:22-23). They gradually grow into the likeness of Christ.<\/p>\nBelievers also have a responsibility to live out Christ’s death and resurrection (see Phil 3:10-14). They are to turn away from darkness and embrace a life full of light (Eph 4:17–5:20). Paul speaks of this transformation by using the imagery of clothing. Believers are called to take off the old, sinful life driven by the devil and put on a new, pure life directed by the Holy Spirit (Eph 4:21-24; Col 3:1-15; see also Gal 3:27). As they do so, they recognize their reliance on God’s grace and power.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 6:3-14; 12:1-2; Gal 5:19-23; Eph 4:17–5:20; Phil 3:12-14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Old Life and the New Life<\/h3>\nWhen people become believers in Christ, they are joined to him and begin to share in his death and resurrection. Their old life, marred by sin, dies with Christ, and they begin a new life by his power within them (see Rom 6:3-14). This is the work of God, who transforms them by his Spirit. Their minds are renewed (see Rom 12:2), their desires and actions change, and their lives begin to reflect his Spirit (Gal 5:22-23). They gradually grow into the likeness of Christ.<\/p>\nBelievers also have a responsibility to live out Christ’s death and resurrection (see Phil 3:10-14). They are to turn away from darkness and embrace a life full of light (Eph 4:17–5:20). Paul speaks of this transformation by using the imagery of clothing. Believers are called to take off the old, sinful life driven by the devil and put on a new, pure life directed by the Holy Spirit (Eph 4:21-24; Col 3:1-15; see also Gal 3:27). As they do so, they recognize their reliance on God’s grace and power.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 6:3-14; 12:1-2; Gal 5:19-23; Eph 4:17–5:20; Phil 3:12-14<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Old Life and the New Life When people become believers in Christ, they are joined to him and begin to share in his death and resurrection. Their old life, marred by sin, dies with Christ, and they begin a new life by his power within them (see Rom 6:3-14). This is the work of God, who transforms them by his Spirit. Their minds are renewed (see Rom 12:2), their desires and actions change, and their lives begin to reflect his Spirit (Gal 5:22-23). They gradually grow into the likeness of Ch...","summary_en":"The Old Life and the New Life When people become believers in Christ, they are joined to him and begin to share in his death and resurrection. Their old life, marred by sin, dies with Christ, and they begin a new life by his power within them (see Rom 6:3-14). This is the work of God, who transforms them by his Spirit. Their minds are renewed (see Rom 12:2), their desires and actions change, and their lives begin to reflect his Spirit (Gal 5:22-23). They gradually grow into the likeness of Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95144,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Mantle of Leadership","title_en":"The Mantle of Leadership","content_ro":"<h3>The Mantle of Leadership<\/h3>\nThe mantle of Christian leadership is the garb of servants who suffer for those they lead (Mark 10:35-45). For Paul, the essence of good leadership was to provide an example that mirrored Christ’s own example. The cross of Christ was central for Paul, and it had total claim on his life. When he said, “I want to suffer with him, sharing in his death” (Phil 3:10; see Col 1:24), he was speaking of more than emotional turmoil or even of dealing with sin. He meant suffering violently and bodily. Paul endured suffering for the sake of those to whom he proclaimed the Good News, always putting their salvation before his own physical well-being (2 Tim 2:10; 2 Cor 4:8-12). The Christian leader’s life is a proclamation of Christ crucified, of God’s power through human weakness (2 Cor 12:8-10), and of God’s wisdom despite human foolishness (1 Cor 1:18-31). As Paul summoned Timothy to take up the mantle of leadership (2 Tim 4:1-5), he was also summoning Timothy to suffer with him (1:8; 2:3; 4:5), scorning the shame of the cross (1:8).<\/p>\nIf leadership does not orbit faithfully around Christ as its self-giving center, it ceases to be leadership in Christ and fails to understand the Good News, as it tends to revolve around self. But leadership that is modeled after Christ is other-directed and sacrificial (see Phil 2:3-8). Such a leader is willing to endure suffering, knowing that those who have died with Christ will live with him and that those who endure hardship will reign with him (2 Tim 2:11-12).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 13:15; Acts 20:35; 2 Cor 4:8-12; Eph 5:2; Col 1:24; 1 Thes 1:6-7; 2 Thes 3:9; 1 Tim 1:16; 4:12; 2 Tim 1:8, 12; 2:3, 10-12; 4:1-5; Titus 2:7; Heb 6:12; 13:7; 1 Pet 2:21; 5:1-4<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Mantle of Leadership<\/h3>\nThe mantle of Christian leadership is the garb of servants who suffer for those they lead (Mark 10:35-45). For Paul, the essence of good leadership was to provide an example that mirrored Christ’s own example. The cross of Christ was central for Paul, and it had total claim on his life. When he said, “I want to suffer with him, sharing in his death” (Phil 3:10; see Col 1:24), he was speaking of more than emotional turmoil or even of dealing with sin. He meant suffering violently and bodily. Paul endured suffering for the sake of those to whom he proclaimed the Good News, always putting their salvation before his own physical well-being (2 Tim 2:10; 2 Cor 4:8-12). The Christian leader’s life is a proclamation of Christ crucified, of God’s power through human weakness (2 Cor 12:8-10), and of God’s wisdom despite human foolishness (1 Cor 1:18-31). As Paul summoned Timothy to take up the mantle of leadership (2 Tim 4:1-5), he was also summoning Timothy to suffer with him (1:8; 2:3; 4:5), scorning the shame of the cross (1:8).<\/p>\nIf leadership does not orbit faithfully around Christ as its self-giving center, it ceases to be leadership in Christ and fails to understand the Good News, as it tends to revolve around self. But leadership that is modeled after Christ is other-directed and sacrificial (see Phil 2:3-8). Such a leader is willing to endure suffering, knowing that those who have died with Christ will live with him and that those who endure hardship will reign with him (2 Tim 2:11-12).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 13:15; Acts 20:35; 2 Cor 4:8-12; Eph 5:2; Col 1:24; 1 Thes 1:6-7; 2 Thes 3:9; 1 Tim 1:16; 4:12; 2 Tim 1:8, 12; 2:3, 10-12; 4:1-5; Titus 2:7; Heb 6:12; 13:7; 1 Pet 2:21; 5:1-4<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Mantle of Leadership The mantle of Christian leadership is the garb of servants who suffer for those they lead (Mark 10:35-45). For Paul, the essence of good leadership was to provide an example that mirrored Christ’s own example. The cross of Christ was central for Paul, and it had total claim on his life. When he said, “I want to suffer with him, sharing in his death” (Phil 3:10; see Col 1:24), he was speaking of more than emotional turmoil or even of dealing with sin. He meant sufferin...","summary_en":"The Mantle of Leadership The mantle of Christian leadership is the garb of servants who suffer for those they lead (Mark 10:35-45). For Paul, the essence of good leadership was to provide an example that mirrored Christ’s own example. The cross of Christ was central for Paul, and it had total claim on his life. When he said, “I want to suffer with him, sharing in his death” (Phil 3:10; see Col 1:24), he was speaking of more than emotional turmoil or even of dealing with sin. He meant sufferin...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117644,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Righteous Suffer","title_en":"The Righteous Suffer","content_ro":"<h3>The Righteous Suffer<\/h3>\nThe book of Job invites us to examine the basis of our faith in God. Job’s loss of possessions and family members and the alienation of his friends shook his faith to its foundation. However, he maintained his trust in God, and he proved Satan’s accusations to be lies.<\/p>\nSin undoubtedly brings suffering, but as the book of Job demonstrates, suffering is not necessarily the result of one’s sin. Human suffering is more complex than a simple equation of individual behavior and consequence. Some today blindly follow Job’s friends in equating godliness with material blessing. But at its root, this perspective is flawed, as demonstrated by the many examples throughout history of righteous suffering—including, of course, Christ himself. As believers we are told that “we must also share [Christ’s] suffering” and “what we suffer now is nothing compared to the glory he will reveal to us later” (Rom 8:17-18). At the core of being a disciple of Christ is a willingness to follow him into suffering (see Luke 9:23-25; Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\nEven in his complaints, Job acknowledged that only God could provide the answers he needed. When Job wished for death, it was to gain relief until God could deal with him under more favorable conditions (14:13). When Job desired a mediator (9:33-35), it was to facilitate finding favor with God. When Job complained that God didn’t listen, it was because he knew that his answers had to come from God (see 19:25-27). That is the very essence of faith.<\/p>\nWe are not meant to know or understand everything (see Gen 2:16-17; Deut 29:29; Acts 1:7; 1 Thes 5:1-2). Some things are for God alone to comprehend and direct according to his sovereign will. Our response is to live by faith. Even when we suffer, we can trust God (see Rom 8:26-39).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 4:4-8; 26:17-33; 31:38-42; 37:2-36; 39:1-20; Exod 1:8-11; 1 Sam 18:10-11, 28-29; 19:10; 22:1-19; 1 Kgs 21:1-15; 2 Chr 24:20-22; Job 9:33-35; 14:13; 19:25-27; Isa 54:17; Jer 11:18-21; 26:1-23; 38:1-13; Matt 23:29-37; John 5:24; 15:20; Acts 6:8–7:60; Rom 8:17-18, 26-39; Heb 12:1-13; 1 Pet 4:12-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Righteous Suffer<\/h3>\nThe book of Job invites us to examine the basis of our faith in God. Job’s loss of possessions and family members and the alienation of his friends shook his faith to its foundation. However, he maintained his trust in God, and he proved Satan’s accusations to be lies.<\/p>\nSin undoubtedly brings suffering, but as the book of Job demonstrates, suffering is not necessarily the result of one’s sin. Human suffering is more complex than a simple equation of individual behavior and consequence. Some today blindly follow Job’s friends in equating godliness with material blessing. But at its root, this perspective is flawed, as demonstrated by the many examples throughout history of righteous suffering—including, of course, Christ himself. As believers we are told that “we must also share [Christ’s] suffering” and “what we suffer now is nothing compared to the glory he will reveal to us later” (Rom 8:17-18). At the core of being a disciple of Christ is a willingness to follow him into suffering (see Luke 9:23-25; Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\nEven in his complaints, Job acknowledged that only God could provide the answers he needed. When Job wished for death, it was to gain relief until God could deal with him under more favorable conditions (14:13). When Job desired a mediator (9:33-35), it was to facilitate finding favor with God. When Job complained that God didn’t listen, it was because he knew that his answers had to come from God (see 19:25-27). That is the very essence of faith.<\/p>\nWe are not meant to know or understand everything (see Gen 2:16-17; Deut 29:29; Acts 1:7; 1 Thes 5:1-2). Some things are for God alone to comprehend and direct according to his sovereign will. Our response is to live by faith. Even when we suffer, we can trust God (see Rom 8:26-39).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 4:4-8; 26:17-33; 31:38-42; 37:2-36; 39:1-20; Exod 1:8-11; 1 Sam 18:10-11, 28-29; 19:10; 22:1-19; 1 Kgs 21:1-15; 2 Chr 24:20-22; Job 9:33-35; 14:13; 19:25-27; Isa 54:17; Jer 11:18-21; 26:1-23; 38:1-13; Matt 23:29-37; John 5:24; 15:20; Acts 6:8–7:60; Rom 8:17-18, 26-39; Heb 12:1-13; 1 Pet 4:12-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Righteous Suffer The book of Job invites us to examine the basis of our faith in God. Job’s loss of possessions and family members and the alienation of his friends shook his faith to its foundation. However, he maintained his trust in God, and he proved Satan’s accusations to be lies. Sin undoubtedly brings suffering, but as the book of Job demonstrates, suffering is not necessarily the result of one’s sin. Human suffering is more complex than a simple equation of individual behavior and...","summary_en":"The Righteous Suffer The book of Job invites us to examine the basis of our faith in God. Job’s loss of possessions and family members and the alienation of his friends shook his faith to its foundation. However, he maintained his trust in God, and he proved Satan’s accusations to be lies. Sin undoubtedly brings suffering, but as the book of Job demonstrates, suffering is not necessarily the result of one’s sin. Human suffering is more complex than a simple equation of individual behavior and...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119870,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Knowing God","title_en":"Knowing God","content_ro":"<h3>Knowing God<\/h3>\nFrom our perspective, knowledge tends to mean information, facts, and concepts. But in biblical times, knowledge was centered in personal relationships. To know someone is to enter into a close relationship with that person. Knowing God involves much more than simply mastering facts and information about him. It even transcends discussions about the nature and character of God, as important as those are. Knowing God means entering into a close relationship with him. It means viewing everything as God does and learning to imitate him. Knowing God will transform our thoughts and actions, our priorities and values, and our relationships with fellow human beings. It is far more important than religious rites, sacrifices and burnt offerings, or any other religious activities (see Jer 9:23-24; 31:34).<\/p>\nThe prophet Hosea strongly emphasizes the importance of knowing God. He demonstrates that Israel would ultimately be destroyed (Hos 4:6) because they did not know God (4:1). This theme of knowing God is also prevalent in the New Testament Gospel of John. Jesus repeatedly stresses the need to know God, affirming that people can be heavily involved in religious practice but have no genuine relationship with God (see John 7:25-29; 8:14-19, 54-55; 14:6-11; 17:1-3).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 33:8, 11; Num 12:6-8; Isa 11:9; 43:10; Jer 9:24; 31:33-34; Hos 6:3, 6; John 17:3; Phil 3:10; Titus 1:16; Heb 8:10-13; 1 Jn 2:4; 4:6, 8; 3 Jn 1:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Knowing God<\/h3>\nFrom our perspective, knowledge tends to mean information, facts, and concepts. But in biblical times, knowledge was centered in personal relationships. To know someone is to enter into a close relationship with that person. Knowing God involves much more than simply mastering facts and information about him. It even transcends discussions about the nature and character of God, as important as those are. Knowing God means entering into a close relationship with him. It means viewing everything as God does and learning to imitate him. Knowing God will transform our thoughts and actions, our priorities and values, and our relationships with fellow human beings. It is far more important than religious rites, sacrifices and burnt offerings, or any other religious activities (see Jer 9:23-24; 31:34).<\/p>\nThe prophet Hosea strongly emphasizes the importance of knowing God. He demonstrates that Israel would ultimately be destroyed (Hos 4:6) because they did not know God (4:1). This theme of knowing God is also prevalent in the New Testament Gospel of John. Jesus repeatedly stresses the need to know God, affirming that people can be heavily involved in religious practice but have no genuine relationship with God (see John 7:25-29; 8:14-19, 54-55; 14:6-11; 17:1-3).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 33:8, 11; Num 12:6-8; Isa 11:9; 43:10; Jer 9:24; 31:33-34; Hos 6:3, 6; John 17:3; Phil 3:10; Titus 1:16; Heb 8:10-13; 1 Jn 2:4; 4:6, 8; 3 Jn 1:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Knowing God From our perspective, knowledge tends to mean information, facts, and concepts. But in biblical times, knowledge was centered in personal relationships. To know someone is to enter into a close relationship with that person. Knowing God involves much more than simply mastering facts and information about him. It even transcends discussions about the nature and character of God, as important as those are. Knowing God means entering into a close relationship with him. It means viewi...","summary_en":"Knowing God From our perspective, knowledge tends to mean information, facts, and concepts. But in biblical times, knowledge was centered in personal relationships. To know someone is to enter into a close relationship with that person. Knowing God involves much more than simply mastering facts and information about him. It even transcends discussions about the nature and character of God, as important as those are. Knowing God means entering into a close relationship with him. It means viewi...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":120545,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Resurrection of Jesus","title_en":"The Resurrection of Jesus","content_ro":"<h3>The Resurrection of Jesus<\/h3>\nScripture unanimously depicts the personal and bodily resurrection of Jesus from the dead by the power of God, but numerous other attempts to explain it have emerged: (1) Jesus never really died—instead, he lost consciousness and regained it after being laid in a cool tomb (the swoon theory); (2) the disciples of Jesus stole his body and then lied about a resurrection (see Matt 28:12-15); (3) the disciples had hallucinations and dreams that they mistakenly confused with a physical resurrection; and (4) the resurrection is a personal experience in the heart of faith, not an event in history. Behind such suggestions lies a deep-seated skepticism toward the supernatural, or at least toward whether a miraculous event could have happened. Such suggestions fail to take into account the fact that for New Testament authors and their audiences, the term resurrection<\/em> could only have meant the literal reanimation of a dead corpse (see 1 Cor 15).<\/p>\nThe historicity of Jesus’ resurrection and the historical reliability of the biblical accounts are supported by (1) the evidence of an empty tomb; (2) the presence of women as witnesses (no one would have made up a story with women as witnesses, since the testimony of a woman was considered to be less reliable than that of a man); (3) the varied but basically unified accounts of Jesus’ post-resurrection appearances; (4) the transformation of the disciples from a fearful band into fearless followers; and (5) the disciples’ ability to overcome the scandal of following a crucified man (Deuteronomy 21:23 indicates that one who dies such a death has fallen under God’s curse). Judaism had no concept of a dying and rising Messiah that could conveniently be applied to Jesus. Inventing something no one would find conceivable would have made little sense. The most reasonable conclusion is just what the New Testament announces: that Jesus did, in fact, rise from the dead.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 16:21; 17:9, 23; 20:19; 26:32; 28:1-10; Mark 14:28; Luke 9:22; 14:14; John 2:19-22; 5:21; 6:39-40; 11:1-44; 14:20; 21:14; Acts 1:21-22; 2:22-36; 3:15, 26; 4:2, 10, 33; 5:30; 10:39-40; 13:29-31; 17:18, 32; 23:6-10; Rom 1:4; 4:24-25; 6:4-5, 9; 7:4; 8:11, 34; 10:9; 1 Cor 6:14; 15:4, 12-23, 35, 42-44, 52; 2 Cor 1:9; 4:14; 5:15; Gal 1:1; Eph 1:19-20; 2:5-6; Phil 3:10-11; Col 2:12; 3:1; 1 Thes 1:10; 4:14; 2 Tim 2:8, 18; Heb 6:2; 11:35; 1 Pet 1:21; 3:18, 21; Rev 20:4-8, 11-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Resurrection of Jesus<\/h3>\nScripture unanimously depicts the personal and bodily resurrection of Jesus from the dead by the power of God, but numerous other attempts to explain it have emerged: (1) Jesus never really died—instead, he lost consciousness and regained it after being laid in a cool tomb (the swoon theory); (2) the disciples of Jesus stole his body and then lied about a resurrection (see Matt 28:12-15); (3) the disciples had hallucinations and dreams that they mistakenly confused with a physical resurrection; and (4) the resurrection is a personal experience in the heart of faith, not an event in history. Behind such suggestions lies a deep-seated skepticism toward the supernatural, or at least toward whether a miraculous event could have happened. Such suggestions fail to take into account the fact that for New Testament authors and their audiences, the term resurrection<\/em> could only have meant the literal reanimation of a dead corpse (see 1 Cor 15).<\/p>\nThe historicity of Jesus’ resurrection and the historical reliability of the biblical accounts are supported by (1) the evidence of an empty tomb; (2) the presence of women as witnesses (no one would have made up a story with women as witnesses, since the testimony of a woman was considered to be less reliable than that of a man); (3) the varied but basically unified accounts of Jesus’ post-resurrection appearances; (4) the transformation of the disciples from a fearful band into fearless followers; and (5) the disciples’ ability to overcome the scandal of following a crucified man (Deuteronomy 21:23 indicates that one who dies such a death has fallen under God’s curse). Judaism had no concept of a dying and rising Messiah that could conveniently be applied to Jesus. Inventing something no one would find conceivable would have made little sense. The most reasonable conclusion is just what the New Testament announces: that Jesus did, in fact, rise from the dead.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 16:21; 17:9, 23; 20:19; 26:32; 28:1-10; Mark 14:28; Luke 9:22; 14:14; John 2:19-22; 5:21; 6:39-40; 11:1-44; 14:20; 21:14; Acts 1:21-22; 2:22-36; 3:15, 26; 4:2, 10, 33; 5:30; 10:39-40; 13:29-31; 17:18, 32; 23:6-10; Rom 1:4; 4:24-25; 6:4-5, 9; 7:4; 8:11, 34; 10:9; 1 Cor 6:14; 15:4, 12-23, 35, 42-44, 52; 2 Cor 1:9; 4:14; 5:15; Gal 1:1; Eph 1:19-20; 2:5-6; Phil 3:10-11; Col 2:12; 3:1; 1 Thes 1:10; 4:14; 2 Tim 2:8, 18; Heb 6:2; 11:35; 1 Pet 1:21; 3:18, 21; Rev 20:4-8, 11-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Resurrection of Jesus Scripture unanimously depicts the personal and bodily resurrection of Jesus from the dead by the power of God, but numerous other attempts to explain it have emerged: (1) Jesus never really died—instead, he lost consciousness and regained it after being laid in a cool tomb (the swoon theory); (2) the disciples of Jesus stole his body and then lied about a resurrection (see Matt 28:12-15); (3) the disciples had hallucinations and dreams that they mistakenly confused w...","summary_en":"The Resurrection of Jesus Scripture unanimously depicts the personal and bodily resurrection of Jesus from the dead by the power of God, but numerous other attempts to explain it have emerged: (1) Jesus never really died—instead, he lost consciousness and regained it after being laid in a cool tomb (the swoon theory); (2) the disciples of Jesus stole his body and then lied about a resurrection (see Matt 28:12-15); (3) the disciples had hallucinations and dreams that they mistakenly confused w...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":122592,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Old Life and the New Life","title_en":"The Old Life and the New Life","content_ro":"<h3>The Old Life and the New Life<\/h3>\nWhen people become believers in Christ, they are joined to him and begin to share in his death and resurrection. Their old life, marred by sin, dies with Christ, and they begin a new life by his power within them (see Rom 6:3-14). This is the work of God, who transforms them by his Spirit. Their minds are renewed (see Rom 12:2), their desires and actions change, and their lives begin to reflect his Spirit (Gal 5:22-23). They gradually grow into the likeness of Christ.<\/p>\nBelievers also have a responsibility to live out Christ’s death and resurrection (see Phil 3:10-14). They are to turn away from darkness and embrace a life full of light (Eph 4:17–5:20). Paul speaks of this transformation by using the imagery of clothing. Believers are called to take off the old, sinful life driven by the devil and put on a new, pure life directed by the Holy Spirit (Eph 4:21-24; Col 3:1-15; see also Gal 3:27). As they do so, they recognize their reliance on God’s grace and power.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 6:3-14; 12:1-2; Gal 5:19-23; Eph 4:17–5:20; Phil 3:12-14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Old Life and the New Life<\/h3>\nWhen people become believers in Christ, they are joined to him and begin to share in his death and resurrection. Their old life, marred by sin, dies with Christ, and they begin a new life by his power within them (see Rom 6:3-14). This is the work of God, who transforms them by his Spirit. Their minds are renewed (see Rom 12:2), their desires and actions change, and their lives begin to reflect his Spirit (Gal 5:22-23). They gradually grow into the likeness of Christ.<\/p>\nBelievers also have a responsibility to live out Christ’s death and resurrection (see Phil 3:10-14). They are to turn away from darkness and embrace a life full of light (Eph 4:17–5:20). Paul speaks of this transformation by using the imagery of clothing. Believers are called to take off the old, sinful life driven by the devil and put on a new, pure life directed by the Holy Spirit (Eph 4:21-24; Col 3:1-15; see also Gal 3:27). As they do so, they recognize their reliance on God’s grace and power.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 6:3-14; 12:1-2; Gal 5:19-23; Eph 4:17–5:20; Phil 3:12-14<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Old Life and the New Life When people become believers in Christ, they are joined to him and begin to share in his death and resurrection. Their old life, marred by sin, dies with Christ, and they begin a new life by his power within them (see Rom 6:3-14). This is the work of God, who transforms them by his Spirit. Their minds are renewed (see Rom 12:2), their desires and actions change, and their lives begin to reflect his Spirit (Gal 5:22-23). They gradually grow into the likeness of Ch...","summary_en":"The Old Life and the New Life When people become believers in Christ, they are joined to him and begin to share in his death and resurrection. Their old life, marred by sin, dies with Christ, and they begin a new life by his power within them (see Rom 6:3-14). This is the work of God, who transforms them by his Spirit. Their minds are renewed (see Rom 12:2), their desires and actions change, and their lives begin to reflect his Spirit (Gal 5:22-23). They gradually grow into the likeness of Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":122770,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Mantle of Leadership","title_en":"The Mantle of Leadership","content_ro":"<h3>The Mantle of Leadership<\/h3>\nThe mantle of Christian leadership is the garb of servants who suffer for those they lead (Mark 10:35-45). For Paul, the essence of good leadership was to provide an example that mirrored Christ’s own example. The cross of Christ was central for Paul, and it had total claim on his life. When he said, “I want to suffer with him, sharing in his death” (Phil 3:10; see Col 1:24), he was speaking of more than emotional turmoil or even of dealing with sin. He meant suffering violently and bodily. Paul endured suffering for the sake of those to whom he proclaimed the Good News, always putting their salvation before his own physical well-being (2 Tim 2:10; 2 Cor 4:8-12). The Christian leader’s life is a proclamation of Christ crucified, of God’s power through human weakness (2 Cor 12:8-10), and of God’s wisdom despite human foolishness (1 Cor 1:18-31). As Paul summoned Timothy to take up the mantle of leadership (2 Tim 4:1-5), he was also summoning Timothy to suffer with him (1:8; 2:3; 4:5), scorning the shame of the cross (1:8).<\/p>\nIf leadership does not orbit faithfully around Christ as its self-giving center, it ceases to be leadership in Christ and fails to understand the Good News, as it tends to revolve around self. But leadership that is modeled after Christ is other-directed and sacrificial (see Phil 2:3-8). Such a leader is willing to endure suffering, knowing that those who have died with Christ will live with him and that those who endure hardship will reign with him (2 Tim 2:11-12).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 13:15; Acts 20:35; 2 Cor 4:8-12; Eph 5:2; Col 1:24; 1 Thes 1:6-7; 2 Thes 3:9; 1 Tim 1:16; 4:12; 2 Tim 1:8, 12; 2:3, 10-12; 4:1-5; Titus 2:7; Heb 6:12; 13:7; 1 Pet 2:21; 5:1-4<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Mantle of Leadership<\/h3>\nThe mantle of Christian leadership is the garb of servants who suffer for those they lead (Mark 10:35-45). For Paul, the essence of good leadership was to provide an example that mirrored Christ’s own example. The cross of Christ was central for Paul, and it had total claim on his life. When he said, “I want to suffer with him, sharing in his death” (Phil 3:10; see Col 1:24), he was speaking of more than emotional turmoil or even of dealing with sin. He meant suffering violently and bodily. Paul endured suffering for the sake of those to whom he proclaimed the Good News, always putting their salvation before his own physical well-being (2 Tim 2:10; 2 Cor 4:8-12). The Christian leader’s life is a proclamation of Christ crucified, of God’s power through human weakness (2 Cor 12:8-10), and of God’s wisdom despite human foolishness (1 Cor 1:18-31). As Paul summoned Timothy to take up the mantle of leadership (2 Tim 4:1-5), he was also summoning Timothy to suffer with him (1:8; 2:3; 4:5), scorning the shame of the cross (1:8).<\/p>\nIf leadership does not orbit faithfully around Christ as its self-giving center, it ceases to be leadership in Christ and fails to understand the Good News, as it tends to revolve around self. But leadership that is modeled after Christ is other-directed and sacrificial (see Phil 2:3-8). Such a leader is willing to endure suffering, knowing that those who have died with Christ will live with him and that those who endure hardship will reign with him (2 Tim 2:11-12).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 13:15; Acts 20:35; 2 Cor 4:8-12; Eph 5:2; Col 1:24; 1 Thes 1:6-7; 2 Thes 3:9; 1 Tim 1:16; 4:12; 2 Tim 1:8, 12; 2:3, 10-12; 4:1-5; Titus 2:7; Heb 6:12; 13:7; 1 Pet 2:21; 5:1-4<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Mantle of Leadership The mantle of Christian leadership is the garb of servants who suffer for those they lead (Mark 10:35-45). For Paul, the essence of good leadership was to provide an example that mirrored Christ’s own example. The cross of Christ was central for Paul, and it had total claim on his life. When he said, “I want to suffer with him, sharing in his death” (Phil 3:10; see Col 1:24), he was speaking of more than emotional turmoil or even of dealing with sin. He meant sufferin...","summary_en":"The Mantle of Leadership The mantle of Christian leadership is the garb of servants who suffer for those they lead (Mark 10:35-45). For Paul, the essence of good leadership was to provide an example that mirrored Christ’s own example. The cross of Christ was central for Paul, and it had total claim on his life. When he said, “I want to suffer with him, sharing in his death” (Phil 3:10; see Col 1:24), he was speaking of more than emotional turmoil or even of dealing with sin. He meant sufferin...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145270,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Righteous Suffer","title_en":"The Righteous Suffer","content_ro":"<h3>The Righteous Suffer<\/h3>\nThe book of Job invites us to examine the basis of our faith in God. Job’s loss of possessions and family members and the alienation of his friends shook his faith to its foundation. However, he maintained his trust in God, and he proved Satan’s accusations to be lies.<\/p>\nSin undoubtedly brings suffering, but as the book of Job demonstrates, suffering is not necessarily the result of one’s sin. Human suffering is more complex than a simple equation of individual behavior and consequence. Some today blindly follow Job’s friends in equating godliness with material blessing. But at its root, this perspective is flawed, as demonstrated by the many examples throughout history of righteous suffering—including, of course, Christ himself. As believers we are told that “we must also share [Christ’s] suffering” and “what we suffer now is nothing compared to the glory he will reveal to us later” (Rom 8:17-18). At the core of being a disciple of Christ is a willingness to follow him into suffering (see Luke 9:23-25; Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\nEven in his complaints, Job acknowledged that only God could provide the answers he needed. When Job wished for death, it was to gain relief until God could deal with him under more favorable conditions (14:13). When Job desired a mediator (9:33-35), it was to facilitate finding favor with God. When Job complained that God didn’t listen, it was because he knew that his answers had to come from God (see 19:25-27). That is the very essence of faith.<\/p>\nWe are not meant to know or understand everything (see Gen 2:16-17; Deut 29:29; Acts 1:7; 1 Thes 5:1-2). Some things are for God alone to comprehend and direct according to his sovereign will. Our response is to live by faith. Even when we suffer, we can trust God (see Rom 8:26-39).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 4:4-8; 26:17-33; 31:38-42; 37:2-36; 39:1-20; Exod 1:8-11; 1 Sam 18:10-11, 28-29; 19:10; 22:1-19; 1 Kgs 21:1-15; 2 Chr 24:20-22; Job 9:33-35; 14:13; 19:25-27; Isa 54:17; Jer 11:18-21; 26:1-23; 38:1-13; Matt 23:29-37; John 5:24; 15:20; Acts 6:8–7:60; Rom 8:17-18, 26-39; Heb 12:1-13; 1 Pet 4:12-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Righteous Suffer<\/h3>\nThe book of Job invites us to examine the basis of our faith in God. Job’s loss of possessions and family members and the alienation of his friends shook his faith to its foundation. However, he maintained his trust in God, and he proved Satan’s accusations to be lies.<\/p>\nSin undoubtedly brings suffering, but as the book of Job demonstrates, suffering is not necessarily the result of one’s sin. Human suffering is more complex than a simple equation of individual behavior and consequence. Some today blindly follow Job’s friends in equating godliness with material blessing. But at its root, this perspective is flawed, as demonstrated by the many examples throughout history of righteous suffering—including, of course, Christ himself. As believers we are told that “we must also share [Christ’s] suffering” and “what we suffer now is nothing compared to the glory he will reveal to us later” (Rom 8:17-18). At the core of being a disciple of Christ is a willingness to follow him into suffering (see Luke 9:23-25; Phil 3:10-11).<\/p>\nEven in his complaints, Job acknowledged that only God could provide the answers he needed. When Job wished for death, it was to gain relief until God could deal with him under more favorable conditions (14:13). When Job desired a mediator (9:33-35), it was to facilitate finding favor with God. When Job complained that God didn’t listen, it was because he knew that his answers had to come from God (see 19:25-27). That is the very essence of faith.<\/p>\nWe are not meant to know or understand everything (see Gen 2:16-17; Deut 29:29; Acts 1:7; 1 Thes 5:1-2). Some things are for God alone to comprehend and direct according to his sovereign will. Our response is to live by faith. Even when we suffer, we can trust God (see Rom 8:26-39).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 4:4-8; 26:17-33; 31:38-42; 37:2-36; 39:1-20; Exod 1:8-11; 1 Sam 18:10-11, 28-29; 19:10; 22:1-19; 1 Kgs 21:1-15; 2 Chr 24:20-22; Job 9:33-35; 14:13; 19:25-27; Isa 54:17; Jer 11:18-21; 26:1-23; 38:1-13; Matt 23:29-37; John 5:24; 15:20; Acts 6:8–7:60; Rom 8:17-18, 26-39; Heb 12:1-13; 1 Pet 4:12-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Righteous Suffer The book of Job invites us to examine the basis of our faith in God. Job’s loss of possessions and family members and the alienation of his friends shook his faith to its foundation. However, he maintained his trust in God, and he proved Satan’s accusations to be lies. Sin undoubtedly brings suffering, but as the book of Job demonstrates, suffering is not necessarily the result of one’s sin. Human suffering is more complex than a simple equation of individual behavior and...","summary_en":"The Righteous Suffer The book of Job invites us to examine the basis of our faith in God. Job’s loss of possessions and family members and the alienation of his friends shook his faith to its foundation. However, he maintained his trust in God, and he proved Satan’s accusations to be lies. Sin undoubtedly brings suffering, but as the book of Job demonstrates, suffering is not necessarily the result of one’s sin. Human suffering is more complex than a simple equation of individual behavior and...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":147496,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Knowing God","title_en":"Knowing God","content_ro":"<h3>Knowing God<\/h3>\nFrom our perspective, knowledge tends to mean information, facts, and concepts. But in biblical times, knowledge was centered in personal relationships. To know someone is to enter into a close relationship with that person. Knowing God involves much more than simply mastering facts and information about him. It even transcends discussions about the nature and character of God, as important as those are. Knowing God means entering into a close relationship with him. It means viewing everything as God does and learning to imitate him. Knowing God will transform our thoughts and actions, our priorities and values, and our relationships with fellow human beings. It is far more important than religious rites, sacrifices and burnt offerings, or any other religious activities (see Jer 9:23-24; 31:34).<\/p>\nThe prophet Hosea strongly emphasizes the importance of knowing God. He demonstrates that Israel would ultimately be destroyed (Hos 4:6) because they did not know God (4:1). This theme of knowing God is also prevalent in the New Testament Gospel of John. Jesus repeatedly stresses the need to know God, affirming that people can be heavily involved in religious practice but have no genuine relationship with God (see John 7:25-29; 8:14-19, 54-55; 14:6-11; 17:1-3).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 33:8, 11; Num 12:6-8; Isa 11:9; 43:10; Jer 9:24; 31:33-34; Hos 6:3, 6; John 17:3; Phil 3:10; Titus 1:16; Heb 8:10-13; 1 Jn 2:4; 4:6, 8; 3 Jn 1:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Knowing God<\/h3>\nFrom our perspective, knowledge tends to mean information, facts, and concepts. But in biblical times, knowledge was centered in personal relationships. To know someone is to enter into a close relationship with that person. Knowing God involves much more than simply mastering facts and information about him. It even transcends discussions about the nature and character of God, as important as those are. Knowing God means entering into a close relationship with him. It means viewing everything as God does and learning to imitate him. Knowing God will transform our thoughts and actions, our priorities and values, and our relationships with fellow human beings. It is far more important than religious rites, sacrifices and burnt offerings, or any other religious activities (see Jer 9:23-24; 31:34).<\/p>\nThe prophet Hosea strongly emphasizes the importance of knowing God. He demonstrates that Israel would ultimately be destroyed (Hos 4:6) because they did not know God (4:1). This theme of knowing God is also prevalent in the New Testament Gospel of John. Jesus repeatedly stresses the need to know God, affirming that people can be heavily involved in religious practice but have no genuine relationship with God (see John 7:25-29; 8:14-19, 54-55; 14:6-11; 17:1-3).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 33:8, 11; Num 12:6-8; Isa 11:9; 43:10; Jer 9:24; 31:33-34; Hos 6:3, 6; John 17:3; Phil 3:10; Titus 1:16; Heb 8:10-13; 1 Jn 2:4; 4:6, 8; 3 Jn 1:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Knowing God From our perspective, knowledge tends to mean information, facts, and concepts. But in biblical times, knowledge was centered in personal relationships. To know someone is to enter into a close relationship with that person. Knowing God involves much more than simply mastering facts and information about him. It even transcends discussions about the nature and character of God, as important as those are. Knowing God means entering into a close relationship with him. It means viewi...","summary_en":"Knowing God From our perspective, knowledge tends to mean information, facts, and concepts. But in biblical times, knowledge was centered in personal relationships. To know someone is to enter into a close relationship with that person. Knowing God involves much more than simply mastering facts and information about him. It even transcends discussions about the nature and character of God, as important as those are. Knowing God means entering into a close relationship with him. It means viewi...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":148171,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Resurrection of Jesus","title_en":"The Resurrection of Jesus","content_ro":"<h3>The Resurrection of Jesus<\/h3>\nScripture unanimously depicts the personal and bodily resurrection of Jesus from the dead by the power of God, but numerous other attempts to explain it have emerged: (1) Jesus never really died—instead, he lost consciousness and regained it after being laid in a cool tomb (the swoon theory); (2) the disciples of Jesus stole his body and then lied about a resurrection (see Matt 28:12-15); (3) the disciples had hallucinations and dreams that they mistakenly confused with a physical resurrection; and (4) the resurrection is a personal experience in the heart of faith, not an event in history. Behind such suggestions lies a deep-seated skepticism toward the supernatural, or at least toward whether a miraculous event could have happened. Such suggestions fail to take into account the fact that for New Testament authors and their audiences, the term resurrection<\/em> could only have meant the literal reanimation of a dead corpse (see 1 Cor 15).<\/p>\nThe historicity of Jesus’ resurrection and the historical reliability of the biblical accounts are supported by (1) the evidence of an empty tomb; (2) the presence of women as witnesses (no one would have made up a story with women as witnesses, since the testimony of a woman was considered to be less reliable than that of a man); (3) the varied but basically unified accounts of Jesus’ post-resurrection appearances; (4) the transformation of the disciples from a fearful band into fearless followers; and (5) the disciples’ ability to overcome the scandal of following a crucified man (Deuteronomy 21:23 indicates that one who dies such a death has fallen under God’s curse). Judaism had no concept of a dying and rising Messiah that could conveniently be applied to Jesus. Inventing something no one would find conceivable would have made little sense. The most reasonable conclusion is just what the New Testament announces: that Jesus did, in fact, rise from the dead.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 16:21; 17:9, 23; 20:19; 26:32; 28:1-10; Mark 14:28; Luke 9:22; 14:14; John 2:19-22; 5:21; 6:39-40; 11:1-44; 14:20; 21:14; Acts 1:21-22; 2:22-36; 3:15, 26; 4:2, 10, 33; 5:30; 10:39-40; 13:29-31; 17:18, 32; 23:6-10; Rom 1:4; 4:24-25; 6:4-5, 9; 7:4; 8:11, 34; 10:9; 1 Cor 6:14; 15:4, 12-23, 35, 42-44, 52; 2 Cor 1:9; 4:14; 5:15; Gal 1:1; Eph 1:19-20; 2:5-6; Phil 3:10-11; Col 2:12; 3:1; 1 Thes 1:10; 4:14; 2 Tim 2:8, 18; Heb 6:2; 11:35; 1 Pet 1:21; 3:18, 21; Rev 20:4-8, 11-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Resurrection of Jesus<\/h3>\nScripture unanimously depicts the personal and bodily resurrection of Jesus from the dead by the power of God, but numerous other attempts to explain it have emerged: (1) Jesus never really died—instead, he lost consciousness and regained it after being laid in a cool tomb (the swoon theory); (2) the disciples of Jesus stole his body and then lied about a resurrection (see Matt 28:12-15); (3) the disciples had hallucinations and dreams that they mistakenly confused with a physical resurrection; and (4) the resurrection is a personal experience in the heart of faith, not an event in history. Behind such suggestions lies a deep-seated skepticism toward the supernatural, or at least toward whether a miraculous event could have happened. Such suggestions fail to take into account the fact that for New Testament authors and their audiences, the term resurrection<\/em> could only have meant the literal reanimation of a dead corpse (see 1 Cor 15).<\/p>\nThe historicity of Jesus’ resurrection and the historical reliability of the biblical accounts are supported by (1) the evidence of an empty tomb; (2) the presence of women as witnesses (no one would have made up a story with women as witnesses, since the testimony of a woman was considered to be less reliable than that of a man); (3) the varied but basically unified accounts of Jesus’ post-resurrection appearances; (4) the transformation of the disciples from a fearful band into fearless followers; and (5) the disciples’ ability to overcome the scandal of following a crucified man (Deuteronomy 21:23 indicates that one who dies such a death has fallen under God’s curse). Judaism had no concept of a dying and rising Messiah that could conveniently be applied to Jesus. Inventing something no one would find conceivable would have made little sense. The most reasonable conclusion is just what the New Testament announces: that Jesus did, in fact, rise from the dead.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 16:21; 17:9, 23; 20:19; 26:32; 28:1-10; Mark 14:28; Luke 9:22; 14:14; John 2:19-22; 5:21; 6:39-40; 11:1-44; 14:20; 21:14; Acts 1:21-22; 2:22-36; 3:15, 26; 4:2, 10, 33; 5:30; 10:39-40; 13:29-31; 17:18, 32; 23:6-10; Rom 1:4; 4:24-25; 6:4-5, 9; 7:4; 8:11, 34; 10:9; 1 Cor 6:14; 15:4, 12-23, 35, 42-44, 52; 2 Cor 1:9; 4:14; 5:15; Gal 1:1; Eph 1:19-20; 2:5-6; Phil 3:10-11; Col 2:12; 3:1; 1 Thes 1:10; 4:14; 2 Tim 2:8, 18; Heb 6:2; 11:35; 1 Pet 1:21; 3:18, 21; Rev 20:4-8, 11-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Resurrection of Jesus Scripture unanimously depicts the personal and bodily resurrection of Jesus from the dead by the power of God, but numerous other attempts to explain it have emerged: (1) Jesus never really died—instead, he lost consciousness and regained it after being laid in a cool tomb (the swoon theory); (2) the disciples of Jesus stole his body and then lied about a resurrection (see Matt 28:12-15); (3) the disciples had hallucinations and dreams that they mistakenly confused w...","summary_en":"The Resurrection of Jesus Scripture unanimously depicts the personal and bodily resurrection of Jesus from the dead by the power of God, but numerous other attempts to explain it have emerged: (1) Jesus never really died—instead, he lost consciousness and regained it after being laid in a cool tomb (the swoon theory); (2) the disciples of Jesus stole his body and then lied about a resurrection (see Matt 28:12-15); (3) the disciples had hallucinations and dreams that they mistakenly confused w...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":150218,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Old Life and the New Life","title_en":"The Old Life and the New Life","content_ro":"<h3>The Old Life and the New Life<\/h3>\nWhen people become believers in Christ, they are joined to him and begin to share in his death and resurrection. Their old life, marred by sin, dies with Christ, and they begin a new life by his power within them (see Rom 6:3-14). This is the work of God, who transforms them by his Spirit. Their minds are renewed (see Rom 12:2), their desires and actions change, and their lives begin to reflect his Spirit (Gal 5:22-23). They gradually grow into the likeness of Christ.<\/p>\nBelievers also have a responsibility to live out Christ’s death and resurrection (see Phil 3:10-14). They are to turn away from darkness and embrace a life full of light (Eph 4:17–5:20). Paul speaks of this transformation by using the imagery of clothing. Believers are called to take off the old, sinful life driven by the devil and put on a new, pure life directed by the Holy Spirit (Eph 4:21-24; Col 3:1-15; see also Gal 3:27). As they do so, they recognize their reliance on God’s grace and power.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 6:3-14; 12:1-2; Gal 5:19-23; Eph 4:17–5:20; Phil 3:12-14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Old Life and the New Life<\/h3>\nWhen people become believers in Christ, they are joined to him and begin to share in his death and resurrection. Their old life, marred by sin, dies with Christ, and they begin a new life by his power within them (see Rom 6:3-14). This is the work of God, who transforms them by his Spirit. Their minds are renewed (see Rom 12:2), their desires and actions change, and their lives begin to reflect his Spirit (Gal 5:22-23). They gradually grow into the likeness of Christ.<\/p>\nBelievers also have a responsibility to live out Christ’s death and resurrection (see Phil 3:10-14). They are to turn away from darkness and embrace a life full of light (Eph 4:17–5:20). Paul speaks of this transformation by using the imagery of clothing. Believers are called to take off the old, sinful life driven by the devil and put on a new, pure life directed by the Holy Spirit (Eph 4:21-24; Col 3:1-15; see also Gal 3:27). As they do so, they recognize their reliance on God’s grace and power.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 6:3-14; 12:1-2; Gal 5:19-23; Eph 4:17–5:20; Phil 3:12-14<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Old Life and the New Life When people become believers in Christ, they are joined to him and begin to share in his death and resurrection. Their old life, marred by sin, dies with Christ, and they begin a new life by his power within them (see Rom 6:3-14). This is the work of God, who transforms them by his Spirit. Their minds are renewed (see Rom 12:2), their desires and actions change, and their lives begin to reflect his Spirit (Gal 5:22-23). They gradually grow into the likeness of Ch...","summary_en":"The Old Life and the New Life When people become believers in Christ, they are joined to him and begin to share in his death and resurrection. Their old life, marred by sin, dies with Christ, and they begin a new life by his power within them (see Rom 6:3-14). This is the work of God, who transforms them by his Spirit. Their minds are renewed (see Rom 12:2), their desires and actions change, and their lives begin to reflect his Spirit (Gal 5:22-23). They gradually grow into the likeness of Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":150396,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Mantle of Leadership","title_en":"The Mantle of Leadership","content_ro":"<h3>The Mantle of Leadership<\/h3>\nThe mantle of Christian leadership is the garb of servants who suffer for those they lead (Mark 10:35-45). For Paul, the essence of good leadership was to provide an example that mirrored Christ’s own example. The cross of Christ was central for Paul, and it had total claim on his life. When he said, “I want to suffer with him, sharing in his death” (Phil 3:10; see Col 1:24), he was speaking of more than emotional turmoil or even of dealing with sin. He meant suffering violently and bodily. Paul endured suffering for the sake of those to whom he proclaimed the Good News, always putting their salvation before his own physical well-being (2 Tim 2:10; 2 Cor 4:8-12). The Christian leader’s life is a proclamation of Christ crucified, of God’s power through human weakness (2 Cor 12:8-10), and of God’s wisdom despite human foolishness (1 Cor 1:18-31). As Paul summoned Timothy to take up the mantle of leadership (2 Tim 4:1-5), he was also summoning Timothy to suffer with him (1:8; 2:3; 4:5), scorning the shame of the cross (1:8).<\/p>\nIf leadership does not orbit faithfully around Christ as its self-giving center, it ceases to be leadership in Christ and fails to understand the Good News, as it tends to revolve around self. But leadership that is modeled after Christ is other-directed and sacrificial (see Phil 2:3-8). Such a leader is willing to endure suffering, knowing that those who have died with Christ will live with him and that those who endure hardship will reign with him (2 Tim 2:11-12).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 13:15; Acts 20:35; 2 Cor 4:8-12; Eph 5:2; Col 1:24; 1 Thes 1:6-7; 2 Thes 3:9; 1 Tim 1:16; 4:12; 2 Tim 1:8, 12; 2:3, 10-12; 4:1-5; Titus 2:7; Heb 6:12; 13:7; 1 Pet 2:21; 5:1-4<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Mantle of Leadership<\/h3>\nThe mantle of Christian leadership is the garb of servants who suffer for those they lead (Mark 10:35-45). For Paul, the essence of good leadership was to provide an example that mirrored Christ’s own example. The cross of Christ was central for Paul, and it had total claim on his life. When he said, “I want to suffer with him, sharing in his death” (Phil 3:10; see Col 1:24), he was speaking of more than emotional turmoil or even of dealing with sin. He meant suffering violently and bodily. Paul endured suffering for the sake of those to whom he proclaimed the Good News, always putting their salvation before his own physical well-being (2 Tim 2:10; 2 Cor 4:8-12). The Christian leader’s life is a proclamation of Christ crucified, of God’s power through human weakness (2 Cor 12:8-10), and of God’s wisdom despite human foolishness (1 Cor 1:18-31). As Paul summoned Timothy to take up the mantle of leadership (2 Tim 4:1-5), he was also summoning Timothy to suffer with him (1:8; 2:3; 4:5), scorning the shame of the cross (1:8).<\/p>\nIf leadership does not orbit faithfully around Christ as its self-giving center, it ceases to be leadership in Christ and fails to understand the Good News, as it tends to revolve around self. But leadership that is modeled after Christ is other-directed and sacrificial (see Phil 2:3-8). Such a leader is willing to endure suffering, knowing that those who have died with Christ will live with him and that those who endure hardship will reign with him (2 Tim 2:11-12).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 13:15; Acts 20:35; 2 Cor 4:8-12; Eph 5:2; Col 1:24; 1 Thes 1:6-7; 2 Thes 3:9; 1 Tim 1:16; 4:12; 2 Tim 1:8, 12; 2:3, 10-12; 4:1-5; Titus 2:7; Heb 6:12; 13:7; 1 Pet 2:21; 5:1-4<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Mantle of Leadership The mantle of Christian leadership is the garb of servants who suffer for those they lead (Mark 10:35-45). For Paul, the essence of good leadership was to provide an example that mirrored Christ’s own example. The cross of Christ was central for Paul, and it had total claim on his life. When he said, “I want to suffer with him, sharing in his death” (Phil 3:10; see Col 1:24), he was speaking of more than emotional turmoil or even of dealing with sin. He meant sufferin...","summary_en":"The Mantle of Leadership The mantle of Christian leadership is the garb of servants who suffer for those they lead (Mark 10:35-45). For Paul, the essence of good leadership was to provide an example that mirrored Christ’s own example. The cross of Christ was central for Paul, and it had total claim on his life. When he said, “I want to suffer with him, sharing in his death” (Phil 3:10; see Col 1:24), he was speaking of more than emotional turmoil or even of dealing with sin. He meant sufferin...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":58267,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:11","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:11","content_ro":"3:11<\/strong> To experience the resurrection from the dead<\/em> is to be saved from judgment and receive eternal life (see Rev 20:4-6). Paul was aware of God’s holiness and the severity of the final judgment (Rev 20:11-15); he knew he must persevere in his pursuit of Christ and salvation (cp. Gal 5:5).<\/p>","content_en":"3:11<\/strong> To experience the resurrection from the dead<\/em> is to be saved from judgment and receive eternal life (see Rev 20:4-6). Paul was aware of God’s holiness and the severity of the final judgment (Rev 20:11-15); he knew he must persevere in his pursuit of Christ and salvation (cp. Gal 5:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:11 To experience the resurrection from the dead is to be saved from judgment and receive eternal life (see Rev 20:4-6). Paul was aware of God’s holiness and the severity of the final judgment (Rev 20:11-15); he knew he must persevere in his pursuit of Christ and salvation (cp. Gal 5:5).","summary_en":"3:11 To experience the resurrection from the dead is to be saved from judgment and receive eternal life (see Rev 20:4-6). Paul was aware of God’s holiness and the severity of the final judgment (Rev 20:11-15); he knew he must persevere in his pursuit of Christ and salvation (cp. Gal 5:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85893,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:11","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:11","content_ro":"3:11<\/strong> To experience the resurrection from the dead<\/em> is to be saved from judgment and receive eternal life (see Rev 20:4-6). Paul was aware of God’s holiness and the severity of the final judgment (Rev 20:11-15); he knew he must persevere in his pursuit of Christ and salvation (cp. Gal 5:5).<\/p>","content_en":"3:11<\/strong> To experience the resurrection from the dead<\/em> is to be saved from judgment and receive eternal life (see Rev 20:4-6). Paul was aware of God’s holiness and the severity of the final judgment (Rev 20:11-15); he knew he must persevere in his pursuit of Christ and salvation (cp. Gal 5:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:11 To experience the resurrection from the dead is to be saved from judgment and receive eternal life (see Rev 20:4-6). Paul was aware of God’s holiness and the severity of the final judgment (Rev 20:11-15); he knew he must persevere in his pursuit of Christ and salvation (cp. Gal 5:5).","summary_en":"3:11 To experience the resurrection from the dead is to be saved from judgment and receive eternal life (see Rev 20:4-6). Paul was aware of God’s holiness and the severity of the final judgment (Rev 20:11-15); he knew he must persevere in his pursuit of Christ and salvation (cp. Gal 5:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113519,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:11","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:11","content_ro":"3:11<\/strong> To experience the resurrection from the dead<\/em> is to be saved from judgment and receive eternal life (see Rev 20:4-6). Paul was aware of God’s holiness and the severity of the final judgment (Rev 20:11-15); he knew he must persevere in his pursuit of Christ and salvation (cp. Gal 5:5).<\/p>","content_en":"3:11<\/strong> To experience the resurrection from the dead<\/em> is to be saved from judgment and receive eternal life (see Rev 20:4-6). Paul was aware of God’s holiness and the severity of the final judgment (Rev 20:11-15); he knew he must persevere in his pursuit of Christ and salvation (cp. Gal 5:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:11 To experience the resurrection from the dead is to be saved from judgment and receive eternal life (see Rev 20:4-6). Paul was aware of God’s holiness and the severity of the final judgment (Rev 20:11-15); he knew he must persevere in his pursuit of Christ and salvation (cp. Gal 5:5).","summary_en":"3:11 To experience the resurrection from the dead is to be saved from judgment and receive eternal life (see Rev 20:4-6). Paul was aware of God’s holiness and the severity of the final judgment (Rev 20:11-15); he knew he must persevere in his pursuit of Christ and salvation (cp. Gal 5:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141145,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:11","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:11","content_ro":"3:11<\/strong> To experience the resurrection from the dead<\/em> is to be saved from judgment and receive eternal life (see Rev 20:4-6). Paul was aware of God’s holiness and the severity of the final judgment (Rev 20:11-15); he knew he must persevere in his pursuit of Christ and salvation (cp. Gal 5:5).<\/p>","content_en":"3:11<\/strong> To experience the resurrection from the dead<\/em> is to be saved from judgment and receive eternal life (see Rev 20:4-6). Paul was aware of God’s holiness and the severity of the final judgment (Rev 20:11-15); he knew he must persevere in his pursuit of Christ and salvation (cp. Gal 5:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:11 To experience the resurrection from the dead is to be saved from judgment and receive eternal life (see Rev 20:4-6). Paul was aware of God’s holiness and the severity of the final judgment (Rev 20:11-15); he knew he must persevere in his pursuit of Christ and salvation (cp. Gal 5:5).","summary_en":"3:11 To experience the resurrection from the dead is to be saved from judgment and receive eternal life (see Rev 20:4-6). Paul was aware of God’s holiness and the severity of the final judgment (Rev 20:11-15); he knew he must persevere in his pursuit of Christ and salvation (cp. Gal 5:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":29106,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Paul, the Apostle","title_en":"Paul, the Apostle","content_ro":"<h3>PAUL, The Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\nProminent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n• Education<\/p>\n• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n• Further Travel<\/p>\n• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\nFamily and Cultural Background<\/p>\nPaul was born around AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\nFrom religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\nJews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\nPaul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\nEducation<\/p>\nAlthough born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\nWhile Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\nSaul the Persecutor<\/p>\nShortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, niv<\/span>).<\/p>\nAt Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\nConversion and Calling<\/p>\nPaul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\nAt that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\nPreparation for Ministry<\/p>\nThen began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\nAt first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\nThe end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\nSent Out from Antioch<\/p>\nThe church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\nBarnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\nBeginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\nTraveling with Barnabas<\/p>\nArriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\nPaul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\nPaul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\nThe success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\nIt was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\nAfter making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\nThe Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\nThe Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\nThe church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\nAfter this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\nLater, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\nFurther Travel<\/p>\nPaul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\nBeginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\nIt is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\nPhilippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\nAt Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\nPaul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\nThe Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\nIn Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\nAccompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\nLabor in the Gospel<\/p>\nA Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\nPaul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\nThe work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\nDuring his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\nAfter his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\nThe time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\nA three-month winter stay in Corinth (AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\nThe Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\nPaul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\nThe travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\nParting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\nIn Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\nPaul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\nThe whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\nThis meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\nIn the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\nVoyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\nTo plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\nLuke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\nLuke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\nFinal Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\nIt is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\nIf Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\nFrom here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\nIt was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\nThe apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\nNothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PAUL, The Apostle<\/span><\/h3>\nProminent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Family and Cultural Background<\/p>\n• Education<\/p>\n• Saul the Persecutor<\/p>\n• Conversion and Calling<\/p>\n• Preparation for Ministry<\/p>\n• Sent Out from Antioch<\/p>\n• Traveling with Barnabas<\/p>\n• The Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\n• Further Travel<\/p>\n• Labor in the Gospel<\/p>\n• The Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\n• Voyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\n• Final Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\nFamily and Cultural Background<\/p>\nPaul was born around AD<\/span> 10, a Jew in a family of Pharisees (Acts 23:6) of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5) in Tarsus of Cilicia (Acts 9:11; 21:39; 22:3), a center of commerce and learning that embraced the Hellenistic spirit and Roman politics. It was a city of which he could be proud (21:39). His parents named him Saul, perhaps after the first king of Israel, who was also a Benjaminite (1 Sm 11:15; Acts 13:21), but Acts 13:9 notes that he “was also called Paul.” He uses the Roman name Paul throughout his letters.<\/p>\nFrom religious parents Paul received knowledge of the Law and Prophets and the Hebrew and Aramaic languages (Acts 21:40; 22:2-3; 23:6; Gal 1:14; Phil 3:5-6). Tarsus, however, was not a Jewish city. Rather, it had a Greek character, being a place where the Greek language was spoken and Greek literature was cultivated. This accounts for Paul’s familiarity with Greek (Acts 21:37), the language of the streets and shops of Tarsus.<\/p>\nJews were brought to Tarsus, the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, in 171 BC<\/span> to promote business in the region. At that time Paul’s ancestors were probably given Roman citizenship. Paul inherited from his father both Tarsisian and Roman citizenship, which would prove to be of great value to Paul in his later life as he traveled with the gospel throughout the Roman Empire (Acts 16:37; 22:25-29; 23:27). Paul may have had several brothers and sisters, but Acts 23:16 mentions only one sister, whose son performed a lifesaving act for his uncle.<\/p>\nPaul was a tent maker (Acts 18:3). He may have learned this trade from his father, or he may have selected it as a means of self-support, as was the custom of those in rabbinical training. Tarsus was well known for the goat’s-hair cloth called cilicium. It was the weaving of this cloth and the fashioning of it into tents, sails, awnings, and cloaks that gave Paul his economic independence during his apostolic ministry (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 28:30; 2 Cor 11:9; 1 Thes 2:9; 2 Thes 3:8).<\/p>\nEducation<\/p>\nAlthough born in Tarsus, Paul testified to the Jews in Jerusalem that he had been brought up in this city and studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). It is not clear when Paul was first brought to Jerusalem, but it is likely that sometime between the ages of 13 and 20 he began his formal rabbinical studies. His teacher, Gamaliel, was the grandson of Hillel, founder of a Pharisaic school whose teachings run through the Talmudic writings to this day. This is the same Gamaliel whose wisdom persuaded the Sanhedrin to spare the lives of Peter and the apostles (5:33-40). No doubt, it was while studying under Gamaliel in Hillel’s school that Paul began to advance in Judaism beyond many Jews of his own age and became extremely zealous for the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Perhaps then also Paul began to experience the struggles with the law he would later describe in Romans 7.<\/p>\nWhile Paul was studying the Jewish law in Jerusalem, Jesus was working as a carpenter in Nazareth. Then Jesus gathered the disciples who would one day be Paul’s coworkers in the gospel, fulfilled his ministry, and accomplished redemption on the cross of Calvary (AD<\/span> 30). Christ’s resurrection gave birth to the church, which was baptized in the Holy Spirit at the Feast of Pentecost in Jerusalem.<\/p>\nSaul the Persecutor<\/p>\nShortly after these world-changing events, the members of certain synagogues in Jerusalem, including the Cilician synagogue, that of Paul’s native land (Acts 6:9), could not withstand the wisdom and spirit (v 10) of a member of the church in Jerusalem named Stephen (vv 5, 8). They accused him of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin (vv 11-15) and after his eloquent defense (7:1-53) dragged him out of the city, where he was stoned to death. He became the first Christian martyr. The record does not fully reveal the role Paul played in these proceedings, but we know that he was present and prominent because the witnesses against Stephen, who were required to throw the first stones in the execution, “laid their clothes at the feet of a young man called Saul [Paul]” (v 58, niv<\/span>).<\/p>\nAt Stephen’s trial, Paul heard Stephen’s historical method of defense, and he later used it himself at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-41). He witnessed the man with the face of an angel (6:15), full of the Holy Spirit, looking above and proclaiming “the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God” (7:56). Stephen’s death initiated the events that would culminate in Paul’s conversion and commission as the apostle to the Gentiles. But at that time Paul was a leader of the oppressors of the church. He breathed threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord (9:1); he persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Gal 1:13) by imprisoning Christians, both male and female (Acts 22:4), in many cities.<\/p>\nConversion and Calling<\/p>\nPaul had obtained letters from the high priest in Jerusalem to the synagogues in Damascus authorizing him to arrest the believers there and bring them to Jerusalem for trial (Acts 9:1-2). Paul traveled to Damascus for this purpose. Then, on the outskirts of the city, came the event that was to transform this law-keeping persecutor of Jesus Christ and blasphemous destroyer of the infant church into the chief propagator of the gospel of grace and master builder of the church (1 Cor 3:10; 1 Tm 1:13). This was the occasion of Paul’s conversion (c. AD<\/span> 31–33). It was of such revolutionary and lasting importance that three detailed accounts of it are given in the book of Acts (Acts 9:1-19; 22:1-21; 26:1-23), and many references are given to it in Paul’s own writings (1 Cor 9:1; 15:8; Gal 1:15-16; Eph 3:3; Phil 3:12).<\/p>\nAt that time a light from heaven, brighter than the midday sun, shone around Paul and his traveling companions, and they fell to the ground (Acts 26:13-14). Only Paul, however, heard the voice of Jesus instruct him in his commission as a minister and witness to the Gentiles (vv 14-18). Temporarily blinded, Paul was led into Damascus (9:8). There, the disciple Ananias and the Christian community forgave Paul, baptized him, and helped him through the bewildering event of his conversion (vv 10-22). After a short time with the church there, Paul was threatened with death by the Jews to whom he preached Jesus (vv 20-22), but he was protected by the believers and ingeniously delivered from his persecutors (vv 23-25).<\/p>\nPreparation for Ministry<\/p>\nThen began a period of preparation, which lasted about 13 years. During this time, Paul first was in the desert of Arabia for three years. Here was his opportunity to pray and reflect on Stephen’s defense to the Sanhedrin, the momentous significance of his conversion, the vision he received of Jesus Christ, and the meaning of all this in the light of Jewish theology. Following this, Paul returned to Damascus and then visited Peter in Jerusalem for 15 days (Gal 1:17-18).<\/p>\nAt first, the disciples in Jerusalem were afraid of him because they did not believe he was a disciple of Jesus (Acts 9:26), but he was championed by Barnabas and thus accepted by the believers in Jerusalem (vv 27-28). While there, Paul may have heard the oral gospel, a summary of the words and deeds of Jesus, handed down to all converts. This would have included the institution of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:23-25), specific words of the Lord (Acts 20:35; 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14), the appearances of the resurrected Christ (1 Cor 15:3-8), and the spirit and character of Jesus (2 Cor 10:1; Phil 2:5-8). Paul also preached in Jerusalem, perhaps in the same synagogues in which he had heard Stephen. However, when his life was again threatened by the Jews, the believers sent him away to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; Gal 1:21).<\/p>\nThe end of Paul’s preparation came when Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for him and bring him to Antioch. By this time Paul had lived for 10 years in Cilicia. Since his conversion, before being sent to Tarsus, he had proclaimed Jesus (Acts 9:20), speaking boldly in the name of the Lord (v 27). There is no reason to think he did otherwise while living among the Gentiles in Cilicia. In fact, his work may have been so effective that he began to attract attention in Antioch. During these years, Paul probably underwent many of the sufferings mentioned in 2 Corinthians 11:24-26. Several scholars think that the ecstatic experience mentioned in 2 Corinthians 12:1-9, with its accompanying thorn in the flesh, also took place before he came to Antioch.<\/p>\nSent Out from Antioch<\/p>\nThe church in Antioch had its origins in the persecution fomented by Paul after the death of Stephen. Until they arrived in Antioch, the scattered believers had only spoken the word to Jews (Acts 11:19). It was here that the Gentiles first heard the Good News (v 20), and many became believers (v 21). It is fitting that Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 22:21; Rom 11:13), who was as yet unknown by sight to the churches of Judea (Gal 1:22), should appear in Antioch to formally begin the ministry to which he was called (Acts 26:17-18).<\/p>\nBarnabas and Paul stayed with the church in Antioch for a year. Their work there was so blessed that a new name, Christian, was coined to distinguish the believers in Antioch from Gentiles and Jews (Acts 11:26). Hearing of a famine in Judea, the disciples in Antioch determined to send relief to the believers in Judea and did so by Barnabas and Paul (v 30). Such a gift displayed to the Jewish churches the potency of the gospel among the Gentiles. Their mission complete, Barnabas and Paul returned to Antioch with John Mark (12:25), Barnabas’s cousin (Col 4:10).<\/p>\nBeginning from the Day of Pentecost, the work in the gospel had been casual and incidental. Contacts were made in the homes, the marketplace, the streets, synagogues, highways, etc. (Acts 3:1; 5:12, 42; 8:26-29; 10:22). But in Antioch the Holy Spirit initiated a determined effort to evangelize a section of the Roman Empire (13:1-3). By the Holy Spirit’s instructions, the church separated Barnabas and Paul for this work. With the prayers and encouragement of this church, and with John Mark as their assistant, Barnabas and Paul, sent out by the Holy Spirit, sailed for Cyprus (v 4).<\/p>\n\nTraveling with Barnabas<\/p>\nArriving in Salamis, they preached in the synagogues as they traveled the length of the island to Paphos (Acts 13:5-6). There the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, wanted to hear the word of God (v 7). A magician named Elymas Bar-Jesus tried to prevent the proconsul from believing in Jesus but was stricken with temporary blindness by Paul’s command (vv 8-11). This was the first manifestation in Paul of the signs of an apostle (2 Cor 12:12). From then on, the name Paul, not Saul, is used in Luke’s record of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 13:9), and Paul replaced Barnabas as the leader of the party. So “Paul and his company” set sail from Paphos and arrived in Perga of Pamphylia (v 13). John Mark deserted them at Perga and returned to his home in Jerusalem (v 13). This caused discord (15:39), but Paul and Mark were later reconciled (Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11).<\/p>\nPaul’s travels with the gospel now continued through the Roman province of Asia, specifically in the southern portion of Galatia, the areas of Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. The coastal area where the party landed is a hot, malarial region. It is thought that Paul contracted malaria there and so traveled inland through the mountains to the 4,000-foot- (1,219.2-meter-) high tablelands. Such a journey would have been full of dangerous rivers and bandits (2 Cor 11:26), but Paul was well cared for by the Galatian highlanders when he arrived (Gal 4:13-15) and was rewarded with a warm reception to his message (Acts 13:48-49).<\/p>\nPaul and Barnabas were asked to speak at the synagogue of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:15), and Paul delivered a discourse full of the characteristics of the gospel he would later record in his letters to the churches (vv 16-41). He was invited to speak the next week (v 42); nearly the whole city gathered together to hear the word of God (v 44). This stirred up jealousy in the Jews who opposed Paul’s words (v 45), causing the apostles’ dramatic turn to the Gentiles (vv 46-47). Many Gentiles in Antioch believed and spread the word throughout the region, but Paul and Barnabas were forced out and went to Iconium in Lycaonia (vv 48-51).<\/p>\nThe success in Antioch was duplicated in Iconium as was the Jews’ opposition (Acts 14:1), and the apostles fled from the threat of a stoning to Lystra and Derbe in Lycaonia (vv 5-6). In Lystra the signs of an apostle were again seen when Paul healed a man who had been crippled since birth (vv 8-10). The idolatrous citizens of the town, however, primed by the popular belief that Jupiter, accompanied by Mercury, had once visited their region, worshiped Paul and Barnabas as these deities (vv 11-13). Even the convincing words of Paul, whom they mistook for Mercury, hardly restrained the crowds from offering a sacrifice (vv 14-18).<\/p>\nIt was in Lystra that Paul was first given a taste of the same medicine he had once administered to Christians. The Jews stoned him, dragged him out of the city, and left him for dead (Acts 14:19). Timothy (16:1-3) may have been among the new disciples surrounding Paul as he lay outside the gate (14:20). Timothy was Paul’s son in the faith (1 Cor 4:17; 1 Tm 1:2), eyewitness to his suffering (2 Tm 3:10-11), faithful companion, and fellow worker (Acts 19:22; 20:4; Rom 16:21; 1 Thes 3:2). The next day Barnabas and Paul went on to Derbe (Acts 14:20).<\/p>\nAfter making many disciples in Derbe, the apostles retraced their steps through Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch of Pisidia, strengthening and encouraging the new believers and appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:21-23). Arriving again in Perga, they sailed back to Antioch of Syria, where they reported to the church the wonderful news that God had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (vv 25-27).<\/p>\nThe Council of Jerusalem<\/p>\nThe Jews, who had dogged the steps of Paul and Barnabas throughout Galatia, followed on their heels to bewitch the Gentiles there, convincing them to desert the grace of Christ and submit to the Jewish law (Gal 1:6; 3:1). Shortly after the apostles’ return to Antioch, Judaizers came from Judea to Antioch, teaching salvation by the law (Acts 15:1). This began the war against the gospel of grace, which Paul preached.<\/p>\nThe church in Antioch sent Paul, Barnabas, and others to Jerusalem to settle the controversy of the law versus grace with the apostles and elders there (AD<\/span> 49, Acts 15:2). Along the way to Jerusalem they spread the news of the conversion of the Gentiles. This brought great joy to the believers (v 3). Such joy was not shared by some in Jerusalem, who in the first meeting of the council said that the Gentiles should be ordered to keep the law of Moses (v 5).<\/p>\nAfter this meeting, Paul and Barnabas met privately with Peter, John, and James (Gal 2:1-10) and explained the gospel they had been preaching to the Gentiles. These three leaders of the church in Jerusalem saw the grace that had been given to Paul to bring the gospel to the Gentiles and extended to him the “right hand of fellowship.” This private meeting seems to have decided the question of compliance to the Jewish law because in the next general meeting Peter said, “We believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 15:11, rsv<\/span>), and James reached the decision that “we should not trouble those of the Gentiles who turn to God” (Acts 15:19, rsv<\/span>). This was a great victory for Paul and Barnabas, and the news was received with rejoicing by the church in Antioch (vv 30-35).<\/p>\nLater, Peter visited Antioch and freely associated with the Gentile believers as he had timidly done in Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:28). This continued until “certain men came from James.” Their presence brought fear to Peter, clouding the light of the gospel of grace, and causing him to separate himself from the Gentiles. Peter’s action influenced others, including Barnabas, to do the same (Gal 2:12-13). Paul rose to the challenge of this serious crisis, confronted Peter publicly, and charged him with Judaizing and hypocrisy (v 14). Paul won the battle and rescued Peter and Barnabas with eloquent words on justification by faith (vv 15-21), but the Judaizers had resumed their war. From this time on, they did not rest; rather, they tormented and persecuted Paul all over the world. But the apostle did not submit to them for a moment. He was engaged in the fight of his life, so that the truth of the gospel might remain with the Gentile believers (v 5).<\/p>\nFurther Travel<\/p>\nPaul wanted to visit the new believers and see how they were doing. So he proposed to Barnabas that they return to the cities where they had previously preached about Jesus (Acts 15:36). Barnabas wanted to take John Mark with them, but Paul would not take him since he had deserted them during their earlier journey (13:13). This sharp disagreement ended Barnabas’s association with Paul (15:37-39). Silas, a leader among the brothers in Jerusalem (v 22), accompanied Paul as he set out by land through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches (vv 40-41).<\/p>\nBeginning from Derbe in Galatia, Paul and Silas revisited the churches Paul had established with Barnabas. While in Lystra, they were joined by Timothy (Acts 16:1-3). The apostles delivered to these young churches the letter drafted by the elders and apostles in Jerusalem concerning the observance of the law (15:23-29), thus strengthening and increasing them (16:4-5).<\/p>\nIt is likely that Ephesus, a major city in the Roman province of Asia, was the party’s main objective for the advancement of the gospel, but they were “forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia” (Acts 16:6). Then they attempted to turn north and enter the region of Bithynia, “but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them” (v 7). In this way they were forced by God to continue straight westward to Troas on the Aegean Sea, where Luke joined them (“we” in v 10), and Paul had a vision in which he was called out of Asia into Macedonia (vv 8-9). Paul and his party immediately crossed by boat into Europe (v 11) where they carried the gospel to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Corinth.<\/p>\nPhilippi was a Roman colony and military outpost where there were few Jews, so Paul went to a place by the river where the local Jews prayed. He spoke to some women there, notably Lydia, who believed and with her household was baptized (Acts 16:12-15), beginning the first church in Europe. Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a girl in Philippi, and as a result he and Silas were jailed (vv 16-24). The events of their night in jail made the jailer a believer in God (vv 25-34), and he and his family were added to the church in Philippi, which met in Lydia’s home (v 40). When Paul disclosed his Roman citizenship, he was released and was asked to leave the city (vv 35-39).<\/p>\nAt Thessalonica the Jews, aroused to jealousy by the success of Paul’s gospel message, raised a mob to search for the apostles. They complained to the city authorities that the people “who have turned the world upside down have come here also” and accused the apostles of “saying that there is another king [besides Caesar], Jesus” (Acts 17:5-7).<\/p>\nPaul and Silas quickly left Thessalonica by night and arrived in Berea, a city thereafter distinguished by its citizens who eagerly and thoughtfully received the gospel (Acts 17:10-12). The Thessalonian Jews did not rest but trailed Paul to Berea to incite the crowds. The believers then sent Paul away to Athens, while Silas and Timothy stayed behind (vv 13-15).<\/p>\nThe Athenians called Paul a babbler but let him air his views before the Areopagus. Paul’s speech there was alive with his broad knowledge. He alluded to Greco-Roman philosophy (Acts 17:27), poetry (v 28), sculpture (vv 25, 29), architecture (v 24), and religion while proclaiming the existence of an “unknown god” (v 23). But he was rudely cut short by scoffing and indifference when he mentioned the resurrection (v 32). Paul’s words delighted the minds of many but influenced the wills of few, so when he arrived in Corinth, he determined not to proclaim the mystery of God in lofty words of wisdom so that the believers’ faith would not rest on human wisdom but on the power of God (1 Cor 2:1-5).<\/p>\nIn Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2-3), Roman Jews with whom he lived and worked as a tent maker and who would become prominent among the churches (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Cor 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). He stayed in Corinth 18 months from AD<\/span> 50 to 51, raising up a church (Acts 18:11) on the strength of a vision from God (vv 9-10) and in spite of the attacks of the Jews (vv 12-17). Paul wrote the first and second letters to the Thessalonians from Corinth to establish the believers in a holy, industrious life (1 Thes 3:13; 5:23; 2 Thes 3:7-12) in hope of the second coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thes 4:15-18; 2 Thes 2:1ff.).<\/p>\nAccompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, Paul sailed from Corinth for Syria. He left his fellow workers in Ephesus, sailed to Caesarea, briefly visited Jerusalem, and returned to Antioch (Acts 18:18-22). Paul stayed in Antioch for awhile but did not remain absent from the field of his labors for long. Alone, he departed from Antioch, went from place to place in Galatia and Phrygia strengthening all the disciples, and eventually arrived in Ephesus (18:23; 19:1).<\/p>\nLabor in the Gospel<\/p>\nA Jew named Apollos had ministered in Ephesus prior to Paul’s arrival and had recently gone over to Corinth (Acts 18:24-28). There Apollos innocently became the cause of such discord (1 Cor 3:3-9) that he left and refused to return even at Paul’s request (16:12). Paul’s earlier visit to Ephesus (Acts 18:19-20), Apollos’s ministry, and the presence of Priscilla and Aquila had prepared Ephesus for the apostle’s preaching of the gospel of Christ.<\/p>\nPaul began his work in Ephesus by setting straight some ill-informed disciples of John the Baptist (Acts 19:1-7). He then spent three months preaching at the local synagogue until members of the congregation “spoke evil of the Way” (v 9). Paul then took the disciples and continued his arguments on the neutral ground of Tyrannus’s school (vv 8-9), where Jews and Greeks were free to come. He continued there for two years and “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord” (v 10).<\/p>\nThe work in Ephesus was a great success (Acts 19:10, 20, 26). Paul enjoyed an open door for effective work (1 Cor 16:9), bolstered by extraordinary miracles (Acts 19:11-17), a public burning of valuable books of sorcery (vv 18-19), and the assistance of friendly officials from the province of Asia (v 31). There were also many adversaries (1 Cor 15:32; 16:9), especially among the artisans associated with the temple of Diana. Paul’s ministry had hurt their trade to the extent that they were incited to riot (Acts 19:23-41). Paul had intended to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost (1 Cor 16:8), but this tumult seems to have hastened his departure (Acts 20:1).<\/p>\nDuring his stay in Ephesus, the household of Chloe sent word to Paul from Corinth that there were divisions in the church there (1 Cor 1:10-13). This report generated a flurry of letters and travels. Paul wrote a letter, which is now lost, to this church (5:9). The church in Corinth wrote a letter (7:1) and sent messengers to Paul (16:17), and Paul sent Timothy to them (4:17; 16:10). Paul then wrote 1 Corinthians (AD<\/span> 53) and sent it by Titus, who was to meet him in Troas to report the results (2 Cor 2:12-13).<\/p>\nAfter his hasty exit from Ephesus, Paul found an open door for the gospel in Troas, but he so longed to hear from Corinth that he pushed on into Macedonia (2 Cor 2:12-13). There he was finally comforted by Titus (7:5-7) and rejoiced at the news of the Corinthians’ repentance, earnestness, longing, and zeal (vv 8-16). From Macedonia Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (AD<\/span> 54), toured northwest to proclaim the good news of Christ in Illyricum (Rom 15:19), and then turned south for Achaia and his third visit to Corinth (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3; 2 Cor 13:1).<\/p>\nThe time and place from which Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians is a topic of controversy. Some date it before the council at Jerusalem, about AD<\/span> 45. Others say he wrote it from Corinth at this stage in his history. The latter opinion is the choice of this narrative.<\/p>\nA three-month winter stay in Corinth (AD<\/span> 55–56) produced the Letter to the Romans, which firmly set the benchmark of the gospel for all the ages. Paul had many personal friends in Rome (Rom 16) and had long intended to visit there (1:10-15). His plans were to deliver a collection from the Gentile churches to Jerusalem (Acts 20:35; Rom 15:25-26; 1 Cor 16:1) and then visit Rome (Acts 19:21) on his way to Spain (Rom 15:23-24).<\/p>\nThe Arrest in Jerusalem<\/p>\nPaul’s trip from Corinth to Jerusalem was marked by abundant warnings of the danger awaiting him in Jerusalem. The Judaizers’ acrimony toward Paul was common talk everywhere, but all alarms went unheeded (Acts 20:22-24, 38; 21:4, 10-15). However, the request for prayer in Romans 15:30-32 shows that Paul knew he might soon need a divine rescue from the unbelievers in Judea.<\/p>\nThe travelers, carrying the collection for Jerusalem, journeyed swiftly in order to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (Acts 20:16). They proceeded by land from Achaia, through Macedonia, to Philippi in time for the Passover (spring AD<\/span> 56, v 6). Crossing by sea to Troas, they visited the believers there (vv 7-12) and then sailed through the archipelago of the eastern Aegean Sea to Miletus (vv 13-16). From Miletus, Paul sent for the elders of Ephesus, to whom he delivered an impassioned speech containing his own dire warnings for them (vv 17-38).<\/p>\nParting from them, Paul and his companions set sail to Cos, to Rhodes, and then to Patara, where they changed ships for Phoenicia (Acts 21:1-2). A straight course to Tyre brought them within sight of Cyprus, with its memories of Barnabas and Sergius Paulus (v 3). “Through the Spirit” the disciples in Tyre “told Paul not to go on to Jerusalem” (v 4), but he pressed on to Caesarea, where he and his company stayed with Philip, who had formerly served with the martyred Stephen (21:8; cf. 6:5). In Caesarea, Paul would not be persuaded by an especially dramatic prophecy of his coming arrest (21:10-14).<\/p>\nIn Jerusalem the apostolic band stayed with Mnason, an early disciple, and were warmly welcomed by the brothers there (Acts 21:15-17). James and the elders of the church praised God when they heard of the things he had done through Paul among the Gentiles (vv 18-20), and when they received the collection from the churches (24:17). They told Paul of his bad reputation among the thousands of Jewish believers in Jerusalem and urged him to set right the Judaizers’ misrepresentation that he encouraged Jewish Christians to forsake the Mosaic customs (21:21-24). Acts 21:25 shows the Jerusalem elders understood that the Gentiles were under no obligation to Moses; their concern was for Paul to demonstrate that Jewish believers were free to continue their traditional observances.<\/p>\nPaul had kept the Jewish feasts (Acts 20:6), as had Jesus and the early disciples in Jerusalem. He had also cut his hair in a vow at Cenchreae (18:18), so it was a small matter for him, a Jew, to ceremonially purify himself after becoming a Christian, especially if it would undermine the arguments of the Judaizers. To have refused the elders’ request would have lent credence to the Judaizers’ charge. The success of this plan is seen in that it was the Jews from Asia, visiting Jerusalem for the Pentecost feast of AD<\/span> 57, who stirred up trouble for Paul (21:27-29)—not the Judaizers from Jerusalem.<\/p>\nThe whole city was aroused by Paul’s persistent persecutors. A violent crowd dragged him out of the temple just as Stephen had once been hauled to his martyrdom. They tried to kill him, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers as the mob cried, “Away with him!”—just as they had done to Jesus (Acts 21:30-36). At this juncture the educational and cultural diversity of Paul’s life came to his rescue. As he was carried for safety to the Roman barracks, he spoke in Greek to the tribune, who had mistaken him for an Egyptian assassin (vv 37-38). Given permission to speak to the crowd, he did so in the Aramaic language then common in Israel (vv 39-40). The hushed crowd eagerly heard Paul’s defense until he uttered the word “Gentiles.” At this, the crowd resumed its threatening and violence, and Paul was brought into the barracks (22:1-24). There the Romans prepared to flog him, until Paul revealed that he was not only a Jew from Tarsus but also a freeborn Roman citizen. The tribune was afraid, since he had bound a Roman citizen. Wanting to know the charges against Paul, he brought him to the Sanhedrin (vv 25-30).<\/p>\nThis meeting of the Jewish judiciary was shortly reduced to dissension and violence. Paul resorted to tactics justifiable in such a war and hopelessly divided the Sanhedrin on the subject of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9). Paul again was rescued, this time from the contending factions of the Jewish leadership, and taken to the barracks, where the Lord encouraged him, promising that he would go to Rome (AD<\/span> 56, vv 10-11).<\/p>\nIn the meantime 40 Jews entered into a murderous plot against Paul. They vowed not to eat or drink until they had killed the apostle (Acts 23:12-15). They almost succeeded, but with the help of the son of Paul’s sister (v 16), the conspiracy was exposed. For safety, Paul was taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea under guard of 470 soldiers and handed over to the custody of Felix the governor (vv 16-35). Inconclusive hearings before Felix (Acts 24), his successor, Festus (25:1-12), and King Agrippa (25:23–26:32) occupied Paul in his two years of imprisonment in Caesarea. Festus, wanting to please the Jews, suggested that Paul be returned to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul knew the murderous intent of his accusers and again utilized his Roman citizenship by making a dramatic appeal to Caesar (25:9-12).<\/p>\nVoyage and Stay in Rome<\/p>\nTo plead his case at Caesar’s court, Paul and his companions, Aristarchus and Luke, were taken on a perilous voyage (AD<\/span> 58, Acts 27:1–28:16). Their passage by ship from Caesarea to Rome is one of the most remarkable on record. Luke’s detailed account is a treasure of information on ancient ships, navigation, and seamanship. It is also a beautiful portrait of a heroic and dignified apostle Paul, the gospel’s ambassador in chains (Eph 6:20), who with the guidance and assurance of his God (Acts 27:23-26), led the 276 people on board to safety (v 37).<\/p>\nLuke traces the voyage stage by stage through every crisis, with a change of ship at Myra, delay at Fair Havens on Crete, and the shipwreck on Malta. Finally, in the spring of AD<\/span> 59, they arrived at Puteoli, Italy, and made their way to Rome, welcomed by the believers along the Appian Way (Acts 28:13-16).<\/p>\nLuke provided a peaceful denouement to the Acts, notwithstanding the fact that the apostle was an imperial prisoner of Caesar Nero. Paul lived by himself in his own house, chained to a Roman guard (Acts 28:16, 30). There he received the local Jewish leaders—to calm any misgivings they may have had about him and, at the same time, to convince them about Jesus. His efforts had mixed success (vv 17-28). During Paul’s two or more years in Rome, the Judaizers seem to have withdrawn, only to be replaced by the peril of Eastern Gnosticism. This is seen in Paul’s letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Ephesians, and to Philemon, all written at this time. It is unlikely that Paul’s accusers appeared in Rome to bring formal charges before Caesar, so Paul was probably released in AD<\/span> 61.<\/p>\nFinal Years and Martyrdom<\/p>\nIt is here assumed that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus) are truly Paul’s work. Only through them can the probable course of events in Paul’s final years be traced. Romans 15:28 shows that Paul intended to deliver the collection to Jerusalem and then to “set out by way of you [Rome] to Spain.” The arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem not only destroyed these plans but also extracted five precious years from the prime of a most productive life. Although Clement of Rome implied that Paul did fulfill his desire to go to Spain (Clement to the Corinthians<\/em> 5), it is certain that the daily pressure of Paul’s anxious care for all the churches (2 Cor 11:28) did not abate.<\/p>\nIf Paul went to Spain, he may have been there when Rome was burned on July 19, AD<\/span> 64. Tradition says that Paul traveled as far as Britain, but there is no evidence to confirm this. Returning east, he left Titus in Crete (Ti 1:5) and traveled through Miletus, south of Ephesus, where he left Trophimus sick (2 Tm 4:20). Traveling toward Macedonia, Paul visited Timothy in Ephesus (1 Tm 1:3). On the way, Paul left his cloak and books with Carpus in Troas (2 Tm 4:13). This indicates that he intended to return there for his possessions. From Macedonia Paul wrote his loving yet apprehensive first letter to Timothy (AD<\/span> 62–64). He had decided to spend the winter in Nicopolis (Ti 3:12), northwest of Corinth on the Adriatic Sea, but was still in Macedonia when he wrote his letter to Titus. This letter is similar to 1 Timothy, yet with a somewhat harsher tone. In it is a final glimpse of the eloquent and zealous Apollos (Ti 3:13), who is still in association with Paul 10 or more years after his first appearance in Ephesus (Acts 18:24).<\/p>\nFrom here Paul’s path is obscure. He may have wintered in Nicopolis, but he did not return to Troas for his winter cloak (2 Tm 4:13). At some point he was arrested by the Romans, because he spent a winter in Rome’s Mamertine Prison, suffering from the cold in that rock cell before he wrote his second letter to Timothy (AD<\/span> 66–67). He may have been anticipating the coming winter when he requested that Timothy bring his cloak (vv 13, 21). It is possible that the charges against Paul were related to the burning of Rome; this is unknown. It was, however, now “illegal” to be a Christian since the “new religion” was no longer protected by Roman law as being part of Judaism (which was a legalized, recognized religion by Roman law).<\/p>\nIt was dangerous to be associated with Paul at this time. Many deserted him (2 Tm 4:16), including all his coworkers in Asia (1:15) and Demas, who loved the world (4:10). Only Luke, the physician and author of Luke and Acts, was with him when he wrote his second letter to Timothy (v 11). Faithful believers still in hiding in Rome were also in contact with the apostle (1:16; 4:19, 21). He told Timothy to come to him in Rome and bring Mark also (4:11). Apparently Timothy did come and was imprisoned (Heb 13:23). Paul’s request for the books and parchments (2 Tm 4:13) discloses that he was reading and studying the Scripture to the end.<\/p>\nThe apostle Paul had two hearings before Caesar Nero. At his first defense only the Lord stood by him (2 Tm 4:16). There he not only pleaded his own cause but also that of the gospel, still longing that all the Gentiles would hear its message. Perhaps no decision was made, and thus he was “rescued from the lion’s mouth” (v 17). Though he knew he would soon die, he was not afraid, but was assured that the Lord would give him a crown of righteousness on the last day (v 8). Finally, the apostle himself recorded his seminal encouragement to all believers: “The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be with you” (v 22, rsv<\/span>). After this, the Scripture is silent regarding Paul.<\/p>\nNothing is known of Paul’s second hearing but that it resulted in the sentence of capital punishment. History does not record Paul’s end. Nero died in the summer of AD<\/span> 68, so Paul was executed before that date. As a Roman citizen, he must have been spared the lingering torture that had recently been suffered by his fellow martyrs. Tradition says that he was decapitated by the sword of an imperial headsman on the Ostian Road just outside of Rome, and buried nearby. This fulfilled Paul’s desire “to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil 1:23, rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","summary_en":"PAUL, The Apostle Prominent leader of the first-century church; apostle to the Gentiles; author of 13 NT epistles. Preview • Family and Cultural Background • Education • Saul the Persecutor • Conversion and Calling • Preparation for Ministry • Sent Out from Antioch • Traveling with Barnabas • The Council of Jerusalem • Further Travel • Labor in the Gospel • The Arrest in Jerusalem • Voyage and Stay in Rome • Final Years and Martyrdom Family and Cultural Background Paul was born around AD 10, ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":58268,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:12","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:12","content_ro":"3:12–4:1<\/strong> Using himself as an example, Paul encourages the Philippians to pursue Christ and the hope of heaven with determination and strength.<\/p>","content_en":"3:12–4:1<\/strong> Using himself as an example, Paul encourages the Philippians to pursue Christ and the hope of heaven with determination and strength.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:12–4:1 Using himself as an example, Paul encourages the Philippians to pursue Christ and the hope of heaven with determination and strength.","summary_en":"3:12–4:1 Using himself as an example, Paul encourages the Philippians to pursue Christ and the hope of heaven with determination and strength.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85894,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:12","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:12","content_ro":"3:12–4:1<\/strong> Using himself as an example, Paul encourages the Philippians to pursue Christ and the hope of heaven with determination and strength.<\/p>","content_en":"3:12–4:1<\/strong> Using himself as an example, Paul encourages the Philippians to pursue Christ and the hope of heaven with determination and strength.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:12–4:1 Using himself as an example, Paul encourages the Philippians to pursue Christ and the hope of heaven with determination and strength.","summary_en":"3:12–4:1 Using himself as an example, Paul encourages the Philippians to pursue Christ and the hope of heaven with determination and strength.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113520,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:12","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:12","content_ro":"3:12–4:1<\/strong> Using himself as an example, Paul encourages the Philippians to pursue Christ and the hope of heaven with determination and strength.<\/p>","content_en":"3:12–4:1<\/strong> Using himself as an example, Paul encourages the Philippians to pursue Christ and the hope of heaven with determination and strength.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:12–4:1 Using himself as an example, Paul encourages the Philippians to pursue Christ and the hope of heaven with determination and strength.","summary_en":"3:12–4:1 Using himself as an example, Paul encourages the Philippians to pursue Christ and the hope of heaven with determination and strength.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141146,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:12","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:12","content_ro":"3:12–4:1<\/strong> Using himself as an example, Paul encourages the Philippians to pursue Christ and the hope of heaven with determination and strength.<\/p>","content_en":"3:12–4:1<\/strong> Using himself as an example, Paul encourages the Philippians to pursue Christ and the hope of heaven with determination and strength.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:12–4:1 Using himself as an example, Paul encourages the Philippians to pursue Christ and the hope of heaven with determination and strength.","summary_en":"3:12–4:1 Using himself as an example, Paul encourages the Philippians to pursue Christ and the hope of heaven with determination and strength.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67347,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Old Life and the New Life","title_en":"The Old Life and the New Life","content_ro":"<h3>The Old Life and the New Life<\/h3>\nWhen people become believers in Christ, they are joined to him and begin to share in his death and resurrection. Their old life, marred by sin, dies with Christ, and they begin a new life by his power within them (see Rom 6:3-14). This is the work of God, who transforms them by his Spirit. Their minds are renewed (see Rom 12:2), their desires and actions change, and their lives begin to reflect his Spirit (Gal 5:22-23). They gradually grow into the likeness of Christ.<\/p>\nBelievers also have a responsibility to live out Christ’s death and resurrection (see Phil 3:10-14). They are to turn away from darkness and embrace a life full of light (Eph 4:17–5:20). Paul speaks of this transformation by using the imagery of clothing. Believers are called to take off the old, sinful life driven by the devil and put on a new, pure life directed by the Holy Spirit (Eph 4:21-24; Col 3:1-15; see also Gal 3:27). As they do so, they recognize their reliance on God’s grace and power.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 6:3-14; 12:1-2; Gal 5:19-23; Eph 4:17–5:20; Phil 3:12-14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Old Life and the New Life<\/h3>\nWhen people become believers in Christ, they are joined to him and begin to share in his death and resurrection. Their old life, marred by sin, dies with Christ, and they begin a new life by his power within them (see Rom 6:3-14). This is the work of God, who transforms them by his Spirit. Their minds are renewed (see Rom 12:2), their desires and actions change, and their lives begin to reflect his Spirit (Gal 5:22-23). They gradually grow into the likeness of Christ.<\/p>\nBelievers also have a responsibility to live out Christ’s death and resurrection (see Phil 3:10-14). They are to turn away from darkness and embrace a life full of light (Eph 4:17–5:20). Paul speaks of this transformation by using the imagery of clothing. Believers are called to take off the old, sinful life driven by the devil and put on a new, pure life directed by the Holy Spirit (Eph 4:21-24; Col 3:1-15; see also Gal 3:27). As they do so, they recognize their reliance on God’s grace and power.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 6:3-14; 12:1-2; Gal 5:19-23; Eph 4:17–5:20; Phil 3:12-14<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Old Life and the New Life When people become believers in Christ, they are joined to him and begin to share in his death and resurrection. Their old life, marred by sin, dies with Christ, and they begin a new life by his power within them (see Rom 6:3-14). This is the work of God, who transforms them by his Spirit. Their minds are renewed (see Rom 12:2), their desires and actions change, and their lives begin to reflect his Spirit (Gal 5:22-23). They gradually grow into the likeness of Ch...","summary_en":"The Old Life and the New Life When people become believers in Christ, they are joined to him and begin to share in his death and resurrection. Their old life, marred by sin, dies with Christ, and they begin a new life by his power within them (see Rom 6:3-14). This is the work of God, who transforms them by his Spirit. Their minds are renewed (see Rom 12:2), their desires and actions change, and their lives begin to reflect his Spirit (Gal 5:22-23). They gradually grow into the likeness of Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":94973,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Old Life and the New Life","title_en":"The Old Life and the New Life","content_ro":"<h3>The Old Life and the New Life<\/h3>\nWhen people become believers in Christ, they are joined to him and begin to share in his death and resurrection. Their old life, marred by sin, dies with Christ, and they begin a new life by his power within them (see Rom 6:3-14). This is the work of God, who transforms them by his Spirit. Their minds are renewed (see Rom 12:2), their desires and actions change, and their lives begin to reflect his Spirit (Gal 5:22-23). They gradually grow into the likeness of Christ.<\/p>\nBelievers also have a responsibility to live out Christ’s death and resurrection (see Phil 3:10-14). They are to turn away from darkness and embrace a life full of light (Eph 4:17–5:20). Paul speaks of this transformation by using the imagery of clothing. Believers are called to take off the old, sinful life driven by the devil and put on a new, pure life directed by the Holy Spirit (Eph 4:21-24; Col 3:1-15; see also Gal 3:27). As they do so, they recognize their reliance on God’s grace and power.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 6:3-14; 12:1-2; Gal 5:19-23; Eph 4:17–5:20; Phil 3:12-14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Old Life and the New Life<\/h3>\nWhen people become believers in Christ, they are joined to him and begin to share in his death and resurrection. Their old life, marred by sin, dies with Christ, and they begin a new life by his power within them (see Rom 6:3-14). This is the work of God, who transforms them by his Spirit. Their minds are renewed (see Rom 12:2), their desires and actions change, and their lives begin to reflect his Spirit (Gal 5:22-23). They gradually grow into the likeness of Christ.<\/p>\nBelievers also have a responsibility to live out Christ’s death and resurrection (see Phil 3:10-14). They are to turn away from darkness and embrace a life full of light (Eph 4:17–5:20). Paul speaks of this transformation by using the imagery of clothing. Believers are called to take off the old, sinful life driven by the devil and put on a new, pure life directed by the Holy Spirit (Eph 4:21-24; Col 3:1-15; see also Gal 3:27). As they do so, they recognize their reliance on God’s grace and power.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 6:3-14; 12:1-2; Gal 5:19-23; Eph 4:17–5:20; Phil 3:12-14<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Old Life and the New Life When people become believers in Christ, they are joined to him and begin to share in his death and resurrection. Their old life, marred by sin, dies with Christ, and they begin a new life by his power within them (see Rom 6:3-14). This is the work of God, who transforms them by his Spirit. Their minds are renewed (see Rom 12:2), their desires and actions change, and their lives begin to reflect his Spirit (Gal 5:22-23). They gradually grow into the likeness of Ch...","summary_en":"The Old Life and the New Life When people become believers in Christ, they are joined to him and begin to share in his death and resurrection. Their old life, marred by sin, dies with Christ, and they begin a new life by his power within them (see Rom 6:3-14). This is the work of God, who transforms them by his Spirit. Their minds are renewed (see Rom 12:2), their desires and actions change, and their lives begin to reflect his Spirit (Gal 5:22-23). They gradually grow into the likeness of Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":122599,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Old Life and the New Life","title_en":"The Old Life and the New Life","content_ro":"<h3>The Old Life and the New Life<\/h3>\nWhen people become believers in Christ, they are joined to him and begin to share in his death and resurrection. Their old life, marred by sin, dies with Christ, and they begin a new life by his power within them (see Rom 6:3-14). This is the work of God, who transforms them by his Spirit. Their minds are renewed (see Rom 12:2), their desires and actions change, and their lives begin to reflect his Spirit (Gal 5:22-23). They gradually grow into the likeness of Christ.<\/p>\nBelievers also have a responsibility to live out Christ’s death and resurrection (see Phil 3:10-14). They are to turn away from darkness and embrace a life full of light (Eph 4:17–5:20). Paul speaks of this transformation by using the imagery of clothing. Believers are called to take off the old, sinful life driven by the devil and put on a new, pure life directed by the Holy Spirit (Eph 4:21-24; Col 3:1-15; see also Gal 3:27). As they do so, they recognize their reliance on God’s grace and power.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 6:3-14; 12:1-2; Gal 5:19-23; Eph 4:17–5:20; Phil 3:12-14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Old Life and the New Life<\/h3>\nWhen people become believers in Christ, they are joined to him and begin to share in his death and resurrection. Their old life, marred by sin, dies with Christ, and they begin a new life by his power within them (see Rom 6:3-14). This is the work of God, who transforms them by his Spirit. Their minds are renewed (see Rom 12:2), their desires and actions change, and their lives begin to reflect his Spirit (Gal 5:22-23). They gradually grow into the likeness of Christ.<\/p>\nBelievers also have a responsibility to live out Christ’s death and resurrection (see Phil 3:10-14). They are to turn away from darkness and embrace a life full of light (Eph 4:17–5:20). Paul speaks of this transformation by using the imagery of clothing. Believers are called to take off the old, sinful life driven by the devil and put on a new, pure life directed by the Holy Spirit (Eph 4:21-24; Col 3:1-15; see also Gal 3:27). As they do so, they recognize their reliance on God’s grace and power.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 6:3-14; 12:1-2; Gal 5:19-23; Eph 4:17–5:20; Phil 3:12-14<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Old Life and the New Life When people become believers in Christ, they are joined to him and begin to share in his death and resurrection. Their old life, marred by sin, dies with Christ, and they begin a new life by his power within them (see Rom 6:3-14). This is the work of God, who transforms them by his Spirit. Their minds are renewed (see Rom 12:2), their desires and actions change, and their lives begin to reflect his Spirit (Gal 5:22-23). They gradually grow into the likeness of Ch...","summary_en":"The Old Life and the New Life When people become believers in Christ, they are joined to him and begin to share in his death and resurrection. Their old life, marred by sin, dies with Christ, and they begin a new life by his power within them (see Rom 6:3-14). This is the work of God, who transforms them by his Spirit. Their minds are renewed (see Rom 12:2), their desires and actions change, and their lives begin to reflect his Spirit (Gal 5:22-23). They gradually grow into the likeness of Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":150225,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Old Life and the New Life","title_en":"The Old Life and the New Life","content_ro":"<h3>The Old Life and the New Life<\/h3>\nWhen people become believers in Christ, they are joined to him and begin to share in his death and resurrection. Their old life, marred by sin, dies with Christ, and they begin a new life by his power within them (see Rom 6:3-14). This is the work of God, who transforms them by his Spirit. Their minds are renewed (see Rom 12:2), their desires and actions change, and their lives begin to reflect his Spirit (Gal 5:22-23). They gradually grow into the likeness of Christ.<\/p>\nBelievers also have a responsibility to live out Christ’s death and resurrection (see Phil 3:10-14). They are to turn away from darkness and embrace a life full of light (Eph 4:17–5:20). Paul speaks of this transformation by using the imagery of clothing. Believers are called to take off the old, sinful life driven by the devil and put on a new, pure life directed by the Holy Spirit (Eph 4:21-24; Col 3:1-15; see also Gal 3:27). As they do so, they recognize their reliance on God’s grace and power.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 6:3-14; 12:1-2; Gal 5:19-23; Eph 4:17–5:20; Phil 3:12-14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Old Life and the New Life<\/h3>\nWhen people become believers in Christ, they are joined to him and begin to share in his death and resurrection. Their old life, marred by sin, dies with Christ, and they begin a new life by his power within them (see Rom 6:3-14). This is the work of God, who transforms them by his Spirit. Their minds are renewed (see Rom 12:2), their desires and actions change, and their lives begin to reflect his Spirit (Gal 5:22-23). They gradually grow into the likeness of Christ.<\/p>\nBelievers also have a responsibility to live out Christ’s death and resurrection (see Phil 3:10-14). They are to turn away from darkness and embrace a life full of light (Eph 4:17–5:20). Paul speaks of this transformation by using the imagery of clothing. Believers are called to take off the old, sinful life driven by the devil and put on a new, pure life directed by the Holy Spirit (Eph 4:21-24; Col 3:1-15; see also Gal 3:27). As they do so, they recognize their reliance on God’s grace and power.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 6:3-14; 12:1-2; Gal 5:19-23; Eph 4:17–5:20; Phil 3:12-14<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Old Life and the New Life When people become believers in Christ, they are joined to him and begin to share in his death and resurrection. Their old life, marred by sin, dies with Christ, and they begin a new life by his power within them (see Rom 6:3-14). This is the work of God, who transforms them by his Spirit. Their minds are renewed (see Rom 12:2), their desires and actions change, and their lives begin to reflect his Spirit (Gal 5:22-23). They gradually grow into the likeness of Ch...","summary_en":"The Old Life and the New Life When people become believers in Christ, they are joined to him and begin to share in his death and resurrection. Their old life, marred by sin, dies with Christ, and they begin a new life by his power within them (see Rom 6:3-14). This is the work of God, who transforms them by his Spirit. Their minds are renewed (see Rom 12:2), their desires and actions change, and their lives begin to reflect his Spirit (Gal 5:22-23). They gradually grow into the likeness of Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":58269,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:13","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:13","content_ro":"3:13-14<\/strong> the race:<\/em> See study note on 2:16. • Paul was willing to give up everything else for the ultimate goal, the heavenly prize<\/em> of eternal life.<\/p>","content_en":"3:13-14<\/strong> the race:<\/em> See study note on 2:16. • Paul was willing to give up everything else for the ultimate goal, the heavenly prize<\/em> of eternal life.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:13-14 the race: See study note on 2:16. • Paul was willing to give up everything else for the ultimate goal, the heavenly prize of eternal life.","summary_en":"3:13-14 the race: See study note on 2:16. • Paul was willing to give up everything else for the ultimate goal, the heavenly prize of eternal life.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85895,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:13","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:13","content_ro":"3:13-14<\/strong> the race:<\/em> See study note on 2:16. • Paul was willing to give up everything else for the ultimate goal, the heavenly prize<\/em> of eternal life.<\/p>","content_en":"3:13-14<\/strong> the race:<\/em> See study note on 2:16. • Paul was willing to give up everything else for the ultimate goal, the heavenly prize<\/em> of eternal life.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:13-14 the race: See study note on 2:16. • Paul was willing to give up everything else for the ultimate goal, the heavenly prize of eternal life.","summary_en":"3:13-14 the race: See study note on 2:16. • Paul was willing to give up everything else for the ultimate goal, the heavenly prize of eternal life.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113521,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:13","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:13","content_ro":"3:13-14<\/strong> the race:<\/em> See study note on 2:16. • Paul was willing to give up everything else for the ultimate goal, the heavenly prize<\/em> of eternal life.<\/p>","content_en":"3:13-14<\/strong> the race:<\/em> See study note on 2:16. • Paul was willing to give up everything else for the ultimate goal, the heavenly prize<\/em> of eternal life.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:13-14 the race: See study note on 2:16. • Paul was willing to give up everything else for the ultimate goal, the heavenly prize of eternal life.","summary_en":"3:13-14 the race: See study note on 2:16. • Paul was willing to give up everything else for the ultimate goal, the heavenly prize of eternal life.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141147,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:13","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:13","content_ro":"3:13-14<\/strong> the race:<\/em> See study note on 2:16. • Paul was willing to give up everything else for the ultimate goal, the heavenly prize<\/em> of eternal life.<\/p>","content_en":"3:13-14<\/strong> the race:<\/em> See study note on 2:16. • Paul was willing to give up everything else for the ultimate goal, the heavenly prize<\/em> of eternal life.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:13-14 the race: See study note on 2:16. • Paul was willing to give up everything else for the ultimate goal, the heavenly prize of eternal life.","summary_en":"3:13-14 the race: See study note on 2:16. • Paul was willing to give up everything else for the ultimate goal, the heavenly prize of eternal life.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":31413,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Prize","title_en":"Prize","content_ro":"<h3>PRIZE<\/h3>\nReward given the winner of a contest. In the ancient Greek games (the Olympian and Isthmian), the prize usually consisted of a simple wreath woven with olive branches. The apostle Paul transposed this technical term from the athletic arena into the language of the early church for illustrative purposes. He alone uses the word, and in only two related passages: 1 Corinthians 9:24, where he employs it literally, and Philippians 3:14, where he applies it metaphorically.<\/p>\nComparing the living of the Christian life to the running of a footrace, Paul exhorts his readers to live so that they may win the prize. The prize itself, whether defined as “eternal life” or “heavenly perfection” or “resurrection glory,” is a gift of grace; therefore, Paul’s figure of the race and the reward cannot be pressed to imply that man’s effort is the causative agent in the securing of the prize (Rom 9:16), but only that strenuous effort must be exercised if the prize is to be enjoyed. The purpose of the illustration is to summon believers to live the Christian faith with the same self-denial, supreme exertion, and single-minded concentration as that manifested by the winner of the prize in the Grecian games.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PRIZE<\/h3>\nReward given the winner of a contest. In the ancient Greek games (the Olympian and Isthmian), the prize usually consisted of a simple wreath woven with olive branches. The apostle Paul transposed this technical term from the athletic arena into the language of the early church for illustrative purposes. He alone uses the word, and in only two related passages: 1 Corinthians 9:24, where he employs it literally, and Philippians 3:14, where he applies it metaphorically.<\/p>\nComparing the living of the Christian life to the running of a footrace, Paul exhorts his readers to live so that they may win the prize. The prize itself, whether defined as “eternal life” or “heavenly perfection” or “resurrection glory,” is a gift of grace; therefore, Paul’s figure of the race and the reward cannot be pressed to imply that man’s effort is the causative agent in the securing of the prize (Rom 9:16), but only that strenuous effort must be exercised if the prize is to be enjoyed. The purpose of the illustration is to summon believers to live the Christian faith with the same self-denial, supreme exertion, and single-minded concentration as that manifested by the winner of the prize in the Grecian games.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PRIZE Reward given the winner of a contest. In the ancient Greek games (the Olympian and Isthmian), the prize usually consisted of a simple wreath woven with olive branches. The apostle Paul transposed this technical term from the athletic arena into the language of the early church for illustrative purposes. He alone uses the word, and in only two related passages: 1 Corinthians 9:24, where he employs it literally, and Philippians 3:14, where he applies it metaphorically. Comparing the livin...","summary_en":"PRIZE Reward given the winner of a contest. In the ancient Greek games (the Olympian and Isthmian), the prize usually consisted of a simple wreath woven with olive branches. The apostle Paul transposed this technical term from the athletic arena into the language of the early church for illustrative purposes. He alone uses the word, and in only two related passages: 1 Corinthians 9:24, where he employs it literally, and Philippians 3:14, where he applies it metaphorically. Comparing the livin...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":33863,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Sanctification","title_en":"Sanctification","content_ro":"<h3>SANCTIFICATION<\/h3>\nTerm meaning “being made holy, or purified.” It is used broadly of the whole Christian experience, though most theologians prefer to use it in a restricted sense to distinguish it from related terms, such as “regeneration,” “justification,” and “glorification.”<\/p>\nDefinition<\/p>\nA comprehensive definition of sanctification by the New Hampshire Baptist Confession (1833) states,<\/p>\nWe believe that Sanctification is the process by which, according to the will of God, we are made partakers of his holiness; that it is a progressive work; that it is begun in regeneration; and that it is carried on in the hearts of believers by the presence and power of the Holy Spirit, the Sealer and Comforter, in the continual use of the appointed means—especially the Word of God, self-examination, self-denial, watchfulness, and prayer. (Article X)<\/p>\nThis definition helps us to distinguish sanctification from regeneration in that the latter speaks of the inception of the Christian life. Sanctification is also distinguished from glorification, which focuses on the consummation of God’s work in the believer. Put quite simply, then, regeneration refers to the beginning, sanctification to the middle, and glorification to the end of salvation.<\/p>\nThe distinction between sanctification and justification, on the other hand, calls for more detailed attention, both because it is subtle and because it is fundamental. In the first place, “justification,” like “regeneration,” refers (though not exclusively) to the beginning of the Christian experience, whereas the above definition emphasizes the progressive character of sanctification. Second, justification refers to a judicial act of God whereby believers are at once absolved of all their guilt and accounted legally righteous, whereas sanctification, like regeneration and glorification, calls attention to the transforming power of the Holy Spirit upon the character of God’s children.<\/p>\nThis distinction played an important role at the time of the Reformation. The Roman Catholic Church, in the opinion of the Reformers, confused these two doctrines by insisting that justification “is not remission of sins merely, but also the sanctification and renewal of the inward man” (Decrees of the Council of Trent, Sixth Session, 1547, ch. VII). In contrast, the Reformers emphasized that the two doctrines, although inseparable, must be distinguished. Calvin argued that, to be sure, these two elements of God’s saving act cannot be torn into parts any more than Christ can be torn: “Whomever, therefore, God receives into grace, on them he at the same time bestows the spirit of adoption, by whose power he remakes them to his own image. But if the brightness of the sun cannot be separated from its heat, shall we therefore say that the earth is warmed by its light, or lighted by its heat?” (Institutes of the Christian Religion,<\/em> 3:11.6). In short, then, justification is a once-for-all, declarative act of God as Judge, whereas sanctification is a progressive change in the character of the person justified.<\/p>\nOne more element in the New Hampshire Baptist Confession definition requires comment, namely, the statement that “we are made partakers of his holiness.” A complete survey of what the Bible has to say about sanctification is not possible here, since practically the whole of Scripture addresses this issue in one way or another. One central theme in that teaching, however, must be emphasized: “You shall be holy as I am holy” (Lv 11:45; 1 Pt 1:16; cf. Mt 5:48). According to the Westminster Shorter Catechism (1647), by sanctification “we are renewed in the whole man after the image of God” (Question 34; see Col 3:10). Nothing can be more crucial to our view of sanctification than this truth. The standard of holiness is complete conformity to Christ’s image (Rom 8:29); anything less than that is a lowering of the scriptural standard and thus a dilution of the doctrine. The definition above, however, implies that Christ is more than our pattern: he himself provides his holiness for those united with him—he is<\/em> our sanctification (1 Cor 1:30).<\/p>\nInitial Sanctification<\/p>\nThe progressive nature of our sanctification is explicit in many passages, particularly Paul’s statement that Christians are transformed “from glory to glory” into the Lord’s image (2 Cor 3:18; see also Rom 12:1-2; Phil 3:14; Heb 6:1; 2 Pt 3:18). Moreover, the numerous commands found in Scripture imply that the Christian experiences growth.<\/p>\n At the same time, however, a number of expressions in Scripture reveal that sanctification is given to the believer concurrent with regeneration. For example, Paul frequently refers to Christians as “saints,” that is, “holy ones” (Rom 1:7; Eph 1:1; etc.); this language suggests that sanctification is already the possession of believers. In fact, Paul specifically says that the Corinthian Christians “have been sanctified” (1 Cor 1:2), and he even coordinates sanctification with washing (= regeneration?) and justification as though all three elements had taken place at the same time (6:11). Perhaps more impressive is the apostle’s declaration that Christians have died to sin (Rom 6:2). One can hardly think of a more powerful figure than death, suggesting as it does a permanent, irrevocable dissolution of the believer’s relationship with sin.<\/p>\nIt goes without saying, of course, that these passages do not teach absolute perfection for every Christian upon conversion. Such an interpretation would bring us into conflict with the clear teaching of Scripture as a whole. Furthermore, one should note that the Corinthian “saints” were marked by woeful immaturity (1 Cor 3:1-3; 6:8; 11:17-22).<\/p>\nHow, then, should these passages be interpreted? Some writers have suggested that Paul is speaking of “potential” sanctification—that is, although our relationship with sin has not been actually severed, God has given us what we need for that to take place. There is an element of truth in this formulation, but it hardly does justice, by itself, to the force of Paul’s language. Coming somewhat closer to an adequate explanation is to speak of “positional” sanctification. According to this view, Paul is speaking in judicial terms regarding our status before God. One should certainly recognize a judicial element in Paul’s discussion (Rom 6:7 uses the word “justified”), but if that is all that is said, then it suggests that Romans 6 simply restates the doctrine of justification—a doubtful conclusion. Much more satisfactory is the view that Paul’s teaching contains both a judicial element and an actual, experiential reference.<\/p>\nProgressive Sanctification<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Survey<\/h5>\nAlthough all Christian groups recognize the need to become transformed by the renewing of the mind (Rom 12:2), considerable differences are found among them regarding specific issues. The Reformers, generally speaking, held to what some call a “pessimistic” view of personal sanctification. This perspective is clearly reflected in the Westminster Confession of Faith (1647), which states that sanctification “is imperfect in this life; there abideth still some remnants of corruption in every part, whence ariseth a continual and irreconcilable war” within the believer (XIII.ii). Although the confession goes on to emphasize the overcoming power of the Spirit, some Christians believe that its basic thrust obscures the need and possibility of spiritual victory.<\/p>\nTo some extent, the teachings of John Wesley (1703–91) may be viewed as a reaction to the usual Calvinistic and Lutheran formulations. Strongly influenced by the Pietistic movement of his day, Wesley paid much attention to the experiential side of Christianity and eventually formulated, though not with great consistency, the doctrine that “entire sanctification” is possible in this life. During the 19th century, interest in the possibility of perfection (not understood in an absolute sense, however) spread to many Christian circles. According to some, perfection resulted from the eradication of sin; according to others, spiritual victory was gained by counteracting the sin that remains even in the Christian’s heart. The latter approach became characteristic of the so-called Victorious Life Movement. These various “perfectionist” groups were subjected to a searching criticism by the Princeton theologian Benjamin B. Warfield (1851–1921). The debate has continued, though not as vigorously, ever since then.<\/p>\n<h5>The Agency in Sanctification<\/h5>\nMuch of the controversy focuses on the human role in sanctification. While all Christians agree that holiness would be impossible without God’s help, it is difficult to define precisely how that truth affects one’s own activity. In the Roman Catholic tradition so much stress has been placed on the cleansing power of baptism and on the meritorious character of good works that one may rightly question whether the significance of divine grace is not thereby ignored. At the other extreme stand some exponents of the Victorious Life Movement, whose stress on “let go and let God” (a slogan that has some value if properly used) sometimes suggests that believers remain completely passive in sanctification.<\/p>\nNo passage of Scripture is more relevant to this issue than Philippians 2:12-13, where Paul juxtaposes the command for one to work out one’s own salvation with the declaration that it is God who provides the spiritual strength necessary for the task. It may be tempting to emphasize the first part of the statement so as to ignore the fundamental significance of the second, or else to become so arrested by Paul’s stress (here and elsewhere) on divine grace that the weight of personal responsibility is overlooked. The apostle, however, appears to have deliberately and carefully preserved a fine balance between these two truths.<\/p>\nSanctification requires discipline, concentration, and effort, as is clear by the many exhortations of Scripture, especially those where the Christian life is described with such figures as running and fighting (1 Cor 9:24-27; Eph 6:10-17). But Christians must always resist the temptation to assume that they in effect sanctify themselves, that spiritual power comes from within them, and that they may therefore rely on their own strength. This is a difficult tension, though no more puzzling than the paradox of prayer (“Why pray when God, who knows our needs and who is all-wise and sovereign, will always do what is best anyway?”). Yet perhaps the real “secret” of holiness consists precisely in learning to keep that balance: relying thoroughly on God as the true agent in sanctification, while faithfully discharging one’s personal responsibility.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Holiness; Justification, Justified.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SANCTIFICATION<\/h3>\nTerm meaning “being made holy, or purified.” It is used broadly of the whole Christian experience, though most theologians prefer to use it in a restricted sense to distinguish it from related terms, such as “regeneration,” “justification,” and “glorification.”<\/p>\nDefinition<\/p>\nA comprehensive definition of sanctification by the New Hampshire Baptist Confession (1833) states,<\/p>\nWe believe that Sanctification is the process by which, according to the will of God, we are made partakers of his holiness; that it is a progressive work; that it is begun in regeneration; and that it is carried on in the hearts of believers by the presence and power of the Holy Spirit, the Sealer and Comforter, in the continual use of the appointed means—especially the Word of God, self-examination, self-denial, watchfulness, and prayer. (Article X)<\/p>\nThis definition helps us to distinguish sanctification from regeneration in that the latter speaks of the inception of the Christian life. Sanctification is also distinguished from glorification, which focuses on the consummation of God’s work in the believer. Put quite simply, then, regeneration refers to the beginning, sanctification to the middle, and glorification to the end of salvation.<\/p>\nThe distinction between sanctification and justification, on the other hand, calls for more detailed attention, both because it is subtle and because it is fundamental. In the first place, “justification,” like “regeneration,” refers (though not exclusively) to the beginning of the Christian experience, whereas the above definition emphasizes the progressive character of sanctification. Second, justification refers to a judicial act of God whereby believers are at once absolved of all their guilt and accounted legally righteous, whereas sanctification, like regeneration and glorification, calls attention to the transforming power of the Holy Spirit upon the character of God’s children.<\/p>\nThis distinction played an important role at the time of the Reformation. The Roman Catholic Church, in the opinion of the Reformers, confused these two doctrines by insisting that justification “is not remission of sins merely, but also the sanctification and renewal of the inward man” (Decrees of the Council of Trent, Sixth Session, 1547, ch. VII). In contrast, the Reformers emphasized that the two doctrines, although inseparable, must be distinguished. Calvin argued that, to be sure, these two elements of God’s saving act cannot be torn into parts any more than Christ can be torn: “Whomever, therefore, God receives into grace, on them he at the same time bestows the spirit of adoption, by whose power he remakes them to his own image. But if the brightness of the sun cannot be separated from its heat, shall we therefore say that the earth is warmed by its light, or lighted by its heat?” (Institutes of the Christian Religion,<\/em> 3:11.6). In short, then, justification is a once-for-all, declarative act of God as Judge, whereas sanctification is a progressive change in the character of the person justified.<\/p>\nOne more element in the New Hampshire Baptist Confession definition requires comment, namely, the statement that “we are made partakers of his holiness.” A complete survey of what the Bible has to say about sanctification is not possible here, since practically the whole of Scripture addresses this issue in one way or another. One central theme in that teaching, however, must be emphasized: “You shall be holy as I am holy” (Lv 11:45; 1 Pt 1:16; cf. Mt 5:48). According to the Westminster Shorter Catechism (1647), by sanctification “we are renewed in the whole man after the image of God” (Question 34; see Col 3:10). Nothing can be more crucial to our view of sanctification than this truth. The standard of holiness is complete conformity to Christ’s image (Rom 8:29); anything less than that is a lowering of the scriptural standard and thus a dilution of the doctrine. The definition above, however, implies that Christ is more than our pattern: he himself provides his holiness for those united with him—he is<\/em> our sanctification (1 Cor 1:30).<\/p>\nInitial Sanctification<\/p>\nThe progressive nature of our sanctification is explicit in many passages, particularly Paul’s statement that Christians are transformed “from glory to glory” into the Lord’s image (2 Cor 3:18; see also Rom 12:1-2; Phil 3:14; Heb 6:1; 2 Pt 3:18). Moreover, the numerous commands found in Scripture imply that the Christian experiences growth.<\/p>\n At the same time, however, a number of expressions in Scripture reveal that sanctification is given to the believer concurrent with regeneration. For example, Paul frequently refers to Christians as “saints,” that is, “holy ones” (Rom 1:7; Eph 1:1; etc.); this language suggests that sanctification is already the possession of believers. In fact, Paul specifically says that the Corinthian Christians “have been sanctified” (1 Cor 1:2), and he even coordinates sanctification with washing (= regeneration?) and justification as though all three elements had taken place at the same time (6:11). Perhaps more impressive is the apostle’s declaration that Christians have died to sin (Rom 6:2). One can hardly think of a more powerful figure than death, suggesting as it does a permanent, irrevocable dissolution of the believer’s relationship with sin.<\/p>\nIt goes without saying, of course, that these passages do not teach absolute perfection for every Christian upon conversion. Such an interpretation would bring us into conflict with the clear teaching of Scripture as a whole. Furthermore, one should note that the Corinthian “saints” were marked by woeful immaturity (1 Cor 3:1-3; 6:8; 11:17-22).<\/p>\nHow, then, should these passages be interpreted? Some writers have suggested that Paul is speaking of “potential” sanctification—that is, although our relationship with sin has not been actually severed, God has given us what we need for that to take place. There is an element of truth in this formulation, but it hardly does justice, by itself, to the force of Paul’s language. Coming somewhat closer to an adequate explanation is to speak of “positional” sanctification. According to this view, Paul is speaking in judicial terms regarding our status before God. One should certainly recognize a judicial element in Paul’s discussion (Rom 6:7 uses the word “justified”), but if that is all that is said, then it suggests that Romans 6 simply restates the doctrine of justification—a doubtful conclusion. Much more satisfactory is the view that Paul’s teaching contains both a judicial element and an actual, experiential reference.<\/p>\nProgressive Sanctification<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Survey<\/h5>\nAlthough all Christian groups recognize the need to become transformed by the renewing of the mind (Rom 12:2), considerable differences are found among them regarding specific issues. The Reformers, generally speaking, held to what some call a “pessimistic” view of personal sanctification. This perspective is clearly reflected in the Westminster Confession of Faith (1647), which states that sanctification “is imperfect in this life; there abideth still some remnants of corruption in every part, whence ariseth a continual and irreconcilable war” within the believer (XIII.ii). Although the confession goes on to emphasize the overcoming power of the Spirit, some Christians believe that its basic thrust obscures the need and possibility of spiritual victory.<\/p>\nTo some extent, the teachings of John Wesley (1703–91) may be viewed as a reaction to the usual Calvinistic and Lutheran formulations. Strongly influenced by the Pietistic movement of his day, Wesley paid much attention to the experiential side of Christianity and eventually formulated, though not with great consistency, the doctrine that “entire sanctification” is possible in this life. During the 19th century, interest in the possibility of perfection (not understood in an absolute sense, however) spread to many Christian circles. According to some, perfection resulted from the eradication of sin; according to others, spiritual victory was gained by counteracting the sin that remains even in the Christian’s heart. The latter approach became characteristic of the so-called Victorious Life Movement. These various “perfectionist” groups were subjected to a searching criticism by the Princeton theologian Benjamin B. Warfield (1851–1921). The debate has continued, though not as vigorously, ever since then.<\/p>\n<h5>The Agency in Sanctification<\/h5>\nMuch of the controversy focuses on the human role in sanctification. While all Christians agree that holiness would be impossible without God’s help, it is difficult to define precisely how that truth affects one’s own activity. In the Roman Catholic tradition so much stress has been placed on the cleansing power of baptism and on the meritorious character of good works that one may rightly question whether the significance of divine grace is not thereby ignored. At the other extreme stand some exponents of the Victorious Life Movement, whose stress on “let go and let God” (a slogan that has some value if properly used) sometimes suggests that believers remain completely passive in sanctification.<\/p>\nNo passage of Scripture is more relevant to this issue than Philippians 2:12-13, where Paul juxtaposes the command for one to work out one’s own salvation with the declaration that it is God who provides the spiritual strength necessary for the task. It may be tempting to emphasize the first part of the statement so as to ignore the fundamental significance of the second, or else to become so arrested by Paul’s stress (here and elsewhere) on divine grace that the weight of personal responsibility is overlooked. The apostle, however, appears to have deliberately and carefully preserved a fine balance between these two truths.<\/p>\nSanctification requires discipline, concentration, and effort, as is clear by the many exhortations of Scripture, especially those where the Christian life is described with such figures as running and fighting (1 Cor 9:24-27; Eph 6:10-17). But Christians must always resist the temptation to assume that they in effect sanctify themselves, that spiritual power comes from within them, and that they may therefore rely on their own strength. This is a difficult tension, though no more puzzling than the paradox of prayer (“Why pray when God, who knows our needs and who is all-wise and sovereign, will always do what is best anyway?”). Yet perhaps the real “secret” of holiness consists precisely in learning to keep that balance: relying thoroughly on God as the true agent in sanctification, while faithfully discharging one’s personal responsibility.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Holiness; Justification, Justified.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SANCTIFICATION Term meaning “being made holy, or purified.” It is used broadly of the whole Christian experience, though most theologians prefer to use it in a restricted sense to distinguish it from related terms, such as “regeneration,” “justification,” and “glorification.” Definition A comprehensive definition of sanctification by the New Hampshire Baptist Confession (1833) states, We believe that Sanctification is the process by which, according to the will of God, we are made partakers o...","summary_en":"SANCTIFICATION Term meaning “being made holy, or purified.” It is used broadly of the whole Christian experience, though most theologians prefer to use it in a restricted sense to distinguish it from related terms, such as “regeneration,” “justification,” and “glorification.” Definition A comprehensive definition of sanctification by the New Hampshire Baptist Confession (1833) states, We believe that Sanctification is the process by which, according to the will of God, we are made partakers o...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"15":[{"id":58270,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:15","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:15","content_ro":"3:15<\/strong> Those who are spiritually mature<\/em> (cp. 1 Cor 2:6; 3:1) will share Paul’s perspective that eternal things are most important in life (Phil 3:12-14; cp. 2 Cor 4:16-18).<\/p>","content_en":"3:15<\/strong> Those who are spiritually mature<\/em> (cp. 1 Cor 2:6; 3:1) will share Paul’s perspective that eternal things are most important in life (Phil 3:12-14; cp. 2 Cor 4:16-18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:15 Those who are spiritually mature (cp. 1 Cor 2:6; 3:1) will share Paul’s perspective that eternal things are most important in life (Phil 3:12-14; cp. 2 Cor 4:16-18).","summary_en":"3:15 Those who are spiritually mature (cp. 1 Cor 2:6; 3:1) will share Paul’s perspective that eternal things are most important in life (Phil 3:12-14; cp. 2 Cor 4:16-18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85896,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:15","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:15","content_ro":"3:15<\/strong> Those who are spiritually mature<\/em> (cp. 1 Cor 2:6; 3:1) will share Paul’s perspective that eternal things are most important in life (Phil 3:12-14; cp. 2 Cor 4:16-18).<\/p>","content_en":"3:15<\/strong> Those who are spiritually mature<\/em> (cp. 1 Cor 2:6; 3:1) will share Paul’s perspective that eternal things are most important in life (Phil 3:12-14; cp. 2 Cor 4:16-18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:15 Those who are spiritually mature (cp. 1 Cor 2:6; 3:1) will share Paul’s perspective that eternal things are most important in life (Phil 3:12-14; cp. 2 Cor 4:16-18).","summary_en":"3:15 Those who are spiritually mature (cp. 1 Cor 2:6; 3:1) will share Paul’s perspective that eternal things are most important in life (Phil 3:12-14; cp. 2 Cor 4:16-18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113522,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:15","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:15","content_ro":"3:15<\/strong> Those who are spiritually mature<\/em> (cp. 1 Cor 2:6; 3:1) will share Paul’s perspective that eternal things are most important in life (Phil 3:12-14; cp. 2 Cor 4:16-18).<\/p>","content_en":"3:15<\/strong> Those who are spiritually mature<\/em> (cp. 1 Cor 2:6; 3:1) will share Paul’s perspective that eternal things are most important in life (Phil 3:12-14; cp. 2 Cor 4:16-18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:15 Those who are spiritually mature (cp. 1 Cor 2:6; 3:1) will share Paul’s perspective that eternal things are most important in life (Phil 3:12-14; cp. 2 Cor 4:16-18).","summary_en":"3:15 Those who are spiritually mature (cp. 1 Cor 2:6; 3:1) will share Paul’s perspective that eternal things are most important in life (Phil 3:12-14; cp. 2 Cor 4:16-18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141148,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:15","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:15","content_ro":"3:15<\/strong> Those who are spiritually mature<\/em> (cp. 1 Cor 2:6; 3:1) will share Paul’s perspective that eternal things are most important in life (Phil 3:12-14; cp. 2 Cor 4:16-18).<\/p>","content_en":"3:15<\/strong> Those who are spiritually mature<\/em> (cp. 1 Cor 2:6; 3:1) will share Paul’s perspective that eternal things are most important in life (Phil 3:12-14; cp. 2 Cor 4:16-18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:15 Those who are spiritually mature (cp. 1 Cor 2:6; 3:1) will share Paul’s perspective that eternal things are most important in life (Phil 3:12-14; cp. 2 Cor 4:16-18).","summary_en":"3:15 Those who are spiritually mature (cp. 1 Cor 2:6; 3:1) will share Paul’s perspective that eternal things are most important in life (Phil 3:12-14; cp. 2 Cor 4:16-18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"16":[{"id":21898,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kingdom of Heaven Kingdom of God","title_en":"Kingdom of Heaven Kingdom of God","content_ro":"<h3>KINGDOM OF GOD, KINGDOM OF HEAVEN<\/h3>\nThe sovereign rule of God, initiated by Christ’s earthly ministry and consummated when the kingdom of the world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15).<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Introduction<\/p>\n• Old Testament Background<\/p>\n• In the New Testament<\/p>\nIntroduction<\/p>\nAccording to the testimony of the first three Gospels, the proclamation of the kingdom of God was Jesus’ central message. Matthew summarizes the Galilean ministry with the words “Jesus traveled throughout Galilee teaching in the synagogues, preaching everywhere the Good News about the Kingdom” (Mt 4:23, nlt<\/span>). The Sermon on the Mount is concerned with the righteousness that qualifies people to enter the kingdom of God (5:20). The collection of parables in Matthew 13 and Mark 4 illustrate the “mystery” of the kingdom of God (Mt 13:11; Mk 4:11). The establishment of the Lord’s Supper looks forward to the establishment of the kingdom of God (Mt 26:29; Mk 14:25).<\/p>\nThe NT reports two different forms of the expression: “the kingdom of God” and “the kingdom of the heavens.” The latter is found only in Matthew, but Matthew also has “the kingdom of God” four times (Mt 12:28; 19:24; 21:31, 43). “The kingdom of heaven” is a Semitic phrase that would have been meaningful to Jews but not to Greeks. The Jews, out of reverence for God, avoided uttering the divine name, and contemporary literature gives examples of substituting the word “heaven” for God (1 Macc 3:18, 50; 4:10; see Lk 15:18).<\/p>\nThe key to an understanding of the kingdom of God is that the basic meaning of the Greek word basileia<\/span>,<\/em> as also of the Hebrew malkut<\/span>,<\/em> is rule, reign, dominion. We frequently find in the OT the expression “in the year of the kingdom of . . . ,” meaning in the year of the reign of a given king (e.g., 1 Chr 26:31; 2 Chr 3:2; 15:10; Ezr 7:1; 8:1; Est 2:16; Jer 10:7; 52:31). When we read that Solomon’s kingdom was firmly established (1 Kgs 2:12), we are to understand that his authority to reign was settled. To “turn the kingdom of Saul over to [David]” (1 Chr 12:23, kjv<\/span>) indicates that the authority that had been Saul’s was given to David. As a result of having received legal authority, David became king. This abstract idea of malkut<\/span> is evident when it is found in parallelisms with such ideas as power, might, glory, and dominion (Dn 4:34; 7:14).<\/p>\nWhen malkut<\/span> is used of God, it almost always refers to his authority or to his rule as the heavenly King. “They will talk together about the glory of your kingdom; they will celebrate examples of your power. . . . For your kingdom is an everlasting kingdom. You rule generation after generation” (Ps 145:11, 13, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nFurther, if a king rules, there must be a realm or sphere over which he reigns. This is also called malkut<\/span>.<\/em> “So the realm of Jehoshaphat was quiet, for his God gave him rest round about” (2 Chr 20:30, rsv<\/span>; see Est 3:6; Jer 10:7; Dn 9:1; 11:9).<\/p>\nThis same twofold use of basileia<\/span> is found in the NT. In fact, basileia<\/span> could be translated by the expression “kingly power” in Luke 23:42 (niv<\/span> mg) and by “kingship” in John 18:36. When a nobleman went into a far country to get a “kingdom” (Luke 19:12, nasb<\/span>) he went to the governing authority to get an appointment as king. When Jesus said, “My kingship is not of this world” (Jn 18:36, rsv<\/span>), he did not mean to say that his rule has nothing to do with the world but rather that his kingship—his dominion—does not come from man but from God. Therefore, he rejects the use of worldly fighting to gain his ends.<\/p>\nThis central meaning of basileia<\/span> makes it easy to understand many sayings in the Gospels. In the Lord’s Prayer the petition “Thy kingdom come” (Mt 6:10) is a prayer for God to manifest his reign so that his will may be done on earth as it is in heaven. When we read that we are to “receive the kingdom of God like a child” (Mk 10:15, rsv<\/span>), we must open our hearts and lives to the rule of God.<\/p>\nAlso in the NT are sayings about being in<\/em> the kingdom or of entering<\/em> the kingdom (Mt 8:11; Mk 9:47; 10:23-25; Lk 13:28). There is no philological or theological objection to understanding “the kingdom of God” first as the divine reign or rule and second as the sphere of blessing in which that reign is experienced.<\/p>\nOld Testament Background<\/p>\nThe expression “the kingdom of God” is not found in the OT, but the idea appears throughout the prophets. God is frequently spoken of as the King, both of Israel (Ex 15:18; Nm 23:21; Dt 33:5; Is 43:15) and of all the earth (2 Kgs 19:15; Pss 29:10; 47:2; 93:1-2; 96:10; 97:1-9; 99:1-4; 145:11-13; Is 6:5; Jer 46:18). Although God is not the earthly King of Israel, other references speak of a day when God shall become King and shall rule over his people (Is 24:23; 33:22; 52:7; Ob 1:21; Zep 3:15; Zec 14:9-11).<\/p>\nThis brief summary of God’s kingship provides the outline for the entire OT concept. While God is King over all the earth, he is in a special way King over his people, Israel. God’s rule is therefore something realized in Israel’s history. However, it is only partially and imperfectly realized. Israel again and again rebelled against the divine sovereignty. Furthermore, Israel was constantly plagued by wars with its pagan neighbors in which it was not always victorious. Again, there are evils in nature and the physical world that often bring suffering to God’s people. Therefore, the prophets look forward to a day when God’s rule will be fully experienced, not by Israel alone, but by all the world. The main emphasis of the prophets is on hope, the establishing of God’s perfect rule in the world.<\/p>\nThe prophets describe the final establishment of God’s kingdom in terms of a theophany—a divine visitation (Mi 1:3-4). Zechariah foresees a “Day of the Lord” when all nations will be gathered in battle against Jerusalem, when the Lord will go forth and fight against those nations (Zec 14:3, 5). Israel will be visited by the Lord (Is 29:6) and delivered from its enemies (35:4; 59:20). God’s coming will also mean judgment (2:21; 26:21). This final coming of God will mean the salvation of the Gentiles as well as of Israel (Zec 2:10-11; cf. Is 66:18-24).<\/p>\nBehind this language is a distinct theology of “the God who comes.” It is a fact widely recognized in contemporary OT theology that the God of the OT is not a nature god, like the gods of other peoples, but a God of history—a God who visits his people in history to bless or to judge them. God visited Israel in Egypt to deliver them from bondage and to constitute them as his people. The rescue from Egypt was not merely an act of deliverance; it was an act through which God made himself known and through which Israel was to know and serve him.<\/p>\nBecause God has visited his people again and again in their history, he must finally come to them in the future to judge wickedness and to establish his kingdom. Israel’s hope is thus rooted in history, or rather in the God who works in history. God will finally break into history in a glorious theophany to establish his rule in all the earth. The source of the kingdom is not history itself but God.<\/p>\nWhile the prophets visualize the kingdom as coming from God, the kingdom is always on earth. The divine irruption into the natural order is not designed to accomplish its destruction but to make way for a new, perfect order arising out of the old, imperfect one. The prophets do not present a single consistent picture of the new order. Sometimes the new order is described very much in this-worldly terms. “The terraced vineyards on the hills of Israel will drip with sweet wine” (Am 9:13, nlt<\/span>). On the other hand, God will create new heavens and a new earth (Is 65:17; 66:22), where there will be untroubled joy, prosperity, peace, and righteousness. The final visitation of God will mean the redemption of the world, for a redeemed earth is the scene of the kingdom of God. The prophets look forward again and again to the deliverance of creation “from the bondage to decay.” The description is often couched in simple physical terms. The wilderness will become fruitful (32:15); the desert will blossom (35:2); sorrow and sighing will flee away (v 10). The burning sands will be cooled and the dry places become springs of water (v 7); peace will return to the animal world so that all injury and destruction are done away with (11:6). All this results because the earth becomes full of the knowledge of God (v 9).<\/p>\nSuch language is not mere poetry but reflects a profound theology of creation. Humans as creatures were made to dwell on the earth, and the earth shares in human destiny. The main point is that creation as such is good and not a hindrance to true spirituality, as was often true in Greek thought. Redemption always includes redemption of the earth, which then becomes the blessed environment God intended it to be. Salvation does not mean deliverance from creaturehood, for this is not an evil thing but an essential and permanent element of true, human existence. Salvation does not mean escape from bodily creaturely existence, as in some Greek thought. On the contrary, ultimate redemption will mean the redemption of the whole person. The emergence of the doctrine of bodily resurrection is a reflection of this theology of creaturehood. The corollary of this is that creation in its entirety must share in the blessing of redemption.<\/p>\nA distinctive element in prophetic eschatology is the tension between history and eschatology. That is, as the prophets looked into the future, they saw an immediate historical judgment as well as a more remote eschatological visitation. For Amos, the Day of the Lord is both the immediate judgment of Israel by the Assyrians and a final eschatological salvation. Joel sees an imminent historical visitation of drought and locusts, but beyond this he sees the eschatological Day of the Lord. Zephaniah sees an imminent Day of the Lord in some undesignated historical visitation (Zep 1:2-18), but beyond it he sees the salvation of the Gentiles (3:9). The same God who acts in history to bless and judge his people will act at the end of history in an eschatological act of judgment and salvation. The prophets do not sharply distinguish between these two days, for it is one and the same God who is concerned to judge and save his people.<\/p>\nThe eschatological hope of the prophets is always an ethical hope. That is to say, the prophets are not interested in the future for its own sake but for the impact of the future on the present. The prophetic predictions were given that, in light of future judgment and salvation, Israel might be confronted in the present by the will of God. “Prepare to meet your God as he comes in judgment, you people of Israel” (Am 4:12, nlt<\/span>) might well be taken as the keynote of all the prophets.<\/p>\nIn the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>The Synoptic Gospels<\/h5>\nJesus’ teachings about the kingdom of God embodied the same contrast between the present order and the future age as that of the prophets, and he expressed it in the idiom “this age and the age to come.” This fact is obscured in the kjv<\/span>, which translates the word for “age” by “world.” These are, however, two different concepts. A rich man asked Jesus what he must do to inherit eternal life (Mk 10:17). The context makes it clear that he was asking about eschatological life—the life of the resurrection (Dn 12:2). Jesus speaks of the difficulty of entering the kingdom of God. (The parallel passage in Matthew 19:23-24 has both “kingdom of God” and “kingdom of heaven,” proving that they are interchangeable terms.) In their reaction the disciples ask, “Then who can be saved?” Jesus’ answer contrasts the lot of his disciples “in this time” with the “age to come” (Mk 10:29-30) when they would inherit eternal life. It is clear from this passage that in some sense the kingdom of God, the kingdom of heaven, salvation, and eternal life all belong to the age to come. So far as this saying is concerned, God’s people will not experience eternal life until they do so in the new age.<\/p>\nMatthew alone records the expression “the close of the age.” This age will be terminated by the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 24:3) and by the judgment of humanity (13:39-42). Then the righteous will be separated from the wicked (v 49). The same expression occurs in the promise of the risen Jesus assuring his disciples of his presence until the consummation of the age (28:20). It follows that if this age is to come to its consummation, it must be followed by another age—the age to come.<\/p>\nThe eschatological kingdom will be inaugurated by an apocalyptic event—the glorious coming of the Son of Man. This is made clear by two of the parables about the kingdom of God. In the parable of the tares, “the Son of man will send his angels, and they will gather out of his kingdom all causes of sin and all evildoers, and throw them into the furnace of fire” (Mt 13:41-42, rsv<\/span>). The parable of the sheep and goats reflects the same eschatology. When the Son of Man comes in his glory, he will sit on his glorious throne to judge the nations, separating the sheep from the goats. The righteous—the sheep—are to “inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world”; and entrance into the kingdom is synonymous with entrance into life (25:31-46, rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe eschatological character of the kingdom of God is seen also in the other two parables of Matthew 25. “The kingdom of heaven shall be compared to ten maidens who took their lamps and went to meet the bridegroom” (v 1, rsv<\/span>). However, five of them were foolish and did not provide an adequate supply of oil for their lamps. Thus they were late for the wedding and were excluded from the wedding feast—a symbol of the eschatological kingdom—while those properly prepared entered the kingdom. In the same way the two faithful servants who had been “faithful over a little” were granted to “enter into the joy of your master” (vv 21, 23), while the unfaithful servant was excluded from the kingdom and cast into outer darkness.<\/p>\nJesus almost never showed any interest in descriptions of the eschatological kingdom, but it is clear that its coming was constantly in his thoughts. The pure in heart will see God (Mt 5:8). The harvest will take place and the grain will be gathered into the barn (13:30, 39; Mk 4:29). Jesus frequently used the metaphor of a feast or table fellowship to describe life in the eschatological kingdom. He will drink wine again with his disciples in the kingdom of God. They will eat and drink at Jesus’ table in the kingdom (Lk 22:30). People will be gathered from all corners of the earth to sit at a table with the OT saints (Mt 8:11-12; Lk 13:29). The consummation is likened to a wedding feast (Mt 22:1-14) and a banquet (Lk 14:16-24). All of these metaphors picture the restoration of communion between God and people, a union that had been broken by sin.<\/p>\nIn most of the sayings cited to illustrate the future character of the kingdom, “kingdom” refers to the eschatological order—the eschaton, the age to come. However, when Jesus taught his disciples to pray “Thy kingdom come” (Mt 6:10), he was not referring to the new eschatological order; he was referring to the kingdom as God’s kingly rule, his reign. It is a prayer that God will effectively establish his sovereign rule in the world.<\/p>\nIn his teaching about the kingdom of God as the apocalyptic consummation, Jesus does not differ essentially from the OT prophets. The most distinctive element in Jesus’ teaching—indeed, the fact that characterizes his entire mission and message—is the fact that in some real sense of the word, the kingdom of God has come in history in an utterly unexpected way. This sets Jesus’ teaching apart from all contemporary Jewish thought.<\/p>\nThis is seen first of all in his repeated teaching that his mission is a fulfillment of the OT messianic prophets. Mark summarizes Jesus’ message with the words “The Kingdom of God is near! Turn from your sins and believe this Good News!” (Mk 1:15, nlt<\/span>). This saying can have one of two meanings. It may refer to the imminent coming of the apocalyptic kingdom. Matthew summarizes the message of John the Baptist with nearly the same words: “Turn from your sins and turn to God, because the Kingdom of Heaven is near” (Mt 3:2, nlt<\/span>). The Baptist expounds what he means by the approach of the kingdom of God: “He is ready to separate the chaff from the grain with his winnowing fork. Then he will clean up the threshing area, storing the grain in his barn but burning the chaff with never-ending fire” (v 12, nlt<\/span>). John proclaimed an apocalyptic act; “unquenchable fire” can mean no strictly historical event but only an apocalyptic judgment. John expected Jesus to be the one in whom the cosmic event expected by the prophets would be carried out.<\/p>\nIt is possible that this was also Jesus’ meaning. However, another interpretation is possible that is better supported by the actual course of his mission: “The time is fulfilled.” The messianic promises of the prophets were not only about to be fulfilled; they were actually in process of fulfillment in his mission. In Jesus, God was visiting his people. The hope of the prophets in some real sense was being realized.<\/p>\nThe meaning of this can be seen in Luke’s introduction of Jesus’ ministry. Luke selects an event that occurred in Nazareth later in Jesus’ ministry (Lk 4:16-21) and places it at the beginning of his Gospel in order to sound this note of fulfillment. Jesus read from Isaiah a promise that looked forward to the messianic salvation: “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, for he has appointed me to preach Good News to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim that captives will be released, that the blind will see, that the downtrodden will be freed from their oppressors, and that the time of the Lord’s favor has come” (vv 18-19, nlt<\/span>). Then Jesus astonished his audience by the assertion “This Scripture has come true today before your very eyes!” (v 21, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nHere was an amazing claim. John the Baptist had announced an apocalyptic visitation of God that would mean the fulfillment of the eschatological hope and the consummation of the messianic age. Jesus proclaimed that the messianic promise was actually being fulfilled in his person. This is no apocalyptic kingdom but a present salvation. In these words Jesus did not proclaim the imminence of the apocalyptic kingdom. Rather, he boldly announced that the kingdom of God had come. The presence of the kingdom was a happening, an event, the gracious action of God. This was no new theology or new idea or new promise; it was a new event in history.<\/p>\nThe note of fulfillment is again sounded in Jesus’ answer to the question about fasting. “Do wedding guests fast while celebrating with the groom? Of course not. They can’t fast while they are with the groom” (Mk 2:19, nlt<\/span>). The marriage feast had become a metaphor in Judaism for the messianic consummation. In these words Jesus announced the presence of the messianic time of salvation. It would be a contradiction in terms for the disciples to fast when they were enjoying the blessings of the messianic age. The time of fulfillment had come.<\/p>\nA saying found in different contexts in Matthew and Luke touches this central note of the fulfillment in history of the OT hope: “Blessed are the eyes which see what you see! For I tell you that many prophets and kings desired to see what you see, and did not see it, and to hear what you hear, and did not hear it” (Lk 10:23-24, rsv<\/span>; cf. Mt 13:16-17). Both Matthew and Luke associate this saying with the kingdom of God, and both agree that the hope of former generations has become an object of experience. Many prophets and kings looked forward to something, but they looked in vain, for it did not come to them. What they longed for has now come, and this can be nothing less than the promised messianic salvation.<\/p>\nFulfillment in history is again asserted in Jesus’ answer to John’s question about the one who is to come (Mt 11:2-3). “The deeds of the Christ” (Messiah) were not the deeds John had announced. Wicked rulers like Herod were not being judged in fire. Instead, Jesus was helping people, not bringing an apocalyptic kingdom. Jesus replied in words that echo the promise of the messianic salvation in Isaiah 35:5-6: “Go and tell John what you hear and see: the blind receive their sight and the lame walk, lepers are cleansed and the deaf hear, and the dead are raised up, and the poor have the gospel preached to them” (Mt 11:4-5, rsv<\/span>). In these words Jesus claimed that the blessings of the messianic salvation are present. There was indeed reason for John’s perplexity, for the fulfillment was not taking place along expected lines. The apocalyptic consummation did not appear to be on the horizon. The point of Jesus’ answer was that fulfillment was taking place without the eschatological consummation. Therefore, Jesus pronounced a special blessing upon those who were not offended by the character of the messianic fulfillment (v 6). The fulfillment was indeed taking place, but not the apocalyptic consummation.<\/p>\nThe most unambiguous statement of the presence of the kingdom is found in the words about the binding of Satan. One of Jesus’ most characteristic acts was the exorcism of demons—deliverance from satanic power. The Pharisees admitted his power but attributed it to Satan. Jesus replied, “If Satan casts out Satan, he is divided against himself; how then will his kingdom stand? . . . But if it is by the Spirit of God that I cast out demons, then the kingdom of God is come upon you” (Mt 12:26, 28, rsv<\/span>). Here the verb has the clear meaning “to come, to arrive” (cf. Rom 9:30; 2 Cor 10:14; Phil 3:16). Here is a clear affirmation that the kingdom of God has come among men.<\/p>\nIn explanation Jesus said, “Or how can one enter a strong man’s house and plunder his goods, unless he first binds the strong man? Then indeed he may plunder his house” (Mt 12:29, rsv<\/span>). The strong man is Satan; this “present evil age” (Gal 1:4) is his “house”; his “goods” are demon-possessed men and women. Jesus has invaded the strong man’s house to snatch away from him men and women whom he has in his power, and this is the work of the kingdom of God. The kingly reign of God has come into history in the person of Jesus before the apocalyptic consummation when Satan will be destroyed, to render Satan a preliminary defeat. Jesus has already “bound” Satan (i.e., curbed his power). This has been accomplished by the presence of the kingdom of God in the mission of Jesus.<\/p>\nA similar saying is found in Luke 10:18. Jesus had sent a band of his disciples on a preaching mission. Like Jesus, they were to proclaim the nearness of the kingdom of God (Lk 10:9). They, too, were to exorcize demons. When they returned to Jesus to report their success, Jesus said, “I saw Satan fall like lightning from heaven” (v 18, rsv<\/span>). This again is metaphorical language that asserts that in the mission of Jesus’ disciples, as well as in Jesus himself, Satan has fallen from his place of power. Both “binding” and “falling” are metaphors that describe the same truth: the victory of the kingdom of God over Satan.<\/p>\nHere is the element that sets Jesus apart from the OT and from all of contemporary Judaism. The prophets conceived of the kingdom being established by a heavenly supernatural being (Dn 7) or ruled by a powerful Davidic messianic king (Is 9, 11). The fulfillment of the messianic hope is everywhere in the prophets an eschatological hope. The same is true of the Jewish writers who despaired of history and cast all hope into the future.<\/p>\nIn contrast to all that had gone before him, Jesus proclaimed the kingdom of God as an event taking place in his own person and mission. God had again assumed the initiative; God was acting. No first-century Jew had any idea of the kingdom of God coming into history in the person of an ordinary man—a teacher who was meek and lowly.<\/p>\nThe presence of the kingdom is further seen in the fact that the rule of God, present in Jesus, is a gift to be received. This is also true of the kingdom in its eschatological consummation, where the kingdom is freely inherited by the righteous (Mt 25:34). In answer to the young man’s question about inheriting eternal life (Mk 10:17), Jesus spoke of entering the kingdom (vv 23-24) and receiving the gift of eternal life (v 30) as though they were synonymous. The kingdom is a gift that the Father is pleased to bestow upon the little flock of Jesus’ disciples (Lk 12:32).<\/p>\nIf God’s eschatological rule brings to his people the blessings of that kingdom, and if God’s kingdom is his rule invading history before the eschatological consummation, then we may expect God’s rule in the present to bring a preliminary blessing to his people. This fact is reflected in numerous sayings. The kingdom is something to be sought here and now (Mt 6:33) and to be received as children receive a gift (Mk 10:15; Lk 18:16-17). Although it is present in an unexpected form, the kingdom of God in Jesus’ person is like a hidden treasure or a pearl of great price whose possession outranks all other goods (Mt 13:44-46). The gift of the kingdom is also seen in that the deaf hear, the blind see, lepers are cleansed, and the poor have good news preached to them (11:5).<\/p>\n<h5>John’s Gospel<\/h5>\nIn the Gospel of John the concept of eternal life takes the place of the kingdom of God in Jesus’ teaching. The kingdom of God is mentioned twice (Jn 3:3, 5), and it is placed in connection with eternal life. The kingdom of God is here the eschatological kingdom, and eternal life is the life of the kingdom. Thus, as the kingdom of God in the synoptic Gospels is both future and present, so eternal life is both the life of the age to come (12:25) and also a present blessing (3:16, etc.).<\/p>\n<h5>Acts<\/h5>\nIn Acts it seems the earliest disciples generally failed to understand Jesus’ message about the kingdom of God as a present spiritual blessing. They gathered together to await the coming of the eschatological kingdom to Israel (Acts 1:6). Acts relates that the disciples continued to preach the kingdom of God, but usually it is an eschatological blessing (8:12; 14:22; 19:8; 20:25; 28:23, 31). However, the last two references make the kingdom of God synonymous with the gospel about Jesus Christ.<\/p>\nOne important theme in Acts is linked to that of the kingdom of God. On the Day of Pentecost, Peter announces that God has seated Jesus at his right hand in fulfillment of Psalm 110:1 (Acts 2:33-35). In the Psalms this is a prophecy of the enthronement of the Davidic king in Jerusalem. Peter asserts that this prophecy is now fulfilled in the heavenly reign of Jesus. Therefore, he has been made both Lord and Christ (Messiah). These are interchangeable terms, “Lord” meaning absolute sovereign, “Christ” meaning the messianic king.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Writings<\/h5>\nPaul carried further this theme of the heavenly rule of Christ, the anointed King. The kingdom is both an eschatological inheritance (1 Cor 6:9; 15:50; Gal 5:21; Eph 5:5; 1 Thes 2:12; 2 Thes 1:5; 2 Tm 4:1, 18) and a present blessing into which believers now enter (Rom 14:17; Col 1:13). The key to this is the interchangeable character of lordship and messianic kingship. Jesus is now exalted as Lord over all (Phil 2:11), and even as his lordship is invisible, it will become manifest to all at his second coming. In the same way, he has been enthroned as messianic King by virtue of his resurrection and heavenly session, and he must reign as King until he has put all his enemies under his feet (1 Cor 15:25; Eph 1:22). The last enemy to be destroyed is death.<\/p>\n<h5>Revelation<\/h5>\nThe central message of the Revelation to John is the consummation of God’s redemptive purpose, when the kingdom of this world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15). Revelation pictures the plight of a persecuted church in a hostile world, but it assures the church that Christ has already won a victory over the powers of evil (5:5), by virtue of which he can finally destroy them (19:11–20:14). Again, the last enemy to be destroyed is death (20:13-14). Revelation closes with a highly symbolic picture of the kingdom of God (chs 21–22) when God comes to dwell among his people, and “they shall see his face” (22:4). Thus the NT ends: divine order is restored to a disordered world. This is the kingdom of God.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Jesus Christ, Teachings of; King; Parable.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KINGDOM OF GOD, KINGDOM OF HEAVEN<\/h3>\nThe sovereign rule of God, initiated by Christ’s earthly ministry and consummated when the kingdom of the world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15).<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Introduction<\/p>\n• Old Testament Background<\/p>\n• In the New Testament<\/p>\nIntroduction<\/p>\nAccording to the testimony of the first three Gospels, the proclamation of the kingdom of God was Jesus’ central message. Matthew summarizes the Galilean ministry with the words “Jesus traveled throughout Galilee teaching in the synagogues, preaching everywhere the Good News about the Kingdom” (Mt 4:23, nlt<\/span>). The Sermon on the Mount is concerned with the righteousness that qualifies people to enter the kingdom of God (5:20). The collection of parables in Matthew 13 and Mark 4 illustrate the “mystery” of the kingdom of God (Mt 13:11; Mk 4:11). The establishment of the Lord’s Supper looks forward to the establishment of the kingdom of God (Mt 26:29; Mk 14:25).<\/p>\nThe NT reports two different forms of the expression: “the kingdom of God” and “the kingdom of the heavens.” The latter is found only in Matthew, but Matthew also has “the kingdom of God” four times (Mt 12:28; 19:24; 21:31, 43). “The kingdom of heaven” is a Semitic phrase that would have been meaningful to Jews but not to Greeks. The Jews, out of reverence for God, avoided uttering the divine name, and contemporary literature gives examples of substituting the word “heaven” for God (1 Macc 3:18, 50; 4:10; see Lk 15:18).<\/p>\nThe key to an understanding of the kingdom of God is that the basic meaning of the Greek word basileia<\/span>,<\/em> as also of the Hebrew malkut<\/span>,<\/em> is rule, reign, dominion. We frequently find in the OT the expression “in the year of the kingdom of . . . ,” meaning in the year of the reign of a given king (e.g., 1 Chr 26:31; 2 Chr 3:2; 15:10; Ezr 7:1; 8:1; Est 2:16; Jer 10:7; 52:31). When we read that Solomon’s kingdom was firmly established (1 Kgs 2:12), we are to understand that his authority to reign was settled. To “turn the kingdom of Saul over to [David]” (1 Chr 12:23, kjv<\/span>) indicates that the authority that had been Saul’s was given to David. As a result of having received legal authority, David became king. This abstract idea of malkut<\/span> is evident when it is found in parallelisms with such ideas as power, might, glory, and dominion (Dn 4:34; 7:14).<\/p>\nWhen malkut<\/span> is used of God, it almost always refers to his authority or to his rule as the heavenly King. “They will talk together about the glory of your kingdom; they will celebrate examples of your power. . . . For your kingdom is an everlasting kingdom. You rule generation after generation” (Ps 145:11, 13, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nFurther, if a king rules, there must be a realm or sphere over which he reigns. This is also called malkut<\/span>.<\/em> “So the realm of Jehoshaphat was quiet, for his God gave him rest round about” (2 Chr 20:30, rsv<\/span>; see Est 3:6; Jer 10:7; Dn 9:1; 11:9).<\/p>\nThis same twofold use of basileia<\/span> is found in the NT. In fact, basileia<\/span> could be translated by the expression “kingly power” in Luke 23:42 (niv<\/span> mg) and by “kingship” in John 18:36. When a nobleman went into a far country to get a “kingdom” (Luke 19:12, nasb<\/span>) he went to the governing authority to get an appointment as king. When Jesus said, “My kingship is not of this world” (Jn 18:36, rsv<\/span>), he did not mean to say that his rule has nothing to do with the world but rather that his kingship—his dominion—does not come from man but from God. Therefore, he rejects the use of worldly fighting to gain his ends.<\/p>\nThis central meaning of basileia<\/span> makes it easy to understand many sayings in the Gospels. In the Lord’s Prayer the petition “Thy kingdom come” (Mt 6:10) is a prayer for God to manifest his reign so that his will may be done on earth as it is in heaven. When we read that we are to “receive the kingdom of God like a child” (Mk 10:15, rsv<\/span>), we must open our hearts and lives to the rule of God.<\/p>\nAlso in the NT are sayings about being in<\/em> the kingdom or of entering<\/em> the kingdom (Mt 8:11; Mk 9:47; 10:23-25; Lk 13:28). There is no philological or theological objection to understanding “the kingdom of God” first as the divine reign or rule and second as the sphere of blessing in which that reign is experienced.<\/p>\nOld Testament Background<\/p>\nThe expression “the kingdom of God” is not found in the OT, but the idea appears throughout the prophets. God is frequently spoken of as the King, both of Israel (Ex 15:18; Nm 23:21; Dt 33:5; Is 43:15) and of all the earth (2 Kgs 19:15; Pss 29:10; 47:2; 93:1-2; 96:10; 97:1-9; 99:1-4; 145:11-13; Is 6:5; Jer 46:18). Although God is not the earthly King of Israel, other references speak of a day when God shall become King and shall rule over his people (Is 24:23; 33:22; 52:7; Ob 1:21; Zep 3:15; Zec 14:9-11).<\/p>\nThis brief summary of God’s kingship provides the outline for the entire OT concept. While God is King over all the earth, he is in a special way King over his people, Israel. God’s rule is therefore something realized in Israel’s history. However, it is only partially and imperfectly realized. Israel again and again rebelled against the divine sovereignty. Furthermore, Israel was constantly plagued by wars with its pagan neighbors in which it was not always victorious. Again, there are evils in nature and the physical world that often bring suffering to God’s people. Therefore, the prophets look forward to a day when God’s rule will be fully experienced, not by Israel alone, but by all the world. The main emphasis of the prophets is on hope, the establishing of God’s perfect rule in the world.<\/p>\nThe prophets describe the final establishment of God’s kingdom in terms of a theophany—a divine visitation (Mi 1:3-4). Zechariah foresees a “Day of the Lord” when all nations will be gathered in battle against Jerusalem, when the Lord will go forth and fight against those nations (Zec 14:3, 5). Israel will be visited by the Lord (Is 29:6) and delivered from its enemies (35:4; 59:20). God’s coming will also mean judgment (2:21; 26:21). This final coming of God will mean the salvation of the Gentiles as well as of Israel (Zec 2:10-11; cf. Is 66:18-24).<\/p>\nBehind this language is a distinct theology of “the God who comes.” It is a fact widely recognized in contemporary OT theology that the God of the OT is not a nature god, like the gods of other peoples, but a God of history—a God who visits his people in history to bless or to judge them. God visited Israel in Egypt to deliver them from bondage and to constitute them as his people. The rescue from Egypt was not merely an act of deliverance; it was an act through which God made himself known and through which Israel was to know and serve him.<\/p>\nBecause God has visited his people again and again in their history, he must finally come to them in the future to judge wickedness and to establish his kingdom. Israel’s hope is thus rooted in history, or rather in the God who works in history. God will finally break into history in a glorious theophany to establish his rule in all the earth. The source of the kingdom is not history itself but God.<\/p>\nWhile the prophets visualize the kingdom as coming from God, the kingdom is always on earth. The divine irruption into the natural order is not designed to accomplish its destruction but to make way for a new, perfect order arising out of the old, imperfect one. The prophets do not present a single consistent picture of the new order. Sometimes the new order is described very much in this-worldly terms. “The terraced vineyards on the hills of Israel will drip with sweet wine” (Am 9:13, nlt<\/span>). On the other hand, God will create new heavens and a new earth (Is 65:17; 66:22), where there will be untroubled joy, prosperity, peace, and righteousness. The final visitation of God will mean the redemption of the world, for a redeemed earth is the scene of the kingdom of God. The prophets look forward again and again to the deliverance of creation “from the bondage to decay.” The description is often couched in simple physical terms. The wilderness will become fruitful (32:15); the desert will blossom (35:2); sorrow and sighing will flee away (v 10). The burning sands will be cooled and the dry places become springs of water (v 7); peace will return to the animal world so that all injury and destruction are done away with (11:6). All this results because the earth becomes full of the knowledge of God (v 9).<\/p>\nSuch language is not mere poetry but reflects a profound theology of creation. Humans as creatures were made to dwell on the earth, and the earth shares in human destiny. The main point is that creation as such is good and not a hindrance to true spirituality, as was often true in Greek thought. Redemption always includes redemption of the earth, which then becomes the blessed environment God intended it to be. Salvation does not mean deliverance from creaturehood, for this is not an evil thing but an essential and permanent element of true, human existence. Salvation does not mean escape from bodily creaturely existence, as in some Greek thought. On the contrary, ultimate redemption will mean the redemption of the whole person. The emergence of the doctrine of bodily resurrection is a reflection of this theology of creaturehood. The corollary of this is that creation in its entirety must share in the blessing of redemption.<\/p>\nA distinctive element in prophetic eschatology is the tension between history and eschatology. That is, as the prophets looked into the future, they saw an immediate historical judgment as well as a more remote eschatological visitation. For Amos, the Day of the Lord is both the immediate judgment of Israel by the Assyrians and a final eschatological salvation. Joel sees an imminent historical visitation of drought and locusts, but beyond this he sees the eschatological Day of the Lord. Zephaniah sees an imminent Day of the Lord in some undesignated historical visitation (Zep 1:2-18), but beyond it he sees the salvation of the Gentiles (3:9). The same God who acts in history to bless and judge his people will act at the end of history in an eschatological act of judgment and salvation. The prophets do not sharply distinguish between these two days, for it is one and the same God who is concerned to judge and save his people.<\/p>\nThe eschatological hope of the prophets is always an ethical hope. That is to say, the prophets are not interested in the future for its own sake but for the impact of the future on the present. The prophetic predictions were given that, in light of future judgment and salvation, Israel might be confronted in the present by the will of God. “Prepare to meet your God as he comes in judgment, you people of Israel” (Am 4:12, nlt<\/span>) might well be taken as the keynote of all the prophets.<\/p>\nIn the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>The Synoptic Gospels<\/h5>\nJesus’ teachings about the kingdom of God embodied the same contrast between the present order and the future age as that of the prophets, and he expressed it in the idiom “this age and the age to come.” This fact is obscured in the kjv<\/span>, which translates the word for “age” by “world.” These are, however, two different concepts. A rich man asked Jesus what he must do to inherit eternal life (Mk 10:17). The context makes it clear that he was asking about eschatological life—the life of the resurrection (Dn 12:2). Jesus speaks of the difficulty of entering the kingdom of God. (The parallel passage in Matthew 19:23-24 has both “kingdom of God” and “kingdom of heaven,” proving that they are interchangeable terms.) In their reaction the disciples ask, “Then who can be saved?” Jesus’ answer contrasts the lot of his disciples “in this time” with the “age to come” (Mk 10:29-30) when they would inherit eternal life. It is clear from this passage that in some sense the kingdom of God, the kingdom of heaven, salvation, and eternal life all belong to the age to come. So far as this saying is concerned, God’s people will not experience eternal life until they do so in the new age.<\/p>\nMatthew alone records the expression “the close of the age.” This age will be terminated by the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 24:3) and by the judgment of humanity (13:39-42). Then the righteous will be separated from the wicked (v 49). The same expression occurs in the promise of the risen Jesus assuring his disciples of his presence until the consummation of the age (28:20). It follows that if this age is to come to its consummation, it must be followed by another age—the age to come.<\/p>\nThe eschatological kingdom will be inaugurated by an apocalyptic event—the glorious coming of the Son of Man. This is made clear by two of the parables about the kingdom of God. In the parable of the tares, “the Son of man will send his angels, and they will gather out of his kingdom all causes of sin and all evildoers, and throw them into the furnace of fire” (Mt 13:41-42, rsv<\/span>). The parable of the sheep and goats reflects the same eschatology. When the Son of Man comes in his glory, he will sit on his glorious throne to judge the nations, separating the sheep from the goats. The righteous—the sheep—are to “inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world”; and entrance into the kingdom is synonymous with entrance into life (25:31-46, rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe eschatological character of the kingdom of God is seen also in the other two parables of Matthew 25. “The kingdom of heaven shall be compared to ten maidens who took their lamps and went to meet the bridegroom” (v 1, rsv<\/span>). However, five of them were foolish and did not provide an adequate supply of oil for their lamps. Thus they were late for the wedding and were excluded from the wedding feast—a symbol of the eschatological kingdom—while those properly prepared entered the kingdom. In the same way the two faithful servants who had been “faithful over a little” were granted to “enter into the joy of your master” (vv 21, 23), while the unfaithful servant was excluded from the kingdom and cast into outer darkness.<\/p>\nJesus almost never showed any interest in descriptions of the eschatological kingdom, but it is clear that its coming was constantly in his thoughts. The pure in heart will see God (Mt 5:8). The harvest will take place and the grain will be gathered into the barn (13:30, 39; Mk 4:29). Jesus frequently used the metaphor of a feast or table fellowship to describe life in the eschatological kingdom. He will drink wine again with his disciples in the kingdom of God. They will eat and drink at Jesus’ table in the kingdom (Lk 22:30). People will be gathered from all corners of the earth to sit at a table with the OT saints (Mt 8:11-12; Lk 13:29). The consummation is likened to a wedding feast (Mt 22:1-14) and a banquet (Lk 14:16-24). All of these metaphors picture the restoration of communion between God and people, a union that had been broken by sin.<\/p>\nIn most of the sayings cited to illustrate the future character of the kingdom, “kingdom” refers to the eschatological order—the eschaton, the age to come. However, when Jesus taught his disciples to pray “Thy kingdom come” (Mt 6:10), he was not referring to the new eschatological order; he was referring to the kingdom as God’s kingly rule, his reign. It is a prayer that God will effectively establish his sovereign rule in the world.<\/p>\nIn his teaching about the kingdom of God as the apocalyptic consummation, Jesus does not differ essentially from the OT prophets. The most distinctive element in Jesus’ teaching—indeed, the fact that characterizes his entire mission and message—is the fact that in some real sense of the word, the kingdom of God has come in history in an utterly unexpected way. This sets Jesus’ teaching apart from all contemporary Jewish thought.<\/p>\nThis is seen first of all in his repeated teaching that his mission is a fulfillment of the OT messianic prophets. Mark summarizes Jesus’ message with the words “The Kingdom of God is near! Turn from your sins and believe this Good News!” (Mk 1:15, nlt<\/span>). This saying can have one of two meanings. It may refer to the imminent coming of the apocalyptic kingdom. Matthew summarizes the message of John the Baptist with nearly the same words: “Turn from your sins and turn to God, because the Kingdom of Heaven is near” (Mt 3:2, nlt<\/span>). The Baptist expounds what he means by the approach of the kingdom of God: “He is ready to separate the chaff from the grain with his winnowing fork. Then he will clean up the threshing area, storing the grain in his barn but burning the chaff with never-ending fire” (v 12, nlt<\/span>). John proclaimed an apocalyptic act; “unquenchable fire” can mean no strictly historical event but only an apocalyptic judgment. John expected Jesus to be the one in whom the cosmic event expected by the prophets would be carried out.<\/p>\nIt is possible that this was also Jesus’ meaning. However, another interpretation is possible that is better supported by the actual course of his mission: “The time is fulfilled.” The messianic promises of the prophets were not only about to be fulfilled; they were actually in process of fulfillment in his mission. In Jesus, God was visiting his people. The hope of the prophets in some real sense was being realized.<\/p>\nThe meaning of this can be seen in Luke’s introduction of Jesus’ ministry. Luke selects an event that occurred in Nazareth later in Jesus’ ministry (Lk 4:16-21) and places it at the beginning of his Gospel in order to sound this note of fulfillment. Jesus read from Isaiah a promise that looked forward to the messianic salvation: “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, for he has appointed me to preach Good News to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim that captives will be released, that the blind will see, that the downtrodden will be freed from their oppressors, and that the time of the Lord’s favor has come” (vv 18-19, nlt<\/span>). Then Jesus astonished his audience by the assertion “This Scripture has come true today before your very eyes!” (v 21, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nHere was an amazing claim. John the Baptist had announced an apocalyptic visitation of God that would mean the fulfillment of the eschatological hope and the consummation of the messianic age. Jesus proclaimed that the messianic promise was actually being fulfilled in his person. This is no apocalyptic kingdom but a present salvation. In these words Jesus did not proclaim the imminence of the apocalyptic kingdom. Rather, he boldly announced that the kingdom of God had come. The presence of the kingdom was a happening, an event, the gracious action of God. This was no new theology or new idea or new promise; it was a new event in history.<\/p>\nThe note of fulfillment is again sounded in Jesus’ answer to the question about fasting. “Do wedding guests fast while celebrating with the groom? Of course not. They can’t fast while they are with the groom” (Mk 2:19, nlt<\/span>). The marriage feast had become a metaphor in Judaism for the messianic consummation. In these words Jesus announced the presence of the messianic time of salvation. It would be a contradiction in terms for the disciples to fast when they were enjoying the blessings of the messianic age. The time of fulfillment had come.<\/p>\nA saying found in different contexts in Matthew and Luke touches this central note of the fulfillment in history of the OT hope: “Blessed are the eyes which see what you see! For I tell you that many prophets and kings desired to see what you see, and did not see it, and to hear what you hear, and did not hear it” (Lk 10:23-24, rsv<\/span>; cf. Mt 13:16-17). Both Matthew and Luke associate this saying with the kingdom of God, and both agree that the hope of former generations has become an object of experience. Many prophets and kings looked forward to something, but they looked in vain, for it did not come to them. What they longed for has now come, and this can be nothing less than the promised messianic salvation.<\/p>\nFulfillment in history is again asserted in Jesus’ answer to John’s question about the one who is to come (Mt 11:2-3). “The deeds of the Christ” (Messiah) were not the deeds John had announced. Wicked rulers like Herod were not being judged in fire. Instead, Jesus was helping people, not bringing an apocalyptic kingdom. Jesus replied in words that echo the promise of the messianic salvation in Isaiah 35:5-6: “Go and tell John what you hear and see: the blind receive their sight and the lame walk, lepers are cleansed and the deaf hear, and the dead are raised up, and the poor have the gospel preached to them” (Mt 11:4-5, rsv<\/span>). In these words Jesus claimed that the blessings of the messianic salvation are present. There was indeed reason for John’s perplexity, for the fulfillment was not taking place along expected lines. The apocalyptic consummation did not appear to be on the horizon. The point of Jesus’ answer was that fulfillment was taking place without the eschatological consummation. Therefore, Jesus pronounced a special blessing upon those who were not offended by the character of the messianic fulfillment (v 6). The fulfillment was indeed taking place, but not the apocalyptic consummation.<\/p>\nThe most unambiguous statement of the presence of the kingdom is found in the words about the binding of Satan. One of Jesus’ most characteristic acts was the exorcism of demons—deliverance from satanic power. The Pharisees admitted his power but attributed it to Satan. Jesus replied, “If Satan casts out Satan, he is divided against himself; how then will his kingdom stand? . . . But if it is by the Spirit of God that I cast out demons, then the kingdom of God is come upon you” (Mt 12:26, 28, rsv<\/span>). Here the verb has the clear meaning “to come, to arrive” (cf. Rom 9:30; 2 Cor 10:14; Phil 3:16). Here is a clear affirmation that the kingdom of God has come among men.<\/p>\nIn explanation Jesus said, “Or how can one enter a strong man’s house and plunder his goods, unless he first binds the strong man? Then indeed he may plunder his house” (Mt 12:29, rsv<\/span>). The strong man is Satan; this “present evil age” (Gal 1:4) is his “house”; his “goods” are demon-possessed men and women. Jesus has invaded the strong man’s house to snatch away from him men and women whom he has in his power, and this is the work of the kingdom of God. The kingly reign of God has come into history in the person of Jesus before the apocalyptic consummation when Satan will be destroyed, to render Satan a preliminary defeat. Jesus has already “bound” Satan (i.e., curbed his power). This has been accomplished by the presence of the kingdom of God in the mission of Jesus.<\/p>\nA similar saying is found in Luke 10:18. Jesus had sent a band of his disciples on a preaching mission. Like Jesus, they were to proclaim the nearness of the kingdom of God (Lk 10:9). They, too, were to exorcize demons. When they returned to Jesus to report their success, Jesus said, “I saw Satan fall like lightning from heaven” (v 18, rsv<\/span>). This again is metaphorical language that asserts that in the mission of Jesus’ disciples, as well as in Jesus himself, Satan has fallen from his place of power. Both “binding” and “falling” are metaphors that describe the same truth: the victory of the kingdom of God over Satan.<\/p>\nHere is the element that sets Jesus apart from the OT and from all of contemporary Judaism. The prophets conceived of the kingdom being established by a heavenly supernatural being (Dn 7) or ruled by a powerful Davidic messianic king (Is 9, 11). The fulfillment of the messianic hope is everywhere in the prophets an eschatological hope. The same is true of the Jewish writers who despaired of history and cast all hope into the future.<\/p>\nIn contrast to all that had gone before him, Jesus proclaimed the kingdom of God as an event taking place in his own person and mission. God had again assumed the initiative; God was acting. No first-century Jew had any idea of the kingdom of God coming into history in the person of an ordinary man—a teacher who was meek and lowly.<\/p>\nThe presence of the kingdom is further seen in the fact that the rule of God, present in Jesus, is a gift to be received. This is also true of the kingdom in its eschatological consummation, where the kingdom is freely inherited by the righteous (Mt 25:34). In answer to the young man’s question about inheriting eternal life (Mk 10:17), Jesus spoke of entering the kingdom (vv 23-24) and receiving the gift of eternal life (v 30) as though they were synonymous. The kingdom is a gift that the Father is pleased to bestow upon the little flock of Jesus’ disciples (Lk 12:32).<\/p>\nIf God’s eschatological rule brings to his people the blessings of that kingdom, and if God’s kingdom is his rule invading history before the eschatological consummation, then we may expect God’s rule in the present to bring a preliminary blessing to his people. This fact is reflected in numerous sayings. The kingdom is something to be sought here and now (Mt 6:33) and to be received as children receive a gift (Mk 10:15; Lk 18:16-17). Although it is present in an unexpected form, the kingdom of God in Jesus’ person is like a hidden treasure or a pearl of great price whose possession outranks all other goods (Mt 13:44-46). The gift of the kingdom is also seen in that the deaf hear, the blind see, lepers are cleansed, and the poor have good news preached to them (11:5).<\/p>\n<h5>John’s Gospel<\/h5>\nIn the Gospel of John the concept of eternal life takes the place of the kingdom of God in Jesus’ teaching. The kingdom of God is mentioned twice (Jn 3:3, 5), and it is placed in connection with eternal life. The kingdom of God is here the eschatological kingdom, and eternal life is the life of the kingdom. Thus, as the kingdom of God in the synoptic Gospels is both future and present, so eternal life is both the life of the age to come (12:25) and also a present blessing (3:16, etc.).<\/p>\n<h5>Acts<\/h5>\nIn Acts it seems the earliest disciples generally failed to understand Jesus’ message about the kingdom of God as a present spiritual blessing. They gathered together to await the coming of the eschatological kingdom to Israel (Acts 1:6). Acts relates that the disciples continued to preach the kingdom of God, but usually it is an eschatological blessing (8:12; 14:22; 19:8; 20:25; 28:23, 31). However, the last two references make the kingdom of God synonymous with the gospel about Jesus Christ.<\/p>\nOne important theme in Acts is linked to that of the kingdom of God. On the Day of Pentecost, Peter announces that God has seated Jesus at his right hand in fulfillment of Psalm 110:1 (Acts 2:33-35). In the Psalms this is a prophecy of the enthronement of the Davidic king in Jerusalem. Peter asserts that this prophecy is now fulfilled in the heavenly reign of Jesus. Therefore, he has been made both Lord and Christ (Messiah). These are interchangeable terms, “Lord” meaning absolute sovereign, “Christ” meaning the messianic king.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Writings<\/h5>\nPaul carried further this theme of the heavenly rule of Christ, the anointed King. The kingdom is both an eschatological inheritance (1 Cor 6:9; 15:50; Gal 5:21; Eph 5:5; 1 Thes 2:12; 2 Thes 1:5; 2 Tm 4:1, 18) and a present blessing into which believers now enter (Rom 14:17; Col 1:13). The key to this is the interchangeable character of lordship and messianic kingship. Jesus is now exalted as Lord over all (Phil 2:11), and even as his lordship is invisible, it will become manifest to all at his second coming. In the same way, he has been enthroned as messianic King by virtue of his resurrection and heavenly session, and he must reign as King until he has put all his enemies under his feet (1 Cor 15:25; Eph 1:22). The last enemy to be destroyed is death.<\/p>\n<h5>Revelation<\/h5>\nThe central message of the Revelation to John is the consummation of God’s redemptive purpose, when the kingdom of this world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15). Revelation pictures the plight of a persecuted church in a hostile world, but it assures the church that Christ has already won a victory over the powers of evil (5:5), by virtue of which he can finally destroy them (19:11–20:14). Again, the last enemy to be destroyed is death (20:13-14). Revelation closes with a highly symbolic picture of the kingdom of God (chs 21–22) when God comes to dwell among his people, and “they shall see his face” (22:4). Thus the NT ends: divine order is restored to a disordered world. This is the kingdom of God.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Jesus Christ, Teachings of; King; Parable.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KINGDOM OF GOD, KINGDOM OF HEAVEN The sovereign rule of God, initiated by Christ’s earthly ministry and consummated when the kingdom of the world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15). Preview • Introduction • Old Testament Background • In the New Testament Introduction According to the testimony of the first three Gospels, the proclamation of the kingdom of God was Jesus’ central message. Matthew summarizes the Galilean ministry with the words “Jesus traveled throughou...","summary_en":"KINGDOM OF GOD, KINGDOM OF HEAVEN The sovereign rule of God, initiated by Christ’s earthly ministry and consummated when the kingdom of the world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15). Preview • Introduction • Old Testament Background • In the New Testament Introduction According to the testimony of the first three Gospels, the proclamation of the kingdom of God was Jesus’ central message. Matthew summarizes the Galilean ministry with the words “Jesus traveled throughou...","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":58271,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:16","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:16","content_ro":"3:16<\/strong> hold on to the progress we have already made:<\/em> There must be no slipping or reversal; as believers, our conduct must be consistent with our spiritual understanding.<\/p>","content_en":"3:16<\/strong> hold on to the progress we have already made:<\/em> There must be no slipping or reversal; as believers, our conduct must be consistent with our spiritual understanding.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:16 hold on to the progress we have already made: There must be no slipping or reversal; as believers, our conduct must be consistent with our spiritual understanding.","summary_en":"3:16 hold on to the progress we have already made: There must be no slipping or reversal; as believers, our conduct must be consistent with our spiritual understanding.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85897,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:16","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:16","content_ro":"3:16<\/strong> hold on to the progress we have already made:<\/em> There must be no slipping or reversal; as believers, our conduct must be consistent with our spiritual understanding.<\/p>","content_en":"3:16<\/strong> hold on to the progress we have already made:<\/em> There must be no slipping or reversal; as believers, our conduct must be consistent with our spiritual understanding.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:16 hold on to the progress we have already made: There must be no slipping or reversal; as believers, our conduct must be consistent with our spiritual understanding.","summary_en":"3:16 hold on to the progress we have already made: There must be no slipping or reversal; as believers, our conduct must be consistent with our spiritual understanding.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113523,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:16","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:16","content_ro":"3:16<\/strong> hold on to the progress we have already made:<\/em> There must be no slipping or reversal; as believers, our conduct must be consistent with our spiritual understanding.<\/p>","content_en":"3:16<\/strong> hold on to the progress we have already made:<\/em> There must be no slipping or reversal; as believers, our conduct must be consistent with our spiritual understanding.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:16 hold on to the progress we have already made: There must be no slipping or reversal; as believers, our conduct must be consistent with our spiritual understanding.","summary_en":"3:16 hold on to the progress we have already made: There must be no slipping or reversal; as believers, our conduct must be consistent with our spiritual understanding.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141149,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:16","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:16","content_ro":"3:16<\/strong> hold on to the progress we have already made:<\/em> There must be no slipping or reversal; as believers, our conduct must be consistent with our spiritual understanding.<\/p>","content_en":"3:16<\/strong> hold on to the progress we have already made:<\/em> There must be no slipping or reversal; as believers, our conduct must be consistent with our spiritual understanding.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:16 hold on to the progress we have already made: There must be no slipping or reversal; as believers, our conduct must be consistent with our spiritual understanding.","summary_en":"3:16 hold on to the progress we have already made: There must be no slipping or reversal; as believers, our conduct must be consistent with our spiritual understanding.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"17":[{"id":30245,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter to the Philippians","title_en":"Letter to the Philippians","content_ro":"<h3>PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the<\/span><\/h3>\nOne of Paul’s Prison Epistles.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date and Origin<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Theological Themes<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nPhilippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary.<\/p>\nDate and Origin<\/p>\nWhile it is clear that Paul was writing from prison (Phil 1:12-13), it is not clear where he was imprisoned. The most likely possibility is Rome, in which case the date would be around AD<\/span> 62. But some have thought that all the journeys implied in 4:14 and 2:25-26 make such a distant place unlikely (the Philippians hear that Paul is in prison and send a gift by Epaphroditus; Epaphroditus hears in Rome that the Philippians have heard that he has been ill). So the alternatives of Ephesus (c. AD<\/span> 55) and Caesarea (c. AD<\/span> 58) have been proposed. We know that Paul was imprisoned in Caesarea (Acts 23:33-35), but the greeting “from those of Caesar’s household” is difficult to explain if it was written there, in spite of the coincidence of name. Ephesus is certainly near enough to Philippi for plenty of interchange, but no imprisonment is recorded in the account of Paul’s ministry there in Acts. So we would have to assume that Luke’s account in Acts 19 is not complete and that Paul had been placed in protective custody at the time of the riot (see esp. 19:30-31). But such an imprisonment could hardly have led Paul to wonder whether his time “to depart and be with Christ” had now come (Phil 1:23). At the time of writing, he was clearly facing a capital charge.<\/p>\nThe traditional location (Rome) seems the most satisfactory, especially when one reflects that Paul was imprisoned there for at least two years (Acts 28:30), and that it took about three weeks to travel from Rome to Philippi.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nPhilippi had the distinction of being a Roman colony (Acts 16:12), a privilege accorded to only a few cities outside Italy. Some 90 years before the gospel arrived there (c. AD<\/span> 50), the city had been greatly expanded by large numbers of Roman soldiers, who were settled there by their commanding officers. As a consequence, the town acquired its coveted status as a colony, which meant that for all intents and purposes its citizens were treated as if they lived in Italy, and the town had a fully Roman administration. Paul alludes to this status in Philippians 3:20, where he teaches that Christians likewise are citizens of another city, the heavenly one, while yet residents elsewhere. It was a rich and busy place, one of the main centers of life in Macedonia, and consequently was “home” to the adherents of many different religions, from both east and west. There was a strong Jewish community there, as well as pagans of many sorts.<\/p>\nTheological Themes<\/p>\nIn a sense Paul’s imprisonment is not just background material but lies at the heart of the letter’s message. In his imprisonment he was experiencing the abasement that he mentions in 4:12, using there the same word found in 2:8 to describe the self-humbling of Christ unto death. The pattern of the ministry of Jesus described in the great “hymn” of 2:6-11—humiliation followed by glorification—becomes the pattern of Paul’s own life and of the vision he holds out before the Philippians. So alongside abasement and suffering, joy is the other great theme of the letter. Within suffering and self-sacrifice, true joy is born. In fact, Philippians could justly be titled “The Epistle of Joy.” Other prominent themes include the gospel, the Day of the Lord, and in addition to the famous “hymn” in chapter 2, a comparison of Paul’s Jewish past with his present Christian experience (3:4-16).<\/p>\n\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting and Opening Prayer (1:1-11)<\/h5>\nIn the opening paragraph of his letter, Paul presents the themes that will be uppermost in his mind throughout. His personal warmth toward the Philippians is immediately striking: “I have you in my heart. . . . I long for all of you” (1:7-8), and this thought of outgoing and suffering love undergirds the whole letter. It is notable, too, that the letter begins and ends with the themes of “grace” and of “the saints” (1:1-2; 4:21-23). The grace of Christ, which reaches out to sinful people and transforms them, separating them from the world, occupies Paul throughout. “The saints” are the ones who, touched by that grace, are transformed in heart and mind, so that their love abounds more and more in knowledge and depth of insight (1:9).<\/p>\nTwo more great themes appear here. The Greek word phroneo<\/span>,<\/em> “to think,” is used more in Philippians than in any other letter of Paul, no fewer than nine times (as against seven in Romans). Unfortunately, it is not uniformly translated in the English versions, and so it is hard for the English reader to notice its repeated appearance and the emphasis on the right use of the mind that goes with it. But for Paul this is vital: the way we think is at the heart of the Christian life, and in these opening verses he makes it clear that the love he feels for the Philippians is actually the Christian way of thinking about them (v 7: literally, “It is right for me to think this way about you”). This leads naturally to another emphasis—growth. For the “Christian mind” does not appear overnight. So Paul prays that this mind may grow, giving the Philippians powers of discernment that will transform their character and prepare them for “the day of Christ” (vv 10-11; cf. v 6).<\/p>\nFinally, we note in this opening prayer the twin emphases on the gospel and on fellowship—linked in Paul’s prayer of thanksgiving for the Philippians’ partnership in the gospel (v 5; cf. v 7)—and also the introduction of the great theme of joy (v 4). All three are vital to the whole letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul and His Imprisonment: Christ Exalted (1:12-26)<\/h5>\nPaul writes about his own situation to present the heart of his message. For when he writes, “For me to live is Christ” (v 21), he means more than that his every waking moment is taken up by fellowship with his Lord and service for him. He means also that, in his own person and experience, he displays Christ and “lives” him. Later he will say, “Keep putting into practice all you learned from me and heard from me and saw me doing” (4:9, nlt<\/span>). Few Christian ministers would dare make such a claim today! Yet Paul believed that, as an apostle of Christ, it was his privilege not just to speak on Christ’s behalf but also to live out Christ’s life in his own person, even if that meant suffering and humiliation.<\/p>\nThere are two historical difficulties here. First, it is hard to reconstruct the situation to which Paul refers in 1:12-18. The church in Rome (if that is where he is) was clearly divided about his imprisonment—some believers actually being glad that he was behind bars. It seems as though they were prompted by his imprisonment to get on with preaching their own version of the gospel. Far from being upset by this, Paul is delighted! “What does it matter?” he asks (v 18). Whether by friend or foe, Christ is being proclaimed in a new way as a result of his imprisonment (v 14). He was normally quick to defend the purity of the Word proclaimed, so these rivals of Paul could not have been heretics.<\/p>\nThe other historical difficulty surrounds verses 19-26. At one moment Paul seems not to know what the outcome of imprisonment will be (vv 19-21). Yet he then suggests that he can choose whether to live or die (v 22), and finally tells the Philippians that he is sure he will remain alive (v 25). The best explanation is that Paul believed he had received a personal assurance from the Holy Spirit that his imprisonment would not end with his execution.<\/p>\nAt any rate, his attitude about his own death is most moving. He expected deliverance, whether by life or by death (vv 19-20), and had an unshakeable confidence that to die is “better by far” (v 23), because it means being “with Christ.” This section ends with a note of joy.<\/p>\n<h5>The Life Worthy of the Gospel (1:27–2:18)<\/h5>\nThis section ends with “joy,” just as the last did, and its whole message is summed up in the opening exhortation of verse 27. Paul wanted the Philippians to be people in whom there is no gap between profession and practice, in whom the gospel believed is the gospel lived. The section falls into four portions, which might be entitled as follows: (1) 1:27-30—the worthy life in a hostile world; (2) 2:1-4—the worthy life in Christian fellowship; (3) 2:5-11—the gospel that inspires us; (4) 2:12-18—priorities for lives worthy of the gospel.<\/p>\nPaul refused to let the Philippians feel that he was worse off than they. He wrote, “We are in this fight together. You have seen me suffer for him in the past, and you know that I am still in the midst of this great struggle” (1:30, nlt<\/span>). For suffering at the hands of a hostile world is part and parcel of Christian discipleship. If we profess to believe a gospel about one who, though equal with God, left aside the glory of heaven and submitted not just to incarnation but also to a horrible death (2:6-8), then we must think of suffering not as an unfortunate necessity but as a privilege! “For you have been given not only the privilege of trusting in Christ but also the privilege of suffering for him” (1:29, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe essential quality the believers need, in order to face successfully the hostility of the world, is unity. They must be “standing side by side, fighting together for the Good News” (1:27), and believing one gospel will produce a united front against the world—and not a purely defensive front, either. The theme of unity continues into chapter 2, where Paul turns to life within the fellowship (2:1-4), as if to say that external unity before the world will not be possible unless their hearts and minds are truly united in one love, spirit, and purpose (v 2), whatever their outward situation. Such a unity will come only if there is tenderness and compassion among them (v 1). The lovely progression in verse 1 reaches a climax with this phrase, and that in turn leads into the famous “hymn” in 2:6-11. Such tenderness will not find its home in their hearts unless they believe the gospel about which the hymn sings.<\/p>\nWhether 2:6-11 was in fact a real hymn, sung in the context of early Christian worship, is now impossible to know for sure. Certainly Paul’s language here takes on a hymnic quality, though it is not in poetic form. Many scholars have thought that Paul did not write these verses himself but was quoting a well-known piece of liturgy. All one can say for certain is that his language changes in style, and he expressed here ideas that are unique in his writings.<\/p>\nThe hymn blends in with its context beautifully, and in fact forms the core of the whole letter. For we see here how the experience of imprisonment and deliverance, and of suffering and joy, is an entering into the experience of Jesus himself, who died and rose, was humbled and glorified.<\/p>\n<h5>Two Worthy Examples and Friends (2:19-30)<\/h5>\nPaul again writes about his own situation and plans, but as before, this section is not just concerned with practical arrangements. On the face of it, he was simply explaining why he was sending the letter by the hand of Epaphroditus instead of Timothy. But actually he was holding them up as practical examples of the life lived by the gospel, about which he had just written. Timothy “genuinely cares about your welfare” (2:20), because, unlike everyone else, he did not seek his own interests but those of Jesus Christ (v 21). He lived the gospel! He was committed to the work of the gospel (v 22). And Epaphroditus was the same, though in a different way. His union with Jesus was expressed not so much in his self-giving service for the gospel and his fellow saints, as in the illness that he suffered and the pains of separation that he endured. Like Jesus, he put his life on the line (v 30), and like Jesus, he was restored to life again (v 27). Now he was to be restored to his beloved Philippians, and the joy that they would experience together would be a further outworking of the gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>Pressing Forward and Standing Firm (3:1–4:1)<\/h5>\nThis section also begins and ends on the note of joy (3:1; 4:1)—not accidentally. The way of the cross that Paul describes is also the way of joy (cf. Heb 12:2). It begins and ends also with the address “dear brothers and sisters,” and this, too, is not accidental, for once again in this passage Paul writes about himself, and once again the underlying thought is that his experience is typical and that his readers should expect and seek to see the same pattern in their lives. He wrote, “Dear brothers and sisters, pattern your lives after mine, and learn from those who follow our example” (3:17, nlt<\/span>). Having put forward Timothy and Epaphroditus as examples in 2:19-30, Paul now does the same with himself.<\/p>\nThe tone seems to change dramatically in 3:2, as Paul turns to warn the Philippians against “those dogs,” who are probably the same as those to whom he refers in 1:28 as “your enemies.” There, he was much concerned about the inner foundation of the Philippians’ stand against them, so he did not specify who they were. But now he examines them more closely, in order to show the Philippians that the Christian life entails a complete reversal of the values held by their opponents.<\/p>\nIt seems that they were Jews, the sort in Acts 17:5 who opposed Paul’s ministry in nearby Thessalonica. They believed that they were God’s chosen race, but Paul thought that was nothing more than placing confidence in the flesh (Phil 3:4). They thought they knew the way of righteousness—it is the way of rigorous and disciplined obedience to God’s law in every detail of life. But Paul thought that was to seek a righteousness of one’s own (v 9), having nothing to do with the righteousness that God wants to give. The true way to be God’s people, he movingly insists, is the way of self-renunciation, so that all he previously held dear as a Jew came to be seen as rubbish (v 8), considered as loss for the sake of Christ (v 7). The only way to attain righteousness is through faith in Christ (v 9), for Christians must become like him in his death if they are to know the power of his resurrection (v 10). For Paul, dying with Christ meant not just suffering imprisonment and many other indignities for Christ’s sake but also renouncing all the prized possessions that his Judaism had given him.<\/p>\n<h5>Thinking, Rejoicing, Sharing (4:2-23)<\/h5>\nAgain, the tone changes suddenly (both at 4:2 and at 4:10)—so much so that some scholars have suggested that Philippians was compiled by an editor using several different letters. But when Paul turns (in v 2) to address Euodia and Syntyche, he was not really changing the subject. The link with the last section is the same as that between 1:27-30 and the first paragraph in chapter 2: how can Christians expect to be able to hold their own in the face of some enemies of the cross of Christ (3:18) if they are disunited and at odds with each other? For if there is just one gospel, disharmony between Christians means that the gospel is not having its full effect. So Euodia and Syntyche are urged (literally) to “think the same thing in the Lord” (4:2), and are then reminded of how they once found a wonderful unity in striving side by side in the cause of the gospel (v 3).<\/p>\nThe agreement that Paul urges them to come to does not mean complete identity of opinions on all subjects. It means a oneness of heart in a common love for Christ and the gospel. In the rest of the letter Paul spells out what this oneness means in practice—both what it should mean and what it has meant for the Philippians. The use of the mind is vital, and in verses 4-9 Paul paints a picture of the Christian life in which careful and intelligent prayer (vv 6-7) and the deliberate directing of the mind toward “whatever is true and honorable” (v 8) will produce a life marked by the two qualities of peace and joy, whatever the circumstances.<\/p>\nThat leads to the final paragraph, in which Paul gives thanks that, in spite of the disharmony evident in one part of the Philippian church, the church as a whole has already displayed this true Christian “mind.” For they have shown their oneness with Paul in the cause of the gospel by sending him a gift by Epaphroditus. “You have done well to share with me in my present difficulty,” Paul writes (4:14), and our thoughts go back again to the hymn in 2:6-11. From the gospel about the one who came from heaven to bear our burdens comes this mutual sharing—and so does Paul’s wonderful attitude to his circumstances: “I know how to be humbled [the same word as in 2:8], and I know how to abound” (4:12). Joined to Christ, we do not anxiously seek provision for our needs (v 17; cf. v 6), but share with him and with others whatever humiliation and exaltation he sends, confident that God will meet all our needs “from his glorious riches, which have been given to us in Christ Jesus” (4:19, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Philippi.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the<\/span><\/h3>\nOne of Paul’s Prison Epistles.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date and Origin<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Theological Themes<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nPhilippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary.<\/p>\nDate and Origin<\/p>\nWhile it is clear that Paul was writing from prison (Phil 1:12-13), it is not clear where he was imprisoned. The most likely possibility is Rome, in which case the date would be around AD<\/span> 62. But some have thought that all the journeys implied in 4:14 and 2:25-26 make such a distant place unlikely (the Philippians hear that Paul is in prison and send a gift by Epaphroditus; Epaphroditus hears in Rome that the Philippians have heard that he has been ill). So the alternatives of Ephesus (c. AD<\/span> 55) and Caesarea (c. AD<\/span> 58) have been proposed. We know that Paul was imprisoned in Caesarea (Acts 23:33-35), but the greeting “from those of Caesar’s household” is difficult to explain if it was written there, in spite of the coincidence of name. Ephesus is certainly near enough to Philippi for plenty of interchange, but no imprisonment is recorded in the account of Paul’s ministry there in Acts. So we would have to assume that Luke’s account in Acts 19 is not complete and that Paul had been placed in protective custody at the time of the riot (see esp. 19:30-31). But such an imprisonment could hardly have led Paul to wonder whether his time “to depart and be with Christ” had now come (Phil 1:23). At the time of writing, he was clearly facing a capital charge.<\/p>\nThe traditional location (Rome) seems the most satisfactory, especially when one reflects that Paul was imprisoned there for at least two years (Acts 28:30), and that it took about three weeks to travel from Rome to Philippi.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nPhilippi had the distinction of being a Roman colony (Acts 16:12), a privilege accorded to only a few cities outside Italy. Some 90 years before the gospel arrived there (c. AD<\/span> 50), the city had been greatly expanded by large numbers of Roman soldiers, who were settled there by their commanding officers. As a consequence, the town acquired its coveted status as a colony, which meant that for all intents and purposes its citizens were treated as if they lived in Italy, and the town had a fully Roman administration. Paul alludes to this status in Philippians 3:20, where he teaches that Christians likewise are citizens of another city, the heavenly one, while yet residents elsewhere. It was a rich and busy place, one of the main centers of life in Macedonia, and consequently was “home” to the adherents of many different religions, from both east and west. There was a strong Jewish community there, as well as pagans of many sorts.<\/p>\nTheological Themes<\/p>\nIn a sense Paul’s imprisonment is not just background material but lies at the heart of the letter’s message. In his imprisonment he was experiencing the abasement that he mentions in 4:12, using there the same word found in 2:8 to describe the self-humbling of Christ unto death. The pattern of the ministry of Jesus described in the great “hymn” of 2:6-11—humiliation followed by glorification—becomes the pattern of Paul’s own life and of the vision he holds out before the Philippians. So alongside abasement and suffering, joy is the other great theme of the letter. Within suffering and self-sacrifice, true joy is born. In fact, Philippians could justly be titled “The Epistle of Joy.” Other prominent themes include the gospel, the Day of the Lord, and in addition to the famous “hymn” in chapter 2, a comparison of Paul’s Jewish past with his present Christian experience (3:4-16).<\/p>\n\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting and Opening Prayer (1:1-11)<\/h5>\nIn the opening paragraph of his letter, Paul presents the themes that will be uppermost in his mind throughout. His personal warmth toward the Philippians is immediately striking: “I have you in my heart. . . . I long for all of you” (1:7-8), and this thought of outgoing and suffering love undergirds the whole letter. It is notable, too, that the letter begins and ends with the themes of “grace” and of “the saints” (1:1-2; 4:21-23). The grace of Christ, which reaches out to sinful people and transforms them, separating them from the world, occupies Paul throughout. “The saints” are the ones who, touched by that grace, are transformed in heart and mind, so that their love abounds more and more in knowledge and depth of insight (1:9).<\/p>\nTwo more great themes appear here. The Greek word phroneo<\/span>,<\/em> “to think,” is used more in Philippians than in any other letter of Paul, no fewer than nine times (as against seven in Romans). Unfortunately, it is not uniformly translated in the English versions, and so it is hard for the English reader to notice its repeated appearance and the emphasis on the right use of the mind that goes with it. But for Paul this is vital: the way we think is at the heart of the Christian life, and in these opening verses he makes it clear that the love he feels for the Philippians is actually the Christian way of thinking about them (v 7: literally, “It is right for me to think this way about you”). This leads naturally to another emphasis—growth. For the “Christian mind” does not appear overnight. So Paul prays that this mind may grow, giving the Philippians powers of discernment that will transform their character and prepare them for “the day of Christ” (vv 10-11; cf. v 6).<\/p>\nFinally, we note in this opening prayer the twin emphases on the gospel and on fellowship—linked in Paul’s prayer of thanksgiving for the Philippians’ partnership in the gospel (v 5; cf. v 7)—and also the introduction of the great theme of joy (v 4). All three are vital to the whole letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul and His Imprisonment: Christ Exalted (1:12-26)<\/h5>\nPaul writes about his own situation to present the heart of his message. For when he writes, “For me to live is Christ” (v 21), he means more than that his every waking moment is taken up by fellowship with his Lord and service for him. He means also that, in his own person and experience, he displays Christ and “lives” him. Later he will say, “Keep putting into practice all you learned from me and heard from me and saw me doing” (4:9, nlt<\/span>). Few Christian ministers would dare make such a claim today! Yet Paul believed that, as an apostle of Christ, it was his privilege not just to speak on Christ’s behalf but also to live out Christ’s life in his own person, even if that meant suffering and humiliation.<\/p>\nThere are two historical difficulties here. First, it is hard to reconstruct the situation to which Paul refers in 1:12-18. The church in Rome (if that is where he is) was clearly divided about his imprisonment—some believers actually being glad that he was behind bars. It seems as though they were prompted by his imprisonment to get on with preaching their own version of the gospel. Far from being upset by this, Paul is delighted! “What does it matter?” he asks (v 18). Whether by friend or foe, Christ is being proclaimed in a new way as a result of his imprisonment (v 14). He was normally quick to defend the purity of the Word proclaimed, so these rivals of Paul could not have been heretics.<\/p>\nThe other historical difficulty surrounds verses 19-26. At one moment Paul seems not to know what the outcome of imprisonment will be (vv 19-21). Yet he then suggests that he can choose whether to live or die (v 22), and finally tells the Philippians that he is sure he will remain alive (v 25). The best explanation is that Paul believed he had received a personal assurance from the Holy Spirit that his imprisonment would not end with his execution.<\/p>\nAt any rate, his attitude about his own death is most moving. He expected deliverance, whether by life or by death (vv 19-20), and had an unshakeable confidence that to die is “better by far” (v 23), because it means being “with Christ.” This section ends with a note of joy.<\/p>\n<h5>The Life Worthy of the Gospel (1:27–2:18)<\/h5>\nThis section ends with “joy,” just as the last did, and its whole message is summed up in the opening exhortation of verse 27. Paul wanted the Philippians to be people in whom there is no gap between profession and practice, in whom the gospel believed is the gospel lived. The section falls into four portions, which might be entitled as follows: (1) 1:27-30—the worthy life in a hostile world; (2) 2:1-4—the worthy life in Christian fellowship; (3) 2:5-11—the gospel that inspires us; (4) 2:12-18—priorities for lives worthy of the gospel.<\/p>\nPaul refused to let the Philippians feel that he was worse off than they. He wrote, “We are in this fight together. You have seen me suffer for him in the past, and you know that I am still in the midst of this great struggle” (1:30, nlt<\/span>). For suffering at the hands of a hostile world is part and parcel of Christian discipleship. If we profess to believe a gospel about one who, though equal with God, left aside the glory of heaven and submitted not just to incarnation but also to a horrible death (2:6-8), then we must think of suffering not as an unfortunate necessity but as a privilege! “For you have been given not only the privilege of trusting in Christ but also the privilege of suffering for him” (1:29, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe essential quality the believers need, in order to face successfully the hostility of the world, is unity. They must be “standing side by side, fighting together for the Good News” (1:27), and believing one gospel will produce a united front against the world—and not a purely defensive front, either. The theme of unity continues into chapter 2, where Paul turns to life within the fellowship (2:1-4), as if to say that external unity before the world will not be possible unless their hearts and minds are truly united in one love, spirit, and purpose (v 2), whatever their outward situation. Such a unity will come only if there is tenderness and compassion among them (v 1). The lovely progression in verse 1 reaches a climax with this phrase, and that in turn leads into the famous “hymn” in 2:6-11. Such tenderness will not find its home in their hearts unless they believe the gospel about which the hymn sings.<\/p>\nWhether 2:6-11 was in fact a real hymn, sung in the context of early Christian worship, is now impossible to know for sure. Certainly Paul’s language here takes on a hymnic quality, though it is not in poetic form. Many scholars have thought that Paul did not write these verses himself but was quoting a well-known piece of liturgy. All one can say for certain is that his language changes in style, and he expressed here ideas that are unique in his writings.<\/p>\nThe hymn blends in with its context beautifully, and in fact forms the core of the whole letter. For we see here how the experience of imprisonment and deliverance, and of suffering and joy, is an entering into the experience of Jesus himself, who died and rose, was humbled and glorified.<\/p>\n<h5>Two Worthy Examples and Friends (2:19-30)<\/h5>\nPaul again writes about his own situation and plans, but as before, this section is not just concerned with practical arrangements. On the face of it, he was simply explaining why he was sending the letter by the hand of Epaphroditus instead of Timothy. But actually he was holding them up as practical examples of the life lived by the gospel, about which he had just written. Timothy “genuinely cares about your welfare” (2:20), because, unlike everyone else, he did not seek his own interests but those of Jesus Christ (v 21). He lived the gospel! He was committed to the work of the gospel (v 22). And Epaphroditus was the same, though in a different way. His union with Jesus was expressed not so much in his self-giving service for the gospel and his fellow saints, as in the illness that he suffered and the pains of separation that he endured. Like Jesus, he put his life on the line (v 30), and like Jesus, he was restored to life again (v 27). Now he was to be restored to his beloved Philippians, and the joy that they would experience together would be a further outworking of the gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>Pressing Forward and Standing Firm (3:1–4:1)<\/h5>\nThis section also begins and ends on the note of joy (3:1; 4:1)—not accidentally. The way of the cross that Paul describes is also the way of joy (cf. Heb 12:2). It begins and ends also with the address “dear brothers and sisters,” and this, too, is not accidental, for once again in this passage Paul writes about himself, and once again the underlying thought is that his experience is typical and that his readers should expect and seek to see the same pattern in their lives. He wrote, “Dear brothers and sisters, pattern your lives after mine, and learn from those who follow our example” (3:17, nlt<\/span>). Having put forward Timothy and Epaphroditus as examples in 2:19-30, Paul now does the same with himself.<\/p>\nThe tone seems to change dramatically in 3:2, as Paul turns to warn the Philippians against “those dogs,” who are probably the same as those to whom he refers in 1:28 as “your enemies.” There, he was much concerned about the inner foundation of the Philippians’ stand against them, so he did not specify who they were. But now he examines them more closely, in order to show the Philippians that the Christian life entails a complete reversal of the values held by their opponents.<\/p>\nIt seems that they were Jews, the sort in Acts 17:5 who opposed Paul’s ministry in nearby Thessalonica. They believed that they were God’s chosen race, but Paul thought that was nothing more than placing confidence in the flesh (Phil 3:4). They thought they knew the way of righteousness—it is the way of rigorous and disciplined obedience to God’s law in every detail of life. But Paul thought that was to seek a righteousness of one’s own (v 9), having nothing to do with the righteousness that God wants to give. The true way to be God’s people, he movingly insists, is the way of self-renunciation, so that all he previously held dear as a Jew came to be seen as rubbish (v 8), considered as loss for the sake of Christ (v 7). The only way to attain righteousness is through faith in Christ (v 9), for Christians must become like him in his death if they are to know the power of his resurrection (v 10). For Paul, dying with Christ meant not just suffering imprisonment and many other indignities for Christ’s sake but also renouncing all the prized possessions that his Judaism had given him.<\/p>\n<h5>Thinking, Rejoicing, Sharing (4:2-23)<\/h5>\nAgain, the tone changes suddenly (both at 4:2 and at 4:10)—so much so that some scholars have suggested that Philippians was compiled by an editor using several different letters. But when Paul turns (in v 2) to address Euodia and Syntyche, he was not really changing the subject. The link with the last section is the same as that between 1:27-30 and the first paragraph in chapter 2: how can Christians expect to be able to hold their own in the face of some enemies of the cross of Christ (3:18) if they are disunited and at odds with each other? For if there is just one gospel, disharmony between Christians means that the gospel is not having its full effect. So Euodia and Syntyche are urged (literally) to “think the same thing in the Lord” (4:2), and are then reminded of how they once found a wonderful unity in striving side by side in the cause of the gospel (v 3).<\/p>\nThe agreement that Paul urges them to come to does not mean complete identity of opinions on all subjects. It means a oneness of heart in a common love for Christ and the gospel. In the rest of the letter Paul spells out what this oneness means in practice—both what it should mean and what it has meant for the Philippians. The use of the mind is vital, and in verses 4-9 Paul paints a picture of the Christian life in which careful and intelligent prayer (vv 6-7) and the deliberate directing of the mind toward “whatever is true and honorable” (v 8) will produce a life marked by the two qualities of peace and joy, whatever the circumstances.<\/p>\nThat leads to the final paragraph, in which Paul gives thanks that, in spite of the disharmony evident in one part of the Philippian church, the church as a whole has already displayed this true Christian “mind.” For they have shown their oneness with Paul in the cause of the gospel by sending him a gift by Epaphroditus. “You have done well to share with me in my present difficulty,” Paul writes (4:14), and our thoughts go back again to the hymn in 2:6-11. From the gospel about the one who came from heaven to bear our burdens comes this mutual sharing—and so does Paul’s wonderful attitude to his circumstances: “I know how to be humbled [the same word as in 2:8], and I know how to abound” (4:12). Joined to Christ, we do not anxiously seek provision for our needs (v 17; cf. v 6), but share with him and with others whatever humiliation and exaltation he sends, confident that God will meet all our needs “from his glorious riches, which have been given to us in Christ Jesus” (4:19, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Philippi.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the One of Paul’s Prison Epistles. Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Theological Themes • Content Author Philippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary. Date and Origin While it is clear ...","summary_en":"PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the One of Paul’s Prison Epistles. Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Theological Themes • Content Author Philippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary. Date and Origin While it is clear ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37777,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Type","title_en":"Type","content_ro":"<h3>TYPE<\/h3>\nThe English word “type” is derived from the Greek tupos<\/span>,<\/em> which has the basic meaning of “a visible impression or mark made by a blow or by pressure.” In the Greek NT, the word occurs 16 times, with various meanings. A type is formed as a copy, print, or a form cast in a mold. In Acts 7:43 it is applied to “figures” of idols or false gods. A type can be a pattern according to which something is made (e.g., the tabernacle, Acts 7:44; Heb 8:5). It is an example or model, whether of evil to be avoided (1 Cor 10:6-11) or of good to be emulated (Phil 3:17; 2 Thes 3:9; 1 Tm 4:12; Ti 2:7; 1 Pt 5:3). It is like a form for pouring concrete, which determines both the shape and content of what is made.<\/p>\nA type is also an entity found in the OT that prefigures one found in the NT. The initial one is called the “type” and the fulfillment is designated the “antetype.” Either type or antetype may be a person, thing, or event, but often the type is messianic and frequently refers to salvation.<\/p>\n A type can be distinguished from a symbol in that a symbol is a timeless sign. It can refer to past, present, or future, while a type always foreshadows that which is to come.<\/p>\nSome examples help to identify some biblical types and antetypes. The serpent lifted up on a pole in the wilderness to give healing to the Israelites was a type of Jesus being lifted up on a cross to give salvation to the world (Jn 3:14; cf. Nm 21:9). The Passover lamb (Ex 12:1-13) is a type of Christ (1 Cor 5:7). The rock from which Israel drank in the wilderness (Ex 17:6) prefigures Christ (1 Cor 10:3-4). In Romans 5:14 Adam is called “a type of the one who was to come,” that is, of Christ.<\/p>\nThe book of Hebrews is full of examples of types that represent the Messiah. All of the sacrifices ordained by the ritual law that God gave at Sinai typify some aspect of the person and work of Jesus. The blood that was sprinkled on the altar spoke of the blood of the one who was slain once for all (Heb 9:12-22).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TYPE<\/h3>\nThe English word “type” is derived from the Greek tupos<\/span>,<\/em> which has the basic meaning of “a visible impression or mark made by a blow or by pressure.” In the Greek NT, the word occurs 16 times, with various meanings. A type is formed as a copy, print, or a form cast in a mold. In Acts 7:43 it is applied to “figures” of idols or false gods. A type can be a pattern according to which something is made (e.g., the tabernacle, Acts 7:44; Heb 8:5). It is an example or model, whether of evil to be avoided (1 Cor 10:6-11) or of good to be emulated (Phil 3:17; 2 Thes 3:9; 1 Tm 4:12; Ti 2:7; 1 Pt 5:3). It is like a form for pouring concrete, which determines both the shape and content of what is made.<\/p>\nA type is also an entity found in the OT that prefigures one found in the NT. The initial one is called the “type” and the fulfillment is designated the “antetype.” Either type or antetype may be a person, thing, or event, but often the type is messianic and frequently refers to salvation.<\/p>\n A type can be distinguished from a symbol in that a symbol is a timeless sign. It can refer to past, present, or future, while a type always foreshadows that which is to come.<\/p>\nSome examples help to identify some biblical types and antetypes. The serpent lifted up on a pole in the wilderness to give healing to the Israelites was a type of Jesus being lifted up on a cross to give salvation to the world (Jn 3:14; cf. Nm 21:9). The Passover lamb (Ex 12:1-13) is a type of Christ (1 Cor 5:7). The rock from which Israel drank in the wilderness (Ex 17:6) prefigures Christ (1 Cor 10:3-4). In Romans 5:14 Adam is called “a type of the one who was to come,” that is, of Christ.<\/p>\nThe book of Hebrews is full of examples of types that represent the Messiah. All of the sacrifices ordained by the ritual law that God gave at Sinai typify some aspect of the person and work of Jesus. The blood that was sprinkled on the altar spoke of the blood of the one who was slain once for all (Heb 9:12-22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"TYPE The English word “type” is derived from the Greek tupos, which has the basic meaning of “a visible impression or mark made by a blow or by pressure.” In the Greek NT, the word occurs 16 times, with various meanings. A type is formed as a copy, print, or a form cast in a mold. In Acts 7:43 it is applied to “figures” of idols or false gods. A type can be a pattern according to which something is made (e.g., the tabernacle, Acts 7:44; Heb 8:5). It is an example or model, whether of evil to ...","summary_en":"TYPE The English word “type” is derived from the Greek tupos, which has the basic meaning of “a visible impression or mark made by a blow or by pressure.” In the Greek NT, the word occurs 16 times, with various meanings. A type is formed as a copy, print, or a form cast in a mold. In Acts 7:43 it is applied to “figures” of idols or false gods. A type can be a pattern according to which something is made (e.g., the tabernacle, Acts 7:44; Heb 8:5). It is an example or model, whether of evil to ...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":58272,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:17","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:17","content_ro":"3:17<\/strong> pattern your lives after mine:<\/em> Paul’s serious pursuit of Christ and the life to which God had called him (3:7-14; 4:9; 1 Cor 4:6, 16-17; 11:1; 2 Thes 3:7-9) contrasts markedly with that of the enemies of Christ who are described next (Phil 3:18-19).<\/p>","content_en":"3:17<\/strong> pattern your lives after mine:<\/em> Paul’s serious pursuit of Christ and the life to which God had called him (3:7-14; 4:9; 1 Cor 4:6, 16-17; 11:1; 2 Thes 3:7-9) contrasts markedly with that of the enemies of Christ who are described next (Phil 3:18-19).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:17 pattern your lives after mine: Paul’s serious pursuit of Christ and the life to which God had called him (3:7-14; 4:9; 1 Cor 4:6, 16-17; 11:1; 2 Thes 3:7-9) contrasts markedly with that of the enemies of Christ who are described next (Phil 3:18-19).","summary_en":"3:17 pattern your lives after mine: Paul’s serious pursuit of Christ and the life to which God had called him (3:7-14; 4:9; 1 Cor 4:6, 16-17; 11:1; 2 Thes 3:7-9) contrasts markedly with that of the enemies of Christ who are described next (Phil 3:18-19).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85898,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:17","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:17","content_ro":"3:17<\/strong> pattern your lives after mine:<\/em> Paul’s serious pursuit of Christ and the life to which God had called him (3:7-14; 4:9; 1 Cor 4:6, 16-17; 11:1; 2 Thes 3:7-9) contrasts markedly with that of the enemies of Christ who are described next (Phil 3:18-19).<\/p>","content_en":"3:17<\/strong> pattern your lives after mine:<\/em> Paul’s serious pursuit of Christ and the life to which God had called him (3:7-14; 4:9; 1 Cor 4:6, 16-17; 11:1; 2 Thes 3:7-9) contrasts markedly with that of the enemies of Christ who are described next (Phil 3:18-19).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:17 pattern your lives after mine: Paul’s serious pursuit of Christ and the life to which God had called him (3:7-14; 4:9; 1 Cor 4:6, 16-17; 11:1; 2 Thes 3:7-9) contrasts markedly with that of the enemies of Christ who are described next (Phil 3:18-19).","summary_en":"3:17 pattern your lives after mine: Paul’s serious pursuit of Christ and the life to which God had called him (3:7-14; 4:9; 1 Cor 4:6, 16-17; 11:1; 2 Thes 3:7-9) contrasts markedly with that of the enemies of Christ who are described next (Phil 3:18-19).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113524,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:17","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:17","content_ro":"3:17<\/strong> pattern your lives after mine:<\/em> Paul’s serious pursuit of Christ and the life to which God had called him (3:7-14; 4:9; 1 Cor 4:6, 16-17; 11:1; 2 Thes 3:7-9) contrasts markedly with that of the enemies of Christ who are described next (Phil 3:18-19).<\/p>","content_en":"3:17<\/strong> pattern your lives after mine:<\/em> Paul’s serious pursuit of Christ and the life to which God had called him (3:7-14; 4:9; 1 Cor 4:6, 16-17; 11:1; 2 Thes 3:7-9) contrasts markedly with that of the enemies of Christ who are described next (Phil 3:18-19).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:17 pattern your lives after mine: Paul’s serious pursuit of Christ and the life to which God had called him (3:7-14; 4:9; 1 Cor 4:6, 16-17; 11:1; 2 Thes 3:7-9) contrasts markedly with that of the enemies of Christ who are described next (Phil 3:18-19).","summary_en":"3:17 pattern your lives after mine: Paul’s serious pursuit of Christ and the life to which God had called him (3:7-14; 4:9; 1 Cor 4:6, 16-17; 11:1; 2 Thes 3:7-9) contrasts markedly with that of the enemies of Christ who are described next (Phil 3:18-19).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141150,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:17","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:17","content_ro":"3:17<\/strong> pattern your lives after mine:<\/em> Paul’s serious pursuit of Christ and the life to which God had called him (3:7-14; 4:9; 1 Cor 4:6, 16-17; 11:1; 2 Thes 3:7-9) contrasts markedly with that of the enemies of Christ who are described next (Phil 3:18-19).<\/p>","content_en":"3:17<\/strong> pattern your lives after mine:<\/em> Paul’s serious pursuit of Christ and the life to which God had called him (3:7-14; 4:9; 1 Cor 4:6, 16-17; 11:1; 2 Thes 3:7-9) contrasts markedly with that of the enemies of Christ who are described next (Phil 3:18-19).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:17 pattern your lives after mine: Paul’s serious pursuit of Christ and the life to which God had called him (3:7-14; 4:9; 1 Cor 4:6, 16-17; 11:1; 2 Thes 3:7-9) contrasts markedly with that of the enemies of Christ who are described next (Phil 3:18-19).","summary_en":"3:17 pattern your lives after mine: Paul’s serious pursuit of Christ and the life to which God had called him (3:7-14; 4:9; 1 Cor 4:6, 16-17; 11:1; 2 Thes 3:7-9) contrasts markedly with that of the enemies of Christ who are described next (Phil 3:18-19).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"18":[{"id":30255,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter to the Philippians","title_en":"Letter to the Philippians","content_ro":"<h3>PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the<\/span><\/h3>\nOne of Paul’s Prison Epistles.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date and Origin<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Theological Themes<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nPhilippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary.<\/p>\nDate and Origin<\/p>\nWhile it is clear that Paul was writing from prison (Phil 1:12-13), it is not clear where he was imprisoned. The most likely possibility is Rome, in which case the date would be around AD<\/span> 62. But some have thought that all the journeys implied in 4:14 and 2:25-26 make such a distant place unlikely (the Philippians hear that Paul is in prison and send a gift by Epaphroditus; Epaphroditus hears in Rome that the Philippians have heard that he has been ill). So the alternatives of Ephesus (c. AD<\/span> 55) and Caesarea (c. AD<\/span> 58) have been proposed. We know that Paul was imprisoned in Caesarea (Acts 23:33-35), but the greeting “from those of Caesar’s household” is difficult to explain if it was written there, in spite of the coincidence of name. Ephesus is certainly near enough to Philippi for plenty of interchange, but no imprisonment is recorded in the account of Paul’s ministry there in Acts. So we would have to assume that Luke’s account in Acts 19 is not complete and that Paul had been placed in protective custody at the time of the riot (see esp. 19:30-31). But such an imprisonment could hardly have led Paul to wonder whether his time “to depart and be with Christ” had now come (Phil 1:23). At the time of writing, he was clearly facing a capital charge.<\/p>\nThe traditional location (Rome) seems the most satisfactory, especially when one reflects that Paul was imprisoned there for at least two years (Acts 28:30), and that it took about three weeks to travel from Rome to Philippi.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nPhilippi had the distinction of being a Roman colony (Acts 16:12), a privilege accorded to only a few cities outside Italy. Some 90 years before the gospel arrived there (c. AD<\/span> 50), the city had been greatly expanded by large numbers of Roman soldiers, who were settled there by their commanding officers. As a consequence, the town acquired its coveted status as a colony, which meant that for all intents and purposes its citizens were treated as if they lived in Italy, and the town had a fully Roman administration. Paul alludes to this status in Philippians 3:20, where he teaches that Christians likewise are citizens of another city, the heavenly one, while yet residents elsewhere. It was a rich and busy place, one of the main centers of life in Macedonia, and consequently was “home” to the adherents of many different religions, from both east and west. There was a strong Jewish community there, as well as pagans of many sorts.<\/p>\nTheological Themes<\/p>\nIn a sense Paul’s imprisonment is not just background material but lies at the heart of the letter’s message. In his imprisonment he was experiencing the abasement that he mentions in 4:12, using there the same word found in 2:8 to describe the self-humbling of Christ unto death. The pattern of the ministry of Jesus described in the great “hymn” of 2:6-11—humiliation followed by glorification—becomes the pattern of Paul’s own life and of the vision he holds out before the Philippians. So alongside abasement and suffering, joy is the other great theme of the letter. Within suffering and self-sacrifice, true joy is born. In fact, Philippians could justly be titled “The Epistle of Joy.” Other prominent themes include the gospel, the Day of the Lord, and in addition to the famous “hymn” in chapter 2, a comparison of Paul’s Jewish past with his present Christian experience (3:4-16).<\/p>\n\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting and Opening Prayer (1:1-11)<\/h5>\nIn the opening paragraph of his letter, Paul presents the themes that will be uppermost in his mind throughout. His personal warmth toward the Philippians is immediately striking: “I have you in my heart. . . . I long for all of you” (1:7-8), and this thought of outgoing and suffering love undergirds the whole letter. It is notable, too, that the letter begins and ends with the themes of “grace” and of “the saints” (1:1-2; 4:21-23). The grace of Christ, which reaches out to sinful people and transforms them, separating them from the world, occupies Paul throughout. “The saints” are the ones who, touched by that grace, are transformed in heart and mind, so that their love abounds more and more in knowledge and depth of insight (1:9).<\/p>\nTwo more great themes appear here. The Greek word phroneo<\/span>,<\/em> “to think,” is used more in Philippians than in any other letter of Paul, no fewer than nine times (as against seven in Romans). Unfortunately, it is not uniformly translated in the English versions, and so it is hard for the English reader to notice its repeated appearance and the emphasis on the right use of the mind that goes with it. But for Paul this is vital: the way we think is at the heart of the Christian life, and in these opening verses he makes it clear that the love he feels for the Philippians is actually the Christian way of thinking about them (v 7: literally, “It is right for me to think this way about you”). This leads naturally to another emphasis—growth. For the “Christian mind” does not appear overnight. So Paul prays that this mind may grow, giving the Philippians powers of discernment that will transform their character and prepare them for “the day of Christ” (vv 10-11; cf. v 6).<\/p>\nFinally, we note in this opening prayer the twin emphases on the gospel and on fellowship—linked in Paul’s prayer of thanksgiving for the Philippians’ partnership in the gospel (v 5; cf. v 7)—and also the introduction of the great theme of joy (v 4). All three are vital to the whole letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul and His Imprisonment: Christ Exalted (1:12-26)<\/h5>\nPaul writes about his own situation to present the heart of his message. For when he writes, “For me to live is Christ” (v 21), he means more than that his every waking moment is taken up by fellowship with his Lord and service for him. He means also that, in his own person and experience, he displays Christ and “lives” him. Later he will say, “Keep putting into practice all you learned from me and heard from me and saw me doing” (4:9, nlt<\/span>). Few Christian ministers would dare make such a claim today! Yet Paul believed that, as an apostle of Christ, it was his privilege not just to speak on Christ’s behalf but also to live out Christ’s life in his own person, even if that meant suffering and humiliation.<\/p>\nThere are two historical difficulties here. First, it is hard to reconstruct the situation to which Paul refers in 1:12-18. The church in Rome (if that is where he is) was clearly divided about his imprisonment—some believers actually being glad that he was behind bars. It seems as though they were prompted by his imprisonment to get on with preaching their own version of the gospel. Far from being upset by this, Paul is delighted! “What does it matter?” he asks (v 18). Whether by friend or foe, Christ is being proclaimed in a new way as a result of his imprisonment (v 14). He was normally quick to defend the purity of the Word proclaimed, so these rivals of Paul could not have been heretics.<\/p>\nThe other historical difficulty surrounds verses 19-26. At one moment Paul seems not to know what the outcome of imprisonment will be (vv 19-21). Yet he then suggests that he can choose whether to live or die (v 22), and finally tells the Philippians that he is sure he will remain alive (v 25). The best explanation is that Paul believed he had received a personal assurance from the Holy Spirit that his imprisonment would not end with his execution.<\/p>\nAt any rate, his attitude about his own death is most moving. He expected deliverance, whether by life or by death (vv 19-20), and had an unshakeable confidence that to die is “better by far” (v 23), because it means being “with Christ.” This section ends with a note of joy.<\/p>\n<h5>The Life Worthy of the Gospel (1:27–2:18)<\/h5>\nThis section ends with “joy,” just as the last did, and its whole message is summed up in the opening exhortation of verse 27. Paul wanted the Philippians to be people in whom there is no gap between profession and practice, in whom the gospel believed is the gospel lived. The section falls into four portions, which might be entitled as follows: (1) 1:27-30—the worthy life in a hostile world; (2) 2:1-4—the worthy life in Christian fellowship; (3) 2:5-11—the gospel that inspires us; (4) 2:12-18—priorities for lives worthy of the gospel.<\/p>\nPaul refused to let the Philippians feel that he was worse off than they. He wrote, “We are in this fight together. You have seen me suffer for him in the past, and you know that I am still in the midst of this great struggle” (1:30, nlt<\/span>). For suffering at the hands of a hostile world is part and parcel of Christian discipleship. If we profess to believe a gospel about one who, though equal with God, left aside the glory of heaven and submitted not just to incarnation but also to a horrible death (2:6-8), then we must think of suffering not as an unfortunate necessity but as a privilege! “For you have been given not only the privilege of trusting in Christ but also the privilege of suffering for him” (1:29, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe essential quality the believers need, in order to face successfully the hostility of the world, is unity. They must be “standing side by side, fighting together for the Good News” (1:27), and believing one gospel will produce a united front against the world—and not a purely defensive front, either. The theme of unity continues into chapter 2, where Paul turns to life within the fellowship (2:1-4), as if to say that external unity before the world will not be possible unless their hearts and minds are truly united in one love, spirit, and purpose (v 2), whatever their outward situation. Such a unity will come only if there is tenderness and compassion among them (v 1). The lovely progression in verse 1 reaches a climax with this phrase, and that in turn leads into the famous “hymn” in 2:6-11. Such tenderness will not find its home in their hearts unless they believe the gospel about which the hymn sings.<\/p>\nWhether 2:6-11 was in fact a real hymn, sung in the context of early Christian worship, is now impossible to know for sure. Certainly Paul’s language here takes on a hymnic quality, though it is not in poetic form. Many scholars have thought that Paul did not write these verses himself but was quoting a well-known piece of liturgy. All one can say for certain is that his language changes in style, and he expressed here ideas that are unique in his writings.<\/p>\nThe hymn blends in with its context beautifully, and in fact forms the core of the whole letter. For we see here how the experience of imprisonment and deliverance, and of suffering and joy, is an entering into the experience of Jesus himself, who died and rose, was humbled and glorified.<\/p>\n<h5>Two Worthy Examples and Friends (2:19-30)<\/h5>\nPaul again writes about his own situation and plans, but as before, this section is not just concerned with practical arrangements. On the face of it, he was simply explaining why he was sending the letter by the hand of Epaphroditus instead of Timothy. But actually he was holding them up as practical examples of the life lived by the gospel, about which he had just written. Timothy “genuinely cares about your welfare” (2:20), because, unlike everyone else, he did not seek his own interests but those of Jesus Christ (v 21). He lived the gospel! He was committed to the work of the gospel (v 22). And Epaphroditus was the same, though in a different way. His union with Jesus was expressed not so much in his self-giving service for the gospel and his fellow saints, as in the illness that he suffered and the pains of separation that he endured. Like Jesus, he put his life on the line (v 30), and like Jesus, he was restored to life again (v 27). Now he was to be restored to his beloved Philippians, and the joy that they would experience together would be a further outworking of the gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>Pressing Forward and Standing Firm (3:1–4:1)<\/h5>\nThis section also begins and ends on the note of joy (3:1; 4:1)—not accidentally. The way of the cross that Paul describes is also the way of joy (cf. Heb 12:2). It begins and ends also with the address “dear brothers and sisters,” and this, too, is not accidental, for once again in this passage Paul writes about himself, and once again the underlying thought is that his experience is typical and that his readers should expect and seek to see the same pattern in their lives. He wrote, “Dear brothers and sisters, pattern your lives after mine, and learn from those who follow our example” (3:17, nlt<\/span>). Having put forward Timothy and Epaphroditus as examples in 2:19-30, Paul now does the same with himself.<\/p>\nThe tone seems to change dramatically in 3:2, as Paul turns to warn the Philippians against “those dogs,” who are probably the same as those to whom he refers in 1:28 as “your enemies.” There, he was much concerned about the inner foundation of the Philippians’ stand against them, so he did not specify who they were. But now he examines them more closely, in order to show the Philippians that the Christian life entails a complete reversal of the values held by their opponents.<\/p>\nIt seems that they were Jews, the sort in Acts 17:5 who opposed Paul’s ministry in nearby Thessalonica. They believed that they were God’s chosen race, but Paul thought that was nothing more than placing confidence in the flesh (Phil 3:4). They thought they knew the way of righteousness—it is the way of rigorous and disciplined obedience to God’s law in every detail of life. But Paul thought that was to seek a righteousness of one’s own (v 9), having nothing to do with the righteousness that God wants to give. The true way to be God’s people, he movingly insists, is the way of self-renunciation, so that all he previously held dear as a Jew came to be seen as rubbish (v 8), considered as loss for the sake of Christ (v 7). The only way to attain righteousness is through faith in Christ (v 9), for Christians must become like him in his death if they are to know the power of his resurrection (v 10). For Paul, dying with Christ meant not just suffering imprisonment and many other indignities for Christ’s sake but also renouncing all the prized possessions that his Judaism had given him.<\/p>\n<h5>Thinking, Rejoicing, Sharing (4:2-23)<\/h5>\nAgain, the tone changes suddenly (both at 4:2 and at 4:10)—so much so that some scholars have suggested that Philippians was compiled by an editor using several different letters. But when Paul turns (in v 2) to address Euodia and Syntyche, he was not really changing the subject. The link with the last section is the same as that between 1:27-30 and the first paragraph in chapter 2: how can Christians expect to be able to hold their own in the face of some enemies of the cross of Christ (3:18) if they are disunited and at odds with each other? For if there is just one gospel, disharmony between Christians means that the gospel is not having its full effect. So Euodia and Syntyche are urged (literally) to “think the same thing in the Lord” (4:2), and are then reminded of how they once found a wonderful unity in striving side by side in the cause of the gospel (v 3).<\/p>\nThe agreement that Paul urges them to come to does not mean complete identity of opinions on all subjects. It means a oneness of heart in a common love for Christ and the gospel. In the rest of the letter Paul spells out what this oneness means in practice—both what it should mean and what it has meant for the Philippians. The use of the mind is vital, and in verses 4-9 Paul paints a picture of the Christian life in which careful and intelligent prayer (vv 6-7) and the deliberate directing of the mind toward “whatever is true and honorable” (v 8) will produce a life marked by the two qualities of peace and joy, whatever the circumstances.<\/p>\nThat leads to the final paragraph, in which Paul gives thanks that, in spite of the disharmony evident in one part of the Philippian church, the church as a whole has already displayed this true Christian “mind.” For they have shown their oneness with Paul in the cause of the gospel by sending him a gift by Epaphroditus. “You have done well to share with me in my present difficulty,” Paul writes (4:14), and our thoughts go back again to the hymn in 2:6-11. From the gospel about the one who came from heaven to bear our burdens comes this mutual sharing—and so does Paul’s wonderful attitude to his circumstances: “I know how to be humbled [the same word as in 2:8], and I know how to abound” (4:12). Joined to Christ, we do not anxiously seek provision for our needs (v 17; cf. v 6), but share with him and with others whatever humiliation and exaltation he sends, confident that God will meet all our needs “from his glorious riches, which have been given to us in Christ Jesus” (4:19, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Philippi.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the<\/span><\/h3>\nOne of Paul’s Prison Epistles.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date and Origin<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Theological Themes<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nPhilippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary.<\/p>\nDate and Origin<\/p>\nWhile it is clear that Paul was writing from prison (Phil 1:12-13), it is not clear where he was imprisoned. The most likely possibility is Rome, in which case the date would be around AD<\/span> 62. But some have thought that all the journeys implied in 4:14 and 2:25-26 make such a distant place unlikely (the Philippians hear that Paul is in prison and send a gift by Epaphroditus; Epaphroditus hears in Rome that the Philippians have heard that he has been ill). So the alternatives of Ephesus (c. AD<\/span> 55) and Caesarea (c. AD<\/span> 58) have been proposed. We know that Paul was imprisoned in Caesarea (Acts 23:33-35), but the greeting “from those of Caesar’s household” is difficult to explain if it was written there, in spite of the coincidence of name. Ephesus is certainly near enough to Philippi for plenty of interchange, but no imprisonment is recorded in the account of Paul’s ministry there in Acts. So we would have to assume that Luke’s account in Acts 19 is not complete and that Paul had been placed in protective custody at the time of the riot (see esp. 19:30-31). But such an imprisonment could hardly have led Paul to wonder whether his time “to depart and be with Christ” had now come (Phil 1:23). At the time of writing, he was clearly facing a capital charge.<\/p>\nThe traditional location (Rome) seems the most satisfactory, especially when one reflects that Paul was imprisoned there for at least two years (Acts 28:30), and that it took about three weeks to travel from Rome to Philippi.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nPhilippi had the distinction of being a Roman colony (Acts 16:12), a privilege accorded to only a few cities outside Italy. Some 90 years before the gospel arrived there (c. AD<\/span> 50), the city had been greatly expanded by large numbers of Roman soldiers, who were settled there by their commanding officers. As a consequence, the town acquired its coveted status as a colony, which meant that for all intents and purposes its citizens were treated as if they lived in Italy, and the town had a fully Roman administration. Paul alludes to this status in Philippians 3:20, where he teaches that Christians likewise are citizens of another city, the heavenly one, while yet residents elsewhere. It was a rich and busy place, one of the main centers of life in Macedonia, and consequently was “home” to the adherents of many different religions, from both east and west. There was a strong Jewish community there, as well as pagans of many sorts.<\/p>\nTheological Themes<\/p>\nIn a sense Paul’s imprisonment is not just background material but lies at the heart of the letter’s message. In his imprisonment he was experiencing the abasement that he mentions in 4:12, using there the same word found in 2:8 to describe the self-humbling of Christ unto death. The pattern of the ministry of Jesus described in the great “hymn” of 2:6-11—humiliation followed by glorification—becomes the pattern of Paul’s own life and of the vision he holds out before the Philippians. So alongside abasement and suffering, joy is the other great theme of the letter. Within suffering and self-sacrifice, true joy is born. In fact, Philippians could justly be titled “The Epistle of Joy.” Other prominent themes include the gospel, the Day of the Lord, and in addition to the famous “hymn” in chapter 2, a comparison of Paul’s Jewish past with his present Christian experience (3:4-16).<\/p>\n\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting and Opening Prayer (1:1-11)<\/h5>\nIn the opening paragraph of his letter, Paul presents the themes that will be uppermost in his mind throughout. His personal warmth toward the Philippians is immediately striking: “I have you in my heart. . . . I long for all of you” (1:7-8), and this thought of outgoing and suffering love undergirds the whole letter. It is notable, too, that the letter begins and ends with the themes of “grace” and of “the saints” (1:1-2; 4:21-23). The grace of Christ, which reaches out to sinful people and transforms them, separating them from the world, occupies Paul throughout. “The saints” are the ones who, touched by that grace, are transformed in heart and mind, so that their love abounds more and more in knowledge and depth of insight (1:9).<\/p>\nTwo more great themes appear here. The Greek word phroneo<\/span>,<\/em> “to think,” is used more in Philippians than in any other letter of Paul, no fewer than nine times (as against seven in Romans). Unfortunately, it is not uniformly translated in the English versions, and so it is hard for the English reader to notice its repeated appearance and the emphasis on the right use of the mind that goes with it. But for Paul this is vital: the way we think is at the heart of the Christian life, and in these opening verses he makes it clear that the love he feels for the Philippians is actually the Christian way of thinking about them (v 7: literally, “It is right for me to think this way about you”). This leads naturally to another emphasis—growth. For the “Christian mind” does not appear overnight. So Paul prays that this mind may grow, giving the Philippians powers of discernment that will transform their character and prepare them for “the day of Christ” (vv 10-11; cf. v 6).<\/p>\nFinally, we note in this opening prayer the twin emphases on the gospel and on fellowship—linked in Paul’s prayer of thanksgiving for the Philippians’ partnership in the gospel (v 5; cf. v 7)—and also the introduction of the great theme of joy (v 4). All three are vital to the whole letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul and His Imprisonment: Christ Exalted (1:12-26)<\/h5>\nPaul writes about his own situation to present the heart of his message. For when he writes, “For me to live is Christ” (v 21), he means more than that his every waking moment is taken up by fellowship with his Lord and service for him. He means also that, in his own person and experience, he displays Christ and “lives” him. Later he will say, “Keep putting into practice all you learned from me and heard from me and saw me doing” (4:9, nlt<\/span>). Few Christian ministers would dare make such a claim today! Yet Paul believed that, as an apostle of Christ, it was his privilege not just to speak on Christ’s behalf but also to live out Christ’s life in his own person, even if that meant suffering and humiliation.<\/p>\nThere are two historical difficulties here. First, it is hard to reconstruct the situation to which Paul refers in 1:12-18. The church in Rome (if that is where he is) was clearly divided about his imprisonment—some believers actually being glad that he was behind bars. It seems as though they were prompted by his imprisonment to get on with preaching their own version of the gospel. Far from being upset by this, Paul is delighted! “What does it matter?” he asks (v 18). Whether by friend or foe, Christ is being proclaimed in a new way as a result of his imprisonment (v 14). He was normally quick to defend the purity of the Word proclaimed, so these rivals of Paul could not have been heretics.<\/p>\nThe other historical difficulty surrounds verses 19-26. At one moment Paul seems not to know what the outcome of imprisonment will be (vv 19-21). Yet he then suggests that he can choose whether to live or die (v 22), and finally tells the Philippians that he is sure he will remain alive (v 25). The best explanation is that Paul believed he had received a personal assurance from the Holy Spirit that his imprisonment would not end with his execution.<\/p>\nAt any rate, his attitude about his own death is most moving. He expected deliverance, whether by life or by death (vv 19-20), and had an unshakeable confidence that to die is “better by far” (v 23), because it means being “with Christ.” This section ends with a note of joy.<\/p>\n<h5>The Life Worthy of the Gospel (1:27–2:18)<\/h5>\nThis section ends with “joy,” just as the last did, and its whole message is summed up in the opening exhortation of verse 27. Paul wanted the Philippians to be people in whom there is no gap between profession and practice, in whom the gospel believed is the gospel lived. The section falls into four portions, which might be entitled as follows: (1) 1:27-30—the worthy life in a hostile world; (2) 2:1-4—the worthy life in Christian fellowship; (3) 2:5-11—the gospel that inspires us; (4) 2:12-18—priorities for lives worthy of the gospel.<\/p>\nPaul refused to let the Philippians feel that he was worse off than they. He wrote, “We are in this fight together. You have seen me suffer for him in the past, and you know that I am still in the midst of this great struggle” (1:30, nlt<\/span>). For suffering at the hands of a hostile world is part and parcel of Christian discipleship. If we profess to believe a gospel about one who, though equal with God, left aside the glory of heaven and submitted not just to incarnation but also to a horrible death (2:6-8), then we must think of suffering not as an unfortunate necessity but as a privilege! “For you have been given not only the privilege of trusting in Christ but also the privilege of suffering for him” (1:29, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe essential quality the believers need, in order to face successfully the hostility of the world, is unity. They must be “standing side by side, fighting together for the Good News” (1:27), and believing one gospel will produce a united front against the world—and not a purely defensive front, either. The theme of unity continues into chapter 2, where Paul turns to life within the fellowship (2:1-4), as if to say that external unity before the world will not be possible unless their hearts and minds are truly united in one love, spirit, and purpose (v 2), whatever their outward situation. Such a unity will come only if there is tenderness and compassion among them (v 1). The lovely progression in verse 1 reaches a climax with this phrase, and that in turn leads into the famous “hymn” in 2:6-11. Such tenderness will not find its home in their hearts unless they believe the gospel about which the hymn sings.<\/p>\nWhether 2:6-11 was in fact a real hymn, sung in the context of early Christian worship, is now impossible to know for sure. Certainly Paul’s language here takes on a hymnic quality, though it is not in poetic form. Many scholars have thought that Paul did not write these verses himself but was quoting a well-known piece of liturgy. All one can say for certain is that his language changes in style, and he expressed here ideas that are unique in his writings.<\/p>\nThe hymn blends in with its context beautifully, and in fact forms the core of the whole letter. For we see here how the experience of imprisonment and deliverance, and of suffering and joy, is an entering into the experience of Jesus himself, who died and rose, was humbled and glorified.<\/p>\n<h5>Two Worthy Examples and Friends (2:19-30)<\/h5>\nPaul again writes about his own situation and plans, but as before, this section is not just concerned with practical arrangements. On the face of it, he was simply explaining why he was sending the letter by the hand of Epaphroditus instead of Timothy. But actually he was holding them up as practical examples of the life lived by the gospel, about which he had just written. Timothy “genuinely cares about your welfare” (2:20), because, unlike everyone else, he did not seek his own interests but those of Jesus Christ (v 21). He lived the gospel! He was committed to the work of the gospel (v 22). And Epaphroditus was the same, though in a different way. His union with Jesus was expressed not so much in his self-giving service for the gospel and his fellow saints, as in the illness that he suffered and the pains of separation that he endured. Like Jesus, he put his life on the line (v 30), and like Jesus, he was restored to life again (v 27). Now he was to be restored to his beloved Philippians, and the joy that they would experience together would be a further outworking of the gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>Pressing Forward and Standing Firm (3:1–4:1)<\/h5>\nThis section also begins and ends on the note of joy (3:1; 4:1)—not accidentally. The way of the cross that Paul describes is also the way of joy (cf. Heb 12:2). It begins and ends also with the address “dear brothers and sisters,” and this, too, is not accidental, for once again in this passage Paul writes about himself, and once again the underlying thought is that his experience is typical and that his readers should expect and seek to see the same pattern in their lives. He wrote, “Dear brothers and sisters, pattern your lives after mine, and learn from those who follow our example” (3:17, nlt<\/span>). Having put forward Timothy and Epaphroditus as examples in 2:19-30, Paul now does the same with himself.<\/p>\nThe tone seems to change dramatically in 3:2, as Paul turns to warn the Philippians against “those dogs,” who are probably the same as those to whom he refers in 1:28 as “your enemies.” There, he was much concerned about the inner foundation of the Philippians’ stand against them, so he did not specify who they were. But now he examines them more closely, in order to show the Philippians that the Christian life entails a complete reversal of the values held by their opponents.<\/p>\nIt seems that they were Jews, the sort in Acts 17:5 who opposed Paul’s ministry in nearby Thessalonica. They believed that they were God’s chosen race, but Paul thought that was nothing more than placing confidence in the flesh (Phil 3:4). They thought they knew the way of righteousness—it is the way of rigorous and disciplined obedience to God’s law in every detail of life. But Paul thought that was to seek a righteousness of one’s own (v 9), having nothing to do with the righteousness that God wants to give. The true way to be God’s people, he movingly insists, is the way of self-renunciation, so that all he previously held dear as a Jew came to be seen as rubbish (v 8), considered as loss for the sake of Christ (v 7). The only way to attain righteousness is through faith in Christ (v 9), for Christians must become like him in his death if they are to know the power of his resurrection (v 10). For Paul, dying with Christ meant not just suffering imprisonment and many other indignities for Christ’s sake but also renouncing all the prized possessions that his Judaism had given him.<\/p>\n<h5>Thinking, Rejoicing, Sharing (4:2-23)<\/h5>\nAgain, the tone changes suddenly (both at 4:2 and at 4:10)—so much so that some scholars have suggested that Philippians was compiled by an editor using several different letters. But when Paul turns (in v 2) to address Euodia and Syntyche, he was not really changing the subject. The link with the last section is the same as that between 1:27-30 and the first paragraph in chapter 2: how can Christians expect to be able to hold their own in the face of some enemies of the cross of Christ (3:18) if they are disunited and at odds with each other? For if there is just one gospel, disharmony between Christians means that the gospel is not having its full effect. So Euodia and Syntyche are urged (literally) to “think the same thing in the Lord” (4:2), and are then reminded of how they once found a wonderful unity in striving side by side in the cause of the gospel (v 3).<\/p>\nThe agreement that Paul urges them to come to does not mean complete identity of opinions on all subjects. It means a oneness of heart in a common love for Christ and the gospel. In the rest of the letter Paul spells out what this oneness means in practice—both what it should mean and what it has meant for the Philippians. The use of the mind is vital, and in verses 4-9 Paul paints a picture of the Christian life in which careful and intelligent prayer (vv 6-7) and the deliberate directing of the mind toward “whatever is true and honorable” (v 8) will produce a life marked by the two qualities of peace and joy, whatever the circumstances.<\/p>\nThat leads to the final paragraph, in which Paul gives thanks that, in spite of the disharmony evident in one part of the Philippian church, the church as a whole has already displayed this true Christian “mind.” For they have shown their oneness with Paul in the cause of the gospel by sending him a gift by Epaphroditus. “You have done well to share with me in my present difficulty,” Paul writes (4:14), and our thoughts go back again to the hymn in 2:6-11. From the gospel about the one who came from heaven to bear our burdens comes this mutual sharing—and so does Paul’s wonderful attitude to his circumstances: “I know how to be humbled [the same word as in 2:8], and I know how to abound” (4:12). Joined to Christ, we do not anxiously seek provision for our needs (v 17; cf. v 6), but share with him and with others whatever humiliation and exaltation he sends, confident that God will meet all our needs “from his glorious riches, which have been given to us in Christ Jesus” (4:19, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Philippi.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the One of Paul’s Prison Epistles. Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Theological Themes • Content Author Philippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary. Date and Origin While it is clear ...","summary_en":"PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the One of Paul’s Prison Epistles. Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Theological Themes • Content Author Philippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary. Date and Origin While it is clear ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":58273,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:18","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:18","content_ro":"3:18<\/strong> The identity of the enemies<\/em> is not known; they might have been (1) Jews or Jewish Christians proud of their circumcision (as in 3:2), whose emphasis on observant Judaism contradicted the cross of Christ<\/em>; (2) pseudo-believers living a worldly, immoral life (cp. 3:19); or (3) professing believers who had rejected Paul’s cross-centered view of the Good News. Christ’s crucifixion as a criminal was scandalous and offensive to many (see 1 Cor 1:23; cp. Rom 9:33; 1 Pet 2:8).<\/p>","content_en":"3:18<\/strong> The identity of the enemies<\/em> is not known; they might have been (1) Jews or Jewish Christians proud of their circumcision (as in 3:2), whose emphasis on observant Judaism contradicted the cross of Christ<\/em>; (2) pseudo-believers living a worldly, immoral life (cp. 3:19); or (3) professing believers who had rejected Paul’s cross-centered view of the Good News. Christ’s crucifixion as a criminal was scandalous and offensive to many (see 1 Cor 1:23; cp. Rom 9:33; 1 Pet 2:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:18 The identity of the enemies is not known; they might have been (1) Jews or Jewish Christians proud of their circumcision (as in 3:2), whose emphasis on observant Judaism contradicted the cross of Christ; (2) pseudo-believers living a worldly, immoral life (cp. 3:19); or (3) professing believers who had rejected Paul’s cross-centered view of the Good News. Christ’s crucifixion as a criminal was scandalous and offensive to many (see 1 Cor 1:23; cp. Rom 9:33; 1 Pet 2:8).","summary_en":"3:18 The identity of the enemies is not known; they might have been (1) Jews or Jewish Christians proud of their circumcision (as in 3:2), whose emphasis on observant Judaism contradicted the cross of Christ; (2) pseudo-believers living a worldly, immoral life (cp. 3:19); or (3) professing believers who had rejected Paul’s cross-centered view of the Good News. Christ’s crucifixion as a criminal was scandalous and offensive to many (see 1 Cor 1:23; cp. Rom 9:33; 1 Pet 2:8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85899,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:18","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:18","content_ro":"3:18<\/strong> The identity of the enemies<\/em> is not known; they might have been (1) Jews or Jewish Christians proud of their circumcision (as in 3:2), whose emphasis on observant Judaism contradicted the cross of Christ<\/em>; (2) pseudo-believers living a worldly, immoral life (cp. 3:19); or (3) professing believers who had rejected Paul’s cross-centered view of the Good News. Christ’s crucifixion as a criminal was scandalous and offensive to many (see 1 Cor 1:23; cp. Rom 9:33; 1 Pet 2:8).<\/p>","content_en":"3:18<\/strong> The identity of the enemies<\/em> is not known; they might have been (1) Jews or Jewish Christians proud of their circumcision (as in 3:2), whose emphasis on observant Judaism contradicted the cross of Christ<\/em>; (2) pseudo-believers living a worldly, immoral life (cp. 3:19); or (3) professing believers who had rejected Paul’s cross-centered view of the Good News. Christ’s crucifixion as a criminal was scandalous and offensive to many (see 1 Cor 1:23; cp. Rom 9:33; 1 Pet 2:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:18 The identity of the enemies is not known; they might have been (1) Jews or Jewish Christians proud of their circumcision (as in 3:2), whose emphasis on observant Judaism contradicted the cross of Christ; (2) pseudo-believers living a worldly, immoral life (cp. 3:19); or (3) professing believers who had rejected Paul’s cross-centered view of the Good News. Christ’s crucifixion as a criminal was scandalous and offensive to many (see 1 Cor 1:23; cp. Rom 9:33; 1 Pet 2:8).","summary_en":"3:18 The identity of the enemies is not known; they might have been (1) Jews or Jewish Christians proud of their circumcision (as in 3:2), whose emphasis on observant Judaism contradicted the cross of Christ; (2) pseudo-believers living a worldly, immoral life (cp. 3:19); or (3) professing believers who had rejected Paul’s cross-centered view of the Good News. Christ’s crucifixion as a criminal was scandalous and offensive to many (see 1 Cor 1:23; cp. Rom 9:33; 1 Pet 2:8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113525,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:18","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:18","content_ro":"3:18<\/strong> The identity of the enemies<\/em> is not known; they might have been (1) Jews or Jewish Christians proud of their circumcision (as in 3:2), whose emphasis on observant Judaism contradicted the cross of Christ<\/em>; (2) pseudo-believers living a worldly, immoral life (cp. 3:19); or (3) professing believers who had rejected Paul’s cross-centered view of the Good News. Christ’s crucifixion as a criminal was scandalous and offensive to many (see 1 Cor 1:23; cp. Rom 9:33; 1 Pet 2:8).<\/p>","content_en":"3:18<\/strong> The identity of the enemies<\/em> is not known; they might have been (1) Jews or Jewish Christians proud of their circumcision (as in 3:2), whose emphasis on observant Judaism contradicted the cross of Christ<\/em>; (2) pseudo-believers living a worldly, immoral life (cp. 3:19); or (3) professing believers who had rejected Paul’s cross-centered view of the Good News. Christ’s crucifixion as a criminal was scandalous and offensive to many (see 1 Cor 1:23; cp. Rom 9:33; 1 Pet 2:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:18 The identity of the enemies is not known; they might have been (1) Jews or Jewish Christians proud of their circumcision (as in 3:2), whose emphasis on observant Judaism contradicted the cross of Christ; (2) pseudo-believers living a worldly, immoral life (cp. 3:19); or (3) professing believers who had rejected Paul’s cross-centered view of the Good News. Christ’s crucifixion as a criminal was scandalous and offensive to many (see 1 Cor 1:23; cp. Rom 9:33; 1 Pet 2:8).","summary_en":"3:18 The identity of the enemies is not known; they might have been (1) Jews or Jewish Christians proud of their circumcision (as in 3:2), whose emphasis on observant Judaism contradicted the cross of Christ; (2) pseudo-believers living a worldly, immoral life (cp. 3:19); or (3) professing believers who had rejected Paul’s cross-centered view of the Good News. Christ’s crucifixion as a criminal was scandalous and offensive to many (see 1 Cor 1:23; cp. Rom 9:33; 1 Pet 2:8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141151,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:18","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:18","content_ro":"3:18<\/strong> The identity of the enemies<\/em> is not known; they might have been (1) Jews or Jewish Christians proud of their circumcision (as in 3:2), whose emphasis on observant Judaism contradicted the cross of Christ<\/em>; (2) pseudo-believers living a worldly, immoral life (cp. 3:19); or (3) professing believers who had rejected Paul’s cross-centered view of the Good News. Christ’s crucifixion as a criminal was scandalous and offensive to many (see 1 Cor 1:23; cp. Rom 9:33; 1 Pet 2:8).<\/p>","content_en":"3:18<\/strong> The identity of the enemies<\/em> is not known; they might have been (1) Jews or Jewish Christians proud of their circumcision (as in 3:2), whose emphasis on observant Judaism contradicted the cross of Christ<\/em>; (2) pseudo-believers living a worldly, immoral life (cp. 3:19); or (3) professing believers who had rejected Paul’s cross-centered view of the Good News. Christ’s crucifixion as a criminal was scandalous and offensive to many (see 1 Cor 1:23; cp. Rom 9:33; 1 Pet 2:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:18 The identity of the enemies is not known; they might have been (1) Jews or Jewish Christians proud of their circumcision (as in 3:2), whose emphasis on observant Judaism contradicted the cross of Christ; (2) pseudo-believers living a worldly, immoral life (cp. 3:19); or (3) professing believers who had rejected Paul’s cross-centered view of the Good News. Christ’s crucifixion as a criminal was scandalous and offensive to many (see 1 Cor 1:23; cp. Rom 9:33; 1 Pet 2:8).","summary_en":"3:18 The identity of the enemies is not known; they might have been (1) Jews or Jewish Christians proud of their circumcision (as in 3:2), whose emphasis on observant Judaism contradicted the cross of Christ; (2) pseudo-believers living a worldly, immoral life (cp. 3:19); or (3) professing believers who had rejected Paul’s cross-centered view of the Good News. Christ’s crucifixion as a criminal was scandalous and offensive to many (see 1 Cor 1:23; cp. Rom 9:33; 1 Pet 2:8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"19":[{"id":58274,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:19","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:19","content_ro":"3:19<\/strong> Their god is their appetite<\/em> may refer to their greed, their sensuality, or their self-interest (cp. Rom 16:18). • they brag about shameful things:<\/em> This is best understood as a reference to immorality rather than to pride in being circumcised. • Eternal destruction<\/em> is the ultimate judgment of God for those who reject Christ and live self-centered, sinful lives (see 2 Thes 1:8-9; cp. Phil 1:28; Matt 7:13; Rom 9:22; 1 Cor 1:18; 2 Thes 2:10; 1 Tim 6:9; 2 Pet 2:3, 13; Jude 1:10; Rev 11:18). • They are unable to see beyond this life<\/em> (cp. John 12:25; 1 Jn 2:15-17).<\/p>","content_en":"3:19<\/strong> Their god is their appetite<\/em> may refer to their greed, their sensuality, or their self-interest (cp. Rom 16:18). • they brag about shameful things:<\/em> This is best understood as a reference to immorality rather than to pride in being circumcised. • Eternal destruction<\/em> is the ultimate judgment of God for those who reject Christ and live self-centered, sinful lives (see 2 Thes 1:8-9; cp. Phil 1:28; Matt 7:13; Rom 9:22; 1 Cor 1:18; 2 Thes 2:10; 1 Tim 6:9; 2 Pet 2:3, 13; Jude 1:10; Rev 11:18). • They are unable to see beyond this life<\/em> (cp. John 12:25; 1 Jn 2:15-17).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:19 Their god is their appetite may refer to their greed, their sensuality, or their self-interest (cp. Rom 16:18). • they brag about shameful things: This is best understood as a reference to immorality rather than to pride in being circumcised. • Eternal destruction is the ultimate judgment of God for those who reject Christ and live self-centered, sinful lives (see 2 Thes 1:8-9; cp. Phil 1:28; Matt 7:13; Rom 9:22; 1 Cor 1:18; 2 Thes 2:10; 1 Tim 6:9; 2 Pet 2:3, 13; Jude 1:10; Rev 11:18). •...","summary_en":"3:19 Their god is their appetite may refer to their greed, their sensuality, or their self-interest (cp. Rom 16:18). • they brag about shameful things: This is best understood as a reference to immorality rather than to pride in being circumcised. • Eternal destruction is the ultimate judgment of God for those who reject Christ and live self-centered, sinful lives (see 2 Thes 1:8-9; cp. Phil 1:28; Matt 7:13; Rom 9:22; 1 Cor 1:18; 2 Thes 2:10; 1 Tim 6:9; 2 Pet 2:3, 13; Jude 1:10; Rev 11:18). •...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85900,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:19","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:19","content_ro":"3:19<\/strong> Their god is their appetite<\/em> may refer to their greed, their sensuality, or their self-interest (cp. Rom 16:18). • they brag about shameful things:<\/em> This is best understood as a reference to immorality rather than to pride in being circumcised. • Eternal destruction<\/em> is the ultimate judgment of God for those who reject Christ and live self-centered, sinful lives (see 2 Thes 1:8-9; cp. Phil 1:28; Matt 7:13; Rom 9:22; 1 Cor 1:18; 2 Thes 2:10; 1 Tim 6:9; 2 Pet 2:3, 13; Jude 1:10; Rev 11:18). • They are unable to see beyond this life<\/em> (cp. John 12:25; 1 Jn 2:15-17).<\/p>","content_en":"3:19<\/strong> Their god is their appetite<\/em> may refer to their greed, their sensuality, or their self-interest (cp. Rom 16:18). • they brag about shameful things:<\/em> This is best understood as a reference to immorality rather than to pride in being circumcised. • Eternal destruction<\/em> is the ultimate judgment of God for those who reject Christ and live self-centered, sinful lives (see 2 Thes 1:8-9; cp. Phil 1:28; Matt 7:13; Rom 9:22; 1 Cor 1:18; 2 Thes 2:10; 1 Tim 6:9; 2 Pet 2:3, 13; Jude 1:10; Rev 11:18). • They are unable to see beyond this life<\/em> (cp. John 12:25; 1 Jn 2:15-17).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:19 Their god is their appetite may refer to their greed, their sensuality, or their self-interest (cp. Rom 16:18). • they brag about shameful things: This is best understood as a reference to immorality rather than to pride in being circumcised. • Eternal destruction is the ultimate judgment of God for those who reject Christ and live self-centered, sinful lives (see 2 Thes 1:8-9; cp. Phil 1:28; Matt 7:13; Rom 9:22; 1 Cor 1:18; 2 Thes 2:10; 1 Tim 6:9; 2 Pet 2:3, 13; Jude 1:10; Rev 11:18). •...","summary_en":"3:19 Their god is their appetite may refer to their greed, their sensuality, or their self-interest (cp. Rom 16:18). • they brag about shameful things: This is best understood as a reference to immorality rather than to pride in being circumcised. • Eternal destruction is the ultimate judgment of God for those who reject Christ and live self-centered, sinful lives (see 2 Thes 1:8-9; cp. Phil 1:28; Matt 7:13; Rom 9:22; 1 Cor 1:18; 2 Thes 2:10; 1 Tim 6:9; 2 Pet 2:3, 13; Jude 1:10; Rev 11:18). •...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113526,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:19","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:19","content_ro":"3:19<\/strong> Their god is their appetite<\/em> may refer to their greed, their sensuality, or their self-interest (cp. Rom 16:18). • they brag about shameful things:<\/em> This is best understood as a reference to immorality rather than to pride in being circumcised. • Eternal destruction<\/em> is the ultimate judgment of God for those who reject Christ and live self-centered, sinful lives (see 2 Thes 1:8-9; cp. Phil 1:28; Matt 7:13; Rom 9:22; 1 Cor 1:18; 2 Thes 2:10; 1 Tim 6:9; 2 Pet 2:3, 13; Jude 1:10; Rev 11:18). • They are unable to see beyond this life<\/em> (cp. John 12:25; 1 Jn 2:15-17).<\/p>","content_en":"3:19<\/strong> Their god is their appetite<\/em> may refer to their greed, their sensuality, or their self-interest (cp. Rom 16:18). • they brag about shameful things:<\/em> This is best understood as a reference to immorality rather than to pride in being circumcised. • Eternal destruction<\/em> is the ultimate judgment of God for those who reject Christ and live self-centered, sinful lives (see 2 Thes 1:8-9; cp. Phil 1:28; Matt 7:13; Rom 9:22; 1 Cor 1:18; 2 Thes 2:10; 1 Tim 6:9; 2 Pet 2:3, 13; Jude 1:10; Rev 11:18). • They are unable to see beyond this life<\/em> (cp. John 12:25; 1 Jn 2:15-17).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:19 Their god is their appetite may refer to their greed, their sensuality, or their self-interest (cp. Rom 16:18). • they brag about shameful things: This is best understood as a reference to immorality rather than to pride in being circumcised. • Eternal destruction is the ultimate judgment of God for those who reject Christ and live self-centered, sinful lives (see 2 Thes 1:8-9; cp. Phil 1:28; Matt 7:13; Rom 9:22; 1 Cor 1:18; 2 Thes 2:10; 1 Tim 6:9; 2 Pet 2:3, 13; Jude 1:10; Rev 11:18). •...","summary_en":"3:19 Their god is their appetite may refer to their greed, their sensuality, or their self-interest (cp. Rom 16:18). • they brag about shameful things: This is best understood as a reference to immorality rather than to pride in being circumcised. • Eternal destruction is the ultimate judgment of God for those who reject Christ and live self-centered, sinful lives (see 2 Thes 1:8-9; cp. Phil 1:28; Matt 7:13; Rom 9:22; 1 Cor 1:18; 2 Thes 2:10; 1 Tim 6:9; 2 Pet 2:3, 13; Jude 1:10; Rev 11:18). •...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141152,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:19","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:19","content_ro":"3:19<\/strong> Their god is their appetite<\/em> may refer to their greed, their sensuality, or their self-interest (cp. Rom 16:18). • they brag about shameful things:<\/em> This is best understood as a reference to immorality rather than to pride in being circumcised. • Eternal destruction<\/em> is the ultimate judgment of God for those who reject Christ and live self-centered, sinful lives (see 2 Thes 1:8-9; cp. Phil 1:28; Matt 7:13; Rom 9:22; 1 Cor 1:18; 2 Thes 2:10; 1 Tim 6:9; 2 Pet 2:3, 13; Jude 1:10; Rev 11:18). • They are unable to see beyond this life<\/em> (cp. John 12:25; 1 Jn 2:15-17).<\/p>","content_en":"3:19<\/strong> Their god is their appetite<\/em> may refer to their greed, their sensuality, or their self-interest (cp. Rom 16:18). • they brag about shameful things:<\/em> This is best understood as a reference to immorality rather than to pride in being circumcised. • Eternal destruction<\/em> is the ultimate judgment of God for those who reject Christ and live self-centered, sinful lives (see 2 Thes 1:8-9; cp. Phil 1:28; Matt 7:13; Rom 9:22; 1 Cor 1:18; 2 Thes 2:10; 1 Tim 6:9; 2 Pet 2:3, 13; Jude 1:10; Rev 11:18). • They are unable to see beyond this life<\/em> (cp. John 12:25; 1 Jn 2:15-17).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:19 Their god is their appetite may refer to their greed, their sensuality, or their self-interest (cp. Rom 16:18). • they brag about shameful things: This is best understood as a reference to immorality rather than to pride in being circumcised. • Eternal destruction is the ultimate judgment of God for those who reject Christ and live self-centered, sinful lives (see 2 Thes 1:8-9; cp. Phil 1:28; Matt 7:13; Rom 9:22; 1 Cor 1:18; 2 Thes 2:10; 1 Tim 6:9; 2 Pet 2:3, 13; Jude 1:10; Rev 11:18). •...","summary_en":"3:19 Their god is their appetite may refer to their greed, their sensuality, or their self-interest (cp. Rom 16:18). • they brag about shameful things: This is best understood as a reference to immorality rather than to pride in being circumcised. • Eternal destruction is the ultimate judgment of God for those who reject Christ and live self-centered, sinful lives (see 2 Thes 1:8-9; cp. Phil 1:28; Matt 7:13; Rom 9:22; 1 Cor 1:18; 2 Thes 2:10; 1 Tim 6:9; 2 Pet 2:3, 13; Jude 1:10; Rev 11:18). •...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"20":[{"id":5411,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Body of Christ","title_en":"Body of Christ","content_ro":"<h3>BODY OF CHRIST<\/h3>\nScriptural phrase referring to (1) the physical body of Jesus Christ, (2) his broken body and shed blood viewed symbolically and memorially in the bread and wine of the Lord’s Supper, and (3) both the local and universal church viewed metaphorically.<\/p>\nThe Physical Body of Jesus Christ<\/p>\nThe NT declares that the Son (the second person of the Trinity) had a human body prepared for him by God the Father (Heb 10:5). The earthly body was engendered by the conceptive work of the Holy Spirit through the virgin Mary (Mt 1:20); the one thus born, humanly speaking, as a descendant of David (Rom 1:3), was also to be called the Son of God (Lk 1:35). The apostle John emphasized that the body of Christ was really human physically, not something gaseous or ethereal (1 Jn 4:2-3) as some persons in John’s day were already beginning to argue. God “became flesh and dwelt among us” (Jn 1:14; cf. Is 53:1-4). Jesus’ earthly body possessed ordinary human characteristics and limitations. That is, as a real human being, Jesus Christ experienced sorrow (Jn 11:35; Heb 5:7-8), weariness (Jn 4:6), thirst (19:28), and pain (vv 1-3).<\/p>\nWhen Jesus gave up his spirit, his physical body died on the cross (Jn 19:30, 33). The NT proclaims that he bore the sins of the world in his body on the cross (1 Pt 2:24; 1 Jn 2:2; cf. Is 53:5-6). His death is described as a perfect sacrifice for sinners (Heb 9:12-14, 26-28), a sacrifice of his body that makes believers in him holy and righteous (2 Cor 5:21; Heb 10:10).<\/p>\nChrist’s physical body was prepared in the normal way for burial (Mt 27:59; Mk 15:46; Lk 23:53, 56; 24:1; Jn 19:39-40) and placed in the rock tomb of Joseph of Arimathea (Mt 27:57-60; Jn 19:41). On the third day the body of Christ experienced a real physical resurrection, as he had predicted (Jn 2:19-22). He was seen in his physical resurrection body (Mt 28:9; Lk 24:31, 36; Jn 20:10-19, 26). He was heard, touched, and held onto (Mt 28:9; Lk 24:39; Jn 20:17; 1 Jn 1:1). He offered his body, scarred by his crucifixion, to be touched (Lk 24:39; Jn 20:17). The fact that he ate shows that his resurrection body was a physical one (Lk 24:42-43). In addition, Christ’s body was “glorified,” that is, it was not restricted as ordinary bodies are: he entered and left rooms in a remarkable way (Lk 24:31, 36; Jn 20:19, 26). Christ’s bodily resurrection is said in Scripture to guarantee that believers in Christ will experience resurrection of their own bodies (1 Cor 15:20-23, 50-57; Phil 3:20-21).<\/p>\nThe Body of Christ in the Lord’s Supper<\/p>\nAt the last supper (Mt 26:26-29; Mk 14:22-25; Lk 22:15-20; 1 Cor 11:23-26), which accompanied the Passover supper, Jesus held up a loaf of bread and said, “This is my body”; then he picked up a cup of wine and said, “This is my blood of the covenant” (Mt 26:26, 28). Jesus meant that the bread symbolized his body, which would be broken when he was beaten at his trial and pierced at his crucifixion (Lk 23:33; Jn 19:1-2). The apostle Paul said that Christ, our paschal lamb, was sacrificed for us (1 Cor 5:7), meaning that the Passover lamb in the OT was an object lesson pointing to “the Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world!” (Jn 1:29).<\/p>\nFor Christians, the body of Christ is viewed symbolically as a broken body (Mt 8:17; 1 Pt 2:24; cf. Is 53:4-5) in the breaking of the bread at the Lord’s Supper. The cup is a sign of his blood poured out, viewed as the central factor in God’s covenant of grace with his people. Jesus referred to “the new covenant in my blood” (Lk 22:20). The whole ceremony of the Lord’s Supper was also to be a memorial (1 Cor 11:25-26). In the ceremony believers are reminded that Christ died for sinners, that is, for the forgiveness of their sins (Mt 26:28). They are also reminded that they are participating in the body of Christ in that they are united with him (Rom 6:1-11; 1 Cor 10:16; Gal 2:20; Phil 3:10).<\/p>\nThe Body of Christ, the People of God<\/p>\nThe phrase “body of Christ” is also used as a metaphor for the whole church, a unity of believers connected with and dependent on Christ. God’s people are thus said to be members of Christ’s “mystical body” (1 Cor 12:27), in fellowship with Christ and spiritually nourished by him (Eph 5:25, 29). A number of other metaphors are also used for the whole people of God, such as the vine (Ps 80:8), temple of God (1 Cor 3:16-17), building (1 Pt 2:5), chosen people (v 9), and family of God (Eph 3:15). Such metaphors amplify the interrelatedness, communion, and dependence of the “body of Christ” upon the living God.<\/p>\nThe term “body of Christ” was often used by Paul to remind a local church that it was a vital part of the larger body. Paul said to the church at Rome, “For as in one body we have many members, and all the members do not have the same function, so we, though many, are one body in Christ, and individually members one of another” (Rom 12:4-5, rsv<\/span>). Paul taught the Corinthian Christians that they, individually and collectively, were part of the body of Christ (1 Cor 12:27). They and Paul were all baptized by one Spirit into that one body (Eph 5:30).<\/p>\nIn a number of passages written by Paul, the church is called the “body” and Christ the “head” (Col 1:18). Christ has been made “head over all things for the church,” which “is his body” (Eph 1:22-23). The body grows by “holding fast to the Head” (Col 2:19). As head of the body, Christ is its Savior (Eph 5:23). The head\/body metaphor stresses the organic dependence of the church on Christ and his lordship over the church. The church finds its self-understanding in terms of its Head. The relationship is organic in that the life flows from, and is sustained by, the Head. The relationship is immediate, direct, and complete. Apart from Christ, both in his historic atoning sacrifice and in his present position at the right hand of God, the church has no existence.<\/p>\nIn the NT the term “body of Christ” is used to mean both the universal church and each local group of believers. In both senses the church is said to be the spiritual body in which believing Jews and Gentiles are united (Eph 2:14-16; 3:6; 4:4). It is the body that Christ redeemed (Eph 5:23), over which he presides (Col 1:18) and sovereignly rules (Eph 1:22-23) and for which he supplies strength and unity (Eph 4:15-16; Col 2:19).<\/p>\nEach member of the body of Christ has been given spiritual gifts with which to serve Christ in the body (Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 12:11). Such gifts are enumerated several times in Scripture, and range from apostleship and pastoring to encouraging and showing mercy (Rom 12:7-8; Eph 4:11). The ministry of serving is to be shared by all Christians, for example, through giving to the physical needs of others (Acts 11:29-30; 1 Cor 16:1-4; 2 Cor 8:1-5) and praying for one another (Eph 1:15-23; 3:14-19; 6:18-20). No one should look down on others or on their gifts, since God has chosen each one to function in his or her place in the body (1 Cor 12:14-26). The gifts are given to equip “the saints, for the work of ministry, for building up the body of Christ, until we all attain to the unity of the faith and of the knowledge of the Son of God, to mature manhood, to the measure of the stature of the fulness of Christ” (Eph 4:12-13, rsv<\/span>). The goal is “to grow up in every way into him who is the head, into Christ” (vv 15-16, rsv<\/span>). See<\/em> Body; Church; Lord’s Supper, The; Resurrection.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BODY OF CHRIST<\/h3>\nScriptural phrase referring to (1) the physical body of Jesus Christ, (2) his broken body and shed blood viewed symbolically and memorially in the bread and wine of the Lord’s Supper, and (3) both the local and universal church viewed metaphorically.<\/p>\nThe Physical Body of Jesus Christ<\/p>\nThe NT declares that the Son (the second person of the Trinity) had a human body prepared for him by God the Father (Heb 10:5). The earthly body was engendered by the conceptive work of the Holy Spirit through the virgin Mary (Mt 1:20); the one thus born, humanly speaking, as a descendant of David (Rom 1:3), was also to be called the Son of God (Lk 1:35). The apostle John emphasized that the body of Christ was really human physically, not something gaseous or ethereal (1 Jn 4:2-3) as some persons in John’s day were already beginning to argue. God “became flesh and dwelt among us” (Jn 1:14; cf. Is 53:1-4). Jesus’ earthly body possessed ordinary human characteristics and limitations. That is, as a real human being, Jesus Christ experienced sorrow (Jn 11:35; Heb 5:7-8), weariness (Jn 4:6), thirst (19:28), and pain (vv 1-3).<\/p>\nWhen Jesus gave up his spirit, his physical body died on the cross (Jn 19:30, 33). The NT proclaims that he bore the sins of the world in his body on the cross (1 Pt 2:24; 1 Jn 2:2; cf. Is 53:5-6). His death is described as a perfect sacrifice for sinners (Heb 9:12-14, 26-28), a sacrifice of his body that makes believers in him holy and righteous (2 Cor 5:21; Heb 10:10).<\/p>\nChrist’s physical body was prepared in the normal way for burial (Mt 27:59; Mk 15:46; Lk 23:53, 56; 24:1; Jn 19:39-40) and placed in the rock tomb of Joseph of Arimathea (Mt 27:57-60; Jn 19:41). On the third day the body of Christ experienced a real physical resurrection, as he had predicted (Jn 2:19-22). He was seen in his physical resurrection body (Mt 28:9; Lk 24:31, 36; Jn 20:10-19, 26). He was heard, touched, and held onto (Mt 28:9; Lk 24:39; Jn 20:17; 1 Jn 1:1). He offered his body, scarred by his crucifixion, to be touched (Lk 24:39; Jn 20:17). The fact that he ate shows that his resurrection body was a physical one (Lk 24:42-43). In addition, Christ’s body was “glorified,” that is, it was not restricted as ordinary bodies are: he entered and left rooms in a remarkable way (Lk 24:31, 36; Jn 20:19, 26). Christ’s bodily resurrection is said in Scripture to guarantee that believers in Christ will experience resurrection of their own bodies (1 Cor 15:20-23, 50-57; Phil 3:20-21).<\/p>\nThe Body of Christ in the Lord’s Supper<\/p>\nAt the last supper (Mt 26:26-29; Mk 14:22-25; Lk 22:15-20; 1 Cor 11:23-26), which accompanied the Passover supper, Jesus held up a loaf of bread and said, “This is my body”; then he picked up a cup of wine and said, “This is my blood of the covenant” (Mt 26:26, 28). Jesus meant that the bread symbolized his body, which would be broken when he was beaten at his trial and pierced at his crucifixion (Lk 23:33; Jn 19:1-2). The apostle Paul said that Christ, our paschal lamb, was sacrificed for us (1 Cor 5:7), meaning that the Passover lamb in the OT was an object lesson pointing to “the Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world!” (Jn 1:29).<\/p>\nFor Christians, the body of Christ is viewed symbolically as a broken body (Mt 8:17; 1 Pt 2:24; cf. Is 53:4-5) in the breaking of the bread at the Lord’s Supper. The cup is a sign of his blood poured out, viewed as the central factor in God’s covenant of grace with his people. Jesus referred to “the new covenant in my blood” (Lk 22:20). The whole ceremony of the Lord’s Supper was also to be a memorial (1 Cor 11:25-26). In the ceremony believers are reminded that Christ died for sinners, that is, for the forgiveness of their sins (Mt 26:28). They are also reminded that they are participating in the body of Christ in that they are united with him (Rom 6:1-11; 1 Cor 10:16; Gal 2:20; Phil 3:10).<\/p>\nThe Body of Christ, the People of God<\/p>\nThe phrase “body of Christ” is also used as a metaphor for the whole church, a unity of believers connected with and dependent on Christ. God’s people are thus said to be members of Christ’s “mystical body” (1 Cor 12:27), in fellowship with Christ and spiritually nourished by him (Eph 5:25, 29). A number of other metaphors are also used for the whole people of God, such as the vine (Ps 80:8), temple of God (1 Cor 3:16-17), building (1 Pt 2:5), chosen people (v 9), and family of God (Eph 3:15). Such metaphors amplify the interrelatedness, communion, and dependence of the “body of Christ” upon the living God.<\/p>\nThe term “body of Christ” was often used by Paul to remind a local church that it was a vital part of the larger body. Paul said to the church at Rome, “For as in one body we have many members, and all the members do not have the same function, so we, though many, are one body in Christ, and individually members one of another” (Rom 12:4-5, rsv<\/span>). Paul taught the Corinthian Christians that they, individually and collectively, were part of the body of Christ (1 Cor 12:27). They and Paul were all baptized by one Spirit into that one body (Eph 5:30).<\/p>\nIn a number of passages written by Paul, the church is called the “body” and Christ the “head” (Col 1:18). Christ has been made “head over all things for the church,” which “is his body” (Eph 1:22-23). The body grows by “holding fast to the Head” (Col 2:19). As head of the body, Christ is its Savior (Eph 5:23). The head\/body metaphor stresses the organic dependence of the church on Christ and his lordship over the church. The church finds its self-understanding in terms of its Head. The relationship is organic in that the life flows from, and is sustained by, the Head. The relationship is immediate, direct, and complete. Apart from Christ, both in his historic atoning sacrifice and in his present position at the right hand of God, the church has no existence.<\/p>\nIn the NT the term “body of Christ” is used to mean both the universal church and each local group of believers. In both senses the church is said to be the spiritual body in which believing Jews and Gentiles are united (Eph 2:14-16; 3:6; 4:4). It is the body that Christ redeemed (Eph 5:23), over which he presides (Col 1:18) and sovereignly rules (Eph 1:22-23) and for which he supplies strength and unity (Eph 4:15-16; Col 2:19).<\/p>\nEach member of the body of Christ has been given spiritual gifts with which to serve Christ in the body (Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 12:11). Such gifts are enumerated several times in Scripture, and range from apostleship and pastoring to encouraging and showing mercy (Rom 12:7-8; Eph 4:11). The ministry of serving is to be shared by all Christians, for example, through giving to the physical needs of others (Acts 11:29-30; 1 Cor 16:1-4; 2 Cor 8:1-5) and praying for one another (Eph 1:15-23; 3:14-19; 6:18-20). No one should look down on others or on their gifts, since God has chosen each one to function in his or her place in the body (1 Cor 12:14-26). The gifts are given to equip “the saints, for the work of ministry, for building up the body of Christ, until we all attain to the unity of the faith and of the knowledge of the Son of God, to mature manhood, to the measure of the stature of the fulness of Christ” (Eph 4:12-13, rsv<\/span>). The goal is “to grow up in every way into him who is the head, into Christ” (vv 15-16, rsv<\/span>). See<\/em> Body; Church; Lord’s Supper, The; Resurrection.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BODY OF CHRIST Scriptural phrase referring to (1) the physical body of Jesus Christ, (2) his broken body and shed blood viewed symbolically and memorially in the bread and wine of the Lord’s Supper, and (3) both the local and universal church viewed metaphorically. The Physical Body of Jesus Christ The NT declares that the Son (the second person of the Trinity) had a human body prepared for him by God the Father (Heb 10:5). The earthly body was engendered by the conceptive work of the Holy Sp...","summary_en":"BODY OF CHRIST Scriptural phrase referring to (1) the physical body of Jesus Christ, (2) his broken body and shed blood viewed symbolically and memorially in the bread and wine of the Lord’s Supper, and (3) both the local and universal church viewed metaphorically. The Physical Body of Jesus Christ The NT declares that the Son (the second person of the Trinity) had a human body prepared for him by God the Father (Heb 10:5). The earthly body was engendered by the conceptive work of the Holy Sp...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15818,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Heaven","title_en":"Heaven","content_ro":"<h3>HEAVEN<\/h3>\nRealm (or realms) designated by a Hebrew term used to represent the sky and air and also heaven. The form of the word in Hebrew is dual (implying two of something). Although this dual form may only represent an ancient device for expressing the plural, it is supposed by some to imply the existence of a lower and an upper heaven—a physical and a spiritual heaven.<\/p>\nIn the Old Testament<\/p>\nThe OT writers viewed the physical heavens as a “firmament” appearing as a great arch supported on foundations and pillars (2 Sm 22:8) and spread out above the earth, with rain descending through its doors (Ps 78:23). The keynote of the OT revelation about the physical heavens is set forth in Psalms 8 and 19:1-6. Elsewhere the OT speaks of the atmospheric heavens as the region of the clouds (Ps 147:8), winds (Zec 2:6), rain (Dt 11:11), thunder (1 Sm 2:10), dew (Dt 33:13), frost (Jb 38:29), and the abode of birds (Gn 1:26, 30). It is also the locale of such destructive forces as hail (Jos 10:11), fire, and brimstone (Gn 19:24). In the NT this notion of the vaulted expanse of the sky as the region in which the elements, clouds, and tempests gather (Mt 16:2; Lk 4:25) and birds fly (Lk 9:58) is continued.<\/p>\nIn addition to the atmospheric regions, the Hebrew idea of the physical heavens includes stellar space, which ultimately embraces the universe. The heavenly bodies of the stellar heavens were viewed by the Hebrews as inexpressibly glorious manifestations of God’s handiwork without having any power or vitality of their own. These include the sun, moon, planets, and stars, which were but lights in the firmament of the heavens (Gn 1:14; 15:5). As such, they were regarded as unworthy of worship because God had, by his own will and grace, made humans superior to them. In fact, the Hebrews were expressly forbidden to worship the stellar bodies (Ex 20:4), the gods and goddesses who represented them (Jer 44:17-25), or to participate in astrological speculation (Is 47:13). Hence, this unique theological ordinance differentiated the Hebrews, who viewed the heavenly bodies as made and moved by the will of God, from the superstitious heathen, who worshiped them.<\/p>\nThe term “heaven of heavens” (Dt 10:14; see also kjv<\/span> 1 Kgs 8:27; Pss 68:33; 148:4) is the literal English rendition of the Hebrew idiom for the superlative “the highest heaven.” Some have thought this the counterpart to Paul’s expression “the third heaven” (2 Cor 12:2), which parallels the classical Greek conception of three heavens. This notion was subsequently adopted by the Roman Catholic medieval church and in the Latin form of Coelum Aqueum, Coelum Sidereum,<\/em> and Coelum Empyreum.<\/em> The basic concept followed the Greek view, and it coincides with the OT view of the physical and spiritual heavens as indicated earlier. Those who follow this approach tend to regard this third heaven as the place reached by the souls of the blessed as they pass through the two lower regions of the atmosphere and outer space containing the celestial bodies, and enter into the uttermost reaches of the universe.<\/p>\nIn the New Testament<\/p>\nThe Lord Jesus indicated that heaven is the dwelling place of God (Mt 6:9). Jesus, during his earthly ministry, repeatedly claimed that he had come from heaven (Jn 3:13; 6:33-51); and on at least three occasions utterances from heaven confirmed these claims (Mt 3:16-17; 17:5; Jn 12:28). There is where the true tabernacle stands, of which the earthly tabernacle was merely a shadow (cf. Heb 8:1-5). That abode of God was in view when the apostle Paul wrote of “the third heaven” (2 Cor 12:2). As such, it is often seen as a synonym for God himself (cf. Mt 23:22; Lk 15:18).<\/p>\nAfter Jesus’ ascension, recorded in Acts 1:6-11, two angels reminded the disciples that Jesus would return again from heaven. This was later confirmed by the apostle Paul (1 Cor 15:1-11; Eph 4:7-16; 1 Tm 3:16) and reiterated in the summary of the teachings of the NT known as the Apostles’ Creed. In all, the relationship of Jesus Christ to the heavenly abode of God is inextricably interwoven in the NT and is inseparable from the gospel message itself. Indeed, it is from the “right hand of God” that Christ forever lives to make intercession for those who have come to him by faith (Heb 7:25; cf. Mk 14:62).<\/p>\nPaul asserts that the believer’s body will be made conformable to the glorious body of Jesus Christ when Christ returns from heaven (Phil 3:20-21). The believers need such a heavenly body to match their heavenly citizenship. The term “citizenship” (kjv<\/span>) or “commonwealth” (rsv<\/span>) implies a colony of individuals who live in a foreign country while observing the laws of their homeland instead of the land in which they reside (cf. Acts 22:28). The implication for believers is quite clear: They are to live according to the moral and ethical principles of God as revealed from heaven regardless of the standards proclaimed by the world. They have been raised together with Christ and have been instructed to “seek the things that are above, where Christ is, seated at the right hand of God” (Col 3:1). From there Christ has blessed his followers “with every spiritual blessing in the heavenly places” (Eph 1:3). The expression “in the heavenly places” is peculiar to Ephesians (see 1:3, 20; 2:6; 3:10; 6:12), suggesting that the blessings of the spiritual world are not relegated to some remote future time or place but can be perceived by faith here and now. That is why believers are said to have been made partakers already in the heavenly calling (Heb 3:1; 6:4).<\/p>\nIn the meanwhile, believers look forward to a new heaven and a new earth with the new Jerusalem. There will be no tears, sorrow, pain, death, and night there because the Son of God will be there (Rv 21:1-4, 27; 22:1-5), and in the resurrected state there will be no marrying or giving in marriage (Lk 20:27-38). At least two OT saints, Enoch (Gn 5:22-24; Heb 11:5) and Elijah (2 Kgs 2:11), were translated directly into the presence of God—into heaven. In addition to Paul’s statement about the third heaven, John was called into heaven (Rv 4:1), a heaven that is intended to be populated (cf. 19:1). All believers will ultimately dwell in heaven in their resurrection bodies, which they will receive when the Lord comes for them from heaven (1 Thes 4:16-17; Rv 19:1-4). The Lord will also give treasures and rewards at that time (Mt 5:12; 1 Cor 9:25; 2 Cor 5:1; 2 Tm 4:8; Jas 1:12; 1 Pt 1:4; 5:4; Rv 2:10; 4:10).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> “Abraham’s Bosom”; New Heavens and New Earth; Paradise.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HEAVEN<\/h3>\nRealm (or realms) designated by a Hebrew term used to represent the sky and air and also heaven. The form of the word in Hebrew is dual (implying two of something). Although this dual form may only represent an ancient device for expressing the plural, it is supposed by some to imply the existence of a lower and an upper heaven—a physical and a spiritual heaven.<\/p>\nIn the Old Testament<\/p>\nThe OT writers viewed the physical heavens as a “firmament” appearing as a great arch supported on foundations and pillars (2 Sm 22:8) and spread out above the earth, with rain descending through its doors (Ps 78:23). The keynote of the OT revelation about the physical heavens is set forth in Psalms 8 and 19:1-6. Elsewhere the OT speaks of the atmospheric heavens as the region of the clouds (Ps 147:8), winds (Zec 2:6), rain (Dt 11:11), thunder (1 Sm 2:10), dew (Dt 33:13), frost (Jb 38:29), and the abode of birds (Gn 1:26, 30). It is also the locale of such destructive forces as hail (Jos 10:11), fire, and brimstone (Gn 19:24). In the NT this notion of the vaulted expanse of the sky as the region in which the elements, clouds, and tempests gather (Mt 16:2; Lk 4:25) and birds fly (Lk 9:58) is continued.<\/p>\nIn addition to the atmospheric regions, the Hebrew idea of the physical heavens includes stellar space, which ultimately embraces the universe. The heavenly bodies of the stellar heavens were viewed by the Hebrews as inexpressibly glorious manifestations of God’s handiwork without having any power or vitality of their own. These include the sun, moon, planets, and stars, which were but lights in the firmament of the heavens (Gn 1:14; 15:5). As such, they were regarded as unworthy of worship because God had, by his own will and grace, made humans superior to them. In fact, the Hebrews were expressly forbidden to worship the stellar bodies (Ex 20:4), the gods and goddesses who represented them (Jer 44:17-25), or to participate in astrological speculation (Is 47:13). Hence, this unique theological ordinance differentiated the Hebrews, who viewed the heavenly bodies as made and moved by the will of God, from the superstitious heathen, who worshiped them.<\/p>\nThe term “heaven of heavens” (Dt 10:14; see also kjv<\/span> 1 Kgs 8:27; Pss 68:33; 148:4) is the literal English rendition of the Hebrew idiom for the superlative “the highest heaven.” Some have thought this the counterpart to Paul’s expression “the third heaven” (2 Cor 12:2), which parallels the classical Greek conception of three heavens. This notion was subsequently adopted by the Roman Catholic medieval church and in the Latin form of Coelum Aqueum, Coelum Sidereum,<\/em> and Coelum Empyreum.<\/em> The basic concept followed the Greek view, and it coincides with the OT view of the physical and spiritual heavens as indicated earlier. Those who follow this approach tend to regard this third heaven as the place reached by the souls of the blessed as they pass through the two lower regions of the atmosphere and outer space containing the celestial bodies, and enter into the uttermost reaches of the universe.<\/p>\nIn the New Testament<\/p>\nThe Lord Jesus indicated that heaven is the dwelling place of God (Mt 6:9). Jesus, during his earthly ministry, repeatedly claimed that he had come from heaven (Jn 3:13; 6:33-51); and on at least three occasions utterances from heaven confirmed these claims (Mt 3:16-17; 17:5; Jn 12:28). There is where the true tabernacle stands, of which the earthly tabernacle was merely a shadow (cf. Heb 8:1-5). That abode of God was in view when the apostle Paul wrote of “the third heaven” (2 Cor 12:2). As such, it is often seen as a synonym for God himself (cf. Mt 23:22; Lk 15:18).<\/p>\nAfter Jesus’ ascension, recorded in Acts 1:6-11, two angels reminded the disciples that Jesus would return again from heaven. This was later confirmed by the apostle Paul (1 Cor 15:1-11; Eph 4:7-16; 1 Tm 3:16) and reiterated in the summary of the teachings of the NT known as the Apostles’ Creed. In all, the relationship of Jesus Christ to the heavenly abode of God is inextricably interwoven in the NT and is inseparable from the gospel message itself. Indeed, it is from the “right hand of God” that Christ forever lives to make intercession for those who have come to him by faith (Heb 7:25; cf. Mk 14:62).<\/p>\nPaul asserts that the believer’s body will be made conformable to the glorious body of Jesus Christ when Christ returns from heaven (Phil 3:20-21). The believers need such a heavenly body to match their heavenly citizenship. The term “citizenship” (kjv<\/span>) or “commonwealth” (rsv<\/span>) implies a colony of individuals who live in a foreign country while observing the laws of their homeland instead of the land in which they reside (cf. Acts 22:28). The implication for believers is quite clear: They are to live according to the moral and ethical principles of God as revealed from heaven regardless of the standards proclaimed by the world. They have been raised together with Christ and have been instructed to “seek the things that are above, where Christ is, seated at the right hand of God” (Col 3:1). From there Christ has blessed his followers “with every spiritual blessing in the heavenly places” (Eph 1:3). The expression “in the heavenly places” is peculiar to Ephesians (see 1:3, 20; 2:6; 3:10; 6:12), suggesting that the blessings of the spiritual world are not relegated to some remote future time or place but can be perceived by faith here and now. That is why believers are said to have been made partakers already in the heavenly calling (Heb 3:1; 6:4).<\/p>\nIn the meanwhile, believers look forward to a new heaven and a new earth with the new Jerusalem. There will be no tears, sorrow, pain, death, and night there because the Son of God will be there (Rv 21:1-4, 27; 22:1-5), and in the resurrected state there will be no marrying or giving in marriage (Lk 20:27-38). At least two OT saints, Enoch (Gn 5:22-24; Heb 11:5) and Elijah (2 Kgs 2:11), were translated directly into the presence of God—into heaven. In addition to Paul’s statement about the third heaven, John was called into heaven (Rv 4:1), a heaven that is intended to be populated (cf. 19:1). All believers will ultimately dwell in heaven in their resurrection bodies, which they will receive when the Lord comes for them from heaven (1 Thes 4:16-17; Rv 19:1-4). The Lord will also give treasures and rewards at that time (Mt 5:12; 1 Cor 9:25; 2 Cor 5:1; 2 Tm 4:8; Jas 1:12; 1 Pt 1:4; 5:4; Rv 2:10; 4:10).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> “Abraham’s Bosom”; New Heavens and New Earth; Paradise.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HEAVEN Realm (or realms) designated by a Hebrew term used to represent the sky and air and also heaven. The form of the word in Hebrew is dual (implying two of something). Although this dual form may only represent an ancient device for expressing the plural, it is supposed by some to imply the existence of a lower and an upper heaven—a physical and a spiritual heaven. In the Old Testament The OT writers viewed the physical heavens as a “firmament” appearing as a great arch supported on found...","summary_en":"HEAVEN Realm (or realms) designated by a Hebrew term used to represent the sky and air and also heaven. The form of the word in Hebrew is dual (implying two of something). Although this dual form may only represent an ancient device for expressing the plural, it is supposed by some to imply the existence of a lower and an upper heaven—a physical and a spiritual heaven. In the Old Testament The OT writers viewed the physical heavens as a “firmament” appearing as a great arch supported on found...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":19286,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"New Jerusalem","title_en":"New Jerusalem","content_ro":"<h3>JERUSALEM, New<\/h3>\nPhrase appearing only twice in the Bible, once near the beginning and once near the end of the book of Revelation (Rv 3:12; 21:2). In the first of the great visions of that book, the risen Christ speaks to his people in the midst of their conflict in this world. Among his promises to those who conquer is that they will one day be citizens of the new Jerusalem. The last of the book’s visions shows the fulfillment of this promise. There we see not only the victorious people of God but also the city that is to be their home in a new world.<\/p>\nThis does not, of course, answer the question “What is the new Jerusalem?” A description of what it is like would be relatively simple. An explanation of what it is<\/em> would be more complicated.<\/p>\nDescription of the City<\/p>\nAn angel takes John to a mountaintop to show him the new Jerusalem. In the account that follows (Rv 21:10–22:5), the first thing John notes is the light, like a great jewel-like lamp, that lights the city (“the glory of God,” 21:11). Then he describes its walls and gates (21:12-14). The 12 gates bear the names of the tribes of Israel, and the wall between each gate and the next forms a single “foundation,” or block, bearing the name of one of the 12 apostles of Christ. Next, the measurements of the city are given (vv 15-17). It is 1,400 miles (2,220 kilometers) each way—not only in breadth and in length but also in height—and its wall is 216 feet (65.8 meters) thick (or high?). By working out these equivalents in miles and feet, however, we miss what John would probably have thought much more important. According to the biblical units of measurement, the city is 12,000 stadia broad and its wall is 144 cubits thick. These numbers are symbolic; as multiples of 12, they signify perfection, as do other occurrences of 12 in Revelation (e.g., 7:4-8).<\/p>\nAfter this, John describes the materials of which the new Jerusalem is built (21:18-21). The wall is of jasper; its foundation layers are encrusted with other precious stones; its gates are pearls; and the streets and buildings within are made of “transparent gold.” As for the city itself, John notes a series of things that it does not<\/em> have (vv 22-27)—no temple, no sun or moon, no night, no closing of its gates, and no evil. Finally, there are the three wonderful things that it does<\/em> have (22:1-5)—the river of the water of life, the tree of life, and the throne and presence of God himself.<\/p>\nSuch is the new Jerusalem as John describes it. But he wants us not so much to picture what the city looks like as to understand what it means.<\/p>\nBackground of the City<\/p>\nOT history presents the city of David, old Jerusalem, as the place where God’s rule over his people and his presence among them was centered. In that Jerusalem stood both the temple, where the priests served, and the throne of the kings who governed as God’s deputies. It was the metropolis, or “mother city,” of Israel, the people of God. But the whole Bible is about God’s redeeming a people for himself, out of all nations, in all ages—a greater Israel of which OT Israel is only the vanguard. So it is natural that the last revelation the Bible gives should be a vision of that greater people—home at last in the true mother city, a new and greater Jerusalem.<\/p>\nThe OT prophets witnessed the decline of old Jerusalem. They watched with grief and anger as it disappointed the hope that it would live up to its high destiny. As it became infected with sin and folly, and as its kings and priests increasingly betrayed their calling, two of these prophets in particular began to look forward to a Jerusalem that one day would be what it was meant to be. Ezekiel (chs 40–48) foresaw the city and its temple reconstructed in detail; Isaiah (chs 52, 60–66) described this latter-day Jerusalem in even more glowing terms. The vision of both prophets tie in closely with the vision John records in Revelation 21–22.<\/p>\nIn the period between the OT and NT, Jewish writers became yet more disillusioned with the way things were going, and they encouraged their readers not so much with hopes of the renewal of the earthly Jerusalem as with imaginative descriptions of the heavenly one. This, they reckoned, existed already; at the end of the age it would come down from God out of heaven, the metropolis of his people, populous and beautiful, the place of his temple and throne. In fact, what was imagined by these apocalyptic writers is in many respects very like what would in due course actually be seen by John.<\/p>\nJesus develops all these lines of thought in quite a remarkable way. It is not simply that he foretells the final destruction of Jerusalem and its temple (Mk 13; Lk 19:41-44). If that were all, it would leave a great question unanswered. For old Jerusalem existed for a purpose, as we have seen; and if it is to be destroyed, how can that purpose then be fulfilled? Where will God’s people then find his throne and his temple?<\/p>\nJesus’ answer is that, since the Incarnation, God’s rule and God’s presence are to be found in him<\/em> (Mt 28:18; Jn 14:9). He himself is the “new Jerusalem”—an entirely new kind of Jerusalem. This is borne out by the word for “new” that John uses in Revelation. There are two distinct Greek words translated in English Bibles as “new.” Sometime after the destruction of Jerusalem in AD<\/span> 70, the emperor Hadrian built a “new” Jerusalem; that was the kind of “new” that simply meant the latest in a series of cities on the same site. But John’s vision is of a Jerusalem that is “new” in the sense of being fresh, clean, and different. The NT speaks in the same way of the new covenant and the new commandment (Jn 13:34; Heb 8:8), the new creation and the new man (2 Cor 5:17; Eph 2:15). John’s vision brings out the same truth by telling of seven things that will exist “no more” in the new heaven and earth: no more sea, death, sorrow, crying, pain, curse, or night (Rv 21:1, 4; 22:3-5). In these respects all will be new and different.<\/p>\nThere are five passages elsewhere in the NT that help to fill in the background to Revelation 21. In Galatians 4:26 Paul speaks of “Jerusalem above,” the mother city of all who receive salvation by faith, as opposed to the old Jerusalem, where those belong who seek to please God by trying to obey the law (v 25). In Ephesians 5:25-32 he speaks of the bride of Christ, by which he means the church; in John’s vision the “bride” is the “city” (Rv 21:9-10). In Philippians 3:20 we are told that the heavenly city is not simply the future home of believers but also the place of their present “citizenship.” Hebrews 12:22 makes the same point: those who believe have arrived already at the “heavenly Jerusalem.” In other words, this<\/em> Jerusalem is the home of all God’s believing people, Jew and Gentile, from OT and NT times, and it seems not only to be future but also to exist already, in some sense, in the present. What, then, are we to make of John’s vision?<\/p>\nMeaning of the City<\/p>\nSome of those who expect a future Millennium (1,000-year earthly reign of Christ, between his second coming and final defeat of Satan) believe that the new Jerusalem belongs to the Millennium, because of certain indications that they think suit that period better than the eternal state that will follow it (Rv 21:24-26; 22:2). They visualize it as a literal, material city. It will presumably, then, be in the shape of a cube, or perhaps a pyramid, and some even picture it hovering like an immense spaceship above the surface of the earth.<\/p>\nMost millennarians, however, and also many who do not believe in a millennium in the sense just mentioned, think that John is describing the city as it will be in eternity. They, too, may take it literally, or they think that giving the literal details in these chapters—the city’s measurements, materials, and so on—is the only way in which John could describe something that is in fact indescribable (though nonetheless real).<\/p>\nIn line with the message of the entire book of Revelation, many take the new Jerusalem to be the ideal city of God, which belongs not only to the future but also to the present. It exists here and now because it is a spiritual truth, not a material one. It is always “coming down . . . out of heaven” precisely because it comes to men “from God” (21:2). The fact remains, of course, that everything John records in the last two chapters of Revelation belongs to a world that will only appear after the first heaven and the first earth have passed away—a world that is (to us, at any rate) still future.<\/p>\nTaking into account all these Scriptures, we may come closest to understanding the new Jerusalem if we see it as the community of Christ and his people, which will appear in its perfection only when this age has come to an end. Yet, in another sense, Christians belong to it already, and it gives them both an ideal to strive for in this world and a hope to anticipate in the next.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Bride of Christ; Church; Jerusalem.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JERUSALEM, New<\/h3>\nPhrase appearing only twice in the Bible, once near the beginning and once near the end of the book of Revelation (Rv 3:12; 21:2). In the first of the great visions of that book, the risen Christ speaks to his people in the midst of their conflict in this world. Among his promises to those who conquer is that they will one day be citizens of the new Jerusalem. The last of the book’s visions shows the fulfillment of this promise. There we see not only the victorious people of God but also the city that is to be their home in a new world.<\/p>\nThis does not, of course, answer the question “What is the new Jerusalem?” A description of what it is like would be relatively simple. An explanation of what it is<\/em> would be more complicated.<\/p>\nDescription of the City<\/p>\nAn angel takes John to a mountaintop to show him the new Jerusalem. In the account that follows (Rv 21:10–22:5), the first thing John notes is the light, like a great jewel-like lamp, that lights the city (“the glory of God,” 21:11). Then he describes its walls and gates (21:12-14). The 12 gates bear the names of the tribes of Israel, and the wall between each gate and the next forms a single “foundation,” or block, bearing the name of one of the 12 apostles of Christ. Next, the measurements of the city are given (vv 15-17). It is 1,400 miles (2,220 kilometers) each way—not only in breadth and in length but also in height—and its wall is 216 feet (65.8 meters) thick (or high?). By working out these equivalents in miles and feet, however, we miss what John would probably have thought much more important. According to the biblical units of measurement, the city is 12,000 stadia broad and its wall is 144 cubits thick. These numbers are symbolic; as multiples of 12, they signify perfection, as do other occurrences of 12 in Revelation (e.g., 7:4-8).<\/p>\nAfter this, John describes the materials of which the new Jerusalem is built (21:18-21). The wall is of jasper; its foundation layers are encrusted with other precious stones; its gates are pearls; and the streets and buildings within are made of “transparent gold.” As for the city itself, John notes a series of things that it does not<\/em> have (vv 22-27)—no temple, no sun or moon, no night, no closing of its gates, and no evil. Finally, there are the three wonderful things that it does<\/em> have (22:1-5)—the river of the water of life, the tree of life, and the throne and presence of God himself.<\/p>\nSuch is the new Jerusalem as John describes it. But he wants us not so much to picture what the city looks like as to understand what it means.<\/p>\nBackground of the City<\/p>\nOT history presents the city of David, old Jerusalem, as the place where God’s rule over his people and his presence among them was centered. In that Jerusalem stood both the temple, where the priests served, and the throne of the kings who governed as God’s deputies. It was the metropolis, or “mother city,” of Israel, the people of God. But the whole Bible is about God’s redeeming a people for himself, out of all nations, in all ages—a greater Israel of which OT Israel is only the vanguard. So it is natural that the last revelation the Bible gives should be a vision of that greater people—home at last in the true mother city, a new and greater Jerusalem.<\/p>\nThe OT prophets witnessed the decline of old Jerusalem. They watched with grief and anger as it disappointed the hope that it would live up to its high destiny. As it became infected with sin and folly, and as its kings and priests increasingly betrayed their calling, two of these prophets in particular began to look forward to a Jerusalem that one day would be what it was meant to be. Ezekiel (chs 40–48) foresaw the city and its temple reconstructed in detail; Isaiah (chs 52, 60–66) described this latter-day Jerusalem in even more glowing terms. The vision of both prophets tie in closely with the vision John records in Revelation 21–22.<\/p>\nIn the period between the OT and NT, Jewish writers became yet more disillusioned with the way things were going, and they encouraged their readers not so much with hopes of the renewal of the earthly Jerusalem as with imaginative descriptions of the heavenly one. This, they reckoned, existed already; at the end of the age it would come down from God out of heaven, the metropolis of his people, populous and beautiful, the place of his temple and throne. In fact, what was imagined by these apocalyptic writers is in many respects very like what would in due course actually be seen by John.<\/p>\nJesus develops all these lines of thought in quite a remarkable way. It is not simply that he foretells the final destruction of Jerusalem and its temple (Mk 13; Lk 19:41-44). If that were all, it would leave a great question unanswered. For old Jerusalem existed for a purpose, as we have seen; and if it is to be destroyed, how can that purpose then be fulfilled? Where will God’s people then find his throne and his temple?<\/p>\nJesus’ answer is that, since the Incarnation, God’s rule and God’s presence are to be found in him<\/em> (Mt 28:18; Jn 14:9). He himself is the “new Jerusalem”—an entirely new kind of Jerusalem. This is borne out by the word for “new” that John uses in Revelation. There are two distinct Greek words translated in English Bibles as “new.” Sometime after the destruction of Jerusalem in AD<\/span> 70, the emperor Hadrian built a “new” Jerusalem; that was the kind of “new” that simply meant the latest in a series of cities on the same site. But John’s vision is of a Jerusalem that is “new” in the sense of being fresh, clean, and different. The NT speaks in the same way of the new covenant and the new commandment (Jn 13:34; Heb 8:8), the new creation and the new man (2 Cor 5:17; Eph 2:15). John’s vision brings out the same truth by telling of seven things that will exist “no more” in the new heaven and earth: no more sea, death, sorrow, crying, pain, curse, or night (Rv 21:1, 4; 22:3-5). In these respects all will be new and different.<\/p>\nThere are five passages elsewhere in the NT that help to fill in the background to Revelation 21. In Galatians 4:26 Paul speaks of “Jerusalem above,” the mother city of all who receive salvation by faith, as opposed to the old Jerusalem, where those belong who seek to please God by trying to obey the law (v 25). In Ephesians 5:25-32 he speaks of the bride of Christ, by which he means the church; in John’s vision the “bride” is the “city” (Rv 21:9-10). In Philippians 3:20 we are told that the heavenly city is not simply the future home of believers but also the place of their present “citizenship.” Hebrews 12:22 makes the same point: those who believe have arrived already at the “heavenly Jerusalem.” In other words, this<\/em> Jerusalem is the home of all God’s believing people, Jew and Gentile, from OT and NT times, and it seems not only to be future but also to exist already, in some sense, in the present. What, then, are we to make of John’s vision?<\/p>\nMeaning of the City<\/p>\nSome of those who expect a future Millennium (1,000-year earthly reign of Christ, between his second coming and final defeat of Satan) believe that the new Jerusalem belongs to the Millennium, because of certain indications that they think suit that period better than the eternal state that will follow it (Rv 21:24-26; 22:2). They visualize it as a literal, material city. It will presumably, then, be in the shape of a cube, or perhaps a pyramid, and some even picture it hovering like an immense spaceship above the surface of the earth.<\/p>\nMost millennarians, however, and also many who do not believe in a millennium in the sense just mentioned, think that John is describing the city as it will be in eternity. They, too, may take it literally, or they think that giving the literal details in these chapters—the city’s measurements, materials, and so on—is the only way in which John could describe something that is in fact indescribable (though nonetheless real).<\/p>\nIn line with the message of the entire book of Revelation, many take the new Jerusalem to be the ideal city of God, which belongs not only to the future but also to the present. It exists here and now because it is a spiritual truth, not a material one. It is always “coming down . . . out of heaven” precisely because it comes to men “from God” (21:2). The fact remains, of course, that everything John records in the last two chapters of Revelation belongs to a world that will only appear after the first heaven and the first earth have passed away—a world that is (to us, at any rate) still future.<\/p>\nTaking into account all these Scriptures, we may come closest to understanding the new Jerusalem if we see it as the community of Christ and his people, which will appear in its perfection only when this age has come to an end. Yet, in another sense, Christians belong to it already, and it gives them both an ideal to strive for in this world and a hope to anticipate in the next.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Bride of Christ; Church; Jerusalem.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JERUSALEM, New Phrase appearing only twice in the Bible, once near the beginning and once near the end of the book of Revelation (Rv 3:12; 21:2). In the first of the great visions of that book, the risen Christ speaks to his people in the midst of their conflict in this world. Among his promises to those who conquer is that they will one day be citizens of the new Jerusalem. The last of the book’s visions shows the fulfillment of this promise. There we see not only the victorious people of Go...","summary_en":"JERUSALEM, New Phrase appearing only twice in the Bible, once near the beginning and once near the end of the book of Revelation (Rv 3:12; 21:2). In the first of the great visions of that book, the risen Christ speaks to his people in the midst of their conflict in this world. Among his promises to those who conquer is that they will one day be citizens of the new Jerusalem. The last of the book’s visions shows the fulfillment of this promise. There we see not only the victorious people of Go...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22583,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Last Days","title_en":"Last Days","content_ro":"<h3>LAST DAYS<\/h3>\nExpression used in Scripture to describe the final period of the world as we now know it. In the OT the last days are anticipated as the age of messianic fulfillment (see Is 2:2; Mi 4:1), and the NT writers regard themselves as living in the last days, the era of the gospel. Thus, for example, Peter explains that the events of the Day of Pentecost are the fulfillment of Joel 2:28: “In the last days, God said, I will pour out my Spirit upon all people. Your sons and daughters will prophesy, your young men will see visions, and your old men will dream dreams. In those days I will pour out my Spirit upon all my servants, men and women alike, and they will prophesy” (Acts 2:17-18, nlt<\/span>). The author of the letter to the Hebrews declares, “Long ago God spoke many times and in many ways to our ancestors through the prophets. But now in these final days, he has spoken to us through his Son” (Heb 1:1-2, nlt<\/span>). The last days, then, are the days of evangelical blessing in which the benefits of the salvation procured by the perfect life, death, resurrection, and glorification of Jesus Christ are freely available throughout the world. They are the days of opportunity for unbelievers to repent and turn to God, and of responsibility for believers to proclaim the gospel message throughout the world.<\/p>\nThe plural “last days” gives the impression of a period of some duration, and the correctness of this impression is confirmed by the fact that this final age has already lasted for many centuries. But in the perspective of eternity it is no more than a short time, and in every generation the end of this final age is always imminent, so much so that John speaks of it as “the last hour.” To this the presence of antichrist even within the church of the apostolic period bears witness. “It is the last hour,” John says, “and as you have heard that antichrist is coming, so now many antichrists have come; therefore we know that it is the last hour” (1 Jn 2:18, rsv<\/span>). The end of these last days is always at hand, and one day it will certainly come; hence the need, insisted on by Christ, for constant vigilance, in view of the consideration that we know neither the day nor the hour of his return in majesty, the climactic event that will bring these last days to a close (Mt 24:44; 25:13).<\/p>\nThis leads naturally to the further teaching that these last days will have their culmination in “the Day”: the last days will be terminated by the last day. The use of the term “day” in the singular corresponds in the NT to the concept of the “Day of the Lord” familiar in the OT, where it is generally presented as an awful day of final judgment against the unrepentant, but with the implication that it is also the day of the salvation and vindication of God’s people (see, e.g., Is 2:12-22; Ez 13:5; Jl 1:15; 2:1, 11; Am 5:18-24; Zep 1:7, 14). The climax of these last days, and therefore of all history, will be “the day of the Lord,” which will overtake the world suddenly (1 Thes 5:2). This last of the last days will be the day of the last judgment for rejecters of the gospel, the purification of our present fallen world, the restoration of the created order, so that in the new heaven and the new earth all of God’s purposes in creation are brought to fulfillment. Then, at the consummation of our redemption, at last fully conformed to our Redeemer’s likeness, we will enter into the enjoyment of his eternal glory (Rom 8:19-25; 1 Jn 3:2; Rv 21:1-8).<\/p>\nMoreover, Christians are reminded by the apostle Paul that on this last day, which he calls simply “the Day,” the quality of their building will be revealed—i.e., what they have done with their lives will be known. It is not that the security of their salvation in Christ is in any way at stake; rather, it is to measure whether they will meet him with confidence or with shame at his coming (cf. 1 Jn 2:28). “Each man’s work will become manifest,” Paul writes; “for the Day will disclose it. . . . If the work which any man has built on the foundation survives, he will receive a reward. If any man’s work is burned up, he will suffer loss, though he himself will be saved” (1 Cor 3:13-15, rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nThis last of the last days is followed by the everlasting day of Christ’s kingdom when God will be all in all (1 Cor 15:28; Phil 3:20-21). The last day is also, accordingly, the day of triumph and resurrection, when Christ has promised to raise up everyone who believes in him (Jn 6:39-44, 54). The last days are like night compared with the glory that will be revealed at Christ’s return, so that the end of these last days will also be the beginning of God’s unending day (see Rom 13:11-12). The realization that we are in the last days and that the last day is approaching ought to have a dramatic effect on the quality and intensity of our living here and now (see 2 Pt 3:11-14).<\/p>\nThe last days, then, are the days of the gospel of our Lord Jesus Christ. They are preliminary to and preparatory for the last day of final judgment of unbelievers and the dawn of eternal glory for believers. For Christ’s faithful followers they are days of joy and blessing, but still days in which the fullness of redemption is awaited. They are days, too, of trial and affliction for the church of Christ. But God has given us the assurance of his Spirit in our hearts, the foretaste that guarantees the full banquet hereafter, the down payment that pledges the payment in full (Rom 8:23; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Eph 1:14). Meanwhile, we should be assured with the apostle Paul that the sufferings of these last days are not worth comparing with the glory that is to be revealed to us (Rom 8:18). They are days, moreover, of responsibility and opportunity: responsibility because Christians are under orders to proclaim the gospel throughout the world (Mt 28:19-20; Acts 1:8) and all people everywhere are commanded by God to repent (Acts 17:30).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Day of the Lord; Second Coming of Christ.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LAST DAYS<\/h3>\nExpression used in Scripture to describe the final period of the world as we now know it. In the OT the last days are anticipated as the age of messianic fulfillment (see Is 2:2; Mi 4:1), and the NT writers regard themselves as living in the last days, the era of the gospel. Thus, for example, Peter explains that the events of the Day of Pentecost are the fulfillment of Joel 2:28: “In the last days, God said, I will pour out my Spirit upon all people. Your sons and daughters will prophesy, your young men will see visions, and your old men will dream dreams. In those days I will pour out my Spirit upon all my servants, men and women alike, and they will prophesy” (Acts 2:17-18, nlt<\/span>). The author of the letter to the Hebrews declares, “Long ago God spoke many times and in many ways to our ancestors through the prophets. But now in these final days, he has spoken to us through his Son” (Heb 1:1-2, nlt<\/span>). The last days, then, are the days of evangelical blessing in which the benefits of the salvation procured by the perfect life, death, resurrection, and glorification of Jesus Christ are freely available throughout the world. They are the days of opportunity for unbelievers to repent and turn to God, and of responsibility for believers to proclaim the gospel message throughout the world.<\/p>\nThe plural “last days” gives the impression of a period of some duration, and the correctness of this impression is confirmed by the fact that this final age has already lasted for many centuries. But in the perspective of eternity it is no more than a short time, and in every generation the end of this final age is always imminent, so much so that John speaks of it as “the last hour.” To this the presence of antichrist even within the church of the apostolic period bears witness. “It is the last hour,” John says, “and as you have heard that antichrist is coming, so now many antichrists have come; therefore we know that it is the last hour” (1 Jn 2:18, rsv<\/span>). The end of these last days is always at hand, and one day it will certainly come; hence the need, insisted on by Christ, for constant vigilance, in view of the consideration that we know neither the day nor the hour of his return in majesty, the climactic event that will bring these last days to a close (Mt 24:44; 25:13).<\/p>\nThis leads naturally to the further teaching that these last days will have their culmination in “the Day”: the last days will be terminated by the last day. The use of the term “day” in the singular corresponds in the NT to the concept of the “Day of the Lord” familiar in the OT, where it is generally presented as an awful day of final judgment against the unrepentant, but with the implication that it is also the day of the salvation and vindication of God’s people (see, e.g., Is 2:12-22; Ez 13:5; Jl 1:15; 2:1, 11; Am 5:18-24; Zep 1:7, 14). The climax of these last days, and therefore of all history, will be “the day of the Lord,” which will overtake the world suddenly (1 Thes 5:2). This last of the last days will be the day of the last judgment for rejecters of the gospel, the purification of our present fallen world, the restoration of the created order, so that in the new heaven and the new earth all of God’s purposes in creation are brought to fulfillment. Then, at the consummation of our redemption, at last fully conformed to our Redeemer’s likeness, we will enter into the enjoyment of his eternal glory (Rom 8:19-25; 1 Jn 3:2; Rv 21:1-8).<\/p>\nMoreover, Christians are reminded by the apostle Paul that on this last day, which he calls simply “the Day,” the quality of their building will be revealed—i.e., what they have done with their lives will be known. It is not that the security of their salvation in Christ is in any way at stake; rather, it is to measure whether they will meet him with confidence or with shame at his coming (cf. 1 Jn 2:28). “Each man’s work will become manifest,” Paul writes; “for the Day will disclose it. . . . If the work which any man has built on the foundation survives, he will receive a reward. If any man’s work is burned up, he will suffer loss, though he himself will be saved” (1 Cor 3:13-15, rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nThis last of the last days is followed by the everlasting day of Christ’s kingdom when God will be all in all (1 Cor 15:28; Phil 3:20-21). The last day is also, accordingly, the day of triumph and resurrection, when Christ has promised to raise up everyone who believes in him (Jn 6:39-44, 54). The last days are like night compared with the glory that will be revealed at Christ’s return, so that the end of these last days will also be the beginning of God’s unending day (see Rom 13:11-12). The realization that we are in the last days and that the last day is approaching ought to have a dramatic effect on the quality and intensity of our living here and now (see 2 Pt 3:11-14).<\/p>\nThe last days, then, are the days of the gospel of our Lord Jesus Christ. They are preliminary to and preparatory for the last day of final judgment of unbelievers and the dawn of eternal glory for believers. For Christ’s faithful followers they are days of joy and blessing, but still days in which the fullness of redemption is awaited. They are days, too, of trial and affliction for the church of Christ. But God has given us the assurance of his Spirit in our hearts, the foretaste that guarantees the full banquet hereafter, the down payment that pledges the payment in full (Rom 8:23; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Eph 1:14). Meanwhile, we should be assured with the apostle Paul that the sufferings of these last days are not worth comparing with the glory that is to be revealed to us (Rom 8:18). They are days, moreover, of responsibility and opportunity: responsibility because Christians are under orders to proclaim the gospel throughout the world (Mt 28:19-20; Acts 1:8) and all people everywhere are commanded by God to repent (Acts 17:30).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Day of the Lord; Second Coming of Christ.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LAST DAYS Expression used in Scripture to describe the final period of the world as we now know it. In the OT the last days are anticipated as the age of messianic fulfillment (see Is 2:2; Mi 4:1), and the NT writers regard themselves as living in the last days, the era of the gospel. Thus, for example, Peter explains that the events of the Day of Pentecost are the fulfillment of Joel 2:28: “In the last days, God said, I will pour out my Spirit upon all people. Your sons and daughters will pr...","summary_en":"LAST DAYS Expression used in Scripture to describe the final period of the world as we now know it. In the OT the last days are anticipated as the age of messianic fulfillment (see Is 2:2; Mi 4:1), and the NT writers regard themselves as living in the last days, the era of the gospel. Thus, for example, Peter explains that the events of the Day of Pentecost are the fulfillment of Joel 2:28: “In the last days, God said, I will pour out my Spirit upon all people. Your sons and daughters will pr...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30209,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter to the Philippians","title_en":"Letter to the Philippians","content_ro":"<h3>PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the<\/span><\/h3>\nOne of Paul’s Prison Epistles.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date and Origin<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Theological Themes<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nPhilippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary.<\/p>\nDate and Origin<\/p>\nWhile it is clear that Paul was writing from prison (Phil 1:12-13), it is not clear where he was imprisoned. The most likely possibility is Rome, in which case the date would be around AD<\/span> 62. But some have thought that all the journeys implied in 4:14 and 2:25-26 make such a distant place unlikely (the Philippians hear that Paul is in prison and send a gift by Epaphroditus; Epaphroditus hears in Rome that the Philippians have heard that he has been ill). So the alternatives of Ephesus (c. AD<\/span> 55) and Caesarea (c. AD<\/span> 58) have been proposed. We know that Paul was imprisoned in Caesarea (Acts 23:33-35), but the greeting “from those of Caesar’s household” is difficult to explain if it was written there, in spite of the coincidence of name. Ephesus is certainly near enough to Philippi for plenty of interchange, but no imprisonment is recorded in the account of Paul’s ministry there in Acts. So we would have to assume that Luke’s account in Acts 19 is not complete and that Paul had been placed in protective custody at the time of the riot (see esp. 19:30-31). But such an imprisonment could hardly have led Paul to wonder whether his time “to depart and be with Christ” had now come (Phil 1:23). At the time of writing, he was clearly facing a capital charge.<\/p>\nThe traditional location (Rome) seems the most satisfactory, especially when one reflects that Paul was imprisoned there for at least two years (Acts 28:30), and that it took about three weeks to travel from Rome to Philippi.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nPhilippi had the distinction of being a Roman colony (Acts 16:12), a privilege accorded to only a few cities outside Italy. Some 90 years before the gospel arrived there (c. AD<\/span> 50), the city had been greatly expanded by large numbers of Roman soldiers, who were settled there by their commanding officers. As a consequence, the town acquired its coveted status as a colony, which meant that for all intents and purposes its citizens were treated as if they lived in Italy, and the town had a fully Roman administration. Paul alludes to this status in Philippians 3:20, where he teaches that Christians likewise are citizens of another city, the heavenly one, while yet residents elsewhere. It was a rich and busy place, one of the main centers of life in Macedonia, and consequently was “home” to the adherents of many different religions, from both east and west. There was a strong Jewish community there, as well as pagans of many sorts.<\/p>\nTheological Themes<\/p>\nIn a sense Paul’s imprisonment is not just background material but lies at the heart of the letter’s message. In his imprisonment he was experiencing the abasement that he mentions in 4:12, using there the same word found in 2:8 to describe the self-humbling of Christ unto death. The pattern of the ministry of Jesus described in the great “hymn” of 2:6-11—humiliation followed by glorification—becomes the pattern of Paul’s own life and of the vision he holds out before the Philippians. So alongside abasement and suffering, joy is the other great theme of the letter. Within suffering and self-sacrifice, true joy is born. In fact, Philippians could justly be titled “The Epistle of Joy.” Other prominent themes include the gospel, the Day of the Lord, and in addition to the famous “hymn” in chapter 2, a comparison of Paul’s Jewish past with his present Christian experience (3:4-16).<\/p>\n\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting and Opening Prayer (1:1-11)<\/h5>\nIn the opening paragraph of his letter, Paul presents the themes that will be uppermost in his mind throughout. His personal warmth toward the Philippians is immediately striking: “I have you in my heart. . . . I long for all of you” (1:7-8), and this thought of outgoing and suffering love undergirds the whole letter. It is notable, too, that the letter begins and ends with the themes of “grace” and of “the saints” (1:1-2; 4:21-23). The grace of Christ, which reaches out to sinful people and transforms them, separating them from the world, occupies Paul throughout. “The saints” are the ones who, touched by that grace, are transformed in heart and mind, so that their love abounds more and more in knowledge and depth of insight (1:9).<\/p>\nTwo more great themes appear here. The Greek word phroneo<\/span>,<\/em> “to think,” is used more in Philippians than in any other letter of Paul, no fewer than nine times (as against seven in Romans). Unfortunately, it is not uniformly translated in the English versions, and so it is hard for the English reader to notice its repeated appearance and the emphasis on the right use of the mind that goes with it. But for Paul this is vital: the way we think is at the heart of the Christian life, and in these opening verses he makes it clear that the love he feels for the Philippians is actually the Christian way of thinking about them (v 7: literally, “It is right for me to think this way about you”). This leads naturally to another emphasis—growth. For the “Christian mind” does not appear overnight. So Paul prays that this mind may grow, giving the Philippians powers of discernment that will transform their character and prepare them for “the day of Christ” (vv 10-11; cf. v 6).<\/p>\nFinally, we note in this opening prayer the twin emphases on the gospel and on fellowship—linked in Paul’s prayer of thanksgiving for the Philippians’ partnership in the gospel (v 5; cf. v 7)—and also the introduction of the great theme of joy (v 4). All three are vital to the whole letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul and His Imprisonment: Christ Exalted (1:12-26)<\/h5>\nPaul writes about his own situation to present the heart of his message. For when he writes, “For me to live is Christ” (v 21), he means more than that his every waking moment is taken up by fellowship with his Lord and service for him. He means also that, in his own person and experience, he displays Christ and “lives” him. Later he will say, “Keep putting into practice all you learned from me and heard from me and saw me doing” (4:9, nlt<\/span>). Few Christian ministers would dare make such a claim today! Yet Paul believed that, as an apostle of Christ, it was his privilege not just to speak on Christ’s behalf but also to live out Christ’s life in his own person, even if that meant suffering and humiliation.<\/p>\nThere are two historical difficulties here. First, it is hard to reconstruct the situation to which Paul refers in 1:12-18. The church in Rome (if that is where he is) was clearly divided about his imprisonment—some believers actually being glad that he was behind bars. It seems as though they were prompted by his imprisonment to get on with preaching their own version of the gospel. Far from being upset by this, Paul is delighted! “What does it matter?” he asks (v 18). Whether by friend or foe, Christ is being proclaimed in a new way as a result of his imprisonment (v 14). He was normally quick to defend the purity of the Word proclaimed, so these rivals of Paul could not have been heretics.<\/p>\nThe other historical difficulty surrounds verses 19-26. At one moment Paul seems not to know what the outcome of imprisonment will be (vv 19-21). Yet he then suggests that he can choose whether to live or die (v 22), and finally tells the Philippians that he is sure he will remain alive (v 25). The best explanation is that Paul believed he had received a personal assurance from the Holy Spirit that his imprisonment would not end with his execution.<\/p>\nAt any rate, his attitude about his own death is most moving. He expected deliverance, whether by life or by death (vv 19-20), and had an unshakeable confidence that to die is “better by far” (v 23), because it means being “with Christ.” This section ends with a note of joy.<\/p>\n<h5>The Life Worthy of the Gospel (1:27–2:18)<\/h5>\nThis section ends with “joy,” just as the last did, and its whole message is summed up in the opening exhortation of verse 27. Paul wanted the Philippians to be people in whom there is no gap between profession and practice, in whom the gospel believed is the gospel lived. The section falls into four portions, which might be entitled as follows: (1) 1:27-30—the worthy life in a hostile world; (2) 2:1-4—the worthy life in Christian fellowship; (3) 2:5-11—the gospel that inspires us; (4) 2:12-18—priorities for lives worthy of the gospel.<\/p>\nPaul refused to let the Philippians feel that he was worse off than they. He wrote, “We are in this fight together. You have seen me suffer for him in the past, and you know that I am still in the midst of this great struggle” (1:30, nlt<\/span>). For suffering at the hands of a hostile world is part and parcel of Christian discipleship. If we profess to believe a gospel about one who, though equal with God, left aside the glory of heaven and submitted not just to incarnation but also to a horrible death (2:6-8), then we must think of suffering not as an unfortunate necessity but as a privilege! “For you have been given not only the privilege of trusting in Christ but also the privilege of suffering for him” (1:29, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe essential quality the believers need, in order to face successfully the hostility of the world, is unity. They must be “standing side by side, fighting together for the Good News” (1:27), and believing one gospel will produce a united front against the world—and not a purely defensive front, either. The theme of unity continues into chapter 2, where Paul turns to life within the fellowship (2:1-4), as if to say that external unity before the world will not be possible unless their hearts and minds are truly united in one love, spirit, and purpose (v 2), whatever their outward situation. Such a unity will come only if there is tenderness and compassion among them (v 1). The lovely progression in verse 1 reaches a climax with this phrase, and that in turn leads into the famous “hymn” in 2:6-11. Such tenderness will not find its home in their hearts unless they believe the gospel about which the hymn sings.<\/p>\nWhether 2:6-11 was in fact a real hymn, sung in the context of early Christian worship, is now impossible to know for sure. Certainly Paul’s language here takes on a hymnic quality, though it is not in poetic form. Many scholars have thought that Paul did not write these verses himself but was quoting a well-known piece of liturgy. All one can say for certain is that his language changes in style, and he expressed here ideas that are unique in his writings.<\/p>\nThe hymn blends in with its context beautifully, and in fact forms the core of the whole letter. For we see here how the experience of imprisonment and deliverance, and of suffering and joy, is an entering into the experience of Jesus himself, who died and rose, was humbled and glorified.<\/p>\n<h5>Two Worthy Examples and Friends (2:19-30)<\/h5>\nPaul again writes about his own situation and plans, but as before, this section is not just concerned with practical arrangements. On the face of it, he was simply explaining why he was sending the letter by the hand of Epaphroditus instead of Timothy. But actually he was holding them up as practical examples of the life lived by the gospel, about which he had just written. Timothy “genuinely cares about your welfare” (2:20), because, unlike everyone else, he did not seek his own interests but those of Jesus Christ (v 21). He lived the gospel! He was committed to the work of the gospel (v 22). And Epaphroditus was the same, though in a different way. His union with Jesus was expressed not so much in his self-giving service for the gospel and his fellow saints, as in the illness that he suffered and the pains of separation that he endured. Like Jesus, he put his life on the line (v 30), and like Jesus, he was restored to life again (v 27). Now he was to be restored to his beloved Philippians, and the joy that they would experience together would be a further outworking of the gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>Pressing Forward and Standing Firm (3:1–4:1)<\/h5>\nThis section also begins and ends on the note of joy (3:1; 4:1)—not accidentally. The way of the cross that Paul describes is also the way of joy (cf. Heb 12:2). It begins and ends also with the address “dear brothers and sisters,” and this, too, is not accidental, for once again in this passage Paul writes about himself, and once again the underlying thought is that his experience is typical and that his readers should expect and seek to see the same pattern in their lives. He wrote, “Dear brothers and sisters, pattern your lives after mine, and learn from those who follow our example” (3:17, nlt<\/span>). Having put forward Timothy and Epaphroditus as examples in 2:19-30, Paul now does the same with himself.<\/p>\nThe tone seems to change dramatically in 3:2, as Paul turns to warn the Philippians against “those dogs,” who are probably the same as those to whom he refers in 1:28 as “your enemies.” There, he was much concerned about the inner foundation of the Philippians’ stand against them, so he did not specify who they were. But now he examines them more closely, in order to show the Philippians that the Christian life entails a complete reversal of the values held by their opponents.<\/p>\nIt seems that they were Jews, the sort in Acts 17:5 who opposed Paul’s ministry in nearby Thessalonica. They believed that they were God’s chosen race, but Paul thought that was nothing more than placing confidence in the flesh (Phil 3:4). They thought they knew the way of righteousness—it is the way of rigorous and disciplined obedience to God’s law in every detail of life. But Paul thought that was to seek a righteousness of one’s own (v 9), having nothing to do with the righteousness that God wants to give. The true way to be God’s people, he movingly insists, is the way of self-renunciation, so that all he previously held dear as a Jew came to be seen as rubbish (v 8), considered as loss for the sake of Christ (v 7). The only way to attain righteousness is through faith in Christ (v 9), for Christians must become like him in his death if they are to know the power of his resurrection (v 10). For Paul, dying with Christ meant not just suffering imprisonment and many other indignities for Christ’s sake but also renouncing all the prized possessions that his Judaism had given him.<\/p>\n<h5>Thinking, Rejoicing, Sharing (4:2-23)<\/h5>\nAgain, the tone changes suddenly (both at 4:2 and at 4:10)—so much so that some scholars have suggested that Philippians was compiled by an editor using several different letters. But when Paul turns (in v 2) to address Euodia and Syntyche, he was not really changing the subject. The link with the last section is the same as that between 1:27-30 and the first paragraph in chapter 2: how can Christians expect to be able to hold their own in the face of some enemies of the cross of Christ (3:18) if they are disunited and at odds with each other? For if there is just one gospel, disharmony between Christians means that the gospel is not having its full effect. So Euodia and Syntyche are urged (literally) to “think the same thing in the Lord” (4:2), and are then reminded of how they once found a wonderful unity in striving side by side in the cause of the gospel (v 3).<\/p>\nThe agreement that Paul urges them to come to does not mean complete identity of opinions on all subjects. It means a oneness of heart in a common love for Christ and the gospel. In the rest of the letter Paul spells out what this oneness means in practice—both what it should mean and what it has meant for the Philippians. The use of the mind is vital, and in verses 4-9 Paul paints a picture of the Christian life in which careful and intelligent prayer (vv 6-7) and the deliberate directing of the mind toward “whatever is true and honorable” (v 8) will produce a life marked by the two qualities of peace and joy, whatever the circumstances.<\/p>\nThat leads to the final paragraph, in which Paul gives thanks that, in spite of the disharmony evident in one part of the Philippian church, the church as a whole has already displayed this true Christian “mind.” For they have shown their oneness with Paul in the cause of the gospel by sending him a gift by Epaphroditus. “You have done well to share with me in my present difficulty,” Paul writes (4:14), and our thoughts go back again to the hymn in 2:6-11. From the gospel about the one who came from heaven to bear our burdens comes this mutual sharing—and so does Paul’s wonderful attitude to his circumstances: “I know how to be humbled [the same word as in 2:8], and I know how to abound” (4:12). Joined to Christ, we do not anxiously seek provision for our needs (v 17; cf. v 6), but share with him and with others whatever humiliation and exaltation he sends, confident that God will meet all our needs “from his glorious riches, which have been given to us in Christ Jesus” (4:19, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Philippi.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the<\/span><\/h3>\nOne of Paul’s Prison Epistles.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date and Origin<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Theological Themes<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nPhilippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary.<\/p>\nDate and Origin<\/p>\nWhile it is clear that Paul was writing from prison (Phil 1:12-13), it is not clear where he was imprisoned. The most likely possibility is Rome, in which case the date would be around AD<\/span> 62. But some have thought that all the journeys implied in 4:14 and 2:25-26 make such a distant place unlikely (the Philippians hear that Paul is in prison and send a gift by Epaphroditus; Epaphroditus hears in Rome that the Philippians have heard that he has been ill). So the alternatives of Ephesus (c. AD<\/span> 55) and Caesarea (c. AD<\/span> 58) have been proposed. We know that Paul was imprisoned in Caesarea (Acts 23:33-35), but the greeting “from those of Caesar’s household” is difficult to explain if it was written there, in spite of the coincidence of name. Ephesus is certainly near enough to Philippi for plenty of interchange, but no imprisonment is recorded in the account of Paul’s ministry there in Acts. So we would have to assume that Luke’s account in Acts 19 is not complete and that Paul had been placed in protective custody at the time of the riot (see esp. 19:30-31). But such an imprisonment could hardly have led Paul to wonder whether his time “to depart and be with Christ” had now come (Phil 1:23). At the time of writing, he was clearly facing a capital charge.<\/p>\nThe traditional location (Rome) seems the most satisfactory, especially when one reflects that Paul was imprisoned there for at least two years (Acts 28:30), and that it took about three weeks to travel from Rome to Philippi.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nPhilippi had the distinction of being a Roman colony (Acts 16:12), a privilege accorded to only a few cities outside Italy. Some 90 years before the gospel arrived there (c. AD<\/span> 50), the city had been greatly expanded by large numbers of Roman soldiers, who were settled there by their commanding officers. As a consequence, the town acquired its coveted status as a colony, which meant that for all intents and purposes its citizens were treated as if they lived in Italy, and the town had a fully Roman administration. Paul alludes to this status in Philippians 3:20, where he teaches that Christians likewise are citizens of another city, the heavenly one, while yet residents elsewhere. It was a rich and busy place, one of the main centers of life in Macedonia, and consequently was “home” to the adherents of many different religions, from both east and west. There was a strong Jewish community there, as well as pagans of many sorts.<\/p>\nTheological Themes<\/p>\nIn a sense Paul’s imprisonment is not just background material but lies at the heart of the letter’s message. In his imprisonment he was experiencing the abasement that he mentions in 4:12, using there the same word found in 2:8 to describe the self-humbling of Christ unto death. The pattern of the ministry of Jesus described in the great “hymn” of 2:6-11—humiliation followed by glorification—becomes the pattern of Paul’s own life and of the vision he holds out before the Philippians. So alongside abasement and suffering, joy is the other great theme of the letter. Within suffering and self-sacrifice, true joy is born. In fact, Philippians could justly be titled “The Epistle of Joy.” Other prominent themes include the gospel, the Day of the Lord, and in addition to the famous “hymn” in chapter 2, a comparison of Paul’s Jewish past with his present Christian experience (3:4-16).<\/p>\n\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting and Opening Prayer (1:1-11)<\/h5>\nIn the opening paragraph of his letter, Paul presents the themes that will be uppermost in his mind throughout. His personal warmth toward the Philippians is immediately striking: “I have you in my heart. . . . I long for all of you” (1:7-8), and this thought of outgoing and suffering love undergirds the whole letter. It is notable, too, that the letter begins and ends with the themes of “grace” and of “the saints” (1:1-2; 4:21-23). The grace of Christ, which reaches out to sinful people and transforms them, separating them from the world, occupies Paul throughout. “The saints” are the ones who, touched by that grace, are transformed in heart and mind, so that their love abounds more and more in knowledge and depth of insight (1:9).<\/p>\nTwo more great themes appear here. The Greek word phroneo<\/span>,<\/em> “to think,” is used more in Philippians than in any other letter of Paul, no fewer than nine times (as against seven in Romans). Unfortunately, it is not uniformly translated in the English versions, and so it is hard for the English reader to notice its repeated appearance and the emphasis on the right use of the mind that goes with it. But for Paul this is vital: the way we think is at the heart of the Christian life, and in these opening verses he makes it clear that the love he feels for the Philippians is actually the Christian way of thinking about them (v 7: literally, “It is right for me to think this way about you”). This leads naturally to another emphasis—growth. For the “Christian mind” does not appear overnight. So Paul prays that this mind may grow, giving the Philippians powers of discernment that will transform their character and prepare them for “the day of Christ” (vv 10-11; cf. v 6).<\/p>\nFinally, we note in this opening prayer the twin emphases on the gospel and on fellowship—linked in Paul’s prayer of thanksgiving for the Philippians’ partnership in the gospel (v 5; cf. v 7)—and also the introduction of the great theme of joy (v 4). All three are vital to the whole letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul and His Imprisonment: Christ Exalted (1:12-26)<\/h5>\nPaul writes about his own situation to present the heart of his message. For when he writes, “For me to live is Christ” (v 21), he means more than that his every waking moment is taken up by fellowship with his Lord and service for him. He means also that, in his own person and experience, he displays Christ and “lives” him. Later he will say, “Keep putting into practice all you learned from me and heard from me and saw me doing” (4:9, nlt<\/span>). Few Christian ministers would dare make such a claim today! Yet Paul believed that, as an apostle of Christ, it was his privilege not just to speak on Christ’s behalf but also to live out Christ’s life in his own person, even if that meant suffering and humiliation.<\/p>\nThere are two historical difficulties here. First, it is hard to reconstruct the situation to which Paul refers in 1:12-18. The church in Rome (if that is where he is) was clearly divided about his imprisonment—some believers actually being glad that he was behind bars. It seems as though they were prompted by his imprisonment to get on with preaching their own version of the gospel. Far from being upset by this, Paul is delighted! “What does it matter?” he asks (v 18). Whether by friend or foe, Christ is being proclaimed in a new way as a result of his imprisonment (v 14). He was normally quick to defend the purity of the Word proclaimed, so these rivals of Paul could not have been heretics.<\/p>\nThe other historical difficulty surrounds verses 19-26. At one moment Paul seems not to know what the outcome of imprisonment will be (vv 19-21). Yet he then suggests that he can choose whether to live or die (v 22), and finally tells the Philippians that he is sure he will remain alive (v 25). The best explanation is that Paul believed he had received a personal assurance from the Holy Spirit that his imprisonment would not end with his execution.<\/p>\nAt any rate, his attitude about his own death is most moving. He expected deliverance, whether by life or by death (vv 19-20), and had an unshakeable confidence that to die is “better by far” (v 23), because it means being “with Christ.” This section ends with a note of joy.<\/p>\n<h5>The Life Worthy of the Gospel (1:27–2:18)<\/h5>\nThis section ends with “joy,” just as the last did, and its whole message is summed up in the opening exhortation of verse 27. Paul wanted the Philippians to be people in whom there is no gap between profession and practice, in whom the gospel believed is the gospel lived. The section falls into four portions, which might be entitled as follows: (1) 1:27-30—the worthy life in a hostile world; (2) 2:1-4—the worthy life in Christian fellowship; (3) 2:5-11—the gospel that inspires us; (4) 2:12-18—priorities for lives worthy of the gospel.<\/p>\nPaul refused to let the Philippians feel that he was worse off than they. He wrote, “We are in this fight together. You have seen me suffer for him in the past, and you know that I am still in the midst of this great struggle” (1:30, nlt<\/span>). For suffering at the hands of a hostile world is part and parcel of Christian discipleship. If we profess to believe a gospel about one who, though equal with God, left aside the glory of heaven and submitted not just to incarnation but also to a horrible death (2:6-8), then we must think of suffering not as an unfortunate necessity but as a privilege! “For you have been given not only the privilege of trusting in Christ but also the privilege of suffering for him” (1:29, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe essential quality the believers need, in order to face successfully the hostility of the world, is unity. They must be “standing side by side, fighting together for the Good News” (1:27), and believing one gospel will produce a united front against the world—and not a purely defensive front, either. The theme of unity continues into chapter 2, where Paul turns to life within the fellowship (2:1-4), as if to say that external unity before the world will not be possible unless their hearts and minds are truly united in one love, spirit, and purpose (v 2), whatever their outward situation. Such a unity will come only if there is tenderness and compassion among them (v 1). The lovely progression in verse 1 reaches a climax with this phrase, and that in turn leads into the famous “hymn” in 2:6-11. Such tenderness will not find its home in their hearts unless they believe the gospel about which the hymn sings.<\/p>\nWhether 2:6-11 was in fact a real hymn, sung in the context of early Christian worship, is now impossible to know for sure. Certainly Paul’s language here takes on a hymnic quality, though it is not in poetic form. Many scholars have thought that Paul did not write these verses himself but was quoting a well-known piece of liturgy. All one can say for certain is that his language changes in style, and he expressed here ideas that are unique in his writings.<\/p>\nThe hymn blends in with its context beautifully, and in fact forms the core of the whole letter. For we see here how the experience of imprisonment and deliverance, and of suffering and joy, is an entering into the experience of Jesus himself, who died and rose, was humbled and glorified.<\/p>\n<h5>Two Worthy Examples and Friends (2:19-30)<\/h5>\nPaul again writes about his own situation and plans, but as before, this section is not just concerned with practical arrangements. On the face of it, he was simply explaining why he was sending the letter by the hand of Epaphroditus instead of Timothy. But actually he was holding them up as practical examples of the life lived by the gospel, about which he had just written. Timothy “genuinely cares about your welfare” (2:20), because, unlike everyone else, he did not seek his own interests but those of Jesus Christ (v 21). He lived the gospel! He was committed to the work of the gospel (v 22). And Epaphroditus was the same, though in a different way. His union with Jesus was expressed not so much in his self-giving service for the gospel and his fellow saints, as in the illness that he suffered and the pains of separation that he endured. Like Jesus, he put his life on the line (v 30), and like Jesus, he was restored to life again (v 27). Now he was to be restored to his beloved Philippians, and the joy that they would experience together would be a further outworking of the gospel.<\/p>\n<h5>Pressing Forward and Standing Firm (3:1–4:1)<\/h5>\nThis section also begins and ends on the note of joy (3:1; 4:1)—not accidentally. The way of the cross that Paul describes is also the way of joy (cf. Heb 12:2). It begins and ends also with the address “dear brothers and sisters,” and this, too, is not accidental, for once again in this passage Paul writes about himself, and once again the underlying thought is that his experience is typical and that his readers should expect and seek to see the same pattern in their lives. He wrote, “Dear brothers and sisters, pattern your lives after mine, and learn from those who follow our example” (3:17, nlt<\/span>). Having put forward Timothy and Epaphroditus as examples in 2:19-30, Paul now does the same with himself.<\/p>\nThe tone seems to change dramatically in 3:2, as Paul turns to warn the Philippians against “those dogs,” who are probably the same as those to whom he refers in 1:28 as “your enemies.” There, he was much concerned about the inner foundation of the Philippians’ stand against them, so he did not specify who they were. But now he examines them more closely, in order to show the Philippians that the Christian life entails a complete reversal of the values held by their opponents.<\/p>\nIt seems that they were Jews, the sort in Acts 17:5 who opposed Paul’s ministry in nearby Thessalonica. They believed that they were God’s chosen race, but Paul thought that was nothing more than placing confidence in the flesh (Phil 3:4). They thought they knew the way of righteousness—it is the way of rigorous and disciplined obedience to God’s law in every detail of life. But Paul thought that was to seek a righteousness of one’s own (v 9), having nothing to do with the righteousness that God wants to give. The true way to be God’s people, he movingly insists, is the way of self-renunciation, so that all he previously held dear as a Jew came to be seen as rubbish (v 8), considered as loss for the sake of Christ (v 7). The only way to attain righteousness is through faith in Christ (v 9), for Christians must become like him in his death if they are to know the power of his resurrection (v 10). For Paul, dying with Christ meant not just suffering imprisonment and many other indignities for Christ’s sake but also renouncing all the prized possessions that his Judaism had given him.<\/p>\n<h5>Thinking, Rejoicing, Sharing (4:2-23)<\/h5>\nAgain, the tone changes suddenly (both at 4:2 and at 4:10)—so much so that some scholars have suggested that Philippians was compiled by an editor using several different letters. But when Paul turns (in v 2) to address Euodia and Syntyche, he was not really changing the subject. The link with the last section is the same as that between 1:27-30 and the first paragraph in chapter 2: how can Christians expect to be able to hold their own in the face of some enemies of the cross of Christ (3:18) if they are disunited and at odds with each other? For if there is just one gospel, disharmony between Christians means that the gospel is not having its full effect. So Euodia and Syntyche are urged (literally) to “think the same thing in the Lord” (4:2), and are then reminded of how they once found a wonderful unity in striving side by side in the cause of the gospel (v 3).<\/p>\nThe agreement that Paul urges them to come to does not mean complete identity of opinions on all subjects. It means a oneness of heart in a common love for Christ and the gospel. In the rest of the letter Paul spells out what this oneness means in practice—both what it should mean and what it has meant for the Philippians. The use of the mind is vital, and in verses 4-9 Paul paints a picture of the Christian life in which careful and intelligent prayer (vv 6-7) and the deliberate directing of the mind toward “whatever is true and honorable” (v 8) will produce a life marked by the two qualities of peace and joy, whatever the circumstances.<\/p>\nThat leads to the final paragraph, in which Paul gives thanks that, in spite of the disharmony evident in one part of the Philippian church, the church as a whole has already displayed this true Christian “mind.” For they have shown their oneness with Paul in the cause of the gospel by sending him a gift by Epaphroditus. “You have done well to share with me in my present difficulty,” Paul writes (4:14), and our thoughts go back again to the hymn in 2:6-11. From the gospel about the one who came from heaven to bear our burdens comes this mutual sharing—and so does Paul’s wonderful attitude to his circumstances: “I know how to be humbled [the same word as in 2:8], and I know how to abound” (4:12). Joined to Christ, we do not anxiously seek provision for our needs (v 17; cf. v 6), but share with him and with others whatever humiliation and exaltation he sends, confident that God will meet all our needs “from his glorious riches, which have been given to us in Christ Jesus” (4:19, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Paul, The Apostle; Philippi.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the One of Paul’s Prison Epistles. Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Theological Themes • Content Author Philippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary. Date and Origin While it is clear ...","summary_en":"PHILIPPIANS, Letter to the One of Paul’s Prison Epistles. Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Theological Themes • Content Author Philippians is like 2 Corinthians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon in that Paul shared its authorship with Timothy. The appearance of Timothy’s name at the start of these letters, however, probably does not mean that he had any greater part in their composition than perhaps to act as Paul’s secretary. Date and Origin While it is clear ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34058,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Savior","title_en":"Savior","content_ro":"<h3>SAVIOR<\/h3>\nOne who delivers or rescues. The term “savior” is most frequently applied to God and Jesus Christ in the Bible. The understanding of Jesus as Savior is a key truth in appropriating the biblical message. Versions of the English Bible use “savior” in the OT to translate various forms of the Hebrew yasha‘<\/span>,<\/em> which means “to save,” “to deliver,” or “to rescue.” Most frequently it is used to translate the participle of the verb, moshia‘<\/span>,<\/em> meaning “the one who saves.” Used in this way, “savior” is found 13 or 14 times in the OT, depending upon the version.<\/p>\nThe basic understanding of the term “savior” as one who delivers or rescues is illustrated in Deuteronomy 22:27, where the law anticipated a situation when no deliverer was near in time of need. Moshia‘<\/span> is also used for individuals, as both Othniel and Ehud are called “deliverers” (Jgs 3:9, 15) and Nehemiah 9:27 speaks of the judges collectively as deliverers sent by God. Second Kings 13:5 reports that the Lord gave Israel a savior in reference to their deliverance from the Arameans. Some have identified this deliverer with King Jeroboam II of Judah; others with a foreign king, quite often Zakir of Hamath. But the text does not clearly indicate who this savior might have been. The point of the text is that God sent this deliverer for his people. The majority of references in the OT refer to God himself as Israel’s savior, and even when other individuals are so termed, it is clearly stated that God sent them or raised them up. Israel understood that God was their savior and declared this in songs of praise (Pss 17:7; 106:1-12) and cries for help (Jer 14:8). David said this of God: “He is my stronghold, my refuge and my savior” (2 Sm 22:3, niv<\/span>). Quite often the psalmists refer to the Lord as their “help” or “salvation” (Pss 27:9; 38:22; 42:5, 11; 65:5; 68:19; 79:9; 85:4; 89:26; all rendered “Savior” by the niv<\/span>). The exodus was undoubtedly the greatest example of deliverance for Israel and undergirded their knowledge of God as the savior. The psalmist, in remembrance of Israel’s sin of making a golden calf, proclaims, “They forgot God, their savior, who had done such great things in Egypt” (Ps 106:21, nlt<\/span>; cf. Is 63:11; Hos 13:4-6). In Isaiah, where “savior” is a frequent title for God, the term is used to emphasize his uniqueness. God alone is seen as savior, in contrast to foreign gods and idols: “I, even I, am the Lord<\/span>, and apart from me there is no savior. I have revealed and saved and proclaimed—I, and not some foreign god among you” (Is 43:11-12, niv<\/span>). Isaiah further states that God would show himself as savior by the future blessing and restoration of Israel (49:26; 60:16). The designation “savior” is not directly applied to the Messiah in the OT, but a passage like Zechariah 9:9 indicates that God’s Anointed One would be a deliverer. Several apocryphal books use the term “savior” for God, some in lofty titles like “everlasting Savior” (Bar 4:22) or “the eternal Savior of Israel” (3 Macc 7:16). This later usage also illustrates the idea of God as the one who is able to save Israel.<\/p>\n\nThe Greek literature uses soter<\/span> (“savior,” “deliverer” from the verb sozo<\/span> “to save,” “to rescue”) for both gods and humans. For example, at one point Herodotus refers to the Athenians as the “saviors” of Greece (Persian Wars<\/em> 7.139.5). In the Septuagint soter<\/span> (“savior”) is used to render various forms of the Hebrew yasha‘<\/span> (“to save”). Soter<\/span> occurs 24 times in the NT and is exclusively applied to God and Jesus Christ (to God 8 times and to Christ 16 times). Out of the 24 NT occurrences of soter<\/span>,<\/em> ten are in the Letters and five in 2 Peter. Dependence upon the OT can be seen in Luke 1:47, where Mary praises God as Savior in her hymn of praise. Jesus’ name (Greek for Joshua) means “the Lord is salvation” and was given in anticipation of his function as the Savior (Mt 1:21). As the Savior, Jesus completes God’s plan for a promised deliverer (Acts 13:23; Ti 3:4), provides redemption for humanity (Ti 2:13-14), and is the hope of the believer (Phil 3:20-21). Inherent in the term “savior” is the concept of one who saves or delivers from danger to a position of safety. Jesus has delivered the believer from sin and death into immortality and life (2 Tm 1:10). While Jesus never refers to himself as Savior (soter<\/span>), he is announced as such by the angels at his birth (Lk 2:11), confessed as such by those who heard his words (Jn 4:42), and proclaimed as Savior by the early church (Acts 5:31; 13:23). Salvation is central to the mission of Jesus (Lk 19:10). Paul teaches that Christ is the Savior of the church in the present (Eph 5:23) and future (Phil 3:20).<\/p>\nSavior, as a title, is applied to God in the Pastoral Epistles and clearly represents God as Savior of all persons (1 Tm 2:3; 4:10). The Pastorals also clearly designate Jesus as Savior (2 Tm 1:10; Ti 3:6), in some instances also declaring that he is God the Savior (Ti 2:13; 3:4-6). Savior is used as a title for Jesus Christ throughout 2 Peter (e.g., 2 Pt 2:20). John, in his first letter, uses it to describe Jesus as the Savior sent by the Father to save the world (1 Jn 4:14).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Salvation.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SAVIOR<\/h3>\nOne who delivers or rescues. The term “savior” is most frequently applied to God and Jesus Christ in the Bible. The understanding of Jesus as Savior is a key truth in appropriating the biblical message. Versions of the English Bible use “savior” in the OT to translate various forms of the Hebrew yasha‘<\/span>,<\/em> which means “to save,” “to deliver,” or “to rescue.” Most frequently it is used to translate the participle of the verb, moshia‘<\/span>,<\/em> meaning “the one who saves.” Used in this way, “savior” is found 13 or 14 times in the OT, depending upon the version.<\/p>\nThe basic understanding of the term “savior” as one who delivers or rescues is illustrated in Deuteronomy 22:27, where the law anticipated a situation when no deliverer was near in time of need. Moshia‘<\/span> is also used for individuals, as both Othniel and Ehud are called “deliverers” (Jgs 3:9, 15) and Nehemiah 9:27 speaks of the judges collectively as deliverers sent by God. Second Kings 13:5 reports that the Lord gave Israel a savior in reference to their deliverance from the Arameans. Some have identified this deliverer with King Jeroboam II of Judah; others with a foreign king, quite often Zakir of Hamath. But the text does not clearly indicate who this savior might have been. The point of the text is that God sent this deliverer for his people. The majority of references in the OT refer to God himself as Israel’s savior, and even when other individuals are so termed, it is clearly stated that God sent them or raised them up. Israel understood that God was their savior and declared this in songs of praise (Pss 17:7; 106:1-12) and cries for help (Jer 14:8). David said this of God: “He is my stronghold, my refuge and my savior” (2 Sm 22:3, niv<\/span>). Quite often the psalmists refer to the Lord as their “help” or “salvation” (Pss 27:9; 38:22; 42:5, 11; 65:5; 68:19; 79:9; 85:4; 89:26; all rendered “Savior” by the niv<\/span>). The exodus was undoubtedly the greatest example of deliverance for Israel and undergirded their knowledge of God as the savior. The psalmist, in remembrance of Israel’s sin of making a golden calf, proclaims, “They forgot God, their savior, who had done such great things in Egypt” (Ps 106:21, nlt<\/span>; cf. Is 63:11; Hos 13:4-6). In Isaiah, where “savior” is a frequent title for God, the term is used to emphasize his uniqueness. God alone is seen as savior, in contrast to foreign gods and idols: “I, even I, am the Lord<\/span>, and apart from me there is no savior. I have revealed and saved and proclaimed—I, and not some foreign god among you” (Is 43:11-12, niv<\/span>). Isaiah further states that God would show himself as savior by the future blessing and restoration of Israel (49:26; 60:16). The designation “savior” is not directly applied to the Messiah in the OT, but a passage like Zechariah 9:9 indicates that God’s Anointed One would be a deliverer. Several apocryphal books use the term “savior” for God, some in lofty titles like “everlasting Savior” (Bar 4:22) or “the eternal Savior of Israel” (3 Macc 7:16). This later usage also illustrates the idea of God as the one who is able to save Israel.<\/p>\n\nThe Greek literature uses soter<\/span> (“savior,” “deliverer” from the verb sozo<\/span> “to save,” “to rescue”) for both gods and humans. For example, at one point Herodotus refers to the Athenians as the “saviors” of Greece (Persian Wars<\/em> 7.139.5). In the Septuagint soter<\/span> (“savior”) is used to render various forms of the Hebrew yasha‘<\/span> (“to save”). Soter<\/span> occurs 24 times in the NT and is exclusively applied to God and Jesus Christ (to God 8 times and to Christ 16 times). Out of the 24 NT occurrences of soter<\/span>,<\/em> ten are in the Letters and five in 2 Peter. Dependence upon the OT can be seen in Luke 1:47, where Mary praises God as Savior in her hymn of praise. Jesus’ name (Greek for Joshua) means “the Lord is salvation” and was given in anticipation of his function as the Savior (Mt 1:21). As the Savior, Jesus completes God’s plan for a promised deliverer (Acts 13:23; Ti 3:4), provides redemption for humanity (Ti 2:13-14), and is the hope of the believer (Phil 3:20-21). Inherent in the term “savior” is the concept of one who saves or delivers from danger to a position of safety. Jesus has delivered the believer from sin and death into immortality and life (2 Tm 1:10). While Jesus never refers to himself as Savior (soter<\/span>), he is announced as such by the angels at his birth (Lk 2:11), confessed as such by those who heard his words (Jn 4:42), and proclaimed as Savior by the early church (Acts 5:31; 13:23). Salvation is central to the mission of Jesus (Lk 19:10). Paul teaches that Christ is the Savior of the church in the present (Eph 5:23) and future (Phil 3:20).<\/p>\nSavior, as a title, is applied to God in the Pastoral Epistles and clearly represents God as Savior of all persons (1 Tm 2:3; 4:10). The Pastorals also clearly designate Jesus as Savior (2 Tm 1:10; Ti 3:6), in some instances also declaring that he is God the Savior (Ti 2:13; 3:4-6). Savior is used as a title for Jesus Christ throughout 2 Peter (e.g., 2 Pt 2:20). John, in his first letter, uses it to describe Jesus as the Savior sent by the Father to save the world (1 Jn 4:14).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Salvation.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SAVIOR One who delivers or rescues. The term “savior” is most frequently applied to God and Jesus Christ in the Bible. The understanding of Jesus as Savior is a key truth in appropriating the biblical message. Versions of the English Bible use “savior” in the OT to translate various forms of the Hebrew yasha‘, which means “to save,” “to deliver,” or “to rescue.” Most frequently it is used to translate the participle of the verb, moshia‘, meaning “the one who saves.” Used in this way, “savior”...","summary_en":"SAVIOR One who delivers or rescues. The term “savior” is most frequently applied to God and Jesus Christ in the Bible. The understanding of Jesus as Savior is a key truth in appropriating the biblical message. Versions of the English Bible use “savior” in the OT to translate various forms of the Hebrew yasha‘, which means “to save,” “to deliver,” or “to rescue.” Most frequently it is used to translate the participle of the verb, moshia‘, meaning “the one who saves.” Used in this way, “savior”...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34290,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Coming of Christ*, Second","title_en":"Coming of Christ*, Second","content_ro":"<h3>SECOND COMING OF CHRIST*<\/h3>\nThe return of Jesus Christ to earth to complete the work of salvation.<\/p>\nTerms Used<\/p>\nThe doctrine is expressed by verbs such as “come,” “descend,” “appear,” and “is revealed” with Christ as the subject (e.g., “I will come again,” Jn 14:3; “the Lord himself will descend,” 1 Thes 4:16; “when he appears,” 1 Jn 2:28; 3:2; “the day when the Son of man is revealed,” Lk 17:30; “when the Lord Jesus is revealed from heaven,” 2 Thes 1:7). It is expressed also by a variety of nouns, principally by “coming” (which is the regular translation of the Greek word parousia<\/span>,<\/em> meaning “presence,” “visit,” “arrival,” “advent,” especially of a royal or distinguished person) but also by “appearing” (as in 2 Tm 4:8; Ti 2:13), “revealing,” or “revelation” (1 Cor 1:7). These different verbs and nouns point to the same event but highlight different aspects of it, especially the manifestation of God’s glory in Christ when he comes. The time of this event is repeatedly referred to as “the Day,” sometimes absolutely (as in Rom 13:12; 1 Cor 3:13; Heb 10:25), more often with a qualification, such as “the day of Christ” (Phil 1:10; 2:16), “the day of the Lord” (1 Thes 5:2; 2 Thes 2:2), “the day of the Lord Jesus” (1 Cor 5:5; 2 Cor 1:14), “the day of Jesus Christ” (Phil 1:6), and “the day of our Lord Jesus Christ” (1 Cor 1:8). When such expressions are used, there is often some reference to the judgment to be passed at the coming of Christ: his day is “the day of judgment” (1 Jn 4:17) or “the day of wrath” (Rom 2:5). For the people of God, however, it is “the day of redemption” (Eph 4:30).<\/p>\nThe Proclamation of the New Testament<\/p>\nThat the second coming of Christ was an essential element in the gospel as preached in the apostolic age is clear from many NT writings (quoted below from the rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe origin of the Second Coming is found in the teachings of Jesus before his death. Speaking of himself as the Son of Man, Jesus said, “The day when the Son of man is revealed” (Lk 17:30) he will come “in clouds with great power and glory” (Mk 13:26). This language is derived from the OT, especially from Daniel’s vision in which “one like a son of man” is brought “with the clouds of heaven” to receive everlasting dominion from the Ancient of Days (Dn 7:13-14). A cloud or clouds regularly enveloped the divine glory in the OT (as in Ex 40:34; 1 Kgs 8:10-11); their mention in connection with the coming of the Son of Man indicates that, when he comes, the glory of God will be manifested in him. Jesus’ last reference to his second coming came at his trial before the Jewish authorities when, asked by the high priest to say whether or not he was “the Christ, the Son of the Blessed,” he replied, “I am; and you will see the Son of man seated at the right hand of Power, and coming with the clouds of heaven” (Mk 14:61-62).<\/p>\nAfter the Gospels, the rest of the NT affirms the eventuality of Christ’s second coming. The record of Acts begins with the angels’ assurance at the ascension of Christ that “this Jesus, who was taken up from you into heaven, will come in the same way as you saw him go into heaven” (Acts 1:11). The summaries of apostolic addresses that the book contains make repeated references to Jesus as “the one ordained by God to be judge of the living and the dead” (10:42; cf. 17:31).<\/p>\nWriting to his converts in Thessalonica (c. AD<\/span> 51) a few weeks after they first heard and believed the gospel, Paul reminds them how they had “turned to God from idols, to serve a living and true God, and to wait for his Son from heaven, whom he raised from the dead, Jesus who delivers us from the wrath to come” (1 Thes 1:9-10). Here Jesus’ expected deliverance of his people from end-time judgment is put on the same plane as his historical resurrection; the Christian way of life embraces both serving God and waiting for Christ. This note of waiting for Christ is repeated and amplified several times in this short letter. A few years later Paul uses similar language when writing to his converts in Corinth (cf. Acts 18:1-18): “You are not lacking in any spiritual gift, as you wait for the revealing of our Lord Jesus Christ” (1 Cor 1:7). And in what may have been his last letter he speaks of “the crown of righteousness” that the Lord will award him “on that Day, and not only to me,” he adds, “but also to all who have loved his appearing” (2 Tm 4:8). To love his appearing and to wait for him are two different ways of expressing the same attitude.<\/p>\nThe writer to the Hebrews encourages his readers with the assurance that in a little while “the coming one shall come and shall not tarry” (Heb 10:37). James says that “the coming of the Lord is at hand” (Jas 5:8). Peter speaks of the time “when the chief Shepherd is manifested” (1 Pt 5:4). The Revelation to John ends with the risen Lord’s promise, “Surely I am coming soon,” and the church’s response, “Amen. Come, Lord Jesus!” (Rv 22:20).<\/p>\nThe Second Coming and the Resurrection<\/p>\nIn 1 Thessalonians, written not more than 20 years after the death and resurrection of Christ, his coming again is presented by way of comfort and encouragement to those whose Christian friends had died. Paul had been compelled to leave Thessalonica before he had time to give his converts there as much teaching as they required, and when some of their number died shortly after his departure, their friends wondered if they would suffer some serious disadvantage at the Second Coming, in contrast to those who would still be alive to greet the returning Lord. No, says Paul, “those who have fallen asleep” will suffer no disadvantage. On the contrary, the first thing to happen when “the Lord himself will descend from heaven” is that “the dead in Christ will rise.” Only after that will those who survive until then be caught away to join them and be forever “with the Lord” (1 Thes 4:15-17). Fuller information on the same subject is given in 1 Corinthians, written about five years later. There the resurrection of believers is the full harvest that was inaugurated by the resurrection of Christ: “Christ the first fruits, then at his coming those who belong to Christ” (1 Cor 15:23). An additional revelation is imparted: not only will each believer who has died be raised in a “spiritual body” (v 44) but also those who are still alive will be “changed” so as to have bodies suitable for life in resurrection. For dead and living believers alike, Paul proclaimed that “as we have borne the image of the man of dust [i.e., Adam; cf. Gn 2:7], we shall also bear the image of the man of heaven [i.e., the risen Christ]” (1 Cor 15:49). To the same effect, Paul writes (a few years later still) in Philippians 3:20-21 that from heaven “we await a Savior, the Lord Jesus Christ, who will change our lowly body to be like his glorious body.” A deeper unveiling of what this will involve is made in Romans 8:18-23, where the resurrection of the people of Christ is the catalyst for the liberation and glorious renewal of all creation.<\/p>\n<h5>The Second Coming and Judgment<\/h5>\nThe association of judgment with the Second Coming arises in Jesus’ teaching in the Gospels. The association is equally plain in the epistles of the NT. Paul, in particular, put the subject on a personal level. He forbade premature judgment of fellow Christians: “Do not pronounce judgment before the time, before the Lord comes” (1 Cor 4:5). The Lord will conduct an investigation that will bring to light the hidden motives of the heart. Paul knew that his own apostolic work would be assessed on “the day of Christ” (Phil 2:16; 1 Thes 2:19). Elsewhere, Paul urges his converts to bear in mind that they, with himself, must appear before the divine tribunal, variously called “the judgment seat of God” (where “each of us shall give account of himself,” Rom 14:10-12) or “the judgment seat of Christ” (where each will “receive good or evil, according to what he has done in the body,” 2 Cor 5:10). It seems clear that this judgment is to take place at the second coming of Christ, who will then “judge the living and the dead” (2 Tm 4:1). Because Paul was writing to Christians, he tended to concentrate on the judgment or assessment that the believers would experience at the Lord’s return. But he also made it plain that the same coming would bring judgment to those who opposed the Christian faith (2 Thes 1:6-10). This is made explicit in Acts 17:31, where Paul told the Athenians that God “has fixed a day on which he will judge the world in righteousness by a man whom he has appointed.”<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Day of the Lord; Eschatology; Judgment; Judgment Seat; Last Days; Rapture; Resurrection; Revelation, Book of; Tribulation.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SECOND COMING OF CHRIST*<\/h3>\nThe return of Jesus Christ to earth to complete the work of salvation.<\/p>\nTerms Used<\/p>\nThe doctrine is expressed by verbs such as “come,” “descend,” “appear,” and “is revealed” with Christ as the subject (e.g., “I will come again,” Jn 14:3; “the Lord himself will descend,” 1 Thes 4:16; “when he appears,” 1 Jn 2:28; 3:2; “the day when the Son of man is revealed,” Lk 17:30; “when the Lord Jesus is revealed from heaven,” 2 Thes 1:7). It is expressed also by a variety of nouns, principally by “coming” (which is the regular translation of the Greek word parousia<\/span>,<\/em> meaning “presence,” “visit,” “arrival,” “advent,” especially of a royal or distinguished person) but also by “appearing” (as in 2 Tm 4:8; Ti 2:13), “revealing,” or “revelation” (1 Cor 1:7). These different verbs and nouns point to the same event but highlight different aspects of it, especially the manifestation of God’s glory in Christ when he comes. The time of this event is repeatedly referred to as “the Day,” sometimes absolutely (as in Rom 13:12; 1 Cor 3:13; Heb 10:25), more often with a qualification, such as “the day of Christ” (Phil 1:10; 2:16), “the day of the Lord” (1 Thes 5:2; 2 Thes 2:2), “the day of the Lord Jesus” (1 Cor 5:5; 2 Cor 1:14), “the day of Jesus Christ” (Phil 1:6), and “the day of our Lord Jesus Christ” (1 Cor 1:8). When such expressions are used, there is often some reference to the judgment to be passed at the coming of Christ: his day is “the day of judgment” (1 Jn 4:17) or “the day of wrath” (Rom 2:5). For the people of God, however, it is “the day of redemption” (Eph 4:30).<\/p>\nThe Proclamation of the New Testament<\/p>\nThat the second coming of Christ was an essential element in the gospel as preached in the apostolic age is clear from many NT writings (quoted below from the rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe origin of the Second Coming is found in the teachings of Jesus before his death. Speaking of himself as the Son of Man, Jesus said, “The day when the Son of man is revealed” (Lk 17:30) he will come “in clouds with great power and glory” (Mk 13:26). This language is derived from the OT, especially from Daniel’s vision in which “one like a son of man” is brought “with the clouds of heaven” to receive everlasting dominion from the Ancient of Days (Dn 7:13-14). A cloud or clouds regularly enveloped the divine glory in the OT (as in Ex 40:34; 1 Kgs 8:10-11); their mention in connection with the coming of the Son of Man indicates that, when he comes, the glory of God will be manifested in him. Jesus’ last reference to his second coming came at his trial before the Jewish authorities when, asked by the high priest to say whether or not he was “the Christ, the Son of the Blessed,” he replied, “I am; and you will see the Son of man seated at the right hand of Power, and coming with the clouds of heaven” (Mk 14:61-62).<\/p>\nAfter the Gospels, the rest of the NT affirms the eventuality of Christ’s second coming. The record of Acts begins with the angels’ assurance at the ascension of Christ that “this Jesus, who was taken up from you into heaven, will come in the same way as you saw him go into heaven” (Acts 1:11). The summaries of apostolic addresses that the book contains make repeated references to Jesus as “the one ordained by God to be judge of the living and the dead” (10:42; cf. 17:31).<\/p>\nWriting to his converts in Thessalonica (c. AD<\/span> 51) a few weeks after they first heard and believed the gospel, Paul reminds them how they had “turned to God from idols, to serve a living and true God, and to wait for his Son from heaven, whom he raised from the dead, Jesus who delivers us from the wrath to come” (1 Thes 1:9-10). Here Jesus’ expected deliverance of his people from end-time judgment is put on the same plane as his historical resurrection; the Christian way of life embraces both serving God and waiting for Christ. This note of waiting for Christ is repeated and amplified several times in this short letter. A few years later Paul uses similar language when writing to his converts in Corinth (cf. Acts 18:1-18): “You are not lacking in any spiritual gift, as you wait for the revealing of our Lord Jesus Christ” (1 Cor 1:7). And in what may have been his last letter he speaks of “the crown of righteousness” that the Lord will award him “on that Day, and not only to me,” he adds, “but also to all who have loved his appearing” (2 Tm 4:8). To love his appearing and to wait for him are two different ways of expressing the same attitude.<\/p>\nThe writer to the Hebrews encourages his readers with the assurance that in a little while “the coming one shall come and shall not tarry” (Heb 10:37). James says that “the coming of the Lord is at hand” (Jas 5:8). Peter speaks of the time “when the chief Shepherd is manifested” (1 Pt 5:4). The Revelation to John ends with the risen Lord’s promise, “Surely I am coming soon,” and the church’s response, “Amen. Come, Lord Jesus!” (Rv 22:20).<\/p>\nThe Second Coming and the Resurrection<\/p>\nIn 1 Thessalonians, written not more than 20 years after the death and resurrection of Christ, his coming again is presented by way of comfort and encouragement to those whose Christian friends had died. Paul had been compelled to leave Thessalonica before he had time to give his converts there as much teaching as they required, and when some of their number died shortly after his departure, their friends wondered if they would suffer some serious disadvantage at the Second Coming, in contrast to those who would still be alive to greet the returning Lord. No, says Paul, “those who have fallen asleep” will suffer no disadvantage. On the contrary, the first thing to happen when “the Lord himself will descend from heaven” is that “the dead in Christ will rise.” Only after that will those who survive until then be caught away to join them and be forever “with the Lord” (1 Thes 4:15-17). Fuller information on the same subject is given in 1 Corinthians, written about five years later. There the resurrection of believers is the full harvest that was inaugurated by the resurrection of Christ: “Christ the first fruits, then at his coming those who belong to Christ” (1 Cor 15:23). An additional revelation is imparted: not only will each believer who has died be raised in a “spiritual body” (v 44) but also those who are still alive will be “changed” so as to have bodies suitable for life in resurrection. For dead and living believers alike, Paul proclaimed that “as we have borne the image of the man of dust [i.e., Adam; cf. Gn 2:7], we shall also bear the image of the man of heaven [i.e., the risen Christ]” (1 Cor 15:49). To the same effect, Paul writes (a few years later still) in Philippians 3:20-21 that from heaven “we await a Savior, the Lord Jesus Christ, who will change our lowly body to be like his glorious body.” A deeper unveiling of what this will involve is made in Romans 8:18-23, where the resurrection of the people of Christ is the catalyst for the liberation and glorious renewal of all creation.<\/p>\n<h5>The Second Coming and Judgment<\/h5>\nThe association of judgment with the Second Coming arises in Jesus’ teaching in the Gospels. The association is equally plain in the epistles of the NT. Paul, in particular, put the subject on a personal level. He forbade premature judgment of fellow Christians: “Do not pronounce judgment before the time, before the Lord comes” (1 Cor 4:5). The Lord will conduct an investigation that will bring to light the hidden motives of the heart. Paul knew that his own apostolic work would be assessed on “the day of Christ” (Phil 2:16; 1 Thes 2:19). Elsewhere, Paul urges his converts to bear in mind that they, with himself, must appear before the divine tribunal, variously called “the judgment seat of God” (where “each of us shall give account of himself,” Rom 14:10-12) or “the judgment seat of Christ” (where each will “receive good or evil, according to what he has done in the body,” 2 Cor 5:10). It seems clear that this judgment is to take place at the second coming of Christ, who will then “judge the living and the dead” (2 Tm 4:1). Because Paul was writing to Christians, he tended to concentrate on the judgment or assessment that the believers would experience at the Lord’s return. But he also made it plain that the same coming would bring judgment to those who opposed the Christian faith (2 Thes 1:6-10). This is made explicit in Acts 17:31, where Paul told the Athenians that God “has fixed a day on which he will judge the world in righteousness by a man whom he has appointed.”<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Day of the Lord; Eschatology; Judgment; Judgment Seat; Last Days; Rapture; Resurrection; Revelation, Book of; Tribulation.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SECOND COMING OF CHRIST* The return of Jesus Christ to earth to complete the work of salvation. Terms Used The doctrine is expressed by verbs such as “come,” “descend,” “appear,” and “is revealed” with Christ as the subject (e.g., “I will come again,” Jn 14:3; “the Lord himself will descend,” 1 Thes 4:16; “when he appears,” 1 Jn 2:28; 3:2; “the day when the Son of man is revealed,” Lk 17:30; “when the Lord Jesus is revealed from heaven,” 2 Thes 1:7). It is expressed also by a variety of nouns...","summary_en":"SECOND COMING OF CHRIST* The return of Jesus Christ to earth to complete the work of salvation. Terms Used The doctrine is expressed by verbs such as “come,” “descend,” “appear,” and “is revealed” with Christ as the subject (e.g., “I will come again,” Jn 14:3; “the Lord himself will descend,” 1 Thes 4:16; “when he appears,” 1 Jn 2:28; 3:2; “the day when the Son of man is revealed,” Lk 17:30; “when the Lord Jesus is revealed from heaven,” 2 Thes 1:7). It is expressed also by a variety of nouns...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37591,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Transfiguration*","title_en":"Transfiguration*","content_ro":"<h3>TRANSFIGURATION*<\/h3>\nEvent in Jesus’ earthly ministry described in four passages in the NT (Mt 17:1-8; Mk 9:2-8; Lk 9:28-36; 2 Pt 1:16-18), wherein Jesus was glorified in the presence of three disciples: James, Peter, and John.<\/p>\nThe Location of the Event<\/p>\nThe exact site where the Transfiguration took place is not given in the NT. Matthew 17:1 and Mark 9:2 simply state that it took place on a “high mountain.” Various suggestions have been made as to which mountain, with the traditional site being Mt Tabor, a round hill located in the plain of Esdraelon approximately 10 miles (16.1 kilometers) southwest of the Sea of Galilee. There are, however, two major problems with this suggested location. For one, it is difficult to see how Mt Tabor can justifiably be called a “high mountain,” for it is less than 2,000 feet (609.6 meters) above sea level. Second, in the time of Jesus a Roman garrison was stationed on Mt Tabor, and thus it would be unlikely that Jesus would have walked with his disciples up this mountain. A second suggestion for the site is Mt Carmel, which is located on the coast, but this seems off the main route of Jesus’ travel after the events of Caesarea Philippi. A third suggestion is Mt Hermon, which is over 9,000 feet (2,743.2 meters) high and lies about 12 miles (19.3 kilometers) to the northeast of Caesarea Philippi. Mt Hermon is indeed a high mountain and has the additional advantage of being located near Caesarea Philippi.<\/p>\nThe Event<\/p>\nSix days after the events of Caesarea Philippi, Jesus took Peter, James, and John to be alone with him on a high mountain. As on several other instances, these three disciples alone accompanied Jesus (cf. also Mk 5:35-43; 14:32-42). According to the Gospel accounts, three things took place at the Transfiguration:<\/p>\n1. “He was transfigured.” The various accounts all witness to an unusual transformation of Jesus. Jesus is transfigured: “his face shone like the sun, and his garments became white as light” (Mt 17:2). This transformation is described in Matthew and Mark by the Greek verb metamorpheo<\/span>,<\/em> the root for the word “metamorphosis.” This indicates that a tremendous change occurred.<\/p>\n<li>2. Moses and Elijah appeared and spoke to Jesus. These men, who undoubtedly represent the Law and the Prophets, are said to have spoken to Jesus of his “exodus,” or departure (Lk 9:31). The term used in Luke 9:31 to describe Jesus’ “exodus” (or death) is rather unusual and clearly portrays the death of Jesus not as a tragedy or defeat but as a victorious journey.<\/li>\n<li>3. After Peter’s remark that it was good for the three disciples to be present and witness this, and after his suggestion that they build three booths, a voice came from heaven saying, “This is my beloved Son; listen to him” (Mk 9:7). These words were clearly a rebuke for Peter having placed Jesus on the same level as Moses and Elijah. To make three booths (one for Moses, one for Elijah, and one for Jesus) loses sight of who Jesus is, and the voice from heaven pointed out Peter’s error. The rebuke also must be understood in light of what Peter had said a few days earlier at Caesarea Philippi. Had Peter forgotten that he had just said to Jesus, “You are the Christ, the Son of the living God”?<\/li>\nThe Meaning of the Event<\/p>\nIn order to understand the significance of the Transfiguration, it is important to contrast the heavenly voice at Jesus’ transfiguration with the heavenly voice at Jesus’ baptism. At the baptism both Mark 1:11 and Luke 3:22 indicate that the voice was addressed to Jesus: “You are my beloved Son.” At the Transfiguration, however, the voice is not addressed to Jesus but to Peter, James, and John: “This is my beloved Son” (Mk 9:7). Clearly the events of the Transfiguration are primarily directed toward the disciples rather than Jesus. “He was transfigured before them” (v 2); “there appeared to them Elijah with Moses” (v 4); “a cloud overshadowed them . . . ‘listen to him’ ” (v 7); “they no longer saw any one with them but Jesus only” (v 8). Evidently from these references, the incident is not meant so much for Jesus’ sake as for the disciples’. Following closely after the events of Caesarea Philippi, God appeared to affirm at the Transfiguration what Peter had previously confessed at Caesarea Philippi: Jesus is indeed the Christ, the Son of God.<\/p>\nIn 2 Peter 1:16-18 the writer recounts that he was an eyewitness of the Transfiguration. John seems to have done the same thing when he wrote the prologue to his Gospel and said, “We have beheld his glory” (Jn 1:14). At the Transfiguration the true form (Greek morphe<\/span>) of the Son of God temporarily broke through the veil of his humanity and the disciples saw his preexistent glory. In this transformation of Jesus, the three disciples witnessed something of Jesus’ preincarnate glory, as well as his future glory, which he received at his resurrection and which all will see when he returns to judge the world.<\/p>\nWhen Christ returns in his glory, all the believers will be transfigured and thereby receive a glorious, resurrected body. Thus, Christ’s transfiguration is the preview of every believer’s transfiguration (see 1 Cor 15:42-45; Phil 3:20-21; Col 3:4).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TRANSFIGURATION*<\/h3>\nEvent in Jesus’ earthly ministry described in four passages in the NT (Mt 17:1-8; Mk 9:2-8; Lk 9:28-36; 2 Pt 1:16-18), wherein Jesus was glorified in the presence of three disciples: James, Peter, and John.<\/p>\nThe Location of the Event<\/p>\nThe exact site where the Transfiguration took place is not given in the NT. Matthew 17:1 and Mark 9:2 simply state that it took place on a “high mountain.” Various suggestions have been made as to which mountain, with the traditional site being Mt Tabor, a round hill located in the plain of Esdraelon approximately 10 miles (16.1 kilometers) southwest of the Sea of Galilee. There are, however, two major problems with this suggested location. For one, it is difficult to see how Mt Tabor can justifiably be called a “high mountain,” for it is less than 2,000 feet (609.6 meters) above sea level. Second, in the time of Jesus a Roman garrison was stationed on Mt Tabor, and thus it would be unlikely that Jesus would have walked with his disciples up this mountain. A second suggestion for the site is Mt Carmel, which is located on the coast, but this seems off the main route of Jesus’ travel after the events of Caesarea Philippi. A third suggestion is Mt Hermon, which is over 9,000 feet (2,743.2 meters) high and lies about 12 miles (19.3 kilometers) to the northeast of Caesarea Philippi. Mt Hermon is indeed a high mountain and has the additional advantage of being located near Caesarea Philippi.<\/p>\nThe Event<\/p>\nSix days after the events of Caesarea Philippi, Jesus took Peter, James, and John to be alone with him on a high mountain. As on several other instances, these three disciples alone accompanied Jesus (cf. also Mk 5:35-43; 14:32-42). According to the Gospel accounts, three things took place at the Transfiguration:<\/p>\n1. “He was transfigured.” The various accounts all witness to an unusual transformation of Jesus. Jesus is transfigured: “his face shone like the sun, and his garments became white as light” (Mt 17:2). This transformation is described in Matthew and Mark by the Greek verb metamorpheo<\/span>,<\/em> the root for the word “metamorphosis.” This indicates that a tremendous change occurred.<\/p>\n<li>2. Moses and Elijah appeared and spoke to Jesus. These men, who undoubtedly represent the Law and the Prophets, are said to have spoken to Jesus of his “exodus,” or departure (Lk 9:31). The term used in Luke 9:31 to describe Jesus’ “exodus” (or death) is rather unusual and clearly portrays the death of Jesus not as a tragedy or defeat but as a victorious journey.<\/li>\n<li>3. After Peter’s remark that it was good for the three disciples to be present and witness this, and after his suggestion that they build three booths, a voice came from heaven saying, “This is my beloved Son; listen to him” (Mk 9:7). These words were clearly a rebuke for Peter having placed Jesus on the same level as Moses and Elijah. To make three booths (one for Moses, one for Elijah, and one for Jesus) loses sight of who Jesus is, and the voice from heaven pointed out Peter’s error. The rebuke also must be understood in light of what Peter had said a few days earlier at Caesarea Philippi. Had Peter forgotten that he had just said to Jesus, “You are the Christ, the Son of the living God”?<\/li>\nThe Meaning of the Event<\/p>\nIn order to understand the significance of the Transfiguration, it is important to contrast the heavenly voice at Jesus’ transfiguration with the heavenly voice at Jesus’ baptism. At the baptism both Mark 1:11 and Luke 3:22 indicate that the voice was addressed to Jesus: “You are my beloved Son.” At the Transfiguration, however, the voice is not addressed to Jesus but to Peter, James, and John: “This is my beloved Son” (Mk 9:7). Clearly the events of the Transfiguration are primarily directed toward the disciples rather than Jesus. “He was transfigured before them” (v 2); “there appeared to them Elijah with Moses” (v 4); “a cloud overshadowed them . . . ‘listen to him’ ” (v 7); “they no longer saw any one with them but Jesus only” (v 8). Evidently from these references, the incident is not meant so much for Jesus’ sake as for the disciples’. Following closely after the events of Caesarea Philippi, God appeared to affirm at the Transfiguration what Peter had previously confessed at Caesarea Philippi: Jesus is indeed the Christ, the Son of God.<\/p>\nIn 2 Peter 1:16-18 the writer recounts that he was an eyewitness of the Transfiguration. John seems to have done the same thing when he wrote the prologue to his Gospel and said, “We have beheld his glory” (Jn 1:14). At the Transfiguration the true form (Greek morphe<\/span>) of the Son of God temporarily broke through the veil of his humanity and the disciples saw his preexistent glory. In this transformation of Jesus, the three disciples witnessed something of Jesus’ preincarnate glory, as well as his future glory, which he received at his resurrection and which all will see when he returns to judge the world.<\/p>\nWhen Christ returns in his glory, all the believers will be transfigured and thereby receive a glorious, resurrected body. Thus, Christ’s transfiguration is the preview of every believer’s transfiguration (see 1 Cor 15:42-45; Phil 3:20-21; Col 3:4).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TRANSFIGURATION* Event in Jesus’ earthly ministry described in four passages in the NT (Mt 17:1-8; Mk 9:2-8; Lk 9:28-36; 2 Pt 1:16-18), wherein Jesus was glorified in the presence of three disciples: James, Peter, and John. The Location of the Event The exact site where the Transfiguration took place is not given in the NT. Matthew 17:1 and Mark 9:2 simply state that it took place on a “high mountain.” Various suggestions have been made as to which mountain, with the traditional site being Mt...","summary_en":"TRANSFIGURATION* Event in Jesus’ earthly ministry described in four passages in the NT (Mt 17:1-8; Mk 9:2-8; Lk 9:28-36; 2 Pt 1:16-18), wherein Jesus was glorified in the presence of three disciples: James, Peter, and John. The Location of the Event The exact site where the Transfiguration took place is not given in the NT. Matthew 17:1 and Mark 9:2 simply state that it took place on a “high mountain.” Various suggestions have been made as to which mountain, with the traditional site being Mt...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":58275,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:20","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:20","content_ro":"3:20<\/strong> By contrast, believers who know their home is in heaven<\/em> (see Eph 2:19) with the Lord Jesus Christ<\/em> fill their minds with thoughts of heaven (see Col 3:1-2; cp. 1 Cor 15:19; 1 Pet 2:11) and Christ’s return<\/em> (see 1 Cor 1:7; Titus 2:13).<\/p>","content_en":"3:20<\/strong> By contrast, believers who know their home is in heaven<\/em> (see Eph 2:19) with the Lord Jesus Christ<\/em> fill their minds with thoughts of heaven (see Col 3:1-2; cp. 1 Cor 15:19; 1 Pet 2:11) and Christ’s return<\/em> (see 1 Cor 1:7; Titus 2:13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:20 By contrast, believers who know their home is in heaven (see Eph 2:19) with the Lord Jesus Christ fill their minds with thoughts of heaven (see Col 3:1-2; cp. 1 Cor 15:19; 1 Pet 2:11) and Christ’s return (see 1 Cor 1:7; Titus 2:13).","summary_en":"3:20 By contrast, believers who know their home is in heaven (see Eph 2:19) with the Lord Jesus Christ fill their minds with thoughts of heaven (see Col 3:1-2; cp. 1 Cor 15:19; 1 Pet 2:11) and Christ’s return (see 1 Cor 1:7; Titus 2:13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85901,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:20","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:20","content_ro":"3:20<\/strong> By contrast, believers who know their home is in heaven<\/em> (see Eph 2:19) with the Lord Jesus Christ<\/em> fill their minds with thoughts of heaven (see Col 3:1-2; cp. 1 Cor 15:19; 1 Pet 2:11) and Christ’s return<\/em> (see 1 Cor 1:7; Titus 2:13).<\/p>","content_en":"3:20<\/strong> By contrast, believers who know their home is in heaven<\/em> (see Eph 2:19) with the Lord Jesus Christ<\/em> fill their minds with thoughts of heaven (see Col 3:1-2; cp. 1 Cor 15:19; 1 Pet 2:11) and Christ’s return<\/em> (see 1 Cor 1:7; Titus 2:13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:20 By contrast, believers who know their home is in heaven (see Eph 2:19) with the Lord Jesus Christ fill their minds with thoughts of heaven (see Col 3:1-2; cp. 1 Cor 15:19; 1 Pet 2:11) and Christ’s return (see 1 Cor 1:7; Titus 2:13).","summary_en":"3:20 By contrast, believers who know their home is in heaven (see Eph 2:19) with the Lord Jesus Christ fill their minds with thoughts of heaven (see Col 3:1-2; cp. 1 Cor 15:19; 1 Pet 2:11) and Christ’s return (see 1 Cor 1:7; Titus 2:13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113527,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:20","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:20","content_ro":"3:20<\/strong> By contrast, believers who know their home is in heaven<\/em> (see Eph 2:19) with the Lord Jesus Christ<\/em> fill their minds with thoughts of heaven (see Col 3:1-2; cp. 1 Cor 15:19; 1 Pet 2:11) and Christ’s return<\/em> (see 1 Cor 1:7; Titus 2:13).<\/p>","content_en":"3:20<\/strong> By contrast, believers who know their home is in heaven<\/em> (see Eph 2:19) with the Lord Jesus Christ<\/em> fill their minds with thoughts of heaven (see Col 3:1-2; cp. 1 Cor 15:19; 1 Pet 2:11) and Christ’s return<\/em> (see 1 Cor 1:7; Titus 2:13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:20 By contrast, believers who know their home is in heaven (see Eph 2:19) with the Lord Jesus Christ fill their minds with thoughts of heaven (see Col 3:1-2; cp. 1 Cor 15:19; 1 Pet 2:11) and Christ’s return (see 1 Cor 1:7; Titus 2:13).","summary_en":"3:20 By contrast, believers who know their home is in heaven (see Eph 2:19) with the Lord Jesus Christ fill their minds with thoughts of heaven (see Col 3:1-2; cp. 1 Cor 15:19; 1 Pet 2:11) and Christ’s return (see 1 Cor 1:7; Titus 2:13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141153,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:20","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:20","content_ro":"3:20<\/strong> By contrast, believers who know their home is in heaven<\/em> (see Eph 2:19) with the Lord Jesus Christ<\/em> fill their minds with thoughts of heaven (see Col 3:1-2; cp. 1 Cor 15:19; 1 Pet 2:11) and Christ’s return<\/em> (see 1 Cor 1:7; Titus 2:13).<\/p>","content_en":"3:20<\/strong> By contrast, believers who know their home is in heaven<\/em> (see Eph 2:19) with the Lord Jesus Christ<\/em> fill their minds with thoughts of heaven (see Col 3:1-2; cp. 1 Cor 15:19; 1 Pet 2:11) and Christ’s return<\/em> (see 1 Cor 1:7; Titus 2:13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:20 By contrast, believers who know their home is in heaven (see Eph 2:19) with the Lord Jesus Christ fill their minds with thoughts of heaven (see Col 3:1-2; cp. 1 Cor 15:19; 1 Pet 2:11) and Christ’s return (see 1 Cor 1:7; Titus 2:13).","summary_en":"3:20 By contrast, believers who know their home is in heaven (see Eph 2:19) with the Lord Jesus Christ fill their minds with thoughts of heaven (see Col 3:1-2; cp. 1 Cor 15:19; 1 Pet 2:11) and Christ’s return (see 1 Cor 1:7; Titus 2:13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67386,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Living for Christ","title_en":"Living for Christ","content_ro":"<h3>Living for Christ<\/h3>\nFrom prison Paul writes, “To me, living means living for Christ” (1:21). Why are believers called to devote their lives to Christ?<\/p>\n1. Believers acknowledge that they owe everything to Christ,<\/em> including their salvation. Devoting their life to his service expresses their eternal indebtedness and gratitude (see Rom 12:1).<\/p>\n2. Believers acknowledge Christ as their master and Lord<\/em> and submit to Christ’s rule in their lives. They recognize that they belong to the Lord and no longer live simply for themselves (see Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:14-15).<\/p>\n3. Believers now share in Christ’s death and resurrection<\/em>—they have died to themselves and have risen with him (see Rom 6:3-14; cp. Gal 2:19-20). They have a new identity in Christ (Rom 8:14-17; Eph 1:11, 14; Phil 3:20).<\/p>\n4. Believers recognize that everything of value is found in Christ.<\/em> Things of the world that once seemed important have lost their attraction; nothing compares to the infinite value of knowing Christ (Phil 3:7-11; Eph 1:3–3:21; Col 1:15–3:4).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 6:3-14; 8:14-17; 12:1; 14:7-9; 1 Cor 6:19; 2 Cor 5:14-15; Gal 2:19-20; Eph 1:11, 14; Phil 1:21; 3:7-11, 20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Living for Christ<\/h3>\nFrom prison Paul writes, “To me, living means living for Christ” (1:21). Why are believers called to devote their lives to Christ?<\/p>\n1. Believers acknowledge that they owe everything to Christ,<\/em> including their salvation. Devoting their life to his service expresses their eternal indebtedness and gratitude (see Rom 12:1).<\/p>\n2. Believers acknowledge Christ as their master and Lord<\/em> and submit to Christ’s rule in their lives. They recognize that they belong to the Lord and no longer live simply for themselves (see Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:14-15).<\/p>\n3. Believers now share in Christ’s death and resurrection<\/em>—they have died to themselves and have risen with him (see Rom 6:3-14; cp. Gal 2:19-20). They have a new identity in Christ (Rom 8:14-17; Eph 1:11, 14; Phil 3:20).<\/p>\n4. Believers recognize that everything of value is found in Christ.<\/em> Things of the world that once seemed important have lost their attraction; nothing compares to the infinite value of knowing Christ (Phil 3:7-11; Eph 1:3–3:21; Col 1:15–3:4).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 6:3-14; 8:14-17; 12:1; 14:7-9; 1 Cor 6:19; 2 Cor 5:14-15; Gal 2:19-20; Eph 1:11, 14; Phil 1:21; 3:7-11, 20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Living for Christ From prison Paul writes, “To me, living means living for Christ” (1:21). Why are believers called to devote their lives to Christ? 1. Believers acknowledge that they owe everything to Christ, including their salvation. Devoting their life to his service expresses their eternal indebtedness and gratitude (see Rom 12:1). 2. Believers acknowledge Christ as their master and Lord and submit to Christ’s rule in their lives. They recognize that they belong to the Lord and no longer...","summary_en":"Living for Christ From prison Paul writes, “To me, living means living for Christ” (1:21). Why are believers called to devote their lives to Christ? 1. Believers acknowledge that they owe everything to Christ, including their salvation. Devoting their life to his service expresses their eternal indebtedness and gratitude (see Rom 12:1). 2. Believers acknowledge Christ as their master and Lord and submit to Christ’s rule in their lives. They recognize that they belong to the Lord and no longer...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95012,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Living for Christ","title_en":"Living for Christ","content_ro":"<h3>Living for Christ<\/h3>\nFrom prison Paul writes, “To me, living means living for Christ” (1:21). Why are believers called to devote their lives to Christ?<\/p>\n1. Believers acknowledge that they owe everything to Christ,<\/em> including their salvation. Devoting their life to his service expresses their eternal indebtedness and gratitude (see Rom 12:1).<\/p>\n2. Believers acknowledge Christ as their master and Lord<\/em> and submit to Christ’s rule in their lives. They recognize that they belong to the Lord and no longer live simply for themselves (see Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:14-15).<\/p>\n3. Believers now share in Christ’s death and resurrection<\/em>—they have died to themselves and have risen with him (see Rom 6:3-14; cp. Gal 2:19-20). They have a new identity in Christ (Rom 8:14-17; Eph 1:11, 14; Phil 3:20).<\/p>\n4. Believers recognize that everything of value is found in Christ.<\/em> Things of the world that once seemed important have lost their attraction; nothing compares to the infinite value of knowing Christ (Phil 3:7-11; Eph 1:3–3:21; Col 1:15–3:4).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 6:3-14; 8:14-17; 12:1; 14:7-9; 1 Cor 6:19; 2 Cor 5:14-15; Gal 2:19-20; Eph 1:11, 14; Phil 1:21; 3:7-11, 20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Living for Christ<\/h3>\nFrom prison Paul writes, “To me, living means living for Christ” (1:21). Why are believers called to devote their lives to Christ?<\/p>\n1. Believers acknowledge that they owe everything to Christ,<\/em> including their salvation. Devoting their life to his service expresses their eternal indebtedness and gratitude (see Rom 12:1).<\/p>\n2. Believers acknowledge Christ as their master and Lord<\/em> and submit to Christ’s rule in their lives. They recognize that they belong to the Lord and no longer live simply for themselves (see Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:14-15).<\/p>\n3. Believers now share in Christ’s death and resurrection<\/em>—they have died to themselves and have risen with him (see Rom 6:3-14; cp. Gal 2:19-20). They have a new identity in Christ (Rom 8:14-17; Eph 1:11, 14; Phil 3:20).<\/p>\n4. Believers recognize that everything of value is found in Christ.<\/em> Things of the world that once seemed important have lost their attraction; nothing compares to the infinite value of knowing Christ (Phil 3:7-11; Eph 1:3–3:21; Col 1:15–3:4).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 6:3-14; 8:14-17; 12:1; 14:7-9; 1 Cor 6:19; 2 Cor 5:14-15; Gal 2:19-20; Eph 1:11, 14; Phil 1:21; 3:7-11, 20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Living for Christ From prison Paul writes, “To me, living means living for Christ” (1:21). Why are believers called to devote their lives to Christ? 1. Believers acknowledge that they owe everything to Christ, including their salvation. Devoting their life to his service expresses their eternal indebtedness and gratitude (see Rom 12:1). 2. Believers acknowledge Christ as their master and Lord and submit to Christ’s rule in their lives. They recognize that they belong to the Lord and no longer...","summary_en":"Living for Christ From prison Paul writes, “To me, living means living for Christ” (1:21). Why are believers called to devote their lives to Christ? 1. Believers acknowledge that they owe everything to Christ, including their salvation. Devoting their life to his service expresses their eternal indebtedness and gratitude (see Rom 12:1). 2. Believers acknowledge Christ as their master and Lord and submit to Christ’s rule in their lives. They recognize that they belong to the Lord and no longer...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":122638,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Living for Christ","title_en":"Living for Christ","content_ro":"<h3>Living for Christ<\/h3>\nFrom prison Paul writes, “To me, living means living for Christ” (1:21). Why are believers called to devote their lives to Christ?<\/p>\n1. Believers acknowledge that they owe everything to Christ,<\/em> including their salvation. Devoting their life to his service expresses their eternal indebtedness and gratitude (see Rom 12:1).<\/p>\n2. Believers acknowledge Christ as their master and Lord<\/em> and submit to Christ’s rule in their lives. They recognize that they belong to the Lord and no longer live simply for themselves (see Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:14-15).<\/p>\n3. Believers now share in Christ’s death and resurrection<\/em>—they have died to themselves and have risen with him (see Rom 6:3-14; cp. Gal 2:19-20). They have a new identity in Christ (Rom 8:14-17; Eph 1:11, 14; Phil 3:20).<\/p>\n4. Believers recognize that everything of value is found in Christ.<\/em> Things of the world that once seemed important have lost their attraction; nothing compares to the infinite value of knowing Christ (Phil 3:7-11; Eph 1:3–3:21; Col 1:15–3:4).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 6:3-14; 8:14-17; 12:1; 14:7-9; 1 Cor 6:19; 2 Cor 5:14-15; Gal 2:19-20; Eph 1:11, 14; Phil 1:21; 3:7-11, 20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Living for Christ<\/h3>\nFrom prison Paul writes, “To me, living means living for Christ” (1:21). Why are believers called to devote their lives to Christ?<\/p>\n1. Believers acknowledge that they owe everything to Christ,<\/em> including their salvation. Devoting their life to his service expresses their eternal indebtedness and gratitude (see Rom 12:1).<\/p>\n2. Believers acknowledge Christ as their master and Lord<\/em> and submit to Christ’s rule in their lives. They recognize that they belong to the Lord and no longer live simply for themselves (see Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:14-15).<\/p>\n3. Believers now share in Christ’s death and resurrection<\/em>—they have died to themselves and have risen with him (see Rom 6:3-14; cp. Gal 2:19-20). They have a new identity in Christ (Rom 8:14-17; Eph 1:11, 14; Phil 3:20).<\/p>\n4. Believers recognize that everything of value is found in Christ.<\/em> Things of the world that once seemed important have lost their attraction; nothing compares to the infinite value of knowing Christ (Phil 3:7-11; Eph 1:3–3:21; Col 1:15–3:4).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 6:3-14; 8:14-17; 12:1; 14:7-9; 1 Cor 6:19; 2 Cor 5:14-15; Gal 2:19-20; Eph 1:11, 14; Phil 1:21; 3:7-11, 20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Living for Christ From prison Paul writes, “To me, living means living for Christ” (1:21). Why are believers called to devote their lives to Christ? 1. Believers acknowledge that they owe everything to Christ, including their salvation. Devoting their life to his service expresses their eternal indebtedness and gratitude (see Rom 12:1). 2. Believers acknowledge Christ as their master and Lord and submit to Christ’s rule in their lives. They recognize that they belong to the Lord and no longer...","summary_en":"Living for Christ From prison Paul writes, “To me, living means living for Christ” (1:21). Why are believers called to devote their lives to Christ? 1. Believers acknowledge that they owe everything to Christ, including their salvation. Devoting their life to his service expresses their eternal indebtedness and gratitude (see Rom 12:1). 2. Believers acknowledge Christ as their master and Lord and submit to Christ’s rule in their lives. They recognize that they belong to the Lord and no longer...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":150264,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Living for Christ","title_en":"Living for Christ","content_ro":"<h3>Living for Christ<\/h3>\nFrom prison Paul writes, “To me, living means living for Christ” (1:21). Why are believers called to devote their lives to Christ?<\/p>\n1. Believers acknowledge that they owe everything to Christ,<\/em> including their salvation. Devoting their life to his service expresses their eternal indebtedness and gratitude (see Rom 12:1).<\/p>\n2. Believers acknowledge Christ as their master and Lord<\/em> and submit to Christ’s rule in their lives. They recognize that they belong to the Lord and no longer live simply for themselves (see Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:14-15).<\/p>\n3. Believers now share in Christ’s death and resurrection<\/em>—they have died to themselves and have risen with him (see Rom 6:3-14; cp. Gal 2:19-20). They have a new identity in Christ (Rom 8:14-17; Eph 1:11, 14; Phil 3:20).<\/p>\n4. Believers recognize that everything of value is found in Christ.<\/em> Things of the world that once seemed important have lost their attraction; nothing compares to the infinite value of knowing Christ (Phil 3:7-11; Eph 1:3–3:21; Col 1:15–3:4).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 6:3-14; 8:14-17; 12:1; 14:7-9; 1 Cor 6:19; 2 Cor 5:14-15; Gal 2:19-20; Eph 1:11, 14; Phil 1:21; 3:7-11, 20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Living for Christ<\/h3>\nFrom prison Paul writes, “To me, living means living for Christ” (1:21). Why are believers called to devote their lives to Christ?<\/p>\n1. Believers acknowledge that they owe everything to Christ,<\/em> including their salvation. Devoting their life to his service expresses their eternal indebtedness and gratitude (see Rom 12:1).<\/p>\n2. Believers acknowledge Christ as their master and Lord<\/em> and submit to Christ’s rule in their lives. They recognize that they belong to the Lord and no longer live simply for themselves (see Rom 14:7-9; 2 Cor 5:14-15).<\/p>\n3. Believers now share in Christ’s death and resurrection<\/em>—they have died to themselves and have risen with him (see Rom 6:3-14; cp. Gal 2:19-20). They have a new identity in Christ (Rom 8:14-17; Eph 1:11, 14; Phil 3:20).<\/p>\n4. Believers recognize that everything of value is found in Christ.<\/em> Things of the world that once seemed important have lost their attraction; nothing compares to the infinite value of knowing Christ (Phil 3:7-11; Eph 1:3–3:21; Col 1:15–3:4).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 6:3-14; 8:14-17; 12:1; 14:7-9; 1 Cor 6:19; 2 Cor 5:14-15; Gal 2:19-20; Eph 1:11, 14; Phil 1:21; 3:7-11, 20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Living for Christ From prison Paul writes, “To me, living means living for Christ” (1:21). Why are believers called to devote their lives to Christ? 1. Believers acknowledge that they owe everything to Christ, including their salvation. Devoting their life to his service expresses their eternal indebtedness and gratitude (see Rom 12:1). 2. Believers acknowledge Christ as their master and Lord and submit to Christ’s rule in their lives. They recognize that they belong to the Lord and no longer...","summary_en":"Living for Christ From prison Paul writes, “To me, living means living for Christ” (1:21). Why are believers called to devote their lives to Christ? 1. Believers acknowledge that they owe everything to Christ, including their salvation. Devoting their life to his service expresses their eternal indebtedness and gratitude (see Rom 12:1). 2. Believers acknowledge Christ as their master and Lord and submit to Christ’s rule in their lives. They recognize that they belong to the Lord and no longer...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"21":[{"id":5371,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Body","title_en":"Body","content_ro":"<h3>BODY<\/h3>\nTerm used biblically in several different ways, including certain metaphorical or theological expressions. Many of the biblical references illustrate special features of Hebrew thought about human life.<\/p>\nIn the Old Testament<\/p>\nThe OT writers used a number of Hebrew words translated “body” in English versions, mostly with reference to physical life. The body suffers; it is plagued with illness or is injured. Sometimes it is dead, that is, a corpse or carcass. Reference is even made to the “bodies” of spiritual beings—of the cherubim in Ezekiel’s vision (Ez 1:11) and of an angel (Dn 10:6). Jeremiah spoke of the bodies of pagan gods, referring to their images in the form of idols (Jer 10:1-16). Such usages indicate that the Hebrews thought of all beings, whether heavenly or earthly, as embodied.<\/p>\nAt times, the word “body” is close to the meaning of “flesh,” and frequently the same Hebrew word lies behind both terms. “Body” is man in his total physical experience. “Flesh” is generally used to refer to the sinfulness or creatureliness of man.<\/p>\nHuman beings have bodies and a bodily existence; each person also has a spirit and a spiritual dimension in life. But in Scripture the two are not set over against each other or viewed as separate “parts” of man. The body is not seen as a hindrance to the soul (as in much Greek thought). Not until the intertestamental period did Jewish writers begin to speak of the body as evil or as something set over against the soul.<\/p>\nIn the New Testament<\/p>\nThough “body” is used in the NT in the same ways as in the OT, the concept is given new significance. The body of Jesus (i.e., his corpse) was taken down from the cross (Mk 15:43). A body could experience illness and healing (5:29) and needed to be clothed (Jas 2:16); yet the body (i.e., physical life) is more than clothing (Mt 6:25). Jesus said not to fear those who kill the body but cannot kill the soul; rather, fear those who can destroy both soul and body in hell (10:28).<\/p>\nAt the Lord’s Supper Jesus said with reference to the bread, “This is my body,” and then added—with the cup in his hand—“This is my blood” (Mk 14:22, 24). Those terms from the OT sacrificial system were intended to underscore the sacrificial significance of Jesus’ death. Under both the old and new covenants, a real, physical life was offered in death for the sake of the “covenant people.”<\/p>\nThe apostle Paul made the term “body” a fundamental reference in the understanding of Christian experience. Most of the NT references to “body” are in his letters.<\/p>\n<h5>The Sinful Body<\/h5>\nIn Romans 6:6 Paul spoke of the destruction of the “sinful body.” The phrase did not mean that the body itself is sinful, as though sin is in some way tied to physical matter. Neither did it refer to some entity, sin, thought to dwell within human nature. Nor did it personify sin. Rather, the phrase referred to the physical life of human beings—life on earth—which is dominated by sin’s influence. In Christian conversion Paul saw that familiar pattern of human experience being destroyed. To link sin with the body is only to recognize that human beings in their earthly life (“life in the body”) are pervasively sinful. After describing the awful conflict in human experience, Paul cried out, “Who will deliver me from this body of death?” (Rom 7:24, rsv<\/span>). Human life, “spoiled” by sin and its consequences at every point, requires Christ’s redemption (7:25–8:4).<\/p>\n<h5>The Body of the Believer<\/h5>\nIn conversion, believers are said by Paul to experience not only the “saving of the soul” but also the transformation of present life. They have died to sin and have been freed from sin’s bondage. Paul therefore called for holiness of life “in the flesh.” “Let not sin therefore reign in your mortal bodies, to make you obey their passions” (Rom 6:12, rsv<\/span>). Righteousness, not sin, is to govern a Christian’s physical experience. The social and personal lives of believers are to be characterized by holiness. Believers are in the world (Jn 17:11) and are to live for God in the world (i.e., in their bodily existence); they are not to be indifferent to the world.<\/p>\nPhysical, earthly life thus takes on new significance. Paul told Christians to present their bodies as a living sacrifice (Rom 12:1). Each individual human life is to be a “living sacrifice” to God. Far from deprecating earthly existence, Paul saw that in Christ it had new potential. The reason is that the Holy Spirit is found there. “Your body is a temple of the Holy Spirit within you, which you have from God” (1 Cor 6:19, rsv<\/span>). That affirmation is not to be read materialistically, as though the Spirit takes up residence in certain tissues; “body” means one’s whole physical, earthly existence.<\/p>\nPaul also anticipated an ultimate transformation of life in the body through Christ. He spoke of the “redemption of our bodies” (Rom 8:23) and of the transformation of “our lowly bodies to be like his glorious body” (Phil 3:21). The Bible, although it has a realistic view of human sin and physical deterioration, does not share the pessimism of worldviews that seek escape from the world.<\/p>\n<h5>The Resurrection Body<\/h5>\nThe possible separation of body and soul did not occur to the Hebrew mind. Biblically, life beyond death is not bodiless but an existence for which a “new body” is prepared. Though Paul raised many questions in 1 Corinthians 15:35-57, it is clear that he saw continuity between the earthly body and the resurrection body. “It is sown a physical body, it is raised a spiritual body” (v 44). That expression may be derived in large part from the experience of Jesus, whose dead body was not only brought to life but also transformed so that it was not bound by earth. His resurrection body was derived from the earthly. But Paul was sure that in the promised resurrection, life would return to the body without its present limitations and with new manifestations. Death, said Paul, is thereby “swallowed up in victory” (v 54).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Resurrection; Body of Christ; Church; Man.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BODY<\/h3>\nTerm used biblically in several different ways, including certain metaphorical or theological expressions. Many of the biblical references illustrate special features of Hebrew thought about human life.<\/p>\nIn the Old Testament<\/p>\nThe OT writers used a number of Hebrew words translated “body” in English versions, mostly with reference to physical life. The body suffers; it is plagued with illness or is injured. Sometimes it is dead, that is, a corpse or carcass. Reference is even made to the “bodies” of spiritual beings—of the cherubim in Ezekiel’s vision (Ez 1:11) and of an angel (Dn 10:6). Jeremiah spoke of the bodies of pagan gods, referring to their images in the form of idols (Jer 10:1-16). Such usages indicate that the Hebrews thought of all beings, whether heavenly or earthly, as embodied.<\/p>\nAt times, the word “body” is close to the meaning of “flesh,” and frequently the same Hebrew word lies behind both terms. “Body” is man in his total physical experience. “Flesh” is generally used to refer to the sinfulness or creatureliness of man.<\/p>\nHuman beings have bodies and a bodily existence; each person also has a spirit and a spiritual dimension in life. But in Scripture the two are not set over against each other or viewed as separate “parts” of man. The body is not seen as a hindrance to the soul (as in much Greek thought). Not until the intertestamental period did Jewish writers begin to speak of the body as evil or as something set over against the soul.<\/p>\nIn the New Testament<\/p>\nThough “body” is used in the NT in the same ways as in the OT, the concept is given new significance. The body of Jesus (i.e., his corpse) was taken down from the cross (Mk 15:43). A body could experience illness and healing (5:29) and needed to be clothed (Jas 2:16); yet the body (i.e., physical life) is more than clothing (Mt 6:25). Jesus said not to fear those who kill the body but cannot kill the soul; rather, fear those who can destroy both soul and body in hell (10:28).<\/p>\nAt the Lord’s Supper Jesus said with reference to the bread, “This is my body,” and then added—with the cup in his hand—“This is my blood” (Mk 14:22, 24). Those terms from the OT sacrificial system were intended to underscore the sacrificial significance of Jesus’ death. Under both the old and new covenants, a real, physical life was offered in death for the sake of the “covenant people.”<\/p>\nThe apostle Paul made the term “body” a fundamental reference in the understanding of Christian experience. Most of the NT references to “body” are in his letters.<\/p>\n<h5>The Sinful Body<\/h5>\nIn Romans 6:6 Paul spoke of the destruction of the “sinful body.” The phrase did not mean that the body itself is sinful, as though sin is in some way tied to physical matter. Neither did it refer to some entity, sin, thought to dwell within human nature. Nor did it personify sin. Rather, the phrase referred to the physical life of human beings—life on earth—which is dominated by sin’s influence. In Christian conversion Paul saw that familiar pattern of human experience being destroyed. To link sin with the body is only to recognize that human beings in their earthly life (“life in the body”) are pervasively sinful. After describing the awful conflict in human experience, Paul cried out, “Who will deliver me from this body of death?” (Rom 7:24, rsv<\/span>). Human life, “spoiled” by sin and its consequences at every point, requires Christ’s redemption (7:25–8:4).<\/p>\n<h5>The Body of the Believer<\/h5>\nIn conversion, believers are said by Paul to experience not only the “saving of the soul” but also the transformation of present life. They have died to sin and have been freed from sin’s bondage. Paul therefore called for holiness of life “in the flesh.” “Let not sin therefore reign in your mortal bodies, to make you obey their passions” (Rom 6:12, rsv<\/span>). Righteousness, not sin, is to govern a Christian’s physical experience. The social and personal lives of believers are to be characterized by holiness. Believers are in the world (Jn 17:11) and are to live for God in the world (i.e., in their bodily existence); they are not to be indifferent to the world.<\/p>\nPhysical, earthly life thus takes on new significance. Paul told Christians to present their bodies as a living sacrifice (Rom 12:1). Each individual human life is to be a “living sacrifice” to God. Far from deprecating earthly existence, Paul saw that in Christ it had new potential. The reason is that the Holy Spirit is found there. “Your body is a temple of the Holy Spirit within you, which you have from God” (1 Cor 6:19, rsv<\/span>). That affirmation is not to be read materialistically, as though the Spirit takes up residence in certain tissues; “body” means one’s whole physical, earthly existence.<\/p>\nPaul also anticipated an ultimate transformation of life in the body through Christ. He spoke of the “redemption of our bodies” (Rom 8:23) and of the transformation of “our lowly bodies to be like his glorious body” (Phil 3:21). The Bible, although it has a realistic view of human sin and physical deterioration, does not share the pessimism of worldviews that seek escape from the world.<\/p>\n<h5>The Resurrection Body<\/h5>\nThe possible separation of body and soul did not occur to the Hebrew mind. Biblically, life beyond death is not bodiless but an existence for which a “new body” is prepared. Though Paul raised many questions in 1 Corinthians 15:35-57, it is clear that he saw continuity between the earthly body and the resurrection body. “It is sown a physical body, it is raised a spiritual body” (v 44). That expression may be derived in large part from the experience of Jesus, whose dead body was not only brought to life but also transformed so that it was not bound by earth. His resurrection body was derived from the earthly. But Paul was sure that in the promised resurrection, life would return to the body without its present limitations and with new manifestations. Death, said Paul, is thereby “swallowed up in victory” (v 54).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Resurrection; Body of Christ; Church; Man.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BODY Term used biblically in several different ways, including certain metaphorical or theological expressions. Many of the biblical references illustrate special features of Hebrew thought about human life. In the Old Testament The OT writers used a number of Hebrew words translated “body” in English versions, mostly with reference to physical life. The body suffers; it is plagued with illness or is injured. Sometimes it is dead, that is, a corpse or carcass. Reference is even made to the “b...","summary_en":"BODY Term used biblically in several different ways, including certain metaphorical or theological expressions. Many of the biblical references illustrate special features of Hebrew thought about human life. In the Old Testament The OT writers used a number of Hebrew words translated “body” in English versions, mostly with reference to physical life. The body suffers; it is plagued with illness or is injured. Sometimes it is dead, that is, a corpse or carcass. Reference is even made to the “b...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13972,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Glorification","title_en":"Glorification","content_ro":"<h3>GLORIFICATION<\/h3>\nThe expression of God’s glory and splendor. The Hebrew word for “glory” originally meant “weighty, heavy, or important.” From there it moved to the idea of an influential, rich, or prominent person. In ancient cultures the wealthy and the powerful were marked by the finery of their dress and jewels. Hence, a person’s glory meant the ostentatious signs of wealth and power. Glory also suggested beauty, since fine clothes and jewels were items of beauty. The concept was then extended to God.<\/p>\nGlory of God<\/p>\nIn the OT the glory of God means something obvious about God. The book of Exodus is rich with references to God’s glory. There was the fiery pillar and the glory that entered into the Holy of Holies in the tabernacle (cf. 40:34-38).<\/p>\nIn the making of the tabernacle (Ex 25–27), the concepts of glory and beauty are joined. There is evidence that the “goodness” of the Lord that Moses saw (Ex 33:19) could also be translated as “beauty.” Hence, God’s glory is his beauty.<\/p>\nThe NT continues the thought of the OT that God is a God of glory (cf. the vision of God in his glory in Rv 4). But the primary message in the NT centers on the glory of Christ. The transfiguration of Christ was a breaking out into the open of his glory (Mt 17:1-8). The apostle Paul called Jesus the Lord of glory (1 Cor 2:8) and wrote that the glory of God radiated from his face (2 Cor 3:18). John’s Gospel is uniquely the Gospel of glory. In the Incarnation, the Son of God showed the glory that was his as the only begotten of the Father (Jn 1:14). The raising of Lazarus was a manifestation of the glory of God in Christ (11:40). Jesus’ prayer in John 17 is filled with comments on the glory of Christ, including the affirmation that the disciples of the Lord would share in that glory.<\/p>\nGlorification of the Believer<\/p>\nIn 2 Corinthians 3:18 spiritual transformation is described as a changing from glory to glory. Glorification is implied as the last event in the change from glory to glory. In the process of salvation Paul lists glorification as the last and final event (Rom 8:28-30). The verb used in verse 30 is in the past tense, which some have taken to mean the certainty and finality of glorification. Glorification is the completion, the consummation, the perfection, the full realization of salvation.<\/p>\nGlorification is the perfection of sanctification as it pertains to one’s inner character. No one passage treats this theme extensively, but Ephesians 5:27 may be taken for all. In that passage Paul wrote of presenting the church to Christ, but what he says of the church is true of each Christian. Jesus will present the church to himself in “splendor, without spot or wrinkle or any such thing, that she [the church] might be holy and without blemish.” Or in the language of 2 Timothy 2:10, “Therefore I endure everything for the sake of the elect, that they also may obtain salvation in Christ Jesus with its eternal glory” (rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nJust as the inner person undergoes glorification, so does the believer’s body. Paul calls the resurrection of the body the redemption of the body (Rom 8:23). In Philippians 3:21 Paul speaks of the transformation of bodies of humiliation (i.e., humiliated by sin and mortality) into bodies of glory identical to that of Christ. The power that shall do this is the power of God by which he subjects all things to his reign.<\/p>\nThe most extensive treatment on the glorification of the body is found in 1 Corinthians 15, with some additional details in 2 Corinthians 5. Paul’s theme in 1 Corinthians 15 is that as Christians have borne the image of the mortal clay of Adam, they shall bear the image of the immortal Son of God. Paul contrasts the two bodies. The present body is perishable; the resurrection body will be imperishable. This body is one of dishonor; the resurrection body will be one of glory. This body is one of weakness; the resurrection body is one of power. This body is of the current physical order; the resurrection body will be of the future, spiritual, eternal order.<\/p>\nSalvation involves justification, regeneration, and sanctification in this life. In the life to come it means the glorification of the inner person and the resurrection of the body in glory. But such a glorified person must live in a glorified environment. Hence, Scripture must logically end the course of salvation with a glorious new heaven, new earth, and a new Jerusalem.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Glory; Resurrection.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GLORIFICATION<\/h3>\nThe expression of God’s glory and splendor. The Hebrew word for “glory” originally meant “weighty, heavy, or important.” From there it moved to the idea of an influential, rich, or prominent person. In ancient cultures the wealthy and the powerful were marked by the finery of their dress and jewels. Hence, a person’s glory meant the ostentatious signs of wealth and power. Glory also suggested beauty, since fine clothes and jewels were items of beauty. The concept was then extended to God.<\/p>\nGlory of God<\/p>\nIn the OT the glory of God means something obvious about God. The book of Exodus is rich with references to God’s glory. There was the fiery pillar and the glory that entered into the Holy of Holies in the tabernacle (cf. 40:34-38).<\/p>\nIn the making of the tabernacle (Ex 25–27), the concepts of glory and beauty are joined. There is evidence that the “goodness” of the Lord that Moses saw (Ex 33:19) could also be translated as “beauty.” Hence, God’s glory is his beauty.<\/p>\nThe NT continues the thought of the OT that God is a God of glory (cf. the vision of God in his glory in Rv 4). But the primary message in the NT centers on the glory of Christ. The transfiguration of Christ was a breaking out into the open of his glory (Mt 17:1-8). The apostle Paul called Jesus the Lord of glory (1 Cor 2:8) and wrote that the glory of God radiated from his face (2 Cor 3:18). John’s Gospel is uniquely the Gospel of glory. In the Incarnation, the Son of God showed the glory that was his as the only begotten of the Father (Jn 1:14). The raising of Lazarus was a manifestation of the glory of God in Christ (11:40). Jesus’ prayer in John 17 is filled with comments on the glory of Christ, including the affirmation that the disciples of the Lord would share in that glory.<\/p>\nGlorification of the Believer<\/p>\nIn 2 Corinthians 3:18 spiritual transformation is described as a changing from glory to glory. Glorification is implied as the last event in the change from glory to glory. In the process of salvation Paul lists glorification as the last and final event (Rom 8:28-30). The verb used in verse 30 is in the past tense, which some have taken to mean the certainty and finality of glorification. Glorification is the completion, the consummation, the perfection, the full realization of salvation.<\/p>\nGlorification is the perfection of sanctification as it pertains to one’s inner character. No one passage treats this theme extensively, but Ephesians 5:27 may be taken for all. In that passage Paul wrote of presenting the church to Christ, but what he says of the church is true of each Christian. Jesus will present the church to himself in “splendor, without spot or wrinkle or any such thing, that she [the church] might be holy and without blemish.” Or in the language of 2 Timothy 2:10, “Therefore I endure everything for the sake of the elect, that they also may obtain salvation in Christ Jesus with its eternal glory” (rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nJust as the inner person undergoes glorification, so does the believer’s body. Paul calls the resurrection of the body the redemption of the body (Rom 8:23). In Philippians 3:21 Paul speaks of the transformation of bodies of humiliation (i.e., humiliated by sin and mortality) into bodies of glory identical to that of Christ. The power that shall do this is the power of God by which he subjects all things to his reign.<\/p>\nThe most extensive treatment on the glorification of the body is found in 1 Corinthians 15, with some additional details in 2 Corinthians 5. Paul’s theme in 1 Corinthians 15 is that as Christians have borne the image of the mortal clay of Adam, they shall bear the image of the immortal Son of God. Paul contrasts the two bodies. The present body is perishable; the resurrection body will be imperishable. This body is one of dishonor; the resurrection body will be one of glory. This body is one of weakness; the resurrection body is one of power. This body is of the current physical order; the resurrection body will be of the future, spiritual, eternal order.<\/p>\nSalvation involves justification, regeneration, and sanctification in this life. In the life to come it means the glorification of the inner person and the resurrection of the body in glory. But such a glorified person must live in a glorified environment. Hence, Scripture must logically end the course of salvation with a glorious new heaven, new earth, and a new Jerusalem.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Glory; Resurrection.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GLORIFICATION The expression of God’s glory and splendor. The Hebrew word for “glory” originally meant “weighty, heavy, or important.” From there it moved to the idea of an influential, rich, or prominent person. In ancient cultures the wealthy and the powerful were marked by the finery of their dress and jewels. Hence, a person’s glory meant the ostentatious signs of wealth and power. Glory also suggested beauty, since fine clothes and jewels were items of beauty. The concept was then extend...","summary_en":"GLORIFICATION The expression of God’s glory and splendor. The Hebrew word for “glory” originally meant “weighty, heavy, or important.” From there it moved to the idea of an influential, rich, or prominent person. In ancient cultures the wealthy and the powerful were marked by the finery of their dress and jewels. Hence, a person’s glory meant the ostentatious signs of wealth and power. Glory also suggested beauty, since fine clothes and jewels were items of beauty. The concept was then extend...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":14037,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Glory","title_en":"Glory","content_ro":"<h3>GLORY<\/h3>\nThe singular splendor of God and the consequences for humanity.<\/p>\nThe Glory of God<\/p>\nThe glory of God can be described in two senses: (1) as a general category or attribute, and (2) as a specific category referring to particular historical manifestations of his presence.<\/p>\n<h5>As an Attribute<\/h5>\nGod’s glory refers primarily to his majestic beauty and splendor; it also refers to the expression of God’s character (Rom 3:23). The Scriptures record praise to his glorious name (Neh 9:5), describe him as the glorious Father (Eph 1:17) and the King of glory (Ps 24); he is exalted above the heavens, and his glory is over all the earth (Pss 57:5, 11; 108:5; 113:4). He is the God of glory who appeared to the patriarchs of the OT (Acts 7:2). He is jealous to maintain his glory and unwilling that it be given to another (Is 42:8); he acts to bring glory to himself (Ps 79:9; Is 48:11).<\/p>\nThe glory of God is proclaimed by the Creation (Pss 19:1; 97:6; Rom 1:20). It is revealed by his mighty acts of salvation and deliverance (1 Chr 16:24; Pss 72:18-19; 96:3; 145:10-12; Jn 11:4, 40). His glory is the theme of the praise (1 Chr 16:24-29; Pss 29:1-2, 9; 66:1-2; 96:7-8; 115:1; Is 42:12; Rom 4:20; Phil 2:9-11).<\/p>\n<h5>As His Presence<\/h5>\nReferences to the glory of the Lord are often to particular historical manifestations of his presence; images of light and fire are prominently associated with these occurrences. The foremost example is what is known in rabbinical literature as the shekinah glory, a phrase meaning the “dwelling glory.” It refers primarily to the presence of God in the pillar of cloud and fire in the OT.<\/p>\nThe first explicit reference to the glory cloud is found in Exodus 13:21-22. At the time of the exodus, the glory of God appeared in the pillar of cloud and fire to lead the people through the sea and wilderness (Neh 9:11-12, 19). At Sinai, with Israel encamped around the mountain, the glory of God comes in the cloud and fire to speak with Moses in the sight of the people (Ex 19:9, 16-18; 24:15-18; Dt 5:5, 22-24). When Moses is given a glimpse of that glory unconcealed by the cloud and fire, his own face becomes radiant and must be veiled because of the people’s fear (Ex 33:18-23; 34:29-35; 2 Cor 3:7-18).<\/p>\nThe picture of Israel encamped around the glory of God on Sinai portrays God dwelling in the midst of his people. When the tabernacle is completed and the people set out on their march, the glory cloud of God’s presence dwells above them throughout their journey (Ex 40:34-38; Nm 10:11-12). When they encamp, the tribes encircle the tabernacle (Nm 1:50–2:2), and the cloud reminds them of his presence in their midst. Later, the same glory filled the new temple that Solomon builds (2 Chr 5:13–6:1; 7:1-3). The psalmists celebrated Jerusalem and the temple as the place where his glory dwelt (Pss 26:8; 63:2; 85:9); God was in their midst.<\/p>\nLater in Israel’s history they denied God’s glorious presence (Is 3:8) and exchanged the glory of the Lord for idols made by human hands (Ps 106:20; Jer 2:10-11; cf. Rom 1:23). Because of their disobedience, judgment came against Jerusalem; the penalties of covenant violation were enforced. God would no longer be the God of a disobedient people (Hos 1:9). God’s presence in the glory cloud left the temple (Ez 10:4, 18-19; 11:22), and Israel went into exile (12:1-15).<\/p>\nYet out of this judgment God determined to bring a remnant to rebuild the city and the temple. In his visions Ezekiel saw the glory of the Lord return to dwell in the temple again (Ez 43:2-9), a time when the glory would return to a purified people and dwell among them forever. When the exile was over and the second temple was under construction, Haggai and Zechariah urged the people on with the promise of the return of the glory of God to fill the temple as it had done in the first temple and to “be glory in their midst” (Hg 2:3-9; Zec 2:5, 10-11).<\/p>\nThe Glory of God in Jesus Christ<\/p>\nWe are not told if the shekinah glory returned to the second temple. But we are told that God’s glory was seen again on earth in the person of Jesus Christ. John 1:14 says, “The Word became flesh and dwelt<\/em> among us, and we beheld his glory, glory<\/em> as of the only Son” (italics added). As such, Jesus was the new tabernacle for God’s abiding glory. In Jesus, God dwelt among people. Since Christ was (and is) the very image of God, to see the light of his face was to know the glory of God (2 Cor 4:4-6). To see Jesus was to see a “light to the Gentiles and the glory of Israel” (Lk 2:30-32). The disciples who witnessed the Transfiguration (Mt 17:1-8) saw his glory in a marvelous way (2 Pt 1:16-17), for it was a glory that burst out of his human body. This outburst of glory prefigured the glorification Christ experienced in resurrection and ascension (see Jn 17:5; Phil 2:5-11).<\/p>\nBecause Jesus humbled himself and was obedient to the point of death, God highly exalted him (Phil 2:8-9). After he suffered death on the cross, he entered into his glory (Lk 24:26) with a new and glorious body (1 Cor 15:39-43; Phil 3:21). The glorified Christ appeared to his servants. Stephen saw his glory (Acts 7:55), and Saul was blinded by his splendor (9:3). That same Christ is predicted to return in glory. He will sit on his throne in judgment (Mt 25:31); evil will be punished (16:27; 24:30; Mk 13:26; Lk 21:27; 2 Thes 2:9-10). Those who have professed him before men need not fear his glorious appearing (Mk 8:38).<\/p>\nAt the consummation, the whole earth will be filled with his glory (Ps 72:19; Is 6:3; Hb 2:14). No longer will a glory cloud rest above a temple to mark the Holy Place, for there will be a new heaven and a new earth (Rv 21:1). The Holy City will have the radiance of the glory of God (vv 10-11).<\/p>\nGlory and the People of God<\/p>\nThe people of God have experienced the glory of the presence of God. The glory cloud of the OT was their<\/em> glory (Ps 106:20; Jer 2:11). Christ came as the embodiment of the glory of God; God was in the midst of his people. When Christ ascended, he sent his Spirit to the believers (Jn 16:7-14) so that God could live in the midst of his people. The Spirit of glory rests on those who suffer for the name of Christ (1 Pt 4:14); that Spirit is the guarantee of the glorious inheritance of the saints (Rom 8:16-17).<\/p>\nGod has given to his people the hope of glory (Rom 5:2; Phil 3:21; Col 1:27; Jude 1:24-25). Those whom he has chosen he will also glorify (Rom 8:30; 9:23); they will share in the glory of Christ (Col 3:4; 2 Thes 2:14; 2 Tm 2:10). The sufferings of this age do not compare with the glory that will be revealed (Rom 8:18; 2 Cor 4:17). The whole of creation longs to see the glorious freedom of the children of God (Rom 8:21). This hope of glory is so certain that Peter can speak of participating in it even now (1 Pt 5:1) while looking forward to that eternal glory (v 10). As partakers in the glory of Christ, the church is called to glorify God. Because of the hope that is in them, they purify themselves (1 Jn 3:3).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Boast; God, Being and Attributes of; Pillar of Fire and Cloud; Shekinah; Theophany; Wealth.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GLORY<\/h3>\nThe singular splendor of God and the consequences for humanity.<\/p>\nThe Glory of God<\/p>\nThe glory of God can be described in two senses: (1) as a general category or attribute, and (2) as a specific category referring to particular historical manifestations of his presence.<\/p>\n<h5>As an Attribute<\/h5>\nGod’s glory refers primarily to his majestic beauty and splendor; it also refers to the expression of God’s character (Rom 3:23). The Scriptures record praise to his glorious name (Neh 9:5), describe him as the glorious Father (Eph 1:17) and the King of glory (Ps 24); he is exalted above the heavens, and his glory is over all the earth (Pss 57:5, 11; 108:5; 113:4). He is the God of glory who appeared to the patriarchs of the OT (Acts 7:2). He is jealous to maintain his glory and unwilling that it be given to another (Is 42:8); he acts to bring glory to himself (Ps 79:9; Is 48:11).<\/p>\nThe glory of God is proclaimed by the Creation (Pss 19:1; 97:6; Rom 1:20). It is revealed by his mighty acts of salvation and deliverance (1 Chr 16:24; Pss 72:18-19; 96:3; 145:10-12; Jn 11:4, 40). His glory is the theme of the praise (1 Chr 16:24-29; Pss 29:1-2, 9; 66:1-2; 96:7-8; 115:1; Is 42:12; Rom 4:20; Phil 2:9-11).<\/p>\n<h5>As His Presence<\/h5>\nReferences to the glory of the Lord are often to particular historical manifestations of his presence; images of light and fire are prominently associated with these occurrences. The foremost example is what is known in rabbinical literature as the shekinah glory, a phrase meaning the “dwelling glory.” It refers primarily to the presence of God in the pillar of cloud and fire in the OT.<\/p>\nThe first explicit reference to the glory cloud is found in Exodus 13:21-22. At the time of the exodus, the glory of God appeared in the pillar of cloud and fire to lead the people through the sea and wilderness (Neh 9:11-12, 19). At Sinai, with Israel encamped around the mountain, the glory of God comes in the cloud and fire to speak with Moses in the sight of the people (Ex 19:9, 16-18; 24:15-18; Dt 5:5, 22-24). When Moses is given a glimpse of that glory unconcealed by the cloud and fire, his own face becomes radiant and must be veiled because of the people’s fear (Ex 33:18-23; 34:29-35; 2 Cor 3:7-18).<\/p>\nThe picture of Israel encamped around the glory of God on Sinai portrays God dwelling in the midst of his people. When the tabernacle is completed and the people set out on their march, the glory cloud of God’s presence dwells above them throughout their journey (Ex 40:34-38; Nm 10:11-12). When they encamp, the tribes encircle the tabernacle (Nm 1:50–2:2), and the cloud reminds them of his presence in their midst. Later, the same glory filled the new temple that Solomon builds (2 Chr 5:13–6:1; 7:1-3). The psalmists celebrated Jerusalem and the temple as the place where his glory dwelt (Pss 26:8; 63:2; 85:9); God was in their midst.<\/p>\nLater in Israel’s history they denied God’s glorious presence (Is 3:8) and exchanged the glory of the Lord for idols made by human hands (Ps 106:20; Jer 2:10-11; cf. Rom 1:23). Because of their disobedience, judgment came against Jerusalem; the penalties of covenant violation were enforced. God would no longer be the God of a disobedient people (Hos 1:9). God’s presence in the glory cloud left the temple (Ez 10:4, 18-19; 11:22), and Israel went into exile (12:1-15).<\/p>\nYet out of this judgment God determined to bring a remnant to rebuild the city and the temple. In his visions Ezekiel saw the glory of the Lord return to dwell in the temple again (Ez 43:2-9), a time when the glory would return to a purified people and dwell among them forever. When the exile was over and the second temple was under construction, Haggai and Zechariah urged the people on with the promise of the return of the glory of God to fill the temple as it had done in the first temple and to “be glory in their midst” (Hg 2:3-9; Zec 2:5, 10-11).<\/p>\nThe Glory of God in Jesus Christ<\/p>\nWe are not told if the shekinah glory returned to the second temple. But we are told that God’s glory was seen again on earth in the person of Jesus Christ. John 1:14 says, “The Word became flesh and dwelt<\/em> among us, and we beheld his glory, glory<\/em> as of the only Son” (italics added). As such, Jesus was the new tabernacle for God’s abiding glory. In Jesus, God dwelt among people. Since Christ was (and is) the very image of God, to see the light of his face was to know the glory of God (2 Cor 4:4-6). To see Jesus was to see a “light to the Gentiles and the glory of Israel” (Lk 2:30-32). The disciples who witnessed the Transfiguration (Mt 17:1-8) saw his glory in a marvelous way (2 Pt 1:16-17), for it was a glory that burst out of his human body. This outburst of glory prefigured the glorification Christ experienced in resurrection and ascension (see Jn 17:5; Phil 2:5-11).<\/p>\nBecause Jesus humbled himself and was obedient to the point of death, God highly exalted him (Phil 2:8-9). After he suffered death on the cross, he entered into his glory (Lk 24:26) with a new and glorious body (1 Cor 15:39-43; Phil 3:21). The glorified Christ appeared to his servants. Stephen saw his glory (Acts 7:55), and Saul was blinded by his splendor (9:3). That same Christ is predicted to return in glory. He will sit on his throne in judgment (Mt 25:31); evil will be punished (16:27; 24:30; Mk 13:26; Lk 21:27; 2 Thes 2:9-10). Those who have professed him before men need not fear his glorious appearing (Mk 8:38).<\/p>\nAt the consummation, the whole earth will be filled with his glory (Ps 72:19; Is 6:3; Hb 2:14). No longer will a glory cloud rest above a temple to mark the Holy Place, for there will be a new heaven and a new earth (Rv 21:1). The Holy City will have the radiance of the glory of God (vv 10-11).<\/p>\nGlory and the People of God<\/p>\nThe people of God have experienced the glory of the presence of God. The glory cloud of the OT was their<\/em> glory (Ps 106:20; Jer 2:11). Christ came as the embodiment of the glory of God; God was in the midst of his people. When Christ ascended, he sent his Spirit to the believers (Jn 16:7-14) so that God could live in the midst of his people. The Spirit of glory rests on those who suffer for the name of Christ (1 Pt 4:14); that Spirit is the guarantee of the glorious inheritance of the saints (Rom 8:16-17).<\/p>\nGod has given to his people the hope of glory (Rom 5:2; Phil 3:21; Col 1:27; Jude 1:24-25). Those whom he has chosen he will also glorify (Rom 8:30; 9:23); they will share in the glory of Christ (Col 3:4; 2 Thes 2:14; 2 Tm 2:10). The sufferings of this age do not compare with the glory that will be revealed (Rom 8:18; 2 Cor 4:17). The whole of creation longs to see the glorious freedom of the children of God (Rom 8:21). This hope of glory is so certain that Peter can speak of participating in it even now (1 Pt 5:1) while looking forward to that eternal glory (v 10). As partakers in the glory of Christ, the church is called to glorify God. Because of the hope that is in them, they purify themselves (1 Jn 3:3).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Boast; God, Being and Attributes of; Pillar of Fire and Cloud; Shekinah; Theophany; Wealth.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GLORY The singular splendor of God and the consequences for humanity. The Glory of God The glory of God can be described in two senses: (1) as a general category or attribute, and (2) as a specific category referring to particular historical manifestations of his presence. As an Attribute God’s glory refers primarily to his majestic beauty and splendor; it also refers to the expression of God’s character (Rom 3:23). The Scriptures record praise to his glorious name (Neh 9:5), describe him as ...","summary_en":"GLORY The singular splendor of God and the consequences for humanity. The Glory of God The glory of God can be described in two senses: (1) as a general category or attribute, and (2) as a specific category referring to particular historical manifestations of his presence. As an Attribute God’s glory refers primarily to his majestic beauty and splendor; it also refers to the expression of God’s character (Rom 3:23). The Scriptures record praise to his glorious name (Neh 9:5), describe him as ...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":17222,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Image of God","title_en":"Image of God","content_ro":"<h3>IMAGE OF GOD<\/h3>\nLikeness to God, the most basic affirmation to be made concerning the nature of human beings from a Christian perspective. Humans are unique among the creatures in that they are like God and therefore able to have communion and fellowship with God.<\/p>\nGenesis 1:26-27 teaches that God determined to create man and woman in his own “image” and “likeness” and that they would have dominion over the animal creation. The two terms used in the creation account and found also in the NT convey closely related shades of meaning, but the difference between them is no longer thought to be theologically significant.<\/p>\nBecause Genesis 2:7 states unambiguously that man<\/em> became a living being, the Bible does not present the view that a previously living creature developed into a human, nor does it suggest that the image of God evolved from a lower form of life. The moment the man and woman became living creatures, they were the image of God. Both male and female share this likeness to God (Gn 1:27).<\/p>\nOther passages that speak of people being created in the image of God are Genesis 5:1, 9:6, 1 Corinthians 11:7, and James 3:9. Ephesians 4:24 and Colossians 3:10 refer to humanity’s redemptive re-creation, but the passages are generally regarded as directly relevant for an understanding of mankind’s original likeness to God. Although explicit references to humans as expressing the image of God are comparatively infrequent in the Bible, the truth itself underlies the whole relation between God and humans and is therefore the presupposition of the entire biblical account.<\/p>\nThe affirmation in Genesis 1 that man and woman were made in the image of God is not made of any of the other living creatures. The animals, the fish, and the birds do not share this privilege. It is disputed whether the angels are in the image of God, but certain theologians so view them because they find the image to reside in moral righteousness. However, there is no explicit biblical statement to this effect.<\/p>\nBy virtue of his creation from the dust of the ground, mankind has an obvious kinship with the earth. It is not strange, therefore, that the body, both in its constitution and its functions, shows similarities with other earthly creatures. But humans are unique in every aspect of their existence; not some part of a human or some faculty of a human, but a human in his or her wholeness is the image of God. The biblical concept is not that the image is in<\/em> man and woman, but that man and woman are<\/em> the image of God.<\/p>\nHowever, as man’s kinship with the earth is most clearly visible in his body, so the image of God is best seen when humans are viewed from the perspective of their spirituality. Theologians have sought at this point to enumerate those aspects of spirituality that define humans and set them apart from the animal creation. The image of God is then found to reside in some attribute or combination of attributes, such as rationality, will, freedom, responsibility, or the like. Contemporary theologians prefer not to enumerate attributes, and the Bible does not set forth the image of God in this way. Nevertheless, it is the personality of humans that separates them from the animals and is a reflection of the personality of God. The animals have their existence from<\/em> God, but humans have their being in<\/em> God, and they are his offspring (Acts 17:28-29).<\/p>\nAnother major aspect of the image of God doctrine is developed from Ephesians 4:24 and Colossians 3:10. These verses describe the re-creation of the believers in the likeness of God—in righteousness, holiness of the truth, and true knowledge. In other words, Paul declares that the redeemed are re-created into the image of God as they are transformed into the image of Christ, who bears the untainted image of God. Just as the fall into sin was not without its effect on the image of God, so also redemption from sin affects humans as the image of God. Ephesians and Colossians speak of renewal in the image of God the Creator, but other texts become even more specific in view of the mediatorial office of Christ.<\/p>\nJesus Christ is preeminently the image of God (2 Cor 4:4; Col 1:15; Heb 1:3). Frequently this is understood exclusively as a reference to the deity of Christ. To see Christ is to see the Father (Jn 14:9). However, in the passages cited, it is the incarnate Mediator, the last Adam, who is at least all that God intended the first Adam to be. Incarnation means that Jesus is truly human, and because he is truly human, he is truly the image of God.<\/p>\nAs the last Adam and the Mediator of the new covenant, Jesus brings his people into conformity with his own image, the image of the Son of God (Rom 8:29). He who became like his brethren, in the likeness of sinful flesh, destroys sin in order that his brethren might reflect his own glory. They are changed into the same image from glory to glory by the Spirit of the Lord (2 Cor 3:18). The believer is to “put on Christ” (Rom 13:14; Gal 3:27; cf. Eph 4:24; Col 3:10, “the new nature” in the image of God), an action also described as the formation of Christ in the believer (Gal 4:19).<\/p>\nConformity to the image of Jesus Christ is achieved through the process of sanctification that is ultimately completed at the resurrection. Only then is the body changed until it is fashioned like unto the glorious body of Christ (Phil 3:21). Restoration in the image of Christ carries beyond creation in the image of God, for the image of the earthly is then exchanged for the image of the heavenly (1 Cor 15:49).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Man; Woman.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>IMAGE OF GOD<\/h3>\nLikeness to God, the most basic affirmation to be made concerning the nature of human beings from a Christian perspective. Humans are unique among the creatures in that they are like God and therefore able to have communion and fellowship with God.<\/p>\nGenesis 1:26-27 teaches that God determined to create man and woman in his own “image” and “likeness” and that they would have dominion over the animal creation. The two terms used in the creation account and found also in the NT convey closely related shades of meaning, but the difference between them is no longer thought to be theologically significant.<\/p>\nBecause Genesis 2:7 states unambiguously that man<\/em> became a living being, the Bible does not present the view that a previously living creature developed into a human, nor does it suggest that the image of God evolved from a lower form of life. The moment the man and woman became living creatures, they were the image of God. Both male and female share this likeness to God (Gn 1:27).<\/p>\nOther passages that speak of people being created in the image of God are Genesis 5:1, 9:6, 1 Corinthians 11:7, and James 3:9. Ephesians 4:24 and Colossians 3:10 refer to humanity’s redemptive re-creation, but the passages are generally regarded as directly relevant for an understanding of mankind’s original likeness to God. Although explicit references to humans as expressing the image of God are comparatively infrequent in the Bible, the truth itself underlies the whole relation between God and humans and is therefore the presupposition of the entire biblical account.<\/p>\nThe affirmation in Genesis 1 that man and woman were made in the image of God is not made of any of the other living creatures. The animals, the fish, and the birds do not share this privilege. It is disputed whether the angels are in the image of God, but certain theologians so view them because they find the image to reside in moral righteousness. However, there is no explicit biblical statement to this effect.<\/p>\nBy virtue of his creation from the dust of the ground, mankind has an obvious kinship with the earth. It is not strange, therefore, that the body, both in its constitution and its functions, shows similarities with other earthly creatures. But humans are unique in every aspect of their existence; not some part of a human or some faculty of a human, but a human in his or her wholeness is the image of God. The biblical concept is not that the image is in<\/em> man and woman, but that man and woman are<\/em> the image of God.<\/p>\nHowever, as man’s kinship with the earth is most clearly visible in his body, so the image of God is best seen when humans are viewed from the perspective of their spirituality. Theologians have sought at this point to enumerate those aspects of spirituality that define humans and set them apart from the animal creation. The image of God is then found to reside in some attribute or combination of attributes, such as rationality, will, freedom, responsibility, or the like. Contemporary theologians prefer not to enumerate attributes, and the Bible does not set forth the image of God in this way. Nevertheless, it is the personality of humans that separates them from the animals and is a reflection of the personality of God. The animals have their existence from<\/em> God, but humans have their being in<\/em> God, and they are his offspring (Acts 17:28-29).<\/p>\nAnother major aspect of the image of God doctrine is developed from Ephesians 4:24 and Colossians 3:10. These verses describe the re-creation of the believers in the likeness of God—in righteousness, holiness of the truth, and true knowledge. In other words, Paul declares that the redeemed are re-created into the image of God as they are transformed into the image of Christ, who bears the untainted image of God. Just as the fall into sin was not without its effect on the image of God, so also redemption from sin affects humans as the image of God. Ephesians and Colossians speak of renewal in the image of God the Creator, but other texts become even more specific in view of the mediatorial office of Christ.<\/p>\nJesus Christ is preeminently the image of God (2 Cor 4:4; Col 1:15; Heb 1:3). Frequently this is understood exclusively as a reference to the deity of Christ. To see Christ is to see the Father (Jn 14:9). However, in the passages cited, it is the incarnate Mediator, the last Adam, who is at least all that God intended the first Adam to be. Incarnation means that Jesus is truly human, and because he is truly human, he is truly the image of God.<\/p>\nAs the last Adam and the Mediator of the new covenant, Jesus brings his people into conformity with his own image, the image of the Son of God (Rom 8:29). He who became like his brethren, in the likeness of sinful flesh, destroys sin in order that his brethren might reflect his own glory. They are changed into the same image from glory to glory by the Spirit of the Lord (2 Cor 3:18). The believer is to “put on Christ” (Rom 13:14; Gal 3:27; cf. Eph 4:24; Col 3:10, “the new nature” in the image of God), an action also described as the formation of Christ in the believer (Gal 4:19).<\/p>\nConformity to the image of Jesus Christ is achieved through the process of sanctification that is ultimately completed at the resurrection. Only then is the body changed until it is fashioned like unto the glorious body of Christ (Phil 3:21). Restoration in the image of Christ carries beyond creation in the image of God, for the image of the earthly is then exchanged for the image of the heavenly (1 Cor 15:49).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Man; Woman.<\/p>","summary_ro":"IMAGE OF GOD Likeness to God, the most basic affirmation to be made concerning the nature of human beings from a Christian perspective. Humans are unique among the creatures in that they are like God and therefore able to have communion and fellowship with God. Genesis 1:26-27 teaches that God determined to create man and woman in his own “image” and “likeness” and that they would have dominion over the animal creation. The two terms used in the creation account and found also in the NT conve...","summary_en":"IMAGE OF GOD Likeness to God, the most basic affirmation to be made concerning the nature of human beings from a Christian perspective. Humans are unique among the creatures in that they are like God and therefore able to have communion and fellowship with God. Genesis 1:26-27 teaches that God determined to create man and woman in his own “image” and “likeness” and that they would have dominion over the animal creation. The two terms used in the creation account and found also in the NT conve...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32826,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Resurrection","title_en":"Resurrection","content_ro":"<h3>RESURRECTION<\/h3>\nAct of being raised from the dead, used in the Bible in three different contexts: (1) It refers to miraculous raising of the dead back to earthly life, such as when Elijah raised a boy (1 Kgs 17:8-24), Elisha raised the Shunammite’s son (2 Kgs 4:18-37), Jesus raised both Jairus’s daughter (Mk 5:35-43) and Lazarus (Jn 11:17-44), Peter raised Dorcas (Acts 9:36-42), and Paul raised Eutychus (20:9-12). There is no hint that these resuscitations would prevent future death. (2) It refers most frequently to the resurrection of Jesus Christ. (3) It also refers to the eschatological resurrection of mankind at the end of time for punishment or reward (Jn 5:29; cf. Rv 20:5-6).<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Resurrection in the Old Testament and Judaism<\/p>\n• The Resurrection of Jesus Christ<\/p>\n• The Resurrection Accounts<\/p>\n• The Significance of Christ’s Resurrection<\/p>\n• Resurrection in General<\/p>\n• Resurrection and Gnosticism<\/p>\nResurrection in the Old Testament and Judaism<\/p>\nThe concept of resurrection to eternal life developed slowly in Israel. Life and death were limited to physical existence in this world. Death meant leaving this world and entering a shadowy existence known as Sheol, the place of the rephaim<\/span>,<\/em> or shades (Is 14:9), a place of hopelessness (2 Sm 12:23; Jb 7:9-10). The tragedy of Sheol was that a person was cut off from fellowship with God. At that stage of Israel’s thought, there seemed little hope for resurrection (Pss 6:4-5; 88:10-12).<\/p>\nBut in the midst of hopelessness concerning a personal future, Israel developed a sense of faithfulness to God. In spite of the fact that the future was not clear, Job cried helplessly, “If a man dies, will he live again?” (Jb 14:14). As Job sought for the seemingly impossible, the difficult passage in Job 19:25-26 suggests the reality of resurrection by a living redeemer (go’el<\/span>).<\/p>\nWhile some would argue that Hosea 6:1-3 suggests a resurrection, it is more likely that Israel considered it to be a promise of God’s continuing care, even when it experienced defeat at the hands of its enemies. Whether Paul saw in the third-day statement of Hosea a reference to Jesus is difficult to assess. This passage, along with texts like the dry bones of Ezekiel (ch 37), focus primarily on giving Israel hope in spite of defeat. But they may have become part of a developing sense in Israel that after death there should be something more.<\/p>\nIn Daniel 12:2, however, there is a sure reference to the resurrection of the dead. Indeed, the text announced a twofold resurrection of Jews: some to eternal life and some to eternal contempt. But there was no general resurrection of all people suggested by this text.<\/p>\nIn the intertestamental period, views began to solidify. The theologically conservative Sadducees would have nothing to do with the new ideas of resurrection and the afterlife. They continued to argue that there was no mention of resurrection in the writings of Moses, that life pertained to this earthly realm, and that the future hope was experienced through one’s children (Ecclus 46:12). Sheol, the place of the dead, was devoid of relationship with God and was a place of hapless existence. The Sadducean opinion of the resurrection is generally well known to Christians because of the encounter between Jesus and the Sadducees when they sought to ensnare him concerning the wife of seven brothers. Jesus rejected their views of the resurrection, of God, and of the Scriptures (Mk 12:18-27).<\/p>\nThe Pharisees, along with the Essenes and those at Qumran, believed in resurrection. A twofold pattern of resurrection was suggested by the famous eschatological passages of 2 Esdras 7 and the Apocalypse of Baruch 50–51. Both texts may be as late as the first century AD<\/span>. In the Similitudes of 1 Enoch, the righteous Jews could generally expect resurrection, but not the wicked (1 Enoch 1:46, 51, 62). But elsewhere in Enoch there is a hint that some wicked may be raised for judgment (vv 22, 67, 90). The resurrection of the righteous in these texts would generally be linked to a spiritual type of body, yet in 2 Maccabees 7:14ff., the view seems less developed and more physical. The ascetics at Qumran expected a resurrection in the great Day of the Lord.<\/p>\nWhile in Judaism there was a growing sense of an eschatological day of resurrection and reckoning, there was no hint anywhere of a resurrection of the Messiah. Such an idea had to await the historical reality of Jesus.<\/p>\nThe Resurrection of Jesus Christ<\/p>\nThe resurrection of Christ is the central point of Christianity. So important was the resurrection for Paul that he hinged both preaching and faith upon its validity. He considered that a Christianity without the resurrection would be empty and meaningless (1 Cor 15:12-19). Indeed, the resurrection for him was the unveiling of God’s power in Jesus (Rom 1:4).<\/p>\nThe resurrection of Christ is the presupposition behind other texts of the NT as well. Rebirth to a living hope is based upon the resurrection (1 Pt 1:3). It is the foundation for witness and fellowship with God, because the living Lord has been seen and touched (1 Jn 1:1-4). It is the bedrock thesis for ministry and apostleship (Acts 1:21-25). The Gospels likewise would hardly have been good news if they did not conclude with Christ’s resurrection. Christ’s resurrection is the prototype for all the believers, who will experience resurrection when Christ returns.<\/p>\nThe Resurrection Accounts<\/p>\nWhile the resurrection of Jesus Christ is the very essence of Christianity, it has been the subject of considerable debate. Scholars have frequently noted the variations that are present in the accounts. How many and who were the women at the tomb? Was there one (Mt; Mk) or were there two (Lk; Jn) angels at the tomb? Did the women come to anoint the body (Mk; Lk) or to see the tomb (Mt)? Did the women say nothing to anyone because of fear (Mk), or did they report to the disciples (Mt)? What was the order of the appearances, and did they take place in Jerusalem (Lk; Jn 20) or in Galilee (Mt; Jn 21) or in both places? Can the appearances be harmonized? What kind of body did Jesus possess? These and many other questions have been the watershed for a great deal of contemporary scholarly debate.<\/p>\nMany of these questions were not first discovered by recent scholars. Tatian in the second century sought to remove the questions by composing his Diatessaron<\/em> (harmony) in hopes that Christians would accept his work as a variant-free substitute for the Gospels. Although Christians liked the harmony, they continued to faithfully transmit the Gospels, because they believed that in them, by divine inspiration, God had provided a powerful witness concerning his Son. Many today still try the way of harmonization in an effort to deal with the minutia of historical questions, but they usually miss the uniqueness of each testimony. Others emphasize the differences and speculate on the Gospel constructs, but the fact of the resurrection usually becomes lost in the details of these human constructs. Both are attempts at protecting the essence of faith and reason in different ways.<\/p>\n<h5>The Empty Tomb<\/h5>\nMany explanations have been given concerning the empty tomb. Some said the body was stolen by the disciples (already suggested by Mt 28:13), but then one needs to explain the church on the basis of fraud. Others have said that the Jews could have stolen the body, or the disciples could have mistaken the tomb, but then the body would soon have been produced by the enemies. Others have said that Jesus could have lapsed into a swoon, reviving later in the cold tomb, but then the result would hardly have inspired the power of the Christian church. These explanations are all rationalistic attempts based upon a preconception that an actual resurrection of Jesus could not have happened.<\/p>\nIn spite of the material differences, and while the Gospel writers have used a great deal of common material in their tomb stories, they themselves refrain from employing the tomb as a basis for resurrection faith. With the exception of John 20:8, the empty tomb engendered surprise and fear. Indeed, it seemed to be an idle tale (Lk 24:11). It is not the tomb stories but the appearances of Jesus after his resurrection that gave rise to faith.<\/p>\n<h5>The Appearances<\/h5>\nUnlike the tomb stories, there is little commonality of material in the appearances. Yet the appearances are the basis for faith that the unbelievable happened. An enemy like Paul was converted into a zealous apostle (Acts 9:1-22; 1 Cor 15:8). A fearful fisherman like Peter abandoned his nets (Jn 21). A doubter like Thomas uttered early Christianity’s greatest confession, calling Jesus “my Lord and my God” (20:24-28). And two weary travelers to Emmaus found new zeal to return quickly to Jerusalem and share the news about their encounter with the risen Jesus (Lk 24:13-35).<\/p>\nScholars have debated the nature of these appearances. Starting from Paul’s list of appearances (1 Cor 15:5-8), some have argued that all appearances are of the same nature, and since the Damascus-road appearance to Paul recorded in Acts seems to have been of a spiritual nature (Acts 9:1-9; cf. 22:6-11; 26:12-19), then all the appearances must have been similar. Statements that the risen Jesus was touchable (Lk 24:41-43) are rejected as later accretions to an earlier vision-type tradition. This type of argument is based on presuppositions of the impossibility of a bodily resurrection.<\/p>\nAnother theory was based on the division between the Jesus of history and the Christ of faith. According to this view, the resurrection was not to be regarded as a fact of history but as an experience of the faith of the disciples. The issue, however, is that the eyewitnesses of Jesus’ resurrection proclaimed the event as a historical, palpable reality.<\/p>\nThe Significance of Christ’s Resurrection<\/p>\nSeveral people were raised from the dead, as recorded in the Bible. A widow’s son was raised by Elijah, another widow’s son was raised by Jesus, and Lazarus was raised by Jesus. However, their revitalization (or resuscitation) is not the same as Christ’s resurrection. They arose only to die again; he arose to live forevermore. They arose still doomed by corruptibility; he arose incorruptible. They arose with no change to their constitution; he arose in a significantly different form.<\/p>\nWhen the Lord arose, three significant things happened to him. He was glorified, he was transfigured, and he became spirit. All three happened simultaneously. When he was resurrected, he was glorified (see Lk 24:26). At the same time, his body was transfigured into a glorious one (Phil 3:21). Equally so—and quite mysteriously—he became life-giving spirit (1 Cor 15:45).<\/p>\nPrior to the Lord’s crucifixion and resurrection, he declared, “The hour has come for the Son of Man to be glorified. Truly, truly, I say unto you, unless a grain of wheat falls into the ground and dies, it abides alone; but if it dies, it brings forth many grains” (Jn 12:23-24; literal). This declaration provides the best picture of resurrection. Paul also used this illustration. He likened the resurrection glory to a grain being sown in death and then coming forth in life. Actually, Paul used this illustration when answering two questions the Corinthians posed about resurrection: (1) How are the dead raised? and (2) With what sort of body do they come? (1 Cor 15:35).<\/p>\nTo the first question Paul responded, “Foolish man, what you sow is not made alive unless it dies” (1 Cor 15:36). This follows perfectly the Lord’s saying in John 12:24, and the two explain each other. The grain must die before it can be quickened. Paul devotes more explanation to the second question; and the Spirit inspired his sublime utterance to unfold this mystery. Using the same natural example of the grain of wheat, Paul revealed that the body that comes forth in resurrection is altogether different in form from that which had been sown. Through an organic process, the single bare grain is transformed into a stalk of wheat. In essence, the grain and the stalk are one and the same—the latter simply being the living growth and expressed expansion of the former. In short, the stalk is the glory of the grain, or the glorified grain. This illustration shows that Jesus’ resurrected body was altogether different from the one that was buried. In death, he had been sown in corruption, dishonor, and weakness; in resurrection, he came forth in incorruption, glory, and power. The natural body that Jesus possessed as a man became a spiritual body, and at the same time Christ became “life-giving spirit.”<\/p>\nWith this new spiritual existence, Christ, as spirit and through the Holy Spirit, could indwell millions of believers simultaneously. Before the resurrection, Jesus was limited by his mortal body; after his resurrection, Jesus could be experienced illimitably by all his believers. Before his resurrection, Christ could dwell only among his believers; after his resurrection, he could dwell in his believers. Because Christ became spirit through resurrection, he can be experienced by those he indwells. The Spirit of Christ now makes Christ very real and experiential to us.<\/p>\nThe Lord Jesus entered into a new kind of existence when he was raised from the dead because he was glorified and simultaneously became spirit—or, to coin a term, he was “pneumafied” (from the Greek word for “spirit,” pneuma<\/span>). It appears that when he arose the indwelling Spirit penetrated and saturated his body so as to constitute his entire being with spirit. Recent studies in the area of pneumatology (the study of the Spirit) point out that the risen Christ and the Spirit were united via Christ’s resurrection.<\/p>\nWilliam Milligan, the author of the best English classic on the subject of the resurrection, said that the risen Christ is spirit. In that classic, called The Resurrection of Our Lord<\/em>, he wrote the following:<\/p>\nThe condition of our Lord after His Resurrection was viewed by the sacred writers as essentially a state of pneuma<\/span> (spirit). Not indeed that our Lord had then no body, for it is the constant lesson of Scripture that a body was possessed by him; but that the deepest, the fundamental characteristic of His state, interpenetrating even the body, and moulding it into a complete adaptation to and harmony with His spirit, was pneuma<\/span>.<\/em> In other words, it is proposed to inquire whether the word pneuma<\/span> in the New Testament is not used as a short description of what our Lord was after His Resurrection, in contrast with what He was during the days of His humiliation upon earth.<\/p>\nMilligan went on from there to show that several Scriptures affirm that the resurrected Christ is spirit. He cited 1 Corinthians 6:17 to show that the believer who is joined with the risen Lord must be joined to him as spirit, because he who is joined to the Lord is said to be “one spirit” with him. He used 2 Corinthians 3:17-18 to demonstrate that the Lord who is the Spirit is none other than the risen Christ. He also employed 1 Timothy 3:16, Romans 1:3-4, and Hebrews 9:14 to prove that the risen Lord is spirit.<\/p>\nWhen we read the last chapters of the Gospels, we realize that a great change had transpired in our Lord after the resurrection. By entering into glory, he had entered into a new sphere of existence. At one moment he was visible; in another he became invisible (Lk 24:31). He was defying the limitations of space and perhaps even time. In the early morning of the day of resurrection, he appeared to Mary Magdalene in the garden (Jn 20:11-17), then to some of the other women (Mt 28:9). After this, he ascended to his Father (Jn 20:17). Then he returned to appear to Peter, who had gone home (Jn 20:10; Lk 24:34). On the same day, in the late afternoon, he took a seven-mile (11.3-kilometer) walk with two disciples on their way to Emmaus (Lk 24:13-33), following which he appeared to the disciples as they were assembled in a closed room somewhere in Jerusalem (Lk 24:33-48; Jn 20:19-23). It is nearly impossible to follow a sequential, chronological order of all these happenings. What Jesus did was humanly impossible. How could he make all of these appearances on the same day? All we can say is that resurrection greatly changed his sphere of existence. As spirit, and yet with a body—a glorified one—he was no longer limited by time and space.<\/p>\n Through resurrection, Jesus had acquired a different form (see Mk 16:12). As to his person, he was still the same; the Jesus who walked in Galilee and was crucified at Calvary is the same Jesus who arose. His person had not changed, nor will it ever; it is immutable. But his form did change; he is now life-giving spirit. As such, Christ is able to indwell all of his believers.<\/p>\nResurrection and regeneration are closely linked in the Scriptures—in the same way that crucifixion and redemption form an inseparable unity. As redemption was not possible without Christ’s crucifixion, so regeneration is not possible without Christ’s resurrection. The Scripture plainly says that we have been born again through the resurrection of Christ (1 Pt 1:23).<\/p>\nAfter Christ was raised from the dead, he called the disciples his brothers (Mt 28:10; Jn 20:19), and he declared that his God was now their God, and his Father their Father. Through resurrection, the disciples had become the brothers of Jesus, possessing the same divine life and the same Father. As the firstborn from among the dead (Col 1:18; Rv 1:18), Jesus Christ became the firstborn among many brothers (Rom 8:29).<\/p>\nResurrection in General<\/p>\nPaul looked for the Day of the Lord when the dead in Christ would be raised and those who were still alive would join the dead in final victory (1 Thes 4:15-18). There was no doubt in his mind that this resurrection was a glorious expectation, that it involved some type of a personalized body, and that this body would not be physical but spiritual (1 Cor 15:35-44). Paul did not speak of two resurrections, as do the Johannine texts (e.g., Jn 5:29), but merely of the resurrection to life. Perhaps the Revelation of John provides the best clue in understanding NT thought on this issue because it refers to the blessing of being part of the first resurrection (Rv 20:5-6). Although in Revelation the term “resurrection” is not used in connection with judgment, the appearance at the judgment seat and the verdict of the second death in the lake of fire indicate that a resurrection to judgment will hardly be of the same essence as resurrection to life.<\/p>\n\nResurrection and Gnosticism<\/p>\nGnostic eschatology is indebted to the Greek view of immortality and involves the shedding of the bodily husk in the spiritual ascent of the devotee to the Pleroma, or Gnostic heaven. Because of the way Gnostics used words, the Gospel of Philip is a helpful window for understanding the Gnostic twisting of ideas. There it is argued that “those who say that the Lord died first and [then] arose are in error; because he first arose and [then] died. If anyone does not attain the resurrection first, will he not die?” (Philip 56:15-19). The concept of resurrection is de-eschatologized and defined not in terms of a truly future expectation of resurrection but in terms of a realized spiritual awakening in this world. The Gospel of Philip is also useful in perceiving why in 2 Timothy 2:17-19 the criticism was so severe against Hymenaeus and Philetus for holding that the resurrection was past. Clearly, realized eschatology was rejected in the Pauline community and by the church when it appeared in Gnosticism. And it should continue to be rejected by the church in the present day.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Dead, Place of the; Eschatology; Second Coming of Christ; Spirit.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>RESURRECTION<\/h3>\nAct of being raised from the dead, used in the Bible in three different contexts: (1) It refers to miraculous raising of the dead back to earthly life, such as when Elijah raised a boy (1 Kgs 17:8-24), Elisha raised the Shunammite’s son (2 Kgs 4:18-37), Jesus raised both Jairus’s daughter (Mk 5:35-43) and Lazarus (Jn 11:17-44), Peter raised Dorcas (Acts 9:36-42), and Paul raised Eutychus (20:9-12). There is no hint that these resuscitations would prevent future death. (2) It refers most frequently to the resurrection of Jesus Christ. (3) It also refers to the eschatological resurrection of mankind at the end of time for punishment or reward (Jn 5:29; cf. Rv 20:5-6).<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Resurrection in the Old Testament and Judaism<\/p>\n• The Resurrection of Jesus Christ<\/p>\n• The Resurrection Accounts<\/p>\n• The Significance of Christ’s Resurrection<\/p>\n• Resurrection in General<\/p>\n• Resurrection and Gnosticism<\/p>\nResurrection in the Old Testament and Judaism<\/p>\nThe concept of resurrection to eternal life developed slowly in Israel. Life and death were limited to physical existence in this world. Death meant leaving this world and entering a shadowy existence known as Sheol, the place of the rephaim<\/span>,<\/em> or shades (Is 14:9), a place of hopelessness (2 Sm 12:23; Jb 7:9-10). The tragedy of Sheol was that a person was cut off from fellowship with God. At that stage of Israel’s thought, there seemed little hope for resurrection (Pss 6:4-5; 88:10-12).<\/p>\nBut in the midst of hopelessness concerning a personal future, Israel developed a sense of faithfulness to God. In spite of the fact that the future was not clear, Job cried helplessly, “If a man dies, will he live again?” (Jb 14:14). As Job sought for the seemingly impossible, the difficult passage in Job 19:25-26 suggests the reality of resurrection by a living redeemer (go’el<\/span>).<\/p>\nWhile some would argue that Hosea 6:1-3 suggests a resurrection, it is more likely that Israel considered it to be a promise of God’s continuing care, even when it experienced defeat at the hands of its enemies. Whether Paul saw in the third-day statement of Hosea a reference to Jesus is difficult to assess. This passage, along with texts like the dry bones of Ezekiel (ch 37), focus primarily on giving Israel hope in spite of defeat. But they may have become part of a developing sense in Israel that after death there should be something more.<\/p>\nIn Daniel 12:2, however, there is a sure reference to the resurrection of the dead. Indeed, the text announced a twofold resurrection of Jews: some to eternal life and some to eternal contempt. But there was no general resurrection of all people suggested by this text.<\/p>\nIn the intertestamental period, views began to solidify. The theologically conservative Sadducees would have nothing to do with the new ideas of resurrection and the afterlife. They continued to argue that there was no mention of resurrection in the writings of Moses, that life pertained to this earthly realm, and that the future hope was experienced through one’s children (Ecclus 46:12). Sheol, the place of the dead, was devoid of relationship with God and was a place of hapless existence. The Sadducean opinion of the resurrection is generally well known to Christians because of the encounter between Jesus and the Sadducees when they sought to ensnare him concerning the wife of seven brothers. Jesus rejected their views of the resurrection, of God, and of the Scriptures (Mk 12:18-27).<\/p>\nThe Pharisees, along with the Essenes and those at Qumran, believed in resurrection. A twofold pattern of resurrection was suggested by the famous eschatological passages of 2 Esdras 7 and the Apocalypse of Baruch 50–51. Both texts may be as late as the first century AD<\/span>. In the Similitudes of 1 Enoch, the righteous Jews could generally expect resurrection, but not the wicked (1 Enoch 1:46, 51, 62). But elsewhere in Enoch there is a hint that some wicked may be raised for judgment (vv 22, 67, 90). The resurrection of the righteous in these texts would generally be linked to a spiritual type of body, yet in 2 Maccabees 7:14ff., the view seems less developed and more physical. The ascetics at Qumran expected a resurrection in the great Day of the Lord.<\/p>\nWhile in Judaism there was a growing sense of an eschatological day of resurrection and reckoning, there was no hint anywhere of a resurrection of the Messiah. Such an idea had to await the historical reality of Jesus.<\/p>\nThe Resurrection of Jesus Christ<\/p>\nThe resurrection of Christ is the central point of Christianity. So important was the resurrection for Paul that he hinged both preaching and faith upon its validity. He considered that a Christianity without the resurrection would be empty and meaningless (1 Cor 15:12-19). Indeed, the resurrection for him was the unveiling of God’s power in Jesus (Rom 1:4).<\/p>\nThe resurrection of Christ is the presupposition behind other texts of the NT as well. Rebirth to a living hope is based upon the resurrection (1 Pt 1:3). It is the foundation for witness and fellowship with God, because the living Lord has been seen and touched (1 Jn 1:1-4). It is the bedrock thesis for ministry and apostleship (Acts 1:21-25). The Gospels likewise would hardly have been good news if they did not conclude with Christ’s resurrection. Christ’s resurrection is the prototype for all the believers, who will experience resurrection when Christ returns.<\/p>\nThe Resurrection Accounts<\/p>\nWhile the resurrection of Jesus Christ is the very essence of Christianity, it has been the subject of considerable debate. Scholars have frequently noted the variations that are present in the accounts. How many and who were the women at the tomb? Was there one (Mt; Mk) or were there two (Lk; Jn) angels at the tomb? Did the women come to anoint the body (Mk; Lk) or to see the tomb (Mt)? Did the women say nothing to anyone because of fear (Mk), or did they report to the disciples (Mt)? What was the order of the appearances, and did they take place in Jerusalem (Lk; Jn 20) or in Galilee (Mt; Jn 21) or in both places? Can the appearances be harmonized? What kind of body did Jesus possess? These and many other questions have been the watershed for a great deal of contemporary scholarly debate.<\/p>\nMany of these questions were not first discovered by recent scholars. Tatian in the second century sought to remove the questions by composing his Diatessaron<\/em> (harmony) in hopes that Christians would accept his work as a variant-free substitute for the Gospels. Although Christians liked the harmony, they continued to faithfully transmit the Gospels, because they believed that in them, by divine inspiration, God had provided a powerful witness concerning his Son. Many today still try the way of harmonization in an effort to deal with the minutia of historical questions, but they usually miss the uniqueness of each testimony. Others emphasize the differences and speculate on the Gospel constructs, but the fact of the resurrection usually becomes lost in the details of these human constructs. Both are attempts at protecting the essence of faith and reason in different ways.<\/p>\n<h5>The Empty Tomb<\/h5>\nMany explanations have been given concerning the empty tomb. Some said the body was stolen by the disciples (already suggested by Mt 28:13), but then one needs to explain the church on the basis of fraud. Others have said that the Jews could have stolen the body, or the disciples could have mistaken the tomb, but then the body would soon have been produced by the enemies. Others have said that Jesus could have lapsed into a swoon, reviving later in the cold tomb, but then the result would hardly have inspired the power of the Christian church. These explanations are all rationalistic attempts based upon a preconception that an actual resurrection of Jesus could not have happened.<\/p>\nIn spite of the material differences, and while the Gospel writers have used a great deal of common material in their tomb stories, they themselves refrain from employing the tomb as a basis for resurrection faith. With the exception of John 20:8, the empty tomb engendered surprise and fear. Indeed, it seemed to be an idle tale (Lk 24:11). It is not the tomb stories but the appearances of Jesus after his resurrection that gave rise to faith.<\/p>\n<h5>The Appearances<\/h5>\nUnlike the tomb stories, there is little commonality of material in the appearances. Yet the appearances are the basis for faith that the unbelievable happened. An enemy like Paul was converted into a zealous apostle (Acts 9:1-22; 1 Cor 15:8). A fearful fisherman like Peter abandoned his nets (Jn 21). A doubter like Thomas uttered early Christianity’s greatest confession, calling Jesus “my Lord and my God” (20:24-28). And two weary travelers to Emmaus found new zeal to return quickly to Jerusalem and share the news about their encounter with the risen Jesus (Lk 24:13-35).<\/p>\nScholars have debated the nature of these appearances. Starting from Paul’s list of appearances (1 Cor 15:5-8), some have argued that all appearances are of the same nature, and since the Damascus-road appearance to Paul recorded in Acts seems to have been of a spiritual nature (Acts 9:1-9; cf. 22:6-11; 26:12-19), then all the appearances must have been similar. Statements that the risen Jesus was touchable (Lk 24:41-43) are rejected as later accretions to an earlier vision-type tradition. This type of argument is based on presuppositions of the impossibility of a bodily resurrection.<\/p>\nAnother theory was based on the division between the Jesus of history and the Christ of faith. According to this view, the resurrection was not to be regarded as a fact of history but as an experience of the faith of the disciples. The issue, however, is that the eyewitnesses of Jesus’ resurrection proclaimed the event as a historical, palpable reality.<\/p>\nThe Significance of Christ’s Resurrection<\/p>\nSeveral people were raised from the dead, as recorded in the Bible. A widow’s son was raised by Elijah, another widow’s son was raised by Jesus, and Lazarus was raised by Jesus. However, their revitalization (or resuscitation) is not the same as Christ’s resurrection. They arose only to die again; he arose to live forevermore. They arose still doomed by corruptibility; he arose incorruptible. They arose with no change to their constitution; he arose in a significantly different form.<\/p>\nWhen the Lord arose, three significant things happened to him. He was glorified, he was transfigured, and he became spirit. All three happened simultaneously. When he was resurrected, he was glorified (see Lk 24:26). At the same time, his body was transfigured into a glorious one (Phil 3:21). Equally so—and quite mysteriously—he became life-giving spirit (1 Cor 15:45).<\/p>\nPrior to the Lord’s crucifixion and resurrection, he declared, “The hour has come for the Son of Man to be glorified. Truly, truly, I say unto you, unless a grain of wheat falls into the ground and dies, it abides alone; but if it dies, it brings forth many grains” (Jn 12:23-24; literal). This declaration provides the best picture of resurrection. Paul also used this illustration. He likened the resurrection glory to a grain being sown in death and then coming forth in life. Actually, Paul used this illustration when answering two questions the Corinthians posed about resurrection: (1) How are the dead raised? and (2) With what sort of body do they come? (1 Cor 15:35).<\/p>\nTo the first question Paul responded, “Foolish man, what you sow is not made alive unless it dies” (1 Cor 15:36). This follows perfectly the Lord’s saying in John 12:24, and the two explain each other. The grain must die before it can be quickened. Paul devotes more explanation to the second question; and the Spirit inspired his sublime utterance to unfold this mystery. Using the same natural example of the grain of wheat, Paul revealed that the body that comes forth in resurrection is altogether different in form from that which had been sown. Through an organic process, the single bare grain is transformed into a stalk of wheat. In essence, the grain and the stalk are one and the same—the latter simply being the living growth and expressed expansion of the former. In short, the stalk is the glory of the grain, or the glorified grain. This illustration shows that Jesus’ resurrected body was altogether different from the one that was buried. In death, he had been sown in corruption, dishonor, and weakness; in resurrection, he came forth in incorruption, glory, and power. The natural body that Jesus possessed as a man became a spiritual body, and at the same time Christ became “life-giving spirit.”<\/p>\nWith this new spiritual existence, Christ, as spirit and through the Holy Spirit, could indwell millions of believers simultaneously. Before the resurrection, Jesus was limited by his mortal body; after his resurrection, Jesus could be experienced illimitably by all his believers. Before his resurrection, Christ could dwell only among his believers; after his resurrection, he could dwell in his believers. Because Christ became spirit through resurrection, he can be experienced by those he indwells. The Spirit of Christ now makes Christ very real and experiential to us.<\/p>\nThe Lord Jesus entered into a new kind of existence when he was raised from the dead because he was glorified and simultaneously became spirit—or, to coin a term, he was “pneumafied” (from the Greek word for “spirit,” pneuma<\/span>). It appears that when he arose the indwelling Spirit penetrated and saturated his body so as to constitute his entire being with spirit. Recent studies in the area of pneumatology (the study of the Spirit) point out that the risen Christ and the Spirit were united via Christ’s resurrection.<\/p>\nWilliam Milligan, the author of the best English classic on the subject of the resurrection, said that the risen Christ is spirit. In that classic, called The Resurrection of Our Lord<\/em>, he wrote the following:<\/p>\nThe condition of our Lord after His Resurrection was viewed by the sacred writers as essentially a state of pneuma<\/span> (spirit). Not indeed that our Lord had then no body, for it is the constant lesson of Scripture that a body was possessed by him; but that the deepest, the fundamental characteristic of His state, interpenetrating even the body, and moulding it into a complete adaptation to and harmony with His spirit, was pneuma<\/span>.<\/em> In other words, it is proposed to inquire whether the word pneuma<\/span> in the New Testament is not used as a short description of what our Lord was after His Resurrection, in contrast with what He was during the days of His humiliation upon earth.<\/p>\nMilligan went on from there to show that several Scriptures affirm that the resurrected Christ is spirit. He cited 1 Corinthians 6:17 to show that the believer who is joined with the risen Lord must be joined to him as spirit, because he who is joined to the Lord is said to be “one spirit” with him. He used 2 Corinthians 3:17-18 to demonstrate that the Lord who is the Spirit is none other than the risen Christ. He also employed 1 Timothy 3:16, Romans 1:3-4, and Hebrews 9:14 to prove that the risen Lord is spirit.<\/p>\nWhen we read the last chapters of the Gospels, we realize that a great change had transpired in our Lord after the resurrection. By entering into glory, he had entered into a new sphere of existence. At one moment he was visible; in another he became invisible (Lk 24:31). He was defying the limitations of space and perhaps even time. In the early morning of the day of resurrection, he appeared to Mary Magdalene in the garden (Jn 20:11-17), then to some of the other women (Mt 28:9). After this, he ascended to his Father (Jn 20:17). Then he returned to appear to Peter, who had gone home (Jn 20:10; Lk 24:34). On the same day, in the late afternoon, he took a seven-mile (11.3-kilometer) walk with two disciples on their way to Emmaus (Lk 24:13-33), following which he appeared to the disciples as they were assembled in a closed room somewhere in Jerusalem (Lk 24:33-48; Jn 20:19-23). It is nearly impossible to follow a sequential, chronological order of all these happenings. What Jesus did was humanly impossible. How could he make all of these appearances on the same day? All we can say is that resurrection greatly changed his sphere of existence. As spirit, and yet with a body—a glorified one—he was no longer limited by time and space.<\/p>\n Through resurrection, Jesus had acquired a different form (see Mk 16:12). As to his person, he was still the same; the Jesus who walked in Galilee and was crucified at Calvary is the same Jesus who arose. His person had not changed, nor will it ever; it is immutable. But his form did change; he is now life-giving spirit. As such, Christ is able to indwell all of his believers.<\/p>\nResurrection and regeneration are closely linked in the Scriptures—in the same way that crucifixion and redemption form an inseparable unity. As redemption was not possible without Christ’s crucifixion, so regeneration is not possible without Christ’s resurrection. The Scripture plainly says that we have been born again through the resurrection of Christ (1 Pt 1:23).<\/p>\nAfter Christ was raised from the dead, he called the disciples his brothers (Mt 28:10; Jn 20:19), and he declared that his God was now their God, and his Father their Father. Through resurrection, the disciples had become the brothers of Jesus, possessing the same divine life and the same Father. As the firstborn from among the dead (Col 1:18; Rv 1:18), Jesus Christ became the firstborn among many brothers (Rom 8:29).<\/p>\nResurrection in General<\/p>\nPaul looked for the Day of the Lord when the dead in Christ would be raised and those who were still alive would join the dead in final victory (1 Thes 4:15-18). There was no doubt in his mind that this resurrection was a glorious expectation, that it involved some type of a personalized body, and that this body would not be physical but spiritual (1 Cor 15:35-44). Paul did not speak of two resurrections, as do the Johannine texts (e.g., Jn 5:29), but merely of the resurrection to life. Perhaps the Revelation of John provides the best clue in understanding NT thought on this issue because it refers to the blessing of being part of the first resurrection (Rv 20:5-6). Although in Revelation the term “resurrection” is not used in connection with judgment, the appearance at the judgment seat and the verdict of the second death in the lake of fire indicate that a resurrection to judgment will hardly be of the same essence as resurrection to life.<\/p>\n\nResurrection and Gnosticism<\/p>\nGnostic eschatology is indebted to the Greek view of immortality and involves the shedding of the bodily husk in the spiritual ascent of the devotee to the Pleroma, or Gnostic heaven. Because of the way Gnostics used words, the Gospel of Philip is a helpful window for understanding the Gnostic twisting of ideas. There it is argued that “those who say that the Lord died first and [then] arose are in error; because he first arose and [then] died. If anyone does not attain the resurrection first, will he not die?” (Philip 56:15-19). The concept of resurrection is de-eschatologized and defined not in terms of a truly future expectation of resurrection but in terms of a realized spiritual awakening in this world. The Gospel of Philip is also useful in perceiving why in 2 Timothy 2:17-19 the criticism was so severe against Hymenaeus and Philetus for holding that the resurrection was past. Clearly, realized eschatology was rejected in the Pauline community and by the church when it appeared in Gnosticism. And it should continue to be rejected by the church in the present day.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Dead, Place of the; Eschatology; Second Coming of Christ; Spirit.<\/p>","summary_ro":"RESURRECTION Act of being raised from the dead, used in the Bible in three different contexts: (1) It refers to miraculous raising of the dead back to earthly life, such as when Elijah raised a boy (1 Kgs 17:8-24), Elisha raised the Shunammite’s son (2 Kgs 4:18-37), Jesus raised both Jairus’s daughter (Mk 5:35-43) and Lazarus (Jn 11:17-44), Peter raised Dorcas (Acts 9:36-42), and Paul raised Eutychus (20:9-12). There is no hint that these resuscitations would prevent future death. (2) It refe...","summary_en":"RESURRECTION Act of being raised from the dead, used in the Bible in three different contexts: (1) It refers to miraculous raising of the dead back to earthly life, such as when Elijah raised a boy (1 Kgs 17:8-24), Elisha raised the Shunammite’s son (2 Kgs 4:18-37), Jesus raised both Jairus’s daughter (Mk 5:35-43) and Lazarus (Jn 11:17-44), Peter raised Dorcas (Acts 9:36-42), and Paul raised Eutychus (20:9-12). There is no hint that these resuscitations would prevent future death. (2) It refe...","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":58276,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:21","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:21","content_ro":"3:21<\/strong> change them into glorious bodies:<\/em> See 1 Cor 15:42-54; cp. Rom 8:23. • he will bring everything under his control:<\/em> See 1 Cor 15:24-27.<\/p>","content_en":"3:21<\/strong> change them into glorious bodies:<\/em> See 1 Cor 15:42-54; cp. Rom 8:23. • he will bring everything under his control:<\/em> See 1 Cor 15:24-27.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:21 change them into glorious bodies: See 1 Cor 15:42-54; cp. Rom 8:23. • he will bring everything under his control: See 1 Cor 15:24-27.","summary_en":"3:21 change them into glorious bodies: See 1 Cor 15:42-54; cp. Rom 8:23. • he will bring everything under his control: See 1 Cor 15:24-27.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85902,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:21","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:21","content_ro":"3:21<\/strong> change them into glorious bodies:<\/em> See 1 Cor 15:42-54; cp. Rom 8:23. • he will bring everything under his control:<\/em> See 1 Cor 15:24-27.<\/p>","content_en":"3:21<\/strong> change them into glorious bodies:<\/em> See 1 Cor 15:42-54; cp. Rom 8:23. • he will bring everything under his control:<\/em> See 1 Cor 15:24-27.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:21 change them into glorious bodies: See 1 Cor 15:42-54; cp. Rom 8:23. • he will bring everything under his control: See 1 Cor 15:24-27.","summary_en":"3:21 change them into glorious bodies: See 1 Cor 15:42-54; cp. Rom 8:23. • he will bring everything under his control: See 1 Cor 15:24-27.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":113528,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:21","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:21","content_ro":"3:21<\/strong> change them into glorious bodies:<\/em> See 1 Cor 15:42-54; cp. Rom 8:23. • he will bring everything under his control:<\/em> See 1 Cor 15:24-27.<\/p>","content_en":"3:21<\/strong> change them into glorious bodies:<\/em> See 1 Cor 15:42-54; cp. Rom 8:23. • he will bring everything under his control:<\/em> See 1 Cor 15:24-27.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:21 change them into glorious bodies: See 1 Cor 15:42-54; cp. Rom 8:23. • he will bring everything under his control: See 1 Cor 15:24-27.","summary_en":"3:21 change them into glorious bodies: See 1 Cor 15:42-54; cp. Rom 8:23. • he will bring everything under his control: See 1 Cor 15:24-27.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141154,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Filipeni 3:21","title_en":"Study Note: Filipeni 3:21","content_ro":"3:21<\/strong> change them into glorious bodies:<\/em> See 1 Cor 15:42-54; cp. Rom 8:23. • he will bring everything under his control:<\/em> See 1 Cor 15:24-27.<\/p>","content_en":"3:21<\/strong> change them into glorious bodies:<\/em> See 1 Cor 15:42-54; cp. Rom 8:23. • he will bring everything under his control:<\/em> See 1 Cor 15:24-27.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:21 change them into glorious bodies: See 1 Cor 15:42-54; cp. Rom 8:23. • he will bring everything under his control: See 1 Cor 15:24-27.","summary_en":"3:21 change them into glorious bodies: See 1 Cor 15:42-54; cp. Rom 8:23. • he will bring everything under his control: See 1 Cor 15:24-27.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62513,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Afterlife","title_en":"The Afterlife","content_ro":"<h3>The Afterlife<\/h3>\nWriters in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18).<\/p>\nIn Job, the key images of the realm of the dead are dark and dusty Sheol (Job 11:8; 14:13; 17:13, 16; 24:19; 26:6), a pit fouled with the filth of decomposition (Hebrew shakhat<\/span>;<\/em> see 9:31; 17:14; 33:18, 22, 24, 28, 30), and the grave (Hebrew qeber<\/span>;<\/em> see 3:22; 5:26; 10:19; 17:1; 21:32).<\/p>\nThe Old Testament does give occasional hints of deliverance from the grave (see 1 Sam 2:6; Pss 16:10-11; 30:3; 49:15; 56:13; 73:24-26; 86:13; 139:7-10; Isa 26:19). Job hopes that Sheol might relieve him of his troubles (Job 3:13-22; 14:13-17) and that a redeemer might justify him even after death (19:25-26). But only the New Testament gives the full promise of redemption from death (1 Cor 15:50-58).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Sam 2:6; 28:11-15; 1 Kgs 17:20-22; 2 Kgs 4:32-35; Job 3:13-22; 7:9; 14:13-17; 17:13-16; 19:25-27; Pss 6:5; 16:10-11; 17:15; 49:15; 86:13; 88:11; 139:8; 141:7; Prov 1:12; 15:11; Isa 26:19; 38:18; Ezek 26:20; Matt 22:31-32; Rom 8:23; 1 Cor 15:50-58; Phil 3:21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Afterlife<\/h3>\nWriters in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18).<\/p>\nIn Job, the key images of the realm of the dead are dark and dusty Sheol (Job 11:8; 14:13; 17:13, 16; 24:19; 26:6), a pit fouled with the filth of decomposition (Hebrew shakhat<\/span>;<\/em> see 9:31; 17:14; 33:18, 22, 24, 28, 30), and the grave (Hebrew qeber<\/span>;<\/em> see 3:22; 5:26; 10:19; 17:1; 21:32).<\/p>\nThe Old Testament does give occasional hints of deliverance from the grave (see 1 Sam 2:6; Pss 16:10-11; 30:3; 49:15; 56:13; 73:24-26; 86:13; 139:7-10; Isa 26:19). Job hopes that Sheol might relieve him of his troubles (Job 3:13-22; 14:13-17) and that a redeemer might justify him even after death (19:25-26). But only the New Testament gives the full promise of redemption from death (1 Cor 15:50-58).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Sam 2:6; 28:11-15; 1 Kgs 17:20-22; 2 Kgs 4:32-35; Job 3:13-22; 7:9; 14:13-17; 17:13-16; 19:25-27; Pss 6:5; 16:10-11; 17:15; 49:15; 86:13; 88:11; 139:8; 141:7; Prov 1:12; 15:11; Isa 26:19; 38:18; Ezek 26:20; Matt 22:31-32; Rom 8:23; 1 Cor 15:50-58; Phil 3:21<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Afterlife Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18). In Job, the key images of t...","summary_en":"The Afterlife Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18). In Job, the key images of t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":65612,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Day Is Coming","title_en":"The Day Is Coming","content_ro":"<h3>The Day Is Coming<\/h3>\nJesus predicted three future events in the synoptic Gospels. One was his own death and resurrection (Mark 8:31; 9:31; 10:33-34); this was a past event when the Gospels were written.<\/p>\nThe second event that Jesus predicted was the destruction of Jerusalem in AD<\/span> 70 (Matt 24:1-28; 13:1-23; Luke 19:41-44; 21:5-24). This event was probably about to happen when Mark wrote his Gospel (see Mark Book Introduction, “Date”). It would not signify the very end, so the Christian community must continue to live in faithful watchfulness after this event for the Son of God’s return in glory, which might be soon (Mark 13:34-37).<\/p>\nThe third event that Jesus predicted was his own future return (Matt 23:39; 24:3, 29-31, 24:36–25:46; Mark 8:38; 13:24-27, 32-37; Luke 21:25-36; John 14:1-3). References to Jesus’ return can be found throughout the New Testament (see, e.g., 1 Cor 1:7-8; 3:13; 5:5; 2 Cor 1:14; Phil 1:6, 10; 2:16; 1 Thes 5:1-11; 2 Thes 2:2; 2 Tim 1:12, 18; 4:1, 8).<\/p>\nWhen Jesus returns, the promises about God’s Kingdom will be completely fulfilled. Jesus will bring judgment and destruction for Satan and his angels (Rom 16:20; 2 Thes 2:3-12). Unbelievers will also experience eternal judgment (Matt 13:40-42; 25:31-46; Luke 6:24-26; 16:19-31; Acts 10:42; Eph 5:6; Col 3:6; Heb 10:25; 2 Pet 3:7; Jude 1:6; Rev 1:7; 6:14, 17). Meanwhile, the faithful will be resurrected to experience the joy of eternal life (1 Thes 4:13-18). God will gather his chosen people for salvation (Mark 13:27; Heb 1:14; 9:27-28), grace (1 Pet 1:13), and glory (1 Thes 2:12; 2 Thes 2:14; 1 Pet 1:7; 5:1, 4). He will give his people a priceless inheritance (1 Pet 1:4) and new eternal bodies (1 Cor 15:35-57; Phil 3:21; 1 Thes 4:13-18). All of creation will also be rescued from its curse (Gen 3:17-18) and be transformed (Rom 8:20-23; 2 Pet 3:12-13; Rev 21:1–22:5). Sorrow, tears, mourning, and death will no longer exist (Rev 21:4). Those who have had faith during this life will see God (Matt 5:8; Rev 22:3).<\/p>\nIn light of these promises, believers in Jesus are to prayerfully await his return (Matt 6:10; Rev 22:20). We should not speculate on dates for his coming (Mark 13:32; Acts 1:7), but should live in a way that is honorable (1 Jn 2:28) and be prepared (Matt 24:36–25:30; 1 Thes 5:1-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 5:8; 6:10; 13:41-42; 23:39; 24:3–25:46; Mark 8:38; 13:1-37; 14:25; Luke 6:24-26; 16:19-31; 19:41-44; 21:5-36; John 14:1-3; Acts 1:6-7; 10:42; Rom 8:20-23; 16:20; 1 Cor 1:7-8; 15:35-58; 2 Cor 1:14; Phil 1:6, 10; 2:16; 3:21; 1 Thes 4:13-18; 2 Thes 2:2-14; 2 Tim 4:1-8; Titus 2:11-13; Heb 9:28; 10:25, 37; 1 Pet 1:7, 13; 5:1-4; 2 Pet 3:7-13; 1 Jn 2:28; Rev 1:7; 6:15-17; 21:1–22:7; 22:12, 20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Day Is Coming<\/h3>\nJesus predicted three future events in the synoptic Gospels. One was his own death and resurrection (Mark 8:31; 9:31; 10:33-34); this was a past event when the Gospels were written.<\/p>\nThe second event that Jesus predicted was the destruction of Jerusalem in AD<\/span> 70 (Matt 24:1-28; 13:1-23; Luke 19:41-44; 21:5-24). This event was probably about to happen when Mark wrote his Gospel (see Mark Book Introduction, “Date”). It would not signify the very end, so the Christian community must continue to live in faithful watchfulness after this event for the Son of God’s return in glory, which might be soon (Mark 13:34-37).<\/p>\nThe third event that Jesus predicted was his own future return (Matt 23:39; 24:3, 29-31, 24:36–25:46; Mark 8:38; 13:24-27, 32-37; Luke 21:25-36; John 14:1-3). References to Jesus’ return can be found throughout the New Testament (see, e.g., 1 Cor 1:7-8; 3:13; 5:5; 2 Cor 1:14; Phil 1:6, 10; 2:16; 1 Thes 5:1-11; 2 Thes 2:2; 2 Tim 1:12, 18; 4:1, 8).<\/p>\nWhen Jesus returns, the promises about God’s Kingdom will be completely fulfilled. Jesus will bring judgment and destruction for Satan and his angels (Rom 16:20; 2 Thes 2:3-12). Unbelievers will also experience eternal judgment (Matt 13:40-42; 25:31-46; Luke 6:24-26; 16:19-31; Acts 10:42; Eph 5:6; Col 3:6; Heb 10:25; 2 Pet 3:7; Jude 1:6; Rev 1:7; 6:14, 17). Meanwhile, the faithful will be resurrected to experience the joy of eternal life (1 Thes 4:13-18). God will gather his chosen people for salvation (Mark 13:27; Heb 1:14; 9:27-28), grace (1 Pet 1:13), and glory (1 Thes 2:12; 2 Thes 2:14; 1 Pet 1:7; 5:1, 4). He will give his people a priceless inheritance (1 Pet 1:4) and new eternal bodies (1 Cor 15:35-57; Phil 3:21; 1 Thes 4:13-18). All of creation will also be rescued from its curse (Gen 3:17-18) and be transformed (Rom 8:20-23; 2 Pet 3:12-13; Rev 21:1–22:5). Sorrow, tears, mourning, and death will no longer exist (Rev 21:4). Those who have had faith during this life will see God (Matt 5:8; Rev 22:3).<\/p>\nIn light of these promises, believers in Jesus are to prayerfully await his return (Matt 6:10; Rev 22:20). We should not speculate on dates for his coming (Mark 13:32; Acts 1:7), but should live in a way that is honorable (1 Jn 2:28) and be prepared (Matt 24:36–25:30; 1 Thes 5:1-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 5:8; 6:10; 13:41-42; 23:39; 24:3–25:46; Mark 8:38; 13:1-37; 14:25; Luke 6:24-26; 16:19-31; 19:41-44; 21:5-36; John 14:1-3; Acts 1:6-7; 10:42; Rom 8:20-23; 16:20; 1 Cor 1:7-8; 15:35-58; 2 Cor 1:14; Phil 1:6, 10; 2:16; 3:21; 1 Thes 4:13-18; 2 Thes 2:2-14; 2 Tim 4:1-8; Titus 2:11-13; Heb 9:28; 10:25, 37; 1 Pet 1:7, 13; 5:1-4; 2 Pet 3:7-13; 1 Jn 2:28; Rev 1:7; 6:15-17; 21:1–22:7; 22:12, 20<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Day Is Coming Jesus predicted three future events in the synoptic Gospels. One was his own death and resurrection (Mark 8:31; 9:31; 10:33-34); this was a past event when the Gospels were written. The second event that Jesus predicted was the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70 (Matt 24:1-28; 13:1-23; Luke 19:41-44; 21:5-24). This event was probably about to happen when Mark wrote his Gospel (see Mark Book Introduction, “Date”). It would not signify the very end, so the Christian community m...","summary_en":"The Day Is Coming Jesus predicted three future events in the synoptic Gospels. One was his own death and resurrection (Mark 8:31; 9:31; 10:33-34); this was a past event when the Gospels were written. The second event that Jesus predicted was the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70 (Matt 24:1-28; 13:1-23; Luke 19:41-44; 21:5-24). This event was probably about to happen when Mark wrote his Gospel (see Mark Book Introduction, “Date”). It would not signify the very end, so the Christian community m...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66142,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension","title_en":"Jesus’ Ascension","content_ro":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\nJesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\nChrist’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\nThe ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\nJesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\nJesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\nChrist’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\nThe ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\nJesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","summary_en":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90139,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Afterlife","title_en":"The Afterlife","content_ro":"<h3>The Afterlife<\/h3>\nWriters in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18).<\/p>\nIn Job, the key images of the realm of the dead are dark and dusty Sheol (Job 11:8; 14:13; 17:13, 16; 24:19; 26:6), a pit fouled with the filth of decomposition (Hebrew shakhat<\/span>;<\/em> see 9:31; 17:14; 33:18, 22, 24, 28, 30), and the grave (Hebrew qeber<\/span>;<\/em> see 3:22; 5:26; 10:19; 17:1; 21:32).<\/p>\nThe Old Testament does give occasional hints of deliverance from the grave (see 1 Sam 2:6; Pss 16:10-11; 30:3; 49:15; 56:13; 73:24-26; 86:13; 139:7-10; Isa 26:19). Job hopes that Sheol might relieve him of his troubles (Job 3:13-22; 14:13-17) and that a redeemer might justify him even after death (19:25-26). But only the New Testament gives the full promise of redemption from death (1 Cor 15:50-58).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Sam 2:6; 28:11-15; 1 Kgs 17:20-22; 2 Kgs 4:32-35; Job 3:13-22; 7:9; 14:13-17; 17:13-16; 19:25-27; Pss 6:5; 16:10-11; 17:15; 49:15; 86:13; 88:11; 139:8; 141:7; Prov 1:12; 15:11; Isa 26:19; 38:18; Ezek 26:20; Matt 22:31-32; Rom 8:23; 1 Cor 15:50-58; Phil 3:21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Afterlife<\/h3>\nWriters in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18).<\/p>\nIn Job, the key images of the realm of the dead are dark and dusty Sheol (Job 11:8; 14:13; 17:13, 16; 24:19; 26:6), a pit fouled with the filth of decomposition (Hebrew shakhat<\/span>;<\/em> see 9:31; 17:14; 33:18, 22, 24, 28, 30), and the grave (Hebrew qeber<\/span>;<\/em> see 3:22; 5:26; 10:19; 17:1; 21:32).<\/p>\nThe Old Testament does give occasional hints of deliverance from the grave (see 1 Sam 2:6; Pss 16:10-11; 30:3; 49:15; 56:13; 73:24-26; 86:13; 139:7-10; Isa 26:19). Job hopes that Sheol might relieve him of his troubles (Job 3:13-22; 14:13-17) and that a redeemer might justify him even after death (19:25-26). But only the New Testament gives the full promise of redemption from death (1 Cor 15:50-58).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Sam 2:6; 28:11-15; 1 Kgs 17:20-22; 2 Kgs 4:32-35; Job 3:13-22; 7:9; 14:13-17; 17:13-16; 19:25-27; Pss 6:5; 16:10-11; 17:15; 49:15; 86:13; 88:11; 139:8; 141:7; Prov 1:12; 15:11; Isa 26:19; 38:18; Ezek 26:20; Matt 22:31-32; Rom 8:23; 1 Cor 15:50-58; Phil 3:21<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Afterlife Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18). In Job, the key images of t...","summary_en":"The Afterlife Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18). In Job, the key images of t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":93238,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Day Is Coming","title_en":"The Day Is Coming","content_ro":"<h3>The Day Is Coming<\/h3>\nJesus predicted three future events in the synoptic Gospels. One was his own death and resurrection (Mark 8:31; 9:31; 10:33-34); this was a past event when the Gospels were written.<\/p>\nThe second event that Jesus predicted was the destruction of Jerusalem in AD<\/span> 70 (Matt 24:1-28; 13:1-23; Luke 19:41-44; 21:5-24). This event was probably about to happen when Mark wrote his Gospel (see Mark Book Introduction, “Date”). It would not signify the very end, so the Christian community must continue to live in faithful watchfulness after this event for the Son of God’s return in glory, which might be soon (Mark 13:34-37).<\/p>\nThe third event that Jesus predicted was his own future return (Matt 23:39; 24:3, 29-31, 24:36–25:46; Mark 8:38; 13:24-27, 32-37; Luke 21:25-36; John 14:1-3). References to Jesus’ return can be found throughout the New Testament (see, e.g., 1 Cor 1:7-8; 3:13; 5:5; 2 Cor 1:14; Phil 1:6, 10; 2:16; 1 Thes 5:1-11; 2 Thes 2:2; 2 Tim 1:12, 18; 4:1, 8).<\/p>\nWhen Jesus returns, the promises about God’s Kingdom will be completely fulfilled. Jesus will bring judgment and destruction for Satan and his angels (Rom 16:20; 2 Thes 2:3-12). Unbelievers will also experience eternal judgment (Matt 13:40-42; 25:31-46; Luke 6:24-26; 16:19-31; Acts 10:42; Eph 5:6; Col 3:6; Heb 10:25; 2 Pet 3:7; Jude 1:6; Rev 1:7; 6:14, 17). Meanwhile, the faithful will be resurrected to experience the joy of eternal life (1 Thes 4:13-18). God will gather his chosen people for salvation (Mark 13:27; Heb 1:14; 9:27-28), grace (1 Pet 1:13), and glory (1 Thes 2:12; 2 Thes 2:14; 1 Pet 1:7; 5:1, 4). He will give his people a priceless inheritance (1 Pet 1:4) and new eternal bodies (1 Cor 15:35-57; Phil 3:21; 1 Thes 4:13-18). All of creation will also be rescued from its curse (Gen 3:17-18) and be transformed (Rom 8:20-23; 2 Pet 3:12-13; Rev 21:1–22:5). Sorrow, tears, mourning, and death will no longer exist (Rev 21:4). Those who have had faith during this life will see God (Matt 5:8; Rev 22:3).<\/p>\nIn light of these promises, believers in Jesus are to prayerfully await his return (Matt 6:10; Rev 22:20). We should not speculate on dates for his coming (Mark 13:32; Acts 1:7), but should live in a way that is honorable (1 Jn 2:28) and be prepared (Matt 24:36–25:30; 1 Thes 5:1-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 5:8; 6:10; 13:41-42; 23:39; 24:3–25:46; Mark 8:38; 13:1-37; 14:25; Luke 6:24-26; 16:19-31; 19:41-44; 21:5-36; John 14:1-3; Acts 1:6-7; 10:42; Rom 8:20-23; 16:20; 1 Cor 1:7-8; 15:35-58; 2 Cor 1:14; Phil 1:6, 10; 2:16; 3:21; 1 Thes 4:13-18; 2 Thes 2:2-14; 2 Tim 4:1-8; Titus 2:11-13; Heb 9:28; 10:25, 37; 1 Pet 1:7, 13; 5:1-4; 2 Pet 3:7-13; 1 Jn 2:28; Rev 1:7; 6:15-17; 21:1–22:7; 22:12, 20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Day Is Coming<\/h3>\nJesus predicted three future events in the synoptic Gospels. One was his own death and resurrection (Mark 8:31; 9:31; 10:33-34); this was a past event when the Gospels were written.<\/p>\nThe second event that Jesus predicted was the destruction of Jerusalem in AD<\/span> 70 (Matt 24:1-28; 13:1-23; Luke 19:41-44; 21:5-24). This event was probably about to happen when Mark wrote his Gospel (see Mark Book Introduction, “Date”). It would not signify the very end, so the Christian community must continue to live in faithful watchfulness after this event for the Son of God’s return in glory, which might be soon (Mark 13:34-37).<\/p>\nThe third event that Jesus predicted was his own future return (Matt 23:39; 24:3, 29-31, 24:36–25:46; Mark 8:38; 13:24-27, 32-37; Luke 21:25-36; John 14:1-3). References to Jesus’ return can be found throughout the New Testament (see, e.g., 1 Cor 1:7-8; 3:13; 5:5; 2 Cor 1:14; Phil 1:6, 10; 2:16; 1 Thes 5:1-11; 2 Thes 2:2; 2 Tim 1:12, 18; 4:1, 8).<\/p>\nWhen Jesus returns, the promises about God’s Kingdom will be completely fulfilled. Jesus will bring judgment and destruction for Satan and his angels (Rom 16:20; 2 Thes 2:3-12). Unbelievers will also experience eternal judgment (Matt 13:40-42; 25:31-46; Luke 6:24-26; 16:19-31; Acts 10:42; Eph 5:6; Col 3:6; Heb 10:25; 2 Pet 3:7; Jude 1:6; Rev 1:7; 6:14, 17). Meanwhile, the faithful will be resurrected to experience the joy of eternal life (1 Thes 4:13-18). God will gather his chosen people for salvation (Mark 13:27; Heb 1:14; 9:27-28), grace (1 Pet 1:13), and glory (1 Thes 2:12; 2 Thes 2:14; 1 Pet 1:7; 5:1, 4). He will give his people a priceless inheritance (1 Pet 1:4) and new eternal bodies (1 Cor 15:35-57; Phil 3:21; 1 Thes 4:13-18). All of creation will also be rescued from its curse (Gen 3:17-18) and be transformed (Rom 8:20-23; 2 Pet 3:12-13; Rev 21:1–22:5). Sorrow, tears, mourning, and death will no longer exist (Rev 21:4). Those who have had faith during this life will see God (Matt 5:8; Rev 22:3).<\/p>\nIn light of these promises, believers in Jesus are to prayerfully await his return (Matt 6:10; Rev 22:20). We should not speculate on dates for his coming (Mark 13:32; Acts 1:7), but should live in a way that is honorable (1 Jn 2:28) and be prepared (Matt 24:36–25:30; 1 Thes 5:1-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 5:8; 6:10; 13:41-42; 23:39; 24:3–25:46; Mark 8:38; 13:1-37; 14:25; Luke 6:24-26; 16:19-31; 19:41-44; 21:5-36; John 14:1-3; Acts 1:6-7; 10:42; Rom 8:20-23; 16:20; 1 Cor 1:7-8; 15:35-58; 2 Cor 1:14; Phil 1:6, 10; 2:16; 3:21; 1 Thes 4:13-18; 2 Thes 2:2-14; 2 Tim 4:1-8; Titus 2:11-13; Heb 9:28; 10:25, 37; 1 Pet 1:7, 13; 5:1-4; 2 Pet 3:7-13; 1 Jn 2:28; Rev 1:7; 6:15-17; 21:1–22:7; 22:12, 20<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Day Is Coming Jesus predicted three future events in the synoptic Gospels. One was his own death and resurrection (Mark 8:31; 9:31; 10:33-34); this was a past event when the Gospels were written. The second event that Jesus predicted was the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70 (Matt 24:1-28; 13:1-23; Luke 19:41-44; 21:5-24). This event was probably about to happen when Mark wrote his Gospel (see Mark Book Introduction, “Date”). It would not signify the very end, so the Christian community m...","summary_en":"The Day Is Coming Jesus predicted three future events in the synoptic Gospels. One was his own death and resurrection (Mark 8:31; 9:31; 10:33-34); this was a past event when the Gospels were written. The second event that Jesus predicted was the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70 (Matt 24:1-28; 13:1-23; Luke 19:41-44; 21:5-24). This event was probably about to happen when Mark wrote his Gospel (see Mark Book Introduction, “Date”). It would not signify the very end, so the Christian community m...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":93768,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension","title_en":"Jesus’ Ascension","content_ro":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\nJesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\nChrist’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\nThe ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\nJesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\nJesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\nChrist’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\nThe ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\nJesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","summary_en":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117765,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Afterlife","title_en":"The Afterlife","content_ro":"<h3>The Afterlife<\/h3>\nWriters in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18).<\/p>\nIn Job, the key images of the realm of the dead are dark and dusty Sheol (Job 11:8; 14:13; 17:13, 16; 24:19; 26:6), a pit fouled with the filth of decomposition (Hebrew shakhat<\/span>;<\/em> see 9:31; 17:14; 33:18, 22, 24, 28, 30), and the grave (Hebrew qeber<\/span>;<\/em> see 3:22; 5:26; 10:19; 17:1; 21:32).<\/p>\nThe Old Testament does give occasional hints of deliverance from the grave (see 1 Sam 2:6; Pss 16:10-11; 30:3; 49:15; 56:13; 73:24-26; 86:13; 139:7-10; Isa 26:19). Job hopes that Sheol might relieve him of his troubles (Job 3:13-22; 14:13-17) and that a redeemer might justify him even after death (19:25-26). But only the New Testament gives the full promise of redemption from death (1 Cor 15:50-58).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Sam 2:6; 28:11-15; 1 Kgs 17:20-22; 2 Kgs 4:32-35; Job 3:13-22; 7:9; 14:13-17; 17:13-16; 19:25-27; Pss 6:5; 16:10-11; 17:15; 49:15; 86:13; 88:11; 139:8; 141:7; Prov 1:12; 15:11; Isa 26:19; 38:18; Ezek 26:20; Matt 22:31-32; Rom 8:23; 1 Cor 15:50-58; Phil 3:21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Afterlife<\/h3>\nWriters in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18).<\/p>\nIn Job, the key images of the realm of the dead are dark and dusty Sheol (Job 11:8; 14:13; 17:13, 16; 24:19; 26:6), a pit fouled with the filth of decomposition (Hebrew shakhat<\/span>;<\/em> see 9:31; 17:14; 33:18, 22, 24, 28, 30), and the grave (Hebrew qeber<\/span>;<\/em> see 3:22; 5:26; 10:19; 17:1; 21:32).<\/p>\nThe Old Testament does give occasional hints of deliverance from the grave (see 1 Sam 2:6; Pss 16:10-11; 30:3; 49:15; 56:13; 73:24-26; 86:13; 139:7-10; Isa 26:19). Job hopes that Sheol might relieve him of his troubles (Job 3:13-22; 14:13-17) and that a redeemer might justify him even after death (19:25-26). But only the New Testament gives the full promise of redemption from death (1 Cor 15:50-58).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Sam 2:6; 28:11-15; 1 Kgs 17:20-22; 2 Kgs 4:32-35; Job 3:13-22; 7:9; 14:13-17; 17:13-16; 19:25-27; Pss 6:5; 16:10-11; 17:15; 49:15; 86:13; 88:11; 139:8; 141:7; Prov 1:12; 15:11; Isa 26:19; 38:18; Ezek 26:20; Matt 22:31-32; Rom 8:23; 1 Cor 15:50-58; Phil 3:21<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Afterlife Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18). In Job, the key images of t...","summary_en":"The Afterlife Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18). In Job, the key images of t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":120864,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Day Is Coming","title_en":"The Day Is Coming","content_ro":"<h3>The Day Is Coming<\/h3>\nJesus predicted three future events in the synoptic Gospels. One was his own death and resurrection (Mark 8:31; 9:31; 10:33-34); this was a past event when the Gospels were written.<\/p>\nThe second event that Jesus predicted was the destruction of Jerusalem in AD<\/span> 70 (Matt 24:1-28; 13:1-23; Luke 19:41-44; 21:5-24). This event was probably about to happen when Mark wrote his Gospel (see Mark Book Introduction, “Date”). It would not signify the very end, so the Christian community must continue to live in faithful watchfulness after this event for the Son of God’s return in glory, which might be soon (Mark 13:34-37).<\/p>\nThe third event that Jesus predicted was his own future return (Matt 23:39; 24:3, 29-31, 24:36–25:46; Mark 8:38; 13:24-27, 32-37; Luke 21:25-36; John 14:1-3). References to Jesus’ return can be found throughout the New Testament (see, e.g., 1 Cor 1:7-8; 3:13; 5:5; 2 Cor 1:14; Phil 1:6, 10; 2:16; 1 Thes 5:1-11; 2 Thes 2:2; 2 Tim 1:12, 18; 4:1, 8).<\/p>\nWhen Jesus returns, the promises about God’s Kingdom will be completely fulfilled. Jesus will bring judgment and destruction for Satan and his angels (Rom 16:20; 2 Thes 2:3-12). Unbelievers will also experience eternal judgment (Matt 13:40-42; 25:31-46; Luke 6:24-26; 16:19-31; Acts 10:42; Eph 5:6; Col 3:6; Heb 10:25; 2 Pet 3:7; Jude 1:6; Rev 1:7; 6:14, 17). Meanwhile, the faithful will be resurrected to experience the joy of eternal life (1 Thes 4:13-18). God will gather his chosen people for salvation (Mark 13:27; Heb 1:14; 9:27-28), grace (1 Pet 1:13), and glory (1 Thes 2:12; 2 Thes 2:14; 1 Pet 1:7; 5:1, 4). He will give his people a priceless inheritance (1 Pet 1:4) and new eternal bodies (1 Cor 15:35-57; Phil 3:21; 1 Thes 4:13-18). All of creation will also be rescued from its curse (Gen 3:17-18) and be transformed (Rom 8:20-23; 2 Pet 3:12-13; Rev 21:1–22:5). Sorrow, tears, mourning, and death will no longer exist (Rev 21:4). Those who have had faith during this life will see God (Matt 5:8; Rev 22:3).<\/p>\nIn light of these promises, believers in Jesus are to prayerfully await his return (Matt 6:10; Rev 22:20). We should not speculate on dates for his coming (Mark 13:32; Acts 1:7), but should live in a way that is honorable (1 Jn 2:28) and be prepared (Matt 24:36–25:30; 1 Thes 5:1-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 5:8; 6:10; 13:41-42; 23:39; 24:3–25:46; Mark 8:38; 13:1-37; 14:25; Luke 6:24-26; 16:19-31; 19:41-44; 21:5-36; John 14:1-3; Acts 1:6-7; 10:42; Rom 8:20-23; 16:20; 1 Cor 1:7-8; 15:35-58; 2 Cor 1:14; Phil 1:6, 10; 2:16; 3:21; 1 Thes 4:13-18; 2 Thes 2:2-14; 2 Tim 4:1-8; Titus 2:11-13; Heb 9:28; 10:25, 37; 1 Pet 1:7, 13; 5:1-4; 2 Pet 3:7-13; 1 Jn 2:28; Rev 1:7; 6:15-17; 21:1–22:7; 22:12, 20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Day Is Coming<\/h3>\nJesus predicted three future events in the synoptic Gospels. One was his own death and resurrection (Mark 8:31; 9:31; 10:33-34); this was a past event when the Gospels were written.<\/p>\nThe second event that Jesus predicted was the destruction of Jerusalem in AD<\/span> 70 (Matt 24:1-28; 13:1-23; Luke 19:41-44; 21:5-24). This event was probably about to happen when Mark wrote his Gospel (see Mark Book Introduction, “Date”). It would not signify the very end, so the Christian community must continue to live in faithful watchfulness after this event for the Son of God’s return in glory, which might be soon (Mark 13:34-37).<\/p>\nThe third event that Jesus predicted was his own future return (Matt 23:39; 24:3, 29-31, 24:36–25:46; Mark 8:38; 13:24-27, 32-37; Luke 21:25-36; John 14:1-3). References to Jesus’ return can be found throughout the New Testament (see, e.g., 1 Cor 1:7-8; 3:13; 5:5; 2 Cor 1:14; Phil 1:6, 10; 2:16; 1 Thes 5:1-11; 2 Thes 2:2; 2 Tim 1:12, 18; 4:1, 8).<\/p>\nWhen Jesus returns, the promises about God’s Kingdom will be completely fulfilled. Jesus will bring judgment and destruction for Satan and his angels (Rom 16:20; 2 Thes 2:3-12). Unbelievers will also experience eternal judgment (Matt 13:40-42; 25:31-46; Luke 6:24-26; 16:19-31; Acts 10:42; Eph 5:6; Col 3:6; Heb 10:25; 2 Pet 3:7; Jude 1:6; Rev 1:7; 6:14, 17). Meanwhile, the faithful will be resurrected to experience the joy of eternal life (1 Thes 4:13-18). God will gather his chosen people for salvation (Mark 13:27; Heb 1:14; 9:27-28), grace (1 Pet 1:13), and glory (1 Thes 2:12; 2 Thes 2:14; 1 Pet 1:7; 5:1, 4). He will give his people a priceless inheritance (1 Pet 1:4) and new eternal bodies (1 Cor 15:35-57; Phil 3:21; 1 Thes 4:13-18). All of creation will also be rescued from its curse (Gen 3:17-18) and be transformed (Rom 8:20-23; 2 Pet 3:12-13; Rev 21:1–22:5). Sorrow, tears, mourning, and death will no longer exist (Rev 21:4). Those who have had faith during this life will see God (Matt 5:8; Rev 22:3).<\/p>\nIn light of these promises, believers in Jesus are to prayerfully await his return (Matt 6:10; Rev 22:20). We should not speculate on dates for his coming (Mark 13:32; Acts 1:7), but should live in a way that is honorable (1 Jn 2:28) and be prepared (Matt 24:36–25:30; 1 Thes 5:1-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 5:8; 6:10; 13:41-42; 23:39; 24:3–25:46; Mark 8:38; 13:1-37; 14:25; Luke 6:24-26; 16:19-31; 19:41-44; 21:5-36; John 14:1-3; Acts 1:6-7; 10:42; Rom 8:20-23; 16:20; 1 Cor 1:7-8; 15:35-58; 2 Cor 1:14; Phil 1:6, 10; 2:16; 3:21; 1 Thes 4:13-18; 2 Thes 2:2-14; 2 Tim 4:1-8; Titus 2:11-13; Heb 9:28; 10:25, 37; 1 Pet 1:7, 13; 5:1-4; 2 Pet 3:7-13; 1 Jn 2:28; Rev 1:7; 6:15-17; 21:1–22:7; 22:12, 20<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Day Is Coming Jesus predicted three future events in the synoptic Gospels. One was his own death and resurrection (Mark 8:31; 9:31; 10:33-34); this was a past event when the Gospels were written. The second event that Jesus predicted was the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70 (Matt 24:1-28; 13:1-23; Luke 19:41-44; 21:5-24). This event was probably about to happen when Mark wrote his Gospel (see Mark Book Introduction, “Date”). It would not signify the very end, so the Christian community m...","summary_en":"The Day Is Coming Jesus predicted three future events in the synoptic Gospels. One was his own death and resurrection (Mark 8:31; 9:31; 10:33-34); this was a past event when the Gospels were written. The second event that Jesus predicted was the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70 (Matt 24:1-28; 13:1-23; Luke 19:41-44; 21:5-24). This event was probably about to happen when Mark wrote his Gospel (see Mark Book Introduction, “Date”). It would not signify the very end, so the Christian community m...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121394,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension","title_en":"Jesus’ Ascension","content_ro":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\nJesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\nChrist’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\nThe ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\nJesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\nJesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\nChrist’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\nThe ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\nJesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","summary_en":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145391,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Afterlife","title_en":"The Afterlife","content_ro":"<h3>The Afterlife<\/h3>\nWriters in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18).<\/p>\nIn Job, the key images of the realm of the dead are dark and dusty Sheol (Job 11:8; 14:13; 17:13, 16; 24:19; 26:6), a pit fouled with the filth of decomposition (Hebrew shakhat<\/span>;<\/em> see 9:31; 17:14; 33:18, 22, 24, 28, 30), and the grave (Hebrew qeber<\/span>;<\/em> see 3:22; 5:26; 10:19; 17:1; 21:32).<\/p>\nThe Old Testament does give occasional hints of deliverance from the grave (see 1 Sam 2:6; Pss 16:10-11; 30:3; 49:15; 56:13; 73:24-26; 86:13; 139:7-10; Isa 26:19). Job hopes that Sheol might relieve him of his troubles (Job 3:13-22; 14:13-17) and that a redeemer might justify him even after death (19:25-26). But only the New Testament gives the full promise of redemption from death (1 Cor 15:50-58).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Sam 2:6; 28:11-15; 1 Kgs 17:20-22; 2 Kgs 4:32-35; Job 3:13-22; 7:9; 14:13-17; 17:13-16; 19:25-27; Pss 6:5; 16:10-11; 17:15; 49:15; 86:13; 88:11; 139:8; 141:7; Prov 1:12; 15:11; Isa 26:19; 38:18; Ezek 26:20; Matt 22:31-32; Rom 8:23; 1 Cor 15:50-58; Phil 3:21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Afterlife<\/h3>\nWriters in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18).<\/p>\nIn Job, the key images of the realm of the dead are dark and dusty Sheol (Job 11:8; 14:13; 17:13, 16; 24:19; 26:6), a pit fouled with the filth of decomposition (Hebrew shakhat<\/span>;<\/em> see 9:31; 17:14; 33:18, 22, 24, 28, 30), and the grave (Hebrew qeber<\/span>;<\/em> see 3:22; 5:26; 10:19; 17:1; 21:32).<\/p>\nThe Old Testament does give occasional hints of deliverance from the grave (see 1 Sam 2:6; Pss 16:10-11; 30:3; 49:15; 56:13; 73:24-26; 86:13; 139:7-10; Isa 26:19). Job hopes that Sheol might relieve him of his troubles (Job 3:13-22; 14:13-17) and that a redeemer might justify him even after death (19:25-26). But only the New Testament gives the full promise of redemption from death (1 Cor 15:50-58).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Sam 2:6; 28:11-15; 1 Kgs 17:20-22; 2 Kgs 4:32-35; Job 3:13-22; 7:9; 14:13-17; 17:13-16; 19:25-27; Pss 6:5; 16:10-11; 17:15; 49:15; 86:13; 88:11; 139:8; 141:7; Prov 1:12; 15:11; Isa 26:19; 38:18; Ezek 26:20; Matt 22:31-32; Rom 8:23; 1 Cor 15:50-58; Phil 3:21<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Afterlife Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18). In Job, the key images of t...","summary_en":"The Afterlife Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18). In Job, the key images of t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":148490,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Day Is Coming","title_en":"The Day Is Coming","content_ro":"<h3>The Day Is Coming<\/h3>\nJesus predicted three future events in the synoptic Gospels. One was his own death and resurrection (Mark 8:31; 9:31; 10:33-34); this was a past event when the Gospels were written.<\/p>\nThe second event that Jesus predicted was the destruction of Jerusalem in AD<\/span> 70 (Matt 24:1-28; 13:1-23; Luke 19:41-44; 21:5-24). This event was probably about to happen when Mark wrote his Gospel (see Mark Book Introduction, “Date”). It would not signify the very end, so the Christian community must continue to live in faithful watchfulness after this event for the Son of God’s return in glory, which might be soon (Mark 13:34-37).<\/p>\nThe third event that Jesus predicted was his own future return (Matt 23:39; 24:3, 29-31, 24:36–25:46; Mark 8:38; 13:24-27, 32-37; Luke 21:25-36; John 14:1-3). References to Jesus’ return can be found throughout the New Testament (see, e.g., 1 Cor 1:7-8; 3:13; 5:5; 2 Cor 1:14; Phil 1:6, 10; 2:16; 1 Thes 5:1-11; 2 Thes 2:2; 2 Tim 1:12, 18; 4:1, 8).<\/p>\nWhen Jesus returns, the promises about God’s Kingdom will be completely fulfilled. Jesus will bring judgment and destruction for Satan and his angels (Rom 16:20; 2 Thes 2:3-12). Unbelievers will also experience eternal judgment (Matt 13:40-42; 25:31-46; Luke 6:24-26; 16:19-31; Acts 10:42; Eph 5:6; Col 3:6; Heb 10:25; 2 Pet 3:7; Jude 1:6; Rev 1:7; 6:14, 17). Meanwhile, the faithful will be resurrected to experience the joy of eternal life (1 Thes 4:13-18). God will gather his chosen people for salvation (Mark 13:27; Heb 1:14; 9:27-28), grace (1 Pet 1:13), and glory (1 Thes 2:12; 2 Thes 2:14; 1 Pet 1:7; 5:1, 4). He will give his people a priceless inheritance (1 Pet 1:4) and new eternal bodies (1 Cor 15:35-57; Phil 3:21; 1 Thes 4:13-18). All of creation will also be rescued from its curse (Gen 3:17-18) and be transformed (Rom 8:20-23; 2 Pet 3:12-13; Rev 21:1–22:5). Sorrow, tears, mourning, and death will no longer exist (Rev 21:4). Those who have had faith during this life will see God (Matt 5:8; Rev 22:3).<\/p>\nIn light of these promises, believers in Jesus are to prayerfully await his return (Matt 6:10; Rev 22:20). We should not speculate on dates for his coming (Mark 13:32; Acts 1:7), but should live in a way that is honorable (1 Jn 2:28) and be prepared (Matt 24:36–25:30; 1 Thes 5:1-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 5:8; 6:10; 13:41-42; 23:39; 24:3–25:46; Mark 8:38; 13:1-37; 14:25; Luke 6:24-26; 16:19-31; 19:41-44; 21:5-36; John 14:1-3; Acts 1:6-7; 10:42; Rom 8:20-23; 16:20; 1 Cor 1:7-8; 15:35-58; 2 Cor 1:14; Phil 1:6, 10; 2:16; 3:21; 1 Thes 4:13-18; 2 Thes 2:2-14; 2 Tim 4:1-8; Titus 2:11-13; Heb 9:28; 10:25, 37; 1 Pet 1:7, 13; 5:1-4; 2 Pet 3:7-13; 1 Jn 2:28; Rev 1:7; 6:15-17; 21:1–22:7; 22:12, 20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Day Is Coming<\/h3>\nJesus predicted three future events in the synoptic Gospels. One was his own death and resurrection (Mark 8:31; 9:31; 10:33-34); this was a past event when the Gospels were written.<\/p>\nThe second event that Jesus predicted was the destruction of Jerusalem in AD<\/span> 70 (Matt 24:1-28; 13:1-23; Luke 19:41-44; 21:5-24). This event was probably about to happen when Mark wrote his Gospel (see Mark Book Introduction, “Date”). It would not signify the very end, so the Christian community must continue to live in faithful watchfulness after this event for the Son of God’s return in glory, which might be soon (Mark 13:34-37).<\/p>\nThe third event that Jesus predicted was his own future return (Matt 23:39; 24:3, 29-31, 24:36–25:46; Mark 8:38; 13:24-27, 32-37; Luke 21:25-36; John 14:1-3). References to Jesus’ return can be found throughout the New Testament (see, e.g., 1 Cor 1:7-8; 3:13; 5:5; 2 Cor 1:14; Phil 1:6, 10; 2:16; 1 Thes 5:1-11; 2 Thes 2:2; 2 Tim 1:12, 18; 4:1, 8).<\/p>\nWhen Jesus returns, the promises about God’s Kingdom will be completely fulfilled. Jesus will bring judgment and destruction for Satan and his angels (Rom 16:20; 2 Thes 2:3-12). Unbelievers will also experience eternal judgment (Matt 13:40-42; 25:31-46; Luke 6:24-26; 16:19-31; Acts 10:42; Eph 5:6; Col 3:6; Heb 10:25; 2 Pet 3:7; Jude 1:6; Rev 1:7; 6:14, 17). Meanwhile, the faithful will be resurrected to experience the joy of eternal life (1 Thes 4:13-18). God will gather his chosen people for salvation (Mark 13:27; Heb 1:14; 9:27-28), grace (1 Pet 1:13), and glory (1 Thes 2:12; 2 Thes 2:14; 1 Pet 1:7; 5:1, 4). He will give his people a priceless inheritance (1 Pet 1:4) and new eternal bodies (1 Cor 15:35-57; Phil 3:21; 1 Thes 4:13-18). All of creation will also be rescued from its curse (Gen 3:17-18) and be transformed (Rom 8:20-23; 2 Pet 3:12-13; Rev 21:1–22:5). Sorrow, tears, mourning, and death will no longer exist (Rev 21:4). Those who have had faith during this life will see God (Matt 5:8; Rev 22:3).<\/p>\nIn light of these promises, believers in Jesus are to prayerfully await his return (Matt 6:10; Rev 22:20). We should not speculate on dates for his coming (Mark 13:32; Acts 1:7), but should live in a way that is honorable (1 Jn 2:28) and be prepared (Matt 24:36–25:30; 1 Thes 5:1-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 5:8; 6:10; 13:41-42; 23:39; 24:3–25:46; Mark 8:38; 13:1-37; 14:25; Luke 6:24-26; 16:19-31; 19:41-44; 21:5-36; John 14:1-3; Acts 1:6-7; 10:42; Rom 8:20-23; 16:20; 1 Cor 1:7-8; 15:35-58; 2 Cor 1:14; Phil 1:6, 10; 2:16; 3:21; 1 Thes 4:13-18; 2 Thes 2:2-14; 2 Tim 4:1-8; Titus 2:11-13; Heb 9:28; 10:25, 37; 1 Pet 1:7, 13; 5:1-4; 2 Pet 3:7-13; 1 Jn 2:28; Rev 1:7; 6:15-17; 21:1–22:7; 22:12, 20<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Day Is Coming Jesus predicted three future events in the synoptic Gospels. One was his own death and resurrection (Mark 8:31; 9:31; 10:33-34); this was a past event when the Gospels were written. The second event that Jesus predicted was the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70 (Matt 24:1-28; 13:1-23; Luke 19:41-44; 21:5-24). This event was probably about to happen when Mark wrote his Gospel (see Mark Book Introduction, “Date”). It would not signify the very end, so the Christian community m...","summary_en":"The Day Is Coming Jesus predicted three future events in the synoptic Gospels. One was his own death and resurrection (Mark 8:31; 9:31; 10:33-34); this was a past event when the Gospels were written. The second event that Jesus predicted was the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70 (Matt 24:1-28; 13:1-23; Luke 19:41-44; 21:5-24). This event was probably about to happen when Mark wrote his Gospel (see Mark Book Introduction, “Date”). It would not signify the very end, so the Christian community m...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149020,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension","title_en":"Jesus’ Ascension","content_ro":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\nJesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\nChrist’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\nThe ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\nJesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jesus’ Ascension<\/h3>\nJesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49).<\/p>\nChrist’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurred at the last of Jesus’ physical appearances; after this he would remain in heaven until the “final restoration of all things” (Acts 3:21).<\/p>\nThe ascension reminds believers of Jesus’ promised return (Acts 1:11; see Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; John 14:3). The witnesses of the ascension went back to Jerusalem with joy and exhilaration, in praise and worship of Christ (Luke 24:52). They were convinced that their Lord would return again, physically and personally (1 Thes 4:16; 2 Thes 1:7-10; 2 Pet 3:10).<\/p>\nJesus’ ascension anticipates the believer’s own glorious entrance into the presence of God, where Jesus has gone to prepare the way (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:4; Phil 3:21; Heb 6:19-20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nMatt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 24:45-53; John 6:62; 13:1-3; 14:1-4, 27-28; 16:10, 16, 28; 20:17; Acts 1:6-11; 3:20; 7:54-56; 2 Cor 5:4; Eph 1:19-23; 4:8-10; Phil 2:9-11; Heb 6:19-20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","summary_en":"Jesus’ Ascension Jesus’ ascension into heaven was a final commissioning service for the apostles (Acts 1:6-11; Luke 24:45-53). The ascension marks the beginning of the powerful ministry of the Holy Spirit through the church (Luke 24:49). Christ’s ascension to heaven indicates his elevation to ultimate power and authority (Eph 1:19-23; Phil 2:9-11). That Jesus was going to the Father is noted in other places (John 6:62; 13:1-3; 13:31–14:3, 14:28; 16:5-10, 16, 28; 20:17; Eph 4:8-10). It occurre...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}

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